RACHEL HERD
Sacred and Secular Attitudes Towards Representations of Nudity in Western Art
DOI 10.20933/100001379
Except where otherwise noted, the text in this dissertation is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4 0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license.
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Sacred and Secular Attitudes Towards Representations of Nudity in Westen Art
Fine Art (Hons)
Work Count: 6884
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Bachelor of Arts (Hones) degree in Fine Art
Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design
University of Dundee
2024
Roman Copy of Polykleitos (450-440 BCE) Doryphoros [Marble]. National Museum, Naples.
Available at: https://museum.classics.cam.ac.uk/collections/casts/doryphoros-0
Unknown (1783) The Colonna Venus [Marble]. Pio Clementino Museum, Vatican City. 1.3
Titian (1538) The Venus of Urbino [Oil on Canvas].
Available at: https://www.uffizi.it/en/artworks/venus-urbino-titian
Signorelli (1503) The Elected [Fresco].
Available at: https://www.meisterdrucke.uk/fine-art-prints/Luca-Signorelli/1034370/TheLast-Judgment:-The-Elected-(Detail).html 1.5
Signorelli (1503) The Condemded in Hell [Fresco].
Available at: https://www.meisterdrucke.uk/fine-art-prints/Luca-Signorelli/1103925/Damnedin-hell,-from-Last-Judgment-fresco-cycle.html
Waterhouse, J.W. (1896) Hylas and the Nymphs [Oil on canvas].
Available at: https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/hylas-and-the-nymphs-206346
Manchester Art Gallery (2018) Comments on Post-it notes in the space left when the painting was taken down
Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/feb/02/nymphs-manchesterart-gallery-perspective-censorship
Barolo Restaurant (2023) Barolo restaurant adverts, which had to be amended to be displayed on the Scottish underground.
Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/may/19/subway-adverts-glasgowrestaurant-nudity-michelangelo-david
2.4
Jannes Linders (1991) An overview of the exhibition ‘The Physical Self’. Available at: https://www.boijmans.nl/en/collection/research/Documenting%20Curatorial%20Practices %20in%20Dutch%20Art%20Museums,%201945%20-Today
2.5. 27
Saville, J. (1994) Strategy [Oil on canvas].
Available at: https://www.thebroad.org/art/jenny-saville/strategy
Introduction
In today’s society, the human body is a significant topic of debate, and this has been the case for hundreds of years. In Western culture, the body is the centre of many social, moral, political and religious conflicts involving gender, sexuality, marriage, divorce, pornography, voyeurism and many more (Kleinig, 2021). Art serves as a mirror to reflect the complexities of the society in which it was created. By examining the representations of the human body in various artworks, we can gain valuable insights into the societal beliefs and attitudes of that culture. This exploration reveals how perceptions of the body have evolved throughout history. Understanding the diverse historical attitudes toward the body in art offers a richer perspective on contemporary culture and art.
The aspect of the human body that this dissertation focuses on is the nude body. Nude artwork is the representation of the human body without clothes. While there are many ways to represent the nude in art, for the purposes of this dissertation, the artwork discussed, even though genitalia are covered, are still considered nudes.
This essay provides a general overview of the various aspects related to the nude body. While it does not explore any specific topic in depth, it seeks to improve understanding of male and female representation in art. This dissertation provides examples of how society has responded to such representations by artists. These attitudes towards the nude body in art have frequently led to the censorship of the nude body
The essay is divided into two chapters; the first focuses on historical perspectives of the body in sculpture and painting in a chronological manner. Chapter one opens with an analysis of the first full-sized nude female sculpture in Western history, Aphrodite of Knidos, by ancient Greek sculptor Praxiteles. This revolutionary artwork offers a starting point for understanding how the nude body in art has evolved and changed throughout history. Chapter one will discuss the Venus pudica tradition in the context of the Aphrodite of Knidos and the controversial painting Venus of Urbino (1538) by Renaissance master Titian. While the analysis of these two artworks centres on the representation of women in art and the censorship associated with the Venus pudica tradition, the latter part of chapter one discusses the censorship that occurred to representations of the male nude during the counter-reformation of the Church of Rome.
The second chapter gives an account of contemporary attitudes toward the nude body from the past 40 years. While it is not presented chronologically, it is divided into relevant topics. The first topic covered is contemporary attitudes toward historical artworks, and how these perspectives have led to both censorship and the reversal of historic censorship. The painting Hylas and the Nymphs (1896) by Pre-Raphaelite artist, John William Waterhouse and the sculpture David (1504) by Michelangelo have both been subjected to censorship in the 21st century. Restoration projects such as The Fig Reveal in 2019 at the Crawford Art Gallery in Ireland and the restoration of the frescos in the Sistine Chapel, which started in the 1980s, are contemporary examples of the removal of the historical censorship of the human body. The latter topics of chapter two examine how contemporary artists Peter Greenaway and Jenny Saville look at the human body in a new light
The research conducted for this dissertation has been very enlightening for my artistic practice. Exploring various interpretations and attitudes toward the nude body in art has provided me with new perspectives to consider in my work as a figurative painter and printmaker. My decision to choose this topic arose from an internal conflict between my fascination with nude artwork and my Christian beliefs. This conflict left me in a state of confusion as I navigated the tension between appreciating artistic expression and adhering to my biblical values. I find it fascinating how different cultures and societies throughout history have responded to the body in artwork. Conducting the research for this dissertation has allowed me to challenge my own views and has equipped me with valuable knowledge as I embark on my career as a figurative artist.
Since the original sculpture has not survived to modern times, art historians cannot be certain about her appearance. An accurate representation of the original artwork can be reconstructed by examining the various replicas made during the lifespan of the original statue. These replicas offer valuable insights and details that capture the essence of the original, allowing us to appreciate its artistic significance despite its absence. The replica believed to be the most accurate representation of the original is the Colonna Venus in the Vatican’s Pio-Clementine Museum (Havelock, 1995). Another valuable resource for reconstructing the appearance of Aphrodite of Knidos are the coins that were minted in the city of Knidos between 211 and 218 AD that feature her image (Havelock, 1995). Art historians can only be certain of a few specific details based on the available resources. One thing known for sure is that one of her hands was placed over her pubis, her fingers slightly extended and relaxed. This gesture became famous and started the long tradition of what is now called Venus pudica. Aphrodite’s pose was also sculpted in accordance with the custom of contrapposto.
Before the introduction of the contrapposto tradition in the early 5th century BCE, kouros statues were a common form of free-standing sculpture in ancient Greece (National Galleries, no date) Kouros statues were characterised by their stiff, symmetrical poses that appeared highly unnatural, while contrapposto introduced a more naturalistic representation of the human body, allowing for a sense of movement and realism. The use of contrapposto had a lasting impact on the Greek world, which continued through to the Renaissance and was utilised by artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo De Vinci. While the term contrapposto can‘theoretically refer to the stance of either a male or female figure’, it is usually only discussed in the context of male figures (Salomon, 1996, p. 81). Venus pudica is the term used in the discussion of female figures.
Johann Jakob Bernoulli, a Swiss archaeologist from the 19th century, argued that Praxiteles would not have created such a sculpture if the public was not ready to see a fully nude Aphrodite (Bernoulli as cited in Havelock, 1995). He claimed that between the creation of the clothed Aphrodite sculptures in the 5th century BCE and Praxiteles nude Aphrodite in the 4th century BCE, there would have been a ‘three-step evolutionary scheme – from fully clothed, to half-clothed, to complete nakedness’(Havelock, 1995, p. 21) For Praxiteles to depict the goddess in full nudity, he would need a justification for
this choice. Due to the physical implications of sculpting a figure with uneven weight, a supporting structure is crucial for the figure to stand. Artists that used contrapposto incorporated a structure into their compositions; this acted as a tripod to support the marble structure. From the study of replicas of Aphrodite of Knidos, it is known that she held drapery in one hand that cascaded over a vase by her feet. It is unclear whether this hand was raised or relaxed by her side. It is clear that this drapery and vase were used to act as the supporting structure. However, the drapery and vase weren't only used as a support for the marble figure but were used by Praxiteles for the narrative of the artwork. Bernoulli argued that portraying Aphrodite in the moment of preparing to bathe, shown by the drapery and the vase, serves as a rationale for her nudity (Havelock, 1995, p. 22). Not only does this motif serve as a justification for Aphrodite's nudity, but it also acts as a justification for the viewer to look upon the goddess. In regard to her hand position, Aphrodite appears to be caught in a moment of fear as she is intruded on by the viewer. In doing this, Praxiteles has ‘transformed the viewer into a voyeur’(Salomon, 1996, p. 74).
Another point which Bernoulli argued is that no decent woman or goddess would willingly appear in public unclothed, hence why the motif of the bath was necessary (Havelock, 1995, p. 22)
Venus Pudica
In the essay, The Venus Pudica: uncovering art history’s ‘hidden agendas’ and pernicious pedigree, Nanette Salomon discusses the implications of the pudica gesture (1996). The ‘Knidia can be seen as the starting point of a new history in art. It is a history that privileges the female over the male nude’ (Salomon, 1996, p. 72). The creation of the Knidian Aphrodite in the 4th century BCE initiated the Venus pudica tradition. Venus pudica, simply explained, is a common gesture found throughout art history in representations of nude females where the hand is placed over the pubis. Praxiteles is the first known artist to utilise this gesture.
The significance of the pudica can be better understood when considered in the context of the times it was created. Praxiteles’ Knidia was created at least three centuries after the introduction of the male nude. In the representations of male figures, no special attention was given to the genitalia. They were treated like any other part of the male body
(Salomon, 1996). In ancient Greek times, it was believed that men possessed sophrosyne, meaning ‘soundness of mind, sobriety and self-control’ (Salomon, 1996, p. 75). However, it was believed that women did not possess these same qualities, so modesty had to be imposed upon them, hence why the pudica gesture was considered necessary in the depictions of nude women (Salomon, 1996).
In depicting Aphrodite covering her pubis, Praxiteles has made this female body part the most desirable. We can never know for certain what Praxiteles' motives were when he depicted the goddess of love and fertility in this position. The question art historians have been asking for centuries is, ‘Was this pose meant as a humble display of modesty, or was it a tactic to highlight the sexuality and fertility that Aphrodite embodies?’ Salomon says that ‘in any reading, the hand that points also covers and that which covers also points’ (1996, p.73). Attention is drawn to the pubis, whether intentional or not. The Aphrodite of Knidos has set art history down a path from which we cannot return. It has resulted in women being defined by their pubis and keeps them ‘in a perpetual state of vulnerability’ (Salomon, 1996, p.72).
The Venus pudica tradition was adapted and changed over time by other artists; the original meaning, even though still unknown, was misunderstood and misrepresented in later artworks.
In 16th-century Italy, the Venus pudica tradition was well-known and recognized. Artists such as Titian and Giorgione contributed significantly to popularising the reclined pudica. However, in paintings such as Titian’s The Venus of Urbino (1538), the meaning of the pudica has changed. In the pudica tradition, the hand covering the pubis hovers above the skin without making contact. If contact was made, drapery would separate the hand from the pubis to ensure no inappropriate touching. Two examples of this include Botticelli's Birth of Venus (1485), where the figure covers herself with her hair, and Titian’s Venus with a Mirror (1555), where Venus is seen covering herself with an ornate blanket.
The Venus of Urbino (1538), depicts a woman reclining on her side while making direct eye contact with the viewer. She seems to welcome the viewer into the space, contrasting sharply with the Venus pudica tradition, where the viewer is made to feel like an invader of the woman’s personal space. Artists such as Titian were well aware of the unspoken
It wasn’t until the 19th century that Titian’s Venus of Urbino (1538) began to raise significant concerns. In 1880, on his visit to Italy, journalist Mark Twain wrote about the painting in the journal A Tramp Abroad (1880). He described the painting as ‘the foulest, the vilest, the obscenest picture the world possesses’ (Twain, 1880). He even went as far as to say that ‘Titian’s Venus defiles and disgraces the Tribune’where the painting resides (Twain, 1880). This is clearly a very strong negative reaction to this artwork. However, Titian’s Venus also inspired positive reactions. In 1877, Crowe and Cavalcaselle described her as ‘young and lovely, not transfigured into ineffable noblesse, but conscious and triumphant without loss of modesty’ (1877). This opinion stands in stark contrast to Twain's reaction to Titian’s painting.
The Fig Leaf
While the Venus pudica was a form of censorship imposed upon female nudes, the fig leaf was utilised by the Catholic Church to censor male nudes. For centuries, the Church in Rome had a significant influence over the creation of art. In the 16th century, the rise of the Protestant Reformation, significantly influenced by theologian Martin Luther, led the Church to impose stricter regulations on what was considered acceptable art.
In response to the Protestant Reformation, the Church in Rome made efforts to suppress the emerging Protestantism beliefs Pope Paul III convened a synod of the Church in Rome, known as the Council of Trent, with its first meeting occurring in 1545 (KilroyEwbank, 2021). These meetings aimed to engage in scholarly discussions about the shifting ideas and beliefs within society during the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic Church’s response to this became known as the Counter-Reformation, where the aim was to instil traditional catholic beliefs back into society.
During the Renaissance, art was vital to the Catholic Church, particularly to instruct the largely illiterate population in their faith. Visual imagery became an essential tool for conveying church doctrine, theology, and biblical narratives, helping educate people on the church’s beliefs. The issue of artwork was not discussed at the Council of Trent until 1563, over a decade after its first meeting (Papal Encyclicals, 1563).
After the last meeting in 1563, a decree was issued ‘that forbade the depictions of all lasciviousness in church art’ (Smith, 2011, 10:13). This caused a mass censorship of artwork throughout Italy and Europe that would last centuries. In words published by the Council of Trent themselves: ‘the invocation of saints, the veneration of relics, and the sacred use of images, every superstition shall be removed, all filthy lucre be abolished; finally, all lasciviousness be avoided; in such ways that figures shall not be painted or adorned with a beauty exciting to lust’ (Papal Encyclicals, 1563). Following these decrees, the church commissioned artists to censor old artwork. In 1565, Daniele da Volterra was hired to paint loincloths over Michelangelo’s fresco, The Last Judgement, in the Sistine Chapel (Bowen, 2013). Full nudity in church art was acceptable under one condition - to show the sinful nature of humans. A great example of this is Luca Signorelli’s 16th-century fresco in the chapel in Orvieto Cathedral, The Condemned in Hell (1503). This fresco depicts the depravity of sin by illustrating the damned entering hell, with their nudity symbolising their transgressions. Signorelli’s fresco The Elected (1503), depicts people in heaven with their genitals covered with loincloths. The sharp contrast between these two works highlights the Church’s view of nudity being sinful.
Figure 1.4. Detail of Signorelli (1503) The Elected [Fresco].
The removal of the painting was done as part of an art project by Sonya Boyce before her solo exhibition in the gallery three months later. She was invited by the Manchester Art Gallery to reflect on their collection of 18th and 19th-century works. Boyce collaborated with a group of gallery staff interested in engaging in dialogue about the works in the gallery’s collection (Boyce, 2018). Waterhouse’s Hylas and the Nymphs (1896) was ‘symbolic of some problems’ seen by Boyce and the gallery staff in the Manchester Art Gallery (Boyce, 2020, 46:20). The main concern about this piece was the age of the women and particularly the number of breasts that appear in the work. The removal of Waterhouse’s painting was done to prompt conversation and debate ‘about who has authority over representation’ in public art spaces (Tawadros, 2018).
While museum and gallery curators carefully choose the works on display, this selection process occurs behind closed doors, leaving the public and gallery staff with no say in the matter. Boyce questioned whether these choices by curators could be considered censorship of art (Boyce, 2018). However, the removal of Hylas and the Nymphs (Waterhouse, 1896) gave way for the public to respond. In place of the painting, an informative text shared the reasons for its removal and visitors were encouraged to share their thoughts on Post-it notes and place them on the wall.
Figure 2.2. Manchester Art Gallery (2018) Comments on Post-it notes in the space left when the painting was taken down
The response from the public was divided, with many critics responding with contempt regarding the removal of the painting. Many received it as a threat to historical art. British art critic Jonathon Jones had some strong opinions to say on the matter. Jones viewed the removal as a ‘crass gesture that will end up on the wrong side of history’ (2018). He questioned whether museums should censor art in the name of political correctness. He later concluded that our modern values include freedom of sexual expression and the removal of Hylas and the Nymphs (Waterhouse, 1896) was undermining that expression (Jones, 2018). However, his opinion became hypocritical when he stated that The Rokeby Venus (1651) by Velázquez and Titian’s Diana and Actaeon (1559) should be removed from display due to their ‘gratuitous’ display of female flesh (Jones, 2018).
Many of the visitors to the Manchester Art Gallery pointed out the hypocrisy of the removal and questioned why other paintings with similar concerns remained on display in the gallery. Many called it a ‘publicity stunt’ and claimed it was ‘a prudish form of feminist moralising’ (Boyce, 2018). Some of the notes left by visitors said, “Feminism gone mad! I’m ashamed to be a feminist!” and “Hitler dictated what art was suitable. Are you going to burn books next?” (Mary Beard’s Shock of the Nude, 2020, 47:40) After it was rehung seven days later, the gallery stated that the removal wasn’t about censoring or ‘denying the existence of particular artworks’ (Brown, 2018). The public, however, viewed this as an authoritative step taken by the gallery to control what is and isn't seen in their public art space.
Not only is censorship of the body happening in art galleries but also in other areas of life such as education and media. A discussion about censorship of nudity in art cannot overlook the most iconic representation of the human form in Western art history. The sculpture David by Michelangelo (1504) has sparked debates around the world concerning artistic expression and the boundaries of decency. In 1501, Michelangelo was commissioned by the Opera del Duomo to sculpt the biblical Old Testament character David (Accademia, no date). The sculpture was supposed to be the beginning of a series of large sculptures to adorn the roof of the Cathedral of Florence. The original project was first commissioned by artist Agostino di Duccio in 1464 and then later to Antonio Rossellino in 1475 but was abandoned by both artists due to the inferior quality of the marble block supplied to them by the Opera del Duomo (Accademia, no date). After the
removed, and sculptures restored from six male Canova casts in the gallery’s collection (Crawford Art Gallery, 2019).
The history of the Canova casts started in 1815 when Pope Pius VII requested the creation of 200 plaster casts to be made of sculptures from antiquity in the Vatican’s collection (Sheridan, 2019). The project was overseen by sculptor Antonio Di Canova, and in 1818, the Canova casts were given to Cork, Ireland (Sheridan, 2019). The arrival of the casts in Cork ‘proved too much for the local guardians of morality who demanded fig leaves for the protection of the people’ (Beard, 32:54).
The Fig Reveal was part of a larger 5-year project by Crawford Art Gallery called Recasting Canova, which was done in celebration of the arrival of the casts from Italy. Recasting Canova involved redecoration of the gallery using a modern colour scheme and allowed for the ‘demands of today’s audiences’ (Crawford Art Gallery, 2019)
Another instance of previous censorship being reversed is the restoration project of the Sistine Chapel in the 1980s, initiated by Pope John Paul II (Clayton, 2019). Although the Catholic Church no longer holds the same influence over art as it did centuries ago, both the church and independent Catholics continue to express their views on art.
In 2019, Catholic Professor of Sacred Arts, David Clayton published his book, Painting the Nude, where he reflects on the talks delivered by Pope John Paul II’s The Theology of the Body (2005). Within his book, Clayton addresses the impact Pope John Paul II’s teachings may have on visual artists today.
Clayton’s conclusion on this issue depends on the understanding of the three states of Man that are present in both the Catholic and Protestant theologies and how they have been represented through various art styles throughout history. Iconography reveals Original Man and Eschatological Man, both of which possess glorified bodies that are unstained by sin. However, this isn't the issue for debate that is discussed by Clayton
The concern lies with depicting Historical Man, which is humanity after the fall when it exists in a state of sinfulness. Pope John Paul II argues that naturalistic art styles, portraying the body in a realistic manner, are inappropriate for depicting Historical man (2005). He supports this position by explaining that to correctly portray a person, the artist must achieve a balance of ‘naturalism’ and ‘idealism’ within the work. Naturalism
Deviating from Beauty Standards
A discussion on contemporary attitudes toward the nude body would be incomplete without addressing Jenny Saville. Saville is a British artist and a graduate of the Glasgow School of Art. She is regarded as one of the leading female artists of her generation. Her unconventional paintings blur the line between realism and abstraction and have been described by critics as part of the ‘post-painterly abstraction’ genre. (Lesso, 2021).
During a term abroad at Cincinnati University, Saville developed her interest and fascination with large female bodies. Her studies allowed her to focus her interests on the imperfections of the human body and grew her curiosity for large figures.
Saville has faced controversy against her work since the start of her career in the 1990s. She has been accused of degrading women by presenting them in a grotesque way. In an interview for The Independent, Saville said ‘I’m not painting disgusting, big women. I’m painting women who’ve been made to think they’re big and disgusting, who imagine their thighs go on forever’ (1994). Unlike the historic female nudes society is accustomed towhich are idealised, airbrushed, perfected women - Saville portrays women in a way that reflects their own self-perceptions, shaped by societal expectations and norms. Our culture today has created an atmosphere where ‘bodies are pushed to extremes and
Figure 1.4. Jannes Linders (1991) An overview of the exhibition ‘The Physical Self’.
are numerous resources available on this topic from a Catholic perspective, I have found it challenging to locate Protestant resources. This subject is of great interest to me, and I would like to work towards filling this gap.
Reference List
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