Abstract:
Double consciousness remains as relevant today as ever, and perhaps even more so in our increasingly global and multicultural society. Frantz Fanon’s Black Skin, White Masks (1957) explores concepts like double consciousness and the self, both of which were significantly influenced by W.E.B. Du Bois, the African American sociologist who coined the term "double consciousness." Du Bois defined this phenomenon as the internal conflict born of racialization, describing it as a "twoness" of identity. In a contemporary context, this could be closely aligned with the practice of code-switching.
To navigate the various social contexts in which we live, individuals often adjust or adopt different personas, a process known as code-switching. But why do we do this? As William James noted, "Recognition is so vital to our subjective conception of self that we will go on to make as many social selves as there are those who acknowledge us" (The Principles of Psychology, 1890). The evolving concept of self has been defined in many ways, some of which contradict the truth. In Celebrating the Self: A Dialogic Account of Human Nature, Edward E. Sampson draws on Toni Morrison’s idea of Africanism, which was socially constructed to contrast and polarize the traits of the American self. Morrison suggests that the American self was framed as "…not enslaved, but emancipated; not detestable, but desirable; not powerless, but licensed powerful; not history-less, but historical; not condemned, but innocent; not a blind accident of evolution, but a progressive fulfilment of fate..." (Morrison, 1992, p. 52; Sampson, 1993, p. 11).
This dissertation will explore the works of contemporary visual artists who challenge conventional narratives and shift our understanding of otherness. Through powerful visual metaphors, these artists capture the humanity, hope, and honesty of individuals who have historically been marginalized due to their race.
Table of contents
1) Introduction 4-5
2) List of key terms and their meaning 5-6
▪ Code-switching
▪ Conformity
▪ culture
▪ Deviance
▪ Diaspora
▪ Double Consciousness
▪ Identity
▪ Intersectionality
▪ Social constructionism
▪ Symbolic interactionism
3) Immigration and integration and the diasporic image 6-12
3.1 Yinka Shonibare
3.2 Kehinde Wiley
4) Double consciousness and the intersectionality of identity …………12-15
4.1 Sekai Machache
5) Cultural appropriation & Appreciation………………………………………………….15-22
5.1Tim Okamura
6) Conclusion 21-22
7) Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………….23-25
Introduction
There is nothing new under the sun and the desire to fit in is no exception In a quote from his book Principle of Psychology William James said, “Recognition is so vital to our subjective conception of self that we will go on to alter as many social selves as there are those who acknowledge us” (James,1890 in Itzigsohn and Brown, 2015)
Double consciousness is a social science theory that African American sociologist W.E.B Dubois first introduced. His theory of the self, contrary to that of his contemporaries highlighted the formation of the self under the condition of racialization. This theory which he developed in his book “Souls of Black Folk” refers to a fractured identity that plagues mixed race people and immigrants who strive to assimilate into dominant culture alike.
The main debate of the classical self-theorists is that the self occurs due to the ongoing process of socialization (Itzigsohn and Brown,2015) that occurs between individuals and institutions George Herbert Mead was one of such theorists. He believed that we only become our true selves when
preferences shaped them or not, one thing is certain: these paradigms hold for both Aboriginals and immigrants from other countries because of the societal validation that gives them credibility.
Those who emigrate from their home countries do so for a variety of reasons; better economic opportunities, higher wages, better employment opportunities, higher educational standards, and an improved quality of life (Exploring migration causes: Why people migrate: Topics: European parliament 2020)
To assimilate into the dominant culture immigrants will transitionally code-switch from the selves they have always known to the selves that they will be societally recognized as.
The majority of people would assume that the social standards of society would be fair and have just consequences. However, history has proven that for every norm, there is an exception, especially regarding norms and policies surrounding demographics such as socioeconomic class, age, gender, and ethnicity, amongst other factors. Regarding race and colour, many firstgeneration immigrants to the UK have seen racial discrepancies on a firsthand basis. As a direct consequence of this, they push their offspring to produce exceptional results, going up and beyond what is expected, and anything less would be considered as them slacking off.
To this point, Fanon writes in his 1952 book Black Skin, White Mask that the black man wants “to show to the white man by all means the equal depth of their thoughts, the equal value of their intellect”
“He was determined that I got a good education” (Ashley Banjo, 2016 in Frederick. S. 2016), and “You have to try twice as hard to achieve” (Trevor. N. MBE,2016 in Frederick. S. 2016). “If you want to succeed in this country you have to be twice as good as anybody else, to be accepted as an equal” (Sir Lenny. H. CBE,2016 in Frederick. S. 2016), “I could get eight out of ten in an exam and my dad would go, you know, that’s ok, but why did you not get ten?” (Charlene White, 2016 in Frederick. S. 2016), “Perfection is what you are aspiring to, and anything less than, is you slacking” (ibid.) “I wasn’t raised to do something fifty-fifty; I am going to do it one hundred and ten per cent” (Naomi Campbell,2016 in Frederick. S. 2016), “everyone who is brought up by African parents pretty much lives through the same thing, which is that you’re told very early on that it’s important that you become a professional” (Ekow Eshun,2016 in Frederick. S. 2016)
But why are these people expected to follow the norms and even go as far as to surpass them? “When in Rome, do as the Romans do," as the proverb says. This age-old adage suggests becoming accustomed to and accepting of exotic local traditions. Although embracing local culture can promote mutual understanding and extend viewpoints on a variety of social-cultural issues. Conversely, it may result in the demise of the person's own native culture. Assimilation and absorption of another culture are not equally the same as embracing and comprehending it. As Fanon wrote. The black man's extensive assimilation and desire for European civilization results in the eradication of his native culture (page 18). I believe that when Fanon mentioned the death and burial of local culture (page 18), He was referring to cultural extinction It has been predicted that ninety per cent of languages will become extinct by the end of the century (Zhang & Mace, 2021).
Fanon in his 1952 book Black Skin, White Mask writes, “to show to the white man by all means the equal depth of their thoughts, the equal value of their intellect” This pursuit is fuelled by the desire to be acknowledged as an intellectually equal member of society Fanon further rights in his book, “The Adoption of European Fashion, Whether Rags or the Most Trending Style; Using European Furniture and European Forms of social intercourse; adorning native language with European Expressions; Using Bombastic Phrases in Speaking or Writing a European Language; all these
“The Swing”
“The Swing (after Fragonard)” , Oil on canvas, Life-size fibreglass mannequin, Dutch wax printed
81 x 64.2 cm, cotton textile, swing, artificial foliage 1767 – 8 2001
330 x 350 x 220 cm
Figurative painter Kehinde Wiley is best known for his dexterous use of colour, which is evident in his dynamically rich colour palette and interactive backgrounds. Kehinde has created a vast wealth of iconic images featuring black and brown people juxtaposed in positions of power, that were previously unavailable to them historically. He does this by juxtaposing the subjects in his work with the body language of those in European art. The element of Body Language is a crucial key in Kehinde’s work as the poses connote the themes of power, majesty, grace, dignity, and authority. In the words of artist Mickalene Thomas, “Kehinde Wiley has mastered, master paintings” (How Kehinde Wiley is Reshaping the Monumental, 2023).
“What I love is to be able to take the mundane and turn it into something, theatrical. What I am trying to do ultimately is to play with the language of power beautiful portraits of the past have so many ways of picturing the self, of adorning the self….I began inviting people from Harlem to go through my art history books, to choose from royal and aristocratic portraits, and to say to me how they wanted to be seen” (Kehinde Wiley in How Kehinde Wiley is Reshaping the Monumental, 2023)
His 2005 painting, “Napoleon Leading the Army” is an appropriation of Jacques-Louis Davids’s own “Napoleon Leading the Alps”. He recreates the painting with a contemporary twist, depicting “Napoleon” as a young black man in American street fashion.
This technique of appropriation is nothing new to Kehinde. He recontextualizes the narrative of black men and women by juxtaposing them in the style of great European paintings, depicting their body language in poses that were associated with the language of power, dignity, grace, beauty, and majesty that was previously, historically unavailable to them
“Napoleon
221 x 261 cm
1801
274.3 x 274.3 cm
2005
This monumental piece stands at 8 feet and approximately 12 inches in length and the same distance for its breadth. As stated before, this painting’s imagery is appropriated from Jacques Louis David’s own “Napolean leading the Alps. David’s illustration of Napolean releases an aura of heroism, authority, dominance, and power. These traits have been historically synonymous with the white male However, we see the same imagery appropriated in Kehinde’s style, still maintaining identical body language with the alteration of the subject’s own fashion choices, symbolising cultural markers of the twenty-first century.
the Zimbabwean side calls for attention and recognition. Her work Mashavi No. 3 alludes to the simultaneous presence and absence that Ralph Ellison spoke about in his book Invisible Man The total representation of both selves is a vital element of this piece. It acknowledges the equal existence of both selves and enforces the themes of duality and double consciousness. Despite obvious differences between the figures’ appearance, it is interesting to see that both figures retain the same hairstyle This may be a play on the character's racial identity by emphasising a common trait between both women.
The themes of duality, tradition and modernity shine well through this particular body of work as the juxtaposing of the modern and traditional self is confrontational and begs the question, which is the true self? Is it the Zimbabwean or the Shavi Reschizungu?
In the Shona tribe, the Shavi Reschizungu refers to a white person’s spirit and when one is possessed by this shavi (meaning spirit) they take on the demeanour of a European.
In his book “Black Skin White Mask” Fanon highlights the black man’s desire for intellectual recognition which he chases via his acquisition of knowledge. In the series of photographs which the artist titled “Mashavi”, a pile of books can be thematically seen throughout this series Fanon makes it clear that by consuming a vast amount of European knowledge the black man takes a step closer to whiteness. However, yet unknowing to him at the time, he simultaneously steps away from his blackness thereby creating a disconnect from his native culture.
“Mashavi no 1”
“Mashavi no 2”
“Mashavi no 3”
It is important to note that a narrative is being unfolded through images one to three. At the genesis of this story, we see that the Zimbabwean self is showing signs of interest and curiosity about what the “Shavi Reschizungu” is doing. In the second part of this trilogy, the Zimbabwean’s curiosity shifts from the activity to the Shavi Reschizungu itself. Finally, the last image portrays the Zimbabwean’s frustration at the Shavi Reschizungu
From a certain perspective, the frustration of the Zimbabwean self is Justified. Being confronted with an uncanny, unfamiliar, alternative self that differs from traditional cultural standards the Shavi Reschizungu could be seen as the anomaly. Whereas on the other hand from a more contemporary standpoint, it’s the Zimbabwean self that seems more out of place With the rapid globalization of the Western wear market, jeans, t-shirts and jackets have become the norm internationally (Allied Market Research, 2022). So, from a global perspective, it’s the Zimbabwean self that could be seen as other
The duality of the psyche is an interesting and integral element of the “Mashavi” series that allows for the exploration of several supporting sub-themes such as tradition vs modernity, nature vs nurture and double consciousness. Despite an obvious choice of subject, the issues being confronted here are not uniquely African. As Fanon puts it, it’s a challenge that afflicts those who were colonized and have “risen above their jungle status in a proportional adoption of the colonizing group's cultural standards” (P.18)
With the advent of colonisation and globalization, change has become inevitable. Cultures and people will adapt to their environment even going as far as adopting new personas to fit in After all “Recognition is so crucial to our subjective understanding of self that we will go on to create as many social selves as there are those who recognize us” (James,1890 in Itzigsohn and Brown, 2015). However, assuming a new person/ identity doesn’t necessarily entail abandoning all others. Our ability to shift personas proves that we are multifaceted
Cultural Appropriation and Appreciation
There is a delicate line between what is considered cultural appropriation and appreciation. It is distinguished by either the awareness or ignorance of the action being committed. Cultural appropriation is the unacknowledged or inappropriate adoption of a social or ethnic group's practices, habits, or aesthetics by members of another (usually dominant) community or civilization (Kawasaki, 2022). When appropriately acknowledged, the sharing of cultural traditions becomes invaluable to the human experience. It broadens our perspectives on many subjects, potentially improving our understanding and conception of the world around us.
Globalization and rapid technological breakthroughs have made cultural appropriation and appreciation more accessible than ever Social media makes it possible for cultural practices and beliefs to be shared and absorbed globally. However, with such a large abundance of knowledge and media consumption exists the risk of cultural extinction. These cultural activities are easily lost in a sea of never-ending information, risking the loss of any substantial cultural values associated with them as well as a mass deviation from their original context
indicates a willingness and possibly a readiness to use such a weapon should the need arise, even though the sheathed blade may suggest an outward desire to avoid violence.
There is an intriguing backstory to the “Warriors of Light series”. A dystopian reality that has descended into anarchy is the setting for the stage. A group of honourable female warriors known as the Onna-Bugeisha arrive, led by the Samurai code. They stand up for the common good and morals. They use their "weapons of truth" and only step in after diplomacy has failed; their ultimate objective is to put an end to tyranny and restore order. As the antidote to those who seek to spread the poisons of racism, intolerance, and prejudice, the Onna-Bugeisha never waver in their commitment to act as unstoppable opponents of authoritarianism.
Translated image of the “Expectant Guard”
The second artwork by Tim Okamura, part of his "Onna-Bugeisha: Warriors of Light" series, is the “Expectant Guard”. This painting depicts two pregnant ladies standing back-to-back brandishing Katanas. They wear cropped blouses, black boots, and camouflaged cargo pants that reveal their bellies. Both women hold their Katanas tightly while glaring at anyone who dares to approach.
The symbols of the Katana, boots, Cargo pants, and mask allude to militaristic characteristics further iterating the woman’s strength. The intense gaze of these expectant mothers indicates a ferocious readiness to defend. The masks, or rather the cloth covering these women's faces could allude to the Kunoichi (A female ninja) or it might be a play on the use of masks within American gang culture. Whichever it may be, it serves the same purpose of concealing one’s true identity.
The painting's composition suggests that both women are allies who are figuratively and literally on the same path. They stand back-to-back, ready to repel any attackers from either direction.
The butterfly has long been regarded as a symbol of transition and metamorphosis, and in this painting, it may represent the transformation that these women are undergoing during the course of bringing forth new life.
Much like the butterfly, which is seen as a symbol of change, we must undergo a mental metamorphosis, recreating preexisting narratives based on prejudice, bias and preconceptions. Those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it, and we must begin to consciously nurture a new culture that does not discriminate against others in the context of racialization.
Conclusion
This dissertation has examined the perception and construction of the diasporic image in contemporary art, exploring key concepts like double consciousness, intersectionality, codeswitching, social constructionism, and cultural appropriation. Through the lens of these concepts, it has challenged the stereotypical norms surrounding the portrayal of black and brown identities. The analysis of contemporary artists such as Kehinde Wiley, Yinka Shonibare, Sekai Machache, and Tim Okamura demonstrates how art can serve as a powerful tool in redefining identity, power, and beauty.
The work of these artists actively confronts the historical underrepresentation and marginalization of black and brown people. By reimagining traditional forms of art and iconography, they challenge conventional portrayals, offering alternative narratives that celebrate the richness of these identities. Their art goes beyond mere representation it deconstructs the ways in which race and identity have been constructed, highlighting the complexity of black and brown experiences.
In line with the concept of double consciousness, these artists reflect the experience of navigating multiple cultural and social worlds. By doing so, they redefine paradigms of power, grace, and normalcy, and challenge how society perceives these identities. As William James famously said, "Recognition is so important to our subjective understanding of self that we will continue to create as many social selves as there are those who recognize us." These artists are not just creating
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