What are the origins of using optical illusions in art: How have advancements in artistic techniques and theories of visual perception influenced their evolution from antiquity to the modern era?
Word Count: 6912
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Bachelor of Arts (Hons) degree in Fine Art
Duncan of Jordonstone College of Art and Design University of Dundee 2025
This dissertation investigates the origins of optical illusion in art. Through comprehensive research on how optical illusions have evolved and changed throughout past centuries to the modern era, in artistic and perceptual context. The first chapter goes back to Ancient Greece evaluating architectural phenomenon, the Parthenon built in Athens, and its exceptional use of optical modifications. The roots of ‘Trompe l’oeil’ movement and the acquisition of its name in 1800. Comparing the theories of the philosophers Plato and Aristotle who both had contrasting opinions on perception and optical manipulation. The second chapter includes the discovery of linear perspective, studies of Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) and how this has changed the use of perception and optical illusions in art. The chapter delves into the invention of the aerial perspective by Leonardo da Vinci and the beginning of the impressionism movement in the 19th century. The chapter touches on the camera obscura and stereoscope, the changes it brought in the artistic world in terms of perception and the potential for optical illusions. In the third chapter, Nicholas Wade’s research, his insight on optical illusions and the use of binocular rivalry is presented along with the connection and differences between science and art in optical illusions. The development of OP Art (1960s) is also investigated, which is the last significant movement that developed in relation to optical illusions. Showing its advancement and the different approaches artists and scientists took over centuries to develop optical phenomena.
Eugène Piot, ‘Parthenon’ (1852)
Salted paper print from waxed negative, 22.8 x 32.9 cm
Zeuxis and Parrhasius (BookNeedles, 2022)
Pere Borrell del Caso, ‘Two Laughing Girls’ (1880)
on canvas, 69 x 69 cm Image courtesy the Museu del Modernisme Catalá, Barcelona.
Artist Unknown, (2020)
Illustration
Featured in Exhibit: Gallery: Perception and aesthetics
Available at: https://editions.covecollective.org/content/brunelleschi-and-re-discovery-linear-
Leonardo da Vinci, ‘The Last Supper’ (1495 – 1497)
Tempera and oil, 460 x 880 cm
Image courtesy the Santa Maria Delle Grazie, Milan
2.3 21
Leonardo da Vinci, Portrait of Lisa Gherardini (‘The Mona Lisa’) (1502 onwards)
Oil on wood, 77 x 53 cm
Image courtesy the Musee du Louvre, Paris
2.4 23
Camille Pissarro, ‘Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning’ (1897)
oil on canvas, 64.8 x 81.3 cm
Image courtesy the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City
2.5 25
John Benjamin Dancer, ‘Stereoscope’ (1853)
Photographic Technology, 365 x 185 cm
Image Courtesy the Science Museum Group
Nicholas Wade, ‘Ambiguities in depth and rivalry’
Binocular rivalry, digital image
Image Courtesy work of Nicholas Wade
3.2 29
Victor Vasarely, ‘Zebras’ (1938)
Indian ink, 40 x 60cm
Image courtesy the Denise Rene Gallery, Paris
3.3 30
Bridget Riley, ‘Bassacs’ (1994)
Pencil and gouache on paper, 68.6 x 91.1 cm
Collection of the artist Bridget Riley
Available at: https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2023/02/17/bridget-rileys-drawings-exhibition
An optical illusion is a visual phenomenon that tricks the brain into seeing something different from reality, often leading us to see images that can move, change and appear to be something else. This dissertation will investigate the origins and evolution of optical illusions in art, tracing their development through critical theories, art history and the works of influential figures. This research aims to investigate the origins of these phenomena and inquire into the artistic advancements that have shaped their evolution. Through looking into the history of ancient architecture and examining the ideas of ancient philosophers, such as Aristotle and Plato, alongside modern experts for example Nicholas Wade. This research will explore how optical illusions have been developed and employed across centuries. The first chapter investigates the origins of optical manipulation which can be traced back to ancient Greece, where the early application of optical corrections were observed and applied in both architecture and art, as can be seen in the Parthenon. In addition to architectural advancements, the story of Zeuxis and Parrhasius who were well regarded artists highlights the origins of ‘trompe l’oeil’, a technique designed to deceive the viewer’s perception of reality. The competition between the two artists aimed to determine which one of them is more talented. Throughout the centuries artists continued to create visual trickery in paintings, however it was not until the 19th century when the term ‘trompe l’oeil’ was first used and artists like Perre del Caso refined the technique. This chapter finishes with an analysis of Aristotle and Plato. Both philosophers’ views on perception are compared to each other showing their contrasting perspective and evaluating the impact it had on the subsequent centuries. The second chapter introduces the Renaissance period and the groundbreaking advancements in perspective which have been discovered. Linear perspective was developed by Fillipo Brunelleschi which revolutionized visual representation. The technique was then studied further and documented by Leon Batista Alberti, which provided artists with a fundamental approach. Both figures are considered as the founders of
linear perspective. Leonardo da Vinci is one of the first artists who used the technique in his painting of ‘The Last Supper’ (1495 – 1497) which made a significant impact on painting, allowing artists to create the sense of depth and realism. Da Vinci, who was a scientist as well as an artist, introduced the aerial perspective which focused on atmosphere and light. This technique can be seen in his work ‘The Mona Lisa’ (1502). The aerial perspective influenced the well-known movement ‘impressionism’ which started in 19th century. The camera obscura and stereoscope both play a significant role in the development of optical illusions, specifically in human perception. These two devices opened a new door for scientists and artists in creating visual illusions. It allowed scientists to understand light and perspective in more detail and introduced artists to a new way of capturing things. In the final chapter the dissertation incorporates insights from an interview with Nicholas Wade, professor of psychology and optics, who provided different perspectives on the origins of optical illusions in terms of science and art. The last significant art movement associated with optical illusions was OP Art, which formed in the 1960s. OP Art was used by scientists in studies of perception and human vision, and artists who were able to create artworks containing optical illusions and corrections with the use of geometric shapes. Victor Vasarely and Bridget Riley are the two artists who are best known in OP Art, and both have created visually challenging dynamic imagery.
The Greeks were one of the first to introduce the use of optical illusions Their architecture and art were among the earliest known in the world to use these methods to create something disconcerting to the eye. ‘Many of those were intended for the optical correction of buildings, which would look completely different without the use of these nearly invisible modifications’ (Jasiński, 2021). The application of optical illusions was a groundbreaking achievement, demonstrating the knowledge and understanding of art and science. From architectural techniques like ‘Entasis’ which is a ‘fundamental technique used by Greeks in architectural development, which uses a convex curve applied to upright elements and columns to appear straight and stable’ (Collins Dictionary, 2024). This method of building creates an illusion of the architecture to appear much bigger than it is. The Greek’s use of optical illusions was not only about decoration, but it also often consisted of showing their views on beauty and perception. By manipulating human perception, the Greeks created works that represented the idea of their civilization. Their mastery of achieving these optical manipulations reflects on the artistic ability and scientific knowledge which led to influence countless generations of artists across the world.
The Parthenon
The Parthenon temple in Athens is one of the first examples of manipulated perception using visual corrections made by Greek architects. ‘While the Parthenon contained some new developments, at
the same time it inherited all its features from earlier buildings. Even the refinements, the entasis or gentle swelling of the columns which offset any impression of concavity or rigidity’ (Burford,1963)
The temple in Athens (Fig 1.1) constructed between 447 and 438 BCE was dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena Parthenos. This architectural achievement is believed to be one of the first examples of employing optical illusions. This has led to questions as to why the Parthenon includes all these perceptual techniques. Ictinus and Callicrates, the architects who designed the temple may have aimed to give it an authentic organic and natural feel. Since not many things in nature appear perfectly straight, the perceptual manipulation of the curved columns might have been intended to create a sense of authenticity, rather than creating a geometrically correct temple. However, it has been theorised by (Burford, 1963) that the Parthenon might not have been the first architectural building to incorporate optical corrections. A significant amount of historical knowledge has been lost over time, therefore determining the exact origin of architects using those techniques is difficult.
Without definite records, it is impossible to credit one person or a specific culture for the invention of those techniques. Nevertheless, it is likely that the use of optical illusions in architecture developed gradually over time through various ancient civilizations. The Greeks were undeniably admirers of this style and technique of building temples, which they have brough into many other architectural constructions.
Zeuxis and Parrhasius
There was talk in the early ancient years about two artists, Zeuxis and Parrhasius who were both said to be the best artists of the 4th century BCE. Both were considered some of the first to specialise in realism illusions that trick the eye. The pair both produced realistic pieces on wooden panels and frescoes walls. Unfortunately, none of their work in this particular instance survived, but from stories we know that Zeuxis was interested in creating mass and depth in his work which he studied by adding shadows and reflections. Parrhasius was known for his great skill of drawing figures to appear three-dimensional which have been valued for centuries (Woodford, 1982). The elder Pliny in his book ‘Naturalis Historia’ talks about a contest between Zeuxis and Parrhasius in which both had to create a realistic painting, today known as ‘trompe l’oeil’. They arranged themselves a group of knowledgeable people to become judges for their competition. Each one had a designated space on a wall to paint, in
the hope they would finally determine which one of them is a more talented artist. When they finished, both of their works were covered by a curtain. Zeuxis was the first one to show the judges
1.2. Zeuxis and Parrhasius [Image] (BookNeedles, 2022) what he has created. The painting was a still life image depicting a bowl of fruit which was so realistic a bird flew right into the painting, hoping it could fly away with one of the grapes which is visualized in (Fig 1.2). The judges were amazed by the realism of the painting, astounded that even a bird managed to get tricked into thinking it was real. Zeuxis in the moment was convinced that he has already won the competition. After the instance everyone went to move onto Parrhasius’ piece of work. Zeuxis asked him to pull back the curtain that was covering the painting, to which he responded that it is not possible. Parrhasius revealed at that moment that there was no physical curtain, rather he had painted the curtain on the wall, deceiving the surrounding audience all along. Zeuxis, once being sure he had won, ended up being tricked himself by his opponent, which resulted in Parrhasius winning the contest. This shows an example of the use of optical illusions in realism painting, a method which would now be called ‘Trompe l’oeil’. This technique has been used for thousands of years, likely for longer than it has been recorded.
Trompe l’oeil
‘Trompe l’oeil’ is a French phrase which translates to ‘deceive the eye’. The term was first used by the artist Louis-Leopold Boilly in 1800 for his painting ‘un Trompe l’oeil’. This technique went on to be used for centuries, especially in Renaissance, when artists would paint over walls to create a different reality, with the aim of creating an illusion, leading to the perception of something which is not real, where a painting becomes part of the existence (Masterclass, 2024).
The artist Pere Borrell del Caso was well known for his Trompe l’oeil paintings, a signature element of his work was the capturing of figures, presented in painted frames. By painting the frames of his works, he integrates them into his paintings Borrell del Caso aimed to create a connection between his artwork and reality. This technique often fooled the viewers, causing them to perceive the frame a physical object instead of a painting, which gave the illusion that the subjects were physically stepping out of the frame. Perhaps his most celebrated painting ‘Escaping Criticism’ (Fig 1.3) is one of
the most popular examples of Trompe l’oeil art. The piece shows a young boy who appears to be trying to climb out from the painting, with the optical illusion that is created by painting the frame, making it seem as though he is emerging from it. The combination of the figures body and the placement of the boy’s hands and his foot creates the visual illusion.
Borrel del Caso mastered the use of creating shadows, combined with extreme attention to detail to create the lifelike sense of depth and motion where the figure starts to appear real. The boy’s facial expression could be showing that he is in disbelief of what he might be witnessing as he is trying to escape out of the frame. It invites the viewer into creating their own interpretation as to what could be the meaning of the painting - is the boy’s expression that of relief or anxiety? Borrell del Caso
achieved his success with ‘Escaping Criticism’ as well as the painting ‘Two Laughing Girls’ (1880), both featuring picture frames. In the second painting the composition is slightly different to the painting of the boy. The illusion is more subtle; however, it creates the same effect of the figures peeking out of the frame.
Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE) was a philosopher who studied the meaning of perception. Aristotle explored the significance and the connection of perception in everyday life, studying the way we experience the world. ‘Perception is the source of knowledge, but it is not knowledge itself’ (Barnes, 1994). Aristotle’s view on perception was a way of understanding things by ‘forms’, as an engagement between your soul and the rest of the world. In his studies Aristotle explains how perception does not provide the reason of ‘why’ things are the way they are, rather it gives the foundation of conceptual knowledge to form a better understanding. He believed there was a connection between the soul and the things we perceive due to the different senses a human can experience, such as vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. These are the five basic human senses which we use every day to help us understand and perceive the world around us. He acknowledged that our senses can be misleading and create misperception. This can happen due to many different factors such as distance, or poor lighting, which is something a person cannot always control. These circumstances can create optical illusions which shift and challenge our perception, however Aristotle saw it as exceptional errors rather than a rule. Plato (427 - 347 BCE) was another philosopher who explored perception through forms. He focused on sensory perception, the material world and the imperfect yet unpredictable nature of things. ‘Our psychological resources include not just the ability to take in sensory information about the world, but the distinct cognitive ability to unify and make sense of it’ (Annas, 2003). Plato found that our sensory experience not only failed to show the true reality of the world and the things we experience, but it failed to provide understanding of the true nature of existence. He thought that perception is misleading, and that it only allows us to understand small parts of the wider meaning of experiences, as the physical world is always changing. Plato and Aristotle show contrasting opinions on perception. Aristotle saw perception as an important part of viewing and providing the foundation to understand the world. Whereas Plato did not believe that perception gives
any real knowledge. His idea relies on forms to provide truly accurate information. Aristotle unlike Plato did not dismiss or oppose information provided by the senses, but instead he studied them to gather more information and gain better understanding of it. These philosophical arguments between Aristotle and Plato show the origins of exploring perception and the way artists had begun to consider sensory experience in their work. Artists sought to challenge or enhance perception based on Aristotle or Plato’s view. Such explorations laid the foundation of optical illusions in art, connecting ancient philosophical opinions with contemporary artists.
The Renaissance was a period of history and an art movement which began in the 14th century and originated from Italy. The movement is considered one of the most influential, impacting many different aspects of Western culture such as art, science and philosophy. Originating in Italy, it spread across Europe by the 16th century. Renaissance art emphasized use of perspective and realism which came from the values and styles of ancient Greece and Rome to revolutionize visual representations. Art from the Renaissance time is often connected to the religion and classical mythology that the artists were inspired by. Architecture at the beginning of the movement was a significant influence for the development of Renaissance artists. Fillipo Brunelleschi (1377 – 1446) was an architect and an engineer of the early 14th century who influenced generations of artists. He is considered the primary inventor of the linear perspective in art and architecture. The formalization of this technique is also credited to Leon Battista Alberti (1404 – 1472) who documented the theoretical concepts (Langley, A. 1999).
Linear Perspective and Aerial Perspective
Linear Perspective was developed in the early Renaissance period, which enabled artists to create the illusion of depth on a flat surface. This technique was developed by Fillipo Brunelleschi in around 1420, by creating mathematical equations and converging parallel lines to a single (dubbed the vanishing point).
Brunelleschi’s painting of the Florence Baptistery created in the early 15th century is considered one of the first works to accurately use perspective. Since the technique was never documented by Brunelleschi, the exact method is unknown. The only information about the creation of the painting is the use of a mirror which reflected an image of the painting, which was viewed through a hole in the panel to verify the accuracy of the perspective. (Fig 2.1) shows an example sketch of what the device and the method might have looked like when Brunelleschi designed it. It demonstrates how it might have been operated to view the correct perspective of the architectural building. (Damisch, H. 1995).
Leon Battista Alberti was the one who formalized Brunelleschi’s discovery and expanded it into a theoretical work in his book ‘De Pictura’ (1435). In the book he included practical guidelines which explain the method and technique of using perspective in art and architecture. With his knowledge and study of geometry and optics it allowed him to develop his theories and understanding of perspective further (Grafton, A. (2000).
Both artists are considered equally as important in founding linear perspective. Fillipo Brunelleschi is the one who practically invented the technique and used it in his work, with countless errors which had to be corrected along the way. His founding and application of the technique contributed massively to the history of perspective. However, Brunelleschi did not have any written records of his ideas and methods. Whereas Alberti following Brunelleschi’s discovery decided to explore it widely and make a collection of written studies on the subject to be able to spread and influence other artists. Alberti Vasari did not regard Brunelleschi as the inventor of the linear perspective. In his view Brunelleschi simply expanded upon an already existing concept rather than developing it himself. The technique was far from perfect, multiple corrections and adjustments were made to help artists and architects be able to understand and apply the linear perspective effectively.
Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) was one of the most influential examples of a Renaissance artist who used linear perspective in his work. Da Vinci was not only an artist but also an engineer and a scientist, which intrigued him to study the use of perspective himself. In his research he focused on the study of light, shadows and reflections to examine the effects it has on perspective. He expanded on the knowledge and methods which were already established in an attempt to explore and uncover something new. His approach reflected his belief in the connection between art and science. This led him to be the first artist to form and use the term ‘aerial perspective’ also known as ‘atmospheric perspective’. Da Vinci wanted to explore the boundaries of traditional painting, by focusing on the use of atmosphere and light within the work. This allowed him to heighten the sense of realism in his paintings, taking it a step further from painting realistic figures. ‘’This took account of the effect of the
intervening air between the viewer and distant objects like mountains to suggest recession through colour and focus’’ (Kharibian, L. 2019) da Vinci used the method of applying muted cold tone shades to the background of his paintings to create the three-dimensional feeling.
Fig 2.2 Leonardo da Vinci, (1495 – 1497) ‘The Last Supper’ [Tempera and oil, 460 x 880 cm], Image courtesy the Santa Maria Delle Grazie, Milan (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2024a)
‘The Last Supper’ (1495 – 1497) (Fig 2.2) painting by Leonardo da Vinci is a great example of the use of linear perspective in painting, creating a structured composition. The lines from the perspective concentrate at a vanishing point located above Christ’s head. This leads the viewer to the focal point in the centre of the painting. The construction of the walls and the ceiling enhances the depth in the painting, directing the focal point to the table in foreground. The painting is rich in terms of religious significance, which influences the composition and use of light in the painting. The application of linear perspective in this painting emphasizes the figures in the foreground. The placement of Christ in the centre shows his importance and a sense of respect for his role. By positioning the windows
with a view of the landscape, generating the light to reflect around Christ’s figure, it creates contrast which makes him protrude from the rest of the figures in the painting.
2.3
onwards)
Aerial perspective is clearly visible in the painting of the ‘Mona Lisa’ (Fig 2.3) by Leonardo da Vinci. The use of muted and cool colours in the background creates the subtle contrast between the figure and the landscape behind it. The use of more warm toned colours of the figure allows it to appear closer to the viewer. Leonardo’s blending of colours in the background creates an effect of fogginess, without using any harsh lines he manages to create shadows and depth in the painting. The
landscape in the background consists of blues and greys which make the mountains and rivers seem to disappear into the distance. It creates the effect of atmosphere and the changes that would naturally appear due to different light and shadows. Leonardo’s application of aerial perspective was all influenced by his observations and scientific calculations. By studying the air density and scattering of light he managed to analyse and understand the impact of colour saturation. It allowed him to create the sense of depth in the painting, which is most vivid and visible in person, something which many struggled to achieve in art. His mastery of this technique was a significant moment during the Renaissance period, it influenced countless artists to refine and develop this technique in their work.
Impressionism
Impressionism developed in France in the late 19th century, based on the practice of painting spontaneously, whether it was at an unusual location, or outside (often referred to as ‘en plein air’ the French phrase for ‘in the open air’). The main subject of the movement were landscapes and everyday scenes. The technique of painting changed and became more loose and rapid, stepping away from realism and geometrically correct paintings. This method of the almost imperfect use of brushwork allowed the artists to render the fleeting quality of light, and the shifting pattern of the natural scene.
To achieve the natural blurring of atmospheric conditions, artists avoided using sharp bold outlines to create the sense of depth particularly for distant elements. Impressionists repeatedly painted scenes at different times of the day to study the changes of light and atmosphere it created. Impressionism and aerial perspective are closely related through the shared focus on creating illusion of depth, using light and the focus on atmosphere to achieve this (Skea, R. 2019).
Fig 2.4 Camille Pissarro, (1897) ‘Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning’, [oil on canvas, 64.8 x 81.3 cm], Image courtesy the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City (Post-impressionism (2024)
One of the well-known Impressionist artists in the 19th century was Camille Pissarro. His painting ‘The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning’ (1897) (Fig 2.4) is an example of impressionism painting, capturing the urban scene in Paris. Pissarro painted the scene from a high point of view allowing a fantastic perspective of the street and activity below. The painting consists of true impressionist techniques such as the short, quick and textured use of brushstrokes and the use of particular attention to light and colour. The colour palette used by Pissarro suggests a crisp winter morning, based on the muted greys, whites and browns. He skilfully captured the foggy atmosphere in the distance which added depth to the composition. The painting is part of a series in which he painted the same street in different seasons and various times of the day, exploring the changes in the atmosphere and the impact it has on the overall portrayal of the scene. Pissarro concentrated on urban scenes, unlike the rest of the impressionist artists who mainly focused on landscapes and nature.
Both ‘Mona Lisa’ by Leonardo da Vinci and ‘The Boulevard Montmartre on a Winter Morning’ by Camille Pissarro are examples of the effective use of aerial perspective. Even with the start of the impressionism movement, which resulted in its own unique style, the principles of aerial perspective still applied. This highlights the significance of Leonardo da Vinci’s innovations, which were used by artists past and present. These art movements and techniques are an example of the optical corrections which create depth.
Camera Obscura and Stereoscope
The camera obscura is one of the earliest optical devices which allowed artists and scientists to understand the principles of light and perspective. The idea of this phenomenon can be traced back to ancient Greece and Aristotle who studied the methods of projecting light onto images through small apertures. The device worked by allowing light into a dark room or a box through a small hole or a lens, where the light projected an inverted and reversed scene onto a flat surface. The camera obscura allowed artists to understand how light interacts with surfaces and simplified the process of scale and perspective, which helped them create more realistic and proportionally correct paintings. This device was a groundbreaking discovery for scientists in understanding perception and the process of observation.
Fig 2.5 John Benjamin Dancer (1853), ‘Stereoscope’ [Photographic Technology, 365 x 185 cm], Image courtesy the Science Museum Group (Benjamin D, J., 1853)
The mirror stereoscope was developed in the 19th century by Charles Wheatstone. In the following years Sir David Brewster improved upon the device, but both can be said to have been the founders of the stereoscopic device. The stereoscope (Fig 2.5) relies on the process of combining two separate slightly different images from each eye, merging them together to perceive depth, a process called stereopsis. The stereoscope allowed flat images to be seen as three-dimensional, whereas in comparison the camera obscura created two-dimensional flat images. Both of these inventions contributed to the broader understanding of depth and visual perception. The invention of a camera allowed artists to not feel obligated to imitate the world around them and found a different approach in capturing their surroundings. Exemplifying the importance of tools and technology which developed throughout the centuries to shape the understanding of visual illusions in art as well as science (Calvin, C. 2009).
Art
and Science, Nicholas Wade
In the interview with Nicholas Wade, a professor of psychology specializing in optical illusions, I had the opportunity to ask him multiple questions regarding said phenomena. Nicholas Wade specialises in binocular rivalry, which is an optical illusion where two photos combined are viewed separately through a device or through 3D glasses to reveal the separate images. We discussed the various types of approaches for viewing or creating an optical illusion and how scientists and artists feel when it comes to visual phenomenon. One insight Wade shared with me is the contrasting goals between artists and scientists. In many cases scientists want to simplify and make sense or understand optical illusions, whereas artists strive to explore and expand it, seeking the creative potential. He talks about the same concept in his book ‘In general, artists and scientists are concerned with the same issues – recording, analysing and interpreting the phenomena surrounding us. The subject matter is similar, but the approach differs’ (Wade, N. 1982). In science everything must be documented and reviewed multiple times to ensure accuracy. Whereas when it comes to artists, in most cases they focus less of their attention on whether something is technically ‘correct’. The main thing that matters is that they are personally satisfied with the result. Psychology and science play an important part of the development in optical illusions. Over the years academics were exploring the various possibilities of creating a perceptual phenomenon. Without the knowledge of our perceptual system of vision and the connections with the brain, we would not be able to see optical illusions. The brain is the key component where the optical illusions occur. Nicholas Wade created a huge amount of OP Art while doing his research to illustrate the fascinating science behind an optical illusion. He then started looking into binocular rivalry and began to combine the two together, creating various images exploring the perceptual phenomenon. Since few had attempted to visualize binocular rivalry, Wade decided to develop images to help deepen his own understanding and to aid other people to be able to grasp the concept (Wade, N. 2024).
(Fig 3.1) is an example of Nicholas Wade’s work in binocular rivalry imagery. The illusion can only be seen correctly when viewed through a cyan or red tinted screen or 3D glasses which contain the same tones. Without the device or glasses the optical illusions is not fully observed, although the image still causes confusion to the eye which creates visual illusion. Wade aimed to demonstrate that binocular rivalry can coexist with depth in the same image. This piece is just one of the many examples illustrating how images can be manipulated and transformed into binocular rivalry in a variety of ways.
OP
Art
OP Art which stands for ‘Optical Art’ was an art movement which started in 1960s. The main characteristic of this technique is the use of geometrical shapes such as lines, circles and squares.
OP Art relies on mathematical calculations and precision to create the visual effect on the viewer. The movement is known for the geometric shaped imagery, often overlapping or ‘moving’ objects in black and white. Artists have begun experimenting with geometric techniques using black and white colours to create contrast, where the illusion was most effective. However, in later years artists wanted to explore more and started to experiment with coloured illusions, developing potential changes of the technique. The whole purpose of using geometric shapes and making the artworks mathematically correct is to challenge the viewers perception. Most of OP Art pieces will vibrate, shift or seem to be in motion despite being a still flat image. It all stems from the origins of optical illusions in Ancient Greece and the development of visual corrections in the following years. The movement was commonly used by scientists and psychologists in their work and still is in most cases to this day. The technique represents the peak of optical illusions, combining the knowledge of science with art, focusing on perception and the experience of seeing instead of focusing merely on the subject itself.
Victor Vasarely
Victor Vasarely was referred to as the ‘father of OP Art’. He created artworks in the 1930s-60s where he explored optical illusions using geometric patterns. He is known for creating extraordinary pieces of art showcasing everything that OP Art was about, specifically illusions of movement and depth made from intricate patterns and shapes to challenge the viewer’s perception. His approach in creating OP Art often drew from mathematics and science as a reference to create his illusions. His optical experiments had a profound influence on art, fashion and design. At the beginning of Vasarely’s career he worked with a subdued colour palette often restricted to black and white, which evolved throughout the years. One of his works ‘Zebras’ (Fig 3.2) is a representation of his mastery
and interest in movement based and illusionary abstraction. The image depicts a pair of zebras with overlapping limbs
creating the dynamic motion illusion. The interplay of black and white stripes on the zebras defines their natural pattern stripes. By using the contrasting colours next to each other it creates a visual challenge for the viewer, to differentiate between reality and the image. Vasarely skilfully applied the black background which enhances the overall illusion and creates a much stronger effect, as the black lines on the zebras seamlessly merge with the background. There are no harsh outlines in the artwork and the organic use of shapes allows the illusion to blend in smoothly. This artwork is one of his earliest works on optical illusions, since the creation of this piece his style has changed and evolved. Vasarely began to use more visually engaging elements and shapes which often appeared to move or pulse, in addition he began to introduce more vibrant colours into his work.
Bridget Riley is a British artist best known for her OP Art pieces which contain many colours and geometrical shapes and lines. Her work consists of the innovative use of vibrant contrasting colours in dynamic variations, drawing interest due to its unique style. The work ‘Bassacs’ (1994) (Fig 3.3) is an example of the complexity of geometrical lines featuring the unusual mix of colours together. This work challenges your perception, disrupting the straightforwardness of geometric lines that are presented throughout the composition. The diagonal lines are seen clearer in certain areas, however due to the use of different contrasting colours in each fragment the piece begins to lose its structure, and new elements begin to emerge. Riley’s early work was inspired by the abstract movements and the original OP Art focus of black and white shapes and patterns; she later developed her own distinctive style. She began to explore the interplay of using vibrant colours to achieve a similar
challenging effect on human perception. Use of colour with geometrical patterns is an important factor in Riley’s work and it was key in advancing the OP Art movement.
The work of Victor Vasarely and Bridget Riley offer compelling examples and demonstrate various approaches that can be achieved with geometrical shapes and how these can evolve. Both artists are considered extremely influential in optical illusions art and the OP Art movement. While they both share common ground, their work has individual differences. By comparing (Fig 3.2) and (Fig 3.3) which were made over 40 years apart, we can trace the development and style of optical illusion created using geometric shapes. They both remain as artists, with their work continuing to intrigue many. OP Art has evolved from hyper realistic ‘photo like’ paintings such as ‘trompe l’oeil’ into geometrical shapes which challenges people’s perception.
This dissertation set out to investigate and examine the origins of optical illusions and the advancements from antiquity to the modern era. The analysis of the ‘Parthenon’ showcased one of the earliest examples of optical corrections in Ancient Greece. Due to the loss of information from ancient times and lack of recorded evidence and documentation, the use of curved columns on the temple in Athens stands as one of the first applications of such techniques. It is highly likely the awareness and application of optical illusions have been applied centuries before, and that any evidence of that was subsequently lost. The story of Zeuxis and Parrhasius is one of the first ever told over centuries about a competition between the two artists to determine which one is more talented. The story goes back to the 4th century BCE and talks about the realism of painting, something that we now refer to as ‘trompe l’oeil’. While this technique had not been formally named until 1800 by LouisLeopold Boilly, it demonstrates how far back the origins of artistic methods extend. Analysis and comparison of the insights on perception by Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE) and Plato (427 - 347 BCE) is explored. Aristotle believed perception is simply there to guide your understanding and it can easily be misled. For him perception created a connection between the soul and sensory experiences, allowing people to engage with the world through our senses. Perception to him was generally more like misperception. Plato on the other hand was sceptical of perception and viewed as an error. He found that our sensory experience failed to show true reality. He thought that perception does not give any sort of true knowledge, compared to Aristotle who thought it is useful to experience it and learn from it. The renaissance which began in the 14th century was a groundbreaking moment for optical illusions. Fillipo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti are credited with founding the linear perspective which enabled artists and architects to finally understand the sense of depth. Leonardo da Vinci became one of the first artists to use the technique in his painting ‘The Last Supper’ (1495 –
1497). Da Vinci introduced a new technique called ‘aerial perspective’ which was used in the ‘Mona Lisa’ (1502). This method employed muted tones in the background to stimulate atmospheric depth, a technique which has rarely been utilised in previous paintings. These major techniques influenced artists, setting the ground rules and guidance for creating depth in more realistic and visually perceptive art. Technological advancements like camera obscura and stereoscope allowed scientists to understand depth and perception in more detail. The OP Art movement is one of the most significant 20th century techniques which developed optical illusions. It introduced the innovative use of patterns and geometrical shapes to challenge people’s perception, allowing artists to engage in visual phenomena in a new way. Each of these techniques and art movements influenced each other, contributing to the evolution of optical illusions in art and the expanding the possibilities of creativity. The ongoing research offers countless avenues for further exploration, in particular as technology continues to develop, potentially providing new perspectives and possibilities for artistic optical illusions in the modern era, due to the transformation through time, thanks to the incredible artwork and perceptive theories developed.
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