MOLLY ELLIS
Reflection, Reconciliation & Renewal:
A Psychoanalytical Investigation Analysing the Expression of Trauma within Contemporary Art
May 2025
DOI 10.20933/100001379
Except where otherwise noted, the text in this dissertation is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non CommercialNo Derivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license.
All images, figures, and other third-party materials included in this dissertation are the copyright of their respective rights holders, unless otherwise stated. Reuse of these materials may require separate permission.
List of Figures
1.1.
Yayoi Kusama, ‘Phallic Girl’ (1967).
Mixed Media, 74 ½ x 42 x 23 inches.
Image courtesy of the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art. Public Domain
1.2.
Yayoi Kusama, ‘Infinity Mirror Room - Phalli’s Field, Floor Show’ (1965).
Mixed Media, Installation View, 3.1 x 4.7 x 4.7 metres.
Image courtesy of the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art. Public Domain
1.3
Yayoi Kusama, ‘Infinity Mirrored Rooms - Filled with the Brilliance of Life’ (2011/2017)
Mixed Media, Installation View (approximately) 2.9 x 6.2 x 6.2 metres.
Image courtesy of the Tate Modern. Public Domain
2.1.
Louise Bourgeois, ‘The Welcoming Hands’ (2000).
Bronze & granite, (approximately) 30 x 30 inches.
Image courtesy of the Easton Foundation. Public Domain
2.2
Louise Bourgeois, ‘Cell (Eyes and Mirrors)’ (1989-93)
Steel, limestone & glass, Installation View (approximately) 2.3 x 2.1 x 2.1 metres.
Image courtesy of the Tate Modern. Public Domain
2.3
Louise Bourgeois, ‘Maman’ (1999)
Steel, bronze & marble, Sculpture, 9.3 x 8.9 x 10.2 metres.
Image courtesy of the National Gallery of Ottawa. Public Domain
3.1
Cathy Wilkes, ‘Untitled’ (2024)
Installation View, Hunterian Art Gallery.
Image courtesy of Author.
Positional Statement
Throughout this investigation I acknowledge my understanding of trauma is shaped by my personal experience. I recognise this bias and sensitivity can influence my perception of how trauma is expressed through artistic expression.
By referencing, The death of the author by Rowland Barthes, I recognise once artwork is created it becomes an independent substance, detached from the artist. The separation of the artist and the artwork allows the audience to draw their own interpretation (Barthes, 1967).
The meaning of Trauma
The first conceptualisation of trauma emerged in 1684 in pathology, describing ‘A wound from an external cause’ (Blankaart, 1684.) The initial interpretation of the term was somatic, reflective in the word ‘wound’ as it connotes images of physical injury, presenting a blanket term for damaging the living body. In 1895, Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis became the essential stimulus to rewire the interpretation of trauma, widening the horizon of its interpretation. This hypothesis introduced the destructive effect of trauma to the human psyche. The praised and vilified Freudian theory identified the duality of internal thought and external dynamics and theorised how they operate consciously and unconsciously to combat trauma. Psychoanalysis not only permeated the interpretation of trauma by considering the disturbance to psychological structure – it also drew attention to the consequential overwhelming of the personality structure. According to Freud, personality is made up of 3 motivational forces with varying levels of consciousness: The id (unconscious), ego (preconscious) and superego (conscious) (Holt et al, 2019, p. 617). The imbalance of the personality structure results in psychological disaster, immediately administering unconscious defence mechanisms. The employment of defensive manoeuvres incite a means of survival, echoing Darwin’s theory on the fight or flight instinct (Darwin, 2018). The act of sublimation becomes increasingly crucial as a sense of catharsis (Freud et al., 2001b). Dr Paul Conti argues ‘trauma’ is a ‘predisposition’ to the immune system, resulting in its inability to function properly (Conti, 2024), solidifying the repercussions of trauma and reaffirming the necessity of catharsis. Through the non-verbal communication within the realm of art itself; catharsis can be achieved.
In an investigation into the connection between art and trauma, author Bènyei states:
Dominated by the image of ruins and corpses, two key tropes of decay, oblivion and remembering, the anecdote suggests that trauma cannot simply be erased, just as it cannot be properly remembered; however, with the help of art, it can be made into a culturally useful discourse, something that is indispensable for the restoration of what the disaster shattered into an inoperative community (Bènyei, 2010, p. 5).
Bènyei’s conceptualisation of trauma reflects the way trauma infects the mind, enforcing an inescapable mental limbo: between ‘remembering’ and ‘eras[ing]’ (Bènyei, 2010). This mental conflict acts as a taint on the individual’s psyche. Trauma taints a victim, but the individual does not have conscious control of the impact. However, there is a resolution. The
relationship between art and the psyche initiates catharsis. The weight of confronting trauma is diluted as a result of the non-verbal discourse. In art, the undercurrent of fear is lessened as those traumatised can respond silently to their emotional fracture. The introduction of psychoanalysis within the realm of art has resulted in creative communication, with the consideration of the external dynamics that influence the mental psyche. This solidifies the reinterpretation of narrative, through increased understanding that is gained between the artist and onlooker. Artists can challenge their past trauma through the inquiry of psychoanalysis and reflect on their outlook of personal trauma thereby, providing solace.
To cope with trauma, defence mechanisms are employed. The redirection of past trauma is defined as transference, reflecting transfer from one thing to another (Oxford English Dictionary, 2023). Kusama’s hallucinations are projected, and her vision is transferred to her audience through installation. By demonstrating symptoms of metamorphosis and selfobliteration, Kusama offers a display of sublimation as she finds comfort in her vision, further transferring it. Erin K. Stapleton’s article ‘The Spotted Seppuku – Commodifying suicide with Yayoi Kusama’, conveys Kusama’s hyper independent characteristics as an archetype of ‘selfhood’ (Stapleton, 2022, p. 150), in which she rejects identity completely in turn interrupting her belonging within existence (Storolow, 2011). The act of seppuku, also known as ‘hara-kiri’ (Oxford English Dictionary, 2023), is a Japanese tradition of suicide by self-disembowelment performed in order to restore a sense of honour to an individual or their family (Stapleton, 2022). Stapleton’s parallel of aesthetic self-diffusion and the act of seppuku is symbolic to Kusama’s taint of trauma. Kusama’s artistic seppuku catalyses the transference of her physical body through the over-assertion of polka dots, dissolving her identity. In the tradition of seppuku, Kusama’s symbolic disembowelment establishes a regain of control from the past haunting of her hallucinations. The lack of parental support also aligns with the tradition of reimposing honour within a familial bond. The connotations of the recognisable spots repeated in her work signify connotations of disease or a spread of infection. This symbolises that Kusama’s mind is directly tainted by her hallucinations as they puncture her conscious mind - transferring the spillage of internal configurations into reality through artistic expression and self-disembowelment.
The puncture of the conscious mind is further explored in C. Fred Alford’s ‘Trauma and Psychoanalysis: Freud, Bion and Mitchell’, as trauma is depicted as alienated memories that remain estranged from the rest of the mind (Alford, 2018). Alford highlights the concept of trauma as ‘flashbacks of isolated bits of experience […] taken out of the flow of existence’ (Alford, 2018, p. 46). This estrangement is also reflected by Stolorow, ‘When my traumatized states could not find a relational home, I became deadened, and my world became dulled’ (Stolorow, 2011, p. 26). Similarly, this reflects Kusama’s warped reality as her hallucinations rupture her external world, as well as her desire of self-diffusion and transcendence to encounter the infinite. The conceptualisation of self-obliteration symbolises ascension regarding Kusama’s trauma. The energy that was previously administered to suppress unconscious forces, is redirected to revitalise the solace that she finds within her art.
Kusama has declared that in life, ‘I transformed my trauma into art’ (Lenz, 2018), revealing that she was able to express her trauma through art. As Kusama projects her vision to an audience, the rewire of noxious experience is translated through the repetition of polka dots. This symbolises archetypes of deconstruction and reconstruction through aesthetic selfobliteration. This encapsulates a resolution - as the ritual of repetition encompasses sublimation, as Kusama channels her trauma within art. With a solution to combat her trauma by turning it into art, Kusama used it to abolish fear.
Kusama’s most Freudian works, encrypt symptoms of traumatisation from the perspective of a child, Kusama herself. In an interview with Stephen Smith of the BBC, Kusama confirmed that she had a phobia of phalluses, tracing it to her childhood, ‘My father led a debauched lifestyle, and I came to hate sex’ (Kusama, 2012). In an assessment of Kusama’s psyche and accomplishment of work, Jan Verwoert analyses the visual expression of Kusama’s suppressed traumas through psychoanalysis. Vanwoert hypothesizes that the excessive affirmation of phallic forms inherently combat the phobia, resulting in the instinctual cessation of fear (Vanwoert & Grässlin, 2004). Further reflecting Freud’s interpretation of catharsis. Phallic Girl (1967) is consumed by phallic forms and stands in solitude, triumphal of the vanquish of the previously suppressed fear. This stance resonates with Freud’s scrutinised ‘penis envy’ hypothesis (Freud, 2014). The figure is solid and robust in appearance, reflecting the conquest of fear, as the rigid structure ensures that the threat of breakage is removed. Kusama’s cathartic cure remains evident in the installation, Phalli’s Field (1965), stating ‘As a kind of art therapy […] filled a room with them and lost my fear’ (Kusama, 2012). The obsessive repetition of phalluses led to the reduction of the phobia to that of obscure forms, allowing the weight of fear to be stripped away, reflecting the cleansing nature of catharsis, as the fear is eradicated.
through architectural consideration, as the spectator is under the guise that they can interact with the environment however they please. However, Kusama controls exactly what they see through the inescapable mirrored reflection, and exactly where they walk through a path as a boundary to the presence of water. Further reflecting her desire for control. This controlled concept is paralleled in the film Black Swan by the character of the pristine ballerina, Nina Sayers and her unceasing obsession with her desire to be ‘perfect’ (Aronofsky, 2010). The depiction of physical and mental metamorphosis is portrayed through the reflection of mirrors. This film’s concept parallels Kusama’s pertaining use of mirrors, evoking a sense of reflection within an individual. This notion of self-reflection is simultaneously accompanied by the personification of Kusama’s inner world. The glowing spots personify the taint of trauma and its everlasting stain – portraying the permanent warping of reality and plaguing of the infinite dreamlike realm. The pulses of light reflect the waves of emotion in which trauma takes place. The tension between the human figure and the reflection of mirrors represent the dichotomy of mind and body and its spiral of deterioration. This signifies the inescapable effects of trauma, just as one cannot escape one’s own reflection, one cannot escape the taint of trauma. Solace must be found within oneself.
Through escapism, Kusama’s psyche finds solace as suppressed tensions are diluted through the symbolic outlet of art as positive transference is illustrated. As a direct reflection of Kusama’s hallucinations, the performance of self-diffusion is interpreted as dreamwork, cultivating glorious, magical environments. These realms stimulate sensory impulses amongst an audience. It is almost as the audience have been transported into a further realm, plucked away from their own stream of existence and instantaneously plunged into an alternate universe. The audience has encountered the infinite.
This encapsulates Alford’s assessment of Bion’s concept of ‘O’ (Alford, 2018, p. 45), he concludes O and trauma are interchangeable, hypothesizing that as a result of a forsaken ego, leads to life void of pleasure and conscience.
Encountering O means encountering reality in as unmediated a fashion as possible for humans.
O is beyond worlds, beyond symbols. It resides within as much as without, so that O is as much about being in immediate contact with one’s unconscious as it is with the external world.’ (Alford 2018, p. 45).
This interpretation of trauma is evident within Kusama’s work, in her obsession with the infinite. The spherical collectives resemble an abundance of stars and planets floating in endless space. Reflecting a fascination of transcendence, ‘beyond the world we live in’ (Kusama, 2011) illustrating her voyage of diffusion and ascension to the infinite. Kusama’s demonstrations of self-obliteration and exploration of the infinite indicate themes of escapism, transference and sublimation. Kusama illustrates the transfer of her reality, declaring ‘My big job is to glimpse my vision’ (Kusama, 2011). Art is her resolution. In every dot Kusama finds comfort, these dots provide glimpses of her inner world in which beauty is found within her hallucinations. This outlook represents a sense of positivity reflecting a childlike perception, communicated through the bright use of colour, fascinating sensory impulses and reduced significance of the spectator – like being viewed from the standpoint of a child. Conveyed by the childlike ignorance of harm, through the restricted colour palette and simplicity of shapes, similar to something that might be seen in a nursery. Kusama’s projection of her inner world surrounds a spectator in a magical environment and like Kusama, the onlooker can also find beauty in her hallucinations.
Bates, analyses Bourgeois’ reflections of deconstruction, reconstruction and re-experience. I do, represents a conscious action, I undo, represents analysis and evaluation and I redo, represents acceptance to move forward (Bates, 2023, pp. 64-65). According to Levine, these incentive principles manifest as forces of ‘activity’ , ‘receptivity’ and ‘passivity’ (Levine, 2009, p. 40). The force of ‘receptivity’ occurs innately as a defence, preventing the shattering to the current of psychological existence (Levine, 2009). This hypothesis echoes Freud’s assessment of the combative administration of defensive manoeuvres as a result of the overwhelmed ego (Freud, 1926) as well as the ego’s instinct of self-preservation examined in Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Freud, 1920). This concept is also reflected in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy as truth-telling sparks catharsis and trauma is ‘reexperienced, dealt with and let go.’ (Radzik and Murphy, 2015). Each of these approaches reflect the repetition, revisitation, and reshaping of traumatisation in an effort to ease suffering. Kaza engages with this discussion, as she observes Bourgeois’ approach to artmaking as not conventionally linear, but rather ‘through an orbit of perpetual return’ (Kaza, 2021, p. 146). However, the return to the past is never truly replicated, as it is constantly reshaped. The procedure of recapitulation dilutes the damaging tensions between the mind and body, essentially allowing the traumatised to regain a crucial sense of control (Levine, 2009). In turn, this process catalyses a curative solution to past traumas, through the principle of truth telling and catharsis within an artmaking context. Levine engages with this concept, illustrating the path to recovery within a traumatised catharsis, ‘The art of trauma is not an imitation of the past but […] an attempt to find a new path beyond the eternal reoccurrence of the same’ (Levine, 2009, p. 42). This further echoes Freud, as he investigates the revisitation of suppressed memories conducted by the traumatised (Freud, 1920). Artistic catharsis encourages a pilgrimage of recollection, renewal and reconciliation of trauma as an attempt to revive the souls of the traumatised - in other words, it sparks ‘The ability to live now, rather than being caught in an endless loop of history’ (Alford, 2018, p. 44).
Bourgeois’ cathartic configurations of childhood trauma and youth in France examine recurring images of alienation, loneliness and vulnerability of fear. As Bourgeois reflects on her youth, she recalls that her mother and father had a dysfunctional relationship, declaring they ‘were fighting like cats and dogs’ (Contemporary Art Issue, 2022) and France was getting ready for war (Bates, 2023). The tensions within her childhood were heightened by her mother’s deteriorating illness and the escalating resentment she felt towards her father (Kaza, 2021). Much like Kusama, Bourgeois also suffered from emotional burdens as she
observed the debauched lifestyle fashioned by her father (Contemporary Art Issue, 2022). The hatred Bourgeois had for her father’s mistress triggered overwhelming rage, as she exclaimed it was a ‘double betrayal’ (Wye, et al, 2017, p. 12). This betrayal constituted nuisance deep within Bourgeois’ psyche, accusing ‘she turned me into a beast’ (HENI Talks, 2018). This provoked Bourgeois’ fixation on the image of a spiral (Bourgeois, 2019), rooted in her accumulation of skills within the craft of tapestry (Contemporary Art Issue, 2022). By twisting the fabric, ringing the water out of the tapestries, she created a spiral. The motion of the spiral resonated violent tendencies buried within her psyche, outpouring her desire to eradicate her father’s mistress, declaring ‘I would do it in my dreams by ringing her neck’ (D’Silva, 2022, para. 8). In this aggressive outburst, the spiral is a cathartic representation of freedom, and her regain of control. Further mirroring Freud’s exploration of unprincipled wish fulfilment. The violent outburst within her dream is also reflected in Freud’s concept of the ‘death drive’ motive in a spiral towards self-obliteration (Freud, 1920). According to Carl Jung, in psychology, the spiral signifies the constant return to the same point, however, it is no longer the exact same, as it has changed (Russak, 1984). This prenotion of the spiral symbolically represents growth and the amelioration of traumatic memories - as they are constantly revisited, they are simultaneously rewritten. The existence of experience and reexperience holds the traumatised within the stream of reality as it signifies their reclaim of control. This is explored within Heidegger’s Being and Time in which he defines it ‘resoluteness’ (Heidegger, 1927, p. 314). That is why art was so curative for Bourgeois, it granted her relief.
The magnum opus of Bourgeois’ work, the spider, illustrates a shadow figure that lingers within an environment, communicating conflicting senses of predatory threat, or protection. Bourgeois’ infatuation with the distortion of limbs can be traced to her encounter with the wounded soldiers in France (Bates, 2023), formulating the arachnoid metamorphosis illustrated within her work. Bourgeois notably, expressed such revulsion towards the unforgiving injury of war, encouraging the depiction of these horrors within her art, ‘I had to do something about this unfortunate occurrence with legs’ (Bates, 2023, p. 74).
Steel, bronze and marble
9.3 x 8.9 x 10.2 meters
The encounter with the wound of war influenced her abstract manipulation of figures, in turn, a physical representation of deconstruction, reconstruction and reinterpretation can be deciphered. Bourgeois’ abstraction of form within a subject also offers insight to her psyche, as she stated, ‘the abstract drawings come from a deep need to achieve peace’ (Wye, et al.
Fig 2.3.
Maman (1999)
Chapter Three – The Dichotomy of Trauma
Kusama and Bourgeois are both highly suitable candidates for psychoanalytic interpretation through the cathartic configurations of previously suppressed trauma. By the persistent return and reinterpretation of experience, Kusama and Bourgeois address the respective taint of their trauma. Through the transformation of experience, a regain of control is established, which is essential for processing and healing from trauma. Kusama’s artwork communicates traces of escapism, transference and conquest through the repetitive production of polka-dots. Each polka-dot reflects a glimpse of her psyche and her journey to emotional recovery. The hallucinations that embody her work, personify a ritual of self-diffusion and ascension to an infinite realm. On the other hand, Bourgeois poetically depicts the balance within her mind achieved by catharsis, to nature being restored once again. As a symbol of ‘renewal’ and ‘reconciliation’ (Bourgeois, 2006), Bourgeois’ art personifies a relief to her suppressed trauma, as she portrays the harmonious restoration of her mind and nature. Like Kusama, through the constant return of experience, Bourgeois endlessly reshapes the impact of her trauma – presenting a potential solution. The taint of trauma does not cease to exist, as traces of it remain engrained within both Kusama and Bourgeois’ work, however, an essential assumption of control is achieved.
The Taint of Trauma
Cathy Wilkes (1966) explores her own experience with war from the background of her Northern Ireland upbringing during the troubles.
The self-titled exhibition (Cathy Wilkes 2024) presents a compilation of archive material and untitled paintings and installations, depicting the trauma of war (Cathy Wilkes 2024).
The work presented in this exhibition connotes feelings of deep sadness surrounding the conflict of war. The painting Untitled (2024), displays a faded stain, accompanied by a freshly saturated red stain, conveying an old and fresh wound. This painting effectively conceptualises the taint of trauma, as it cannot be fully eradicated. However, through art, this emotional discourse is addressed, illustrating that the trauma although never completely removed – can be, accommodated.
Fig 3.1. Cathy Wilkes ‘Untitled’ 2024
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