No Man's Land: 21st Century Masculinity in Scotland

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Author: Calder McKay

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Abstract

This dissertation explores the multifaceted landscape of masculinity in Scotland, utilizing a comprehensive approach that encompasses the historical, societal, and cultural factors shaping the unique experience of masculinity in Scotland. Through an examination of existing doctoral theses and original research, the study aims to uncover distinct aspects of Scottish masculinity and its implications on men's lives. The research identifies a lack of specific investigation into masculine ideology related to Scotland, emphasizing the need for further exploration Key findings highlight the challenges affecting the Scottish population, linking them to the influence of traditional masculinity. Original research is conducted, employing both qualitative and quantitative methods, to uncover public opinions on issues related to Scottish masculinity. The findings emphasize the importance of confronting masculinity at a national level, considering its pervasive influence on men's lives and the broader societal impact. The dissertation offers a foundation for discussions and interventions that could pave the way for a new understanding of masculinity in Scotland

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful for all who helped me make this dissertation possible. Its existence is owed to the collective support of my friends, family, and tutors. Their constant encouragement and guidance elevate my research to levels Icould never achieve on my own. I’d like to specifically thank my dissertation supervisor, Dr Helen Gørrill, who’s unwavering encouragement and expertise within the fields of gender studies proved invaluable in my research and writing process.

Positionality Statement

Positionality statements acknowledge the researcher's subjective stance, influences, and biases, grounding the project in transparency and self-awareness. As a crucial element, it not only enhances the credibility of the research but also fosters a deeper understanding of the researcher's role in shaping the study's outcomes (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015, p. 41). This dissertation is written from the viewpoint of a young cisgendered man who grew up and currently resides in Scotland. The content is thus influenced by personal life experiences, supported by independent research forming the foundations of this study’s theoretical framework.

Introduction

Motive

Masculinity is a complex and multifaceted concept that directly impacts various aspects of individuals' lives and societal dynamics. The concept being historically ever present, means many of its influence and bearing on our society is experienced unconsciously, impacting on all genders to some degree. The constant expectation to conform to traditional 'macho' ideals is felt by everyone identifying with masculine gender identities. Even those not directly confronting these pressures are susceptible to various negative consequences. Masculinity, serving as a catalyst, giving rise to numerous harmful outcomes due to its enduring influence on society. R. W. Connell suggesting “the concept of hegemonic masculinity is based on the practice that permits man’s collective dominance over woman” (Connell and Messerschmidt, 2005). Men are entrapped by their own tyranny of gender, causing them to retaliate, inflicting harm on themselves and others. If masculinity were to be looked at as a suggested cause of male anger and suffering, many of the most pressing issues that face Scotland today could begin to be answered. The country is currently facing an epidemic of men's mental health, with suicide rates, domestic violence, and life expectancy statistics worse than any other country in the UK (Scottish Government, 2022; Scottish Parliament, 2023). These being a few of the reasons why the topic of Scottish masculinity should be considered with great importance in fostering a more progressive, contemporary Scotland. This dissertation seeks to investigate the ways in which masculinity has shaped Scottish history, how the traditional masculine been challenged and how its repercussions still impact on the lives of modern Scottish people. Firstly, by investigating the current literature surrounding masculinity with further specificity to Scotland. Secondly, by conducting new research that aims to evaluate current views on masculinity and its bearing on Scotland.

Throughout history men have benefited from masculinities of domination. This dissertation acknowledges that this inequality still persists and does not aim to disregard or tolerate such issues. Yet it is outwith the scope of this dissertation to offer a just synopsis of the countless ways in which masculinity and patriarchy have created inequality. However, within this dissertation’s discussions on masculinity, possible historical explanations are proposed as to why such disparities began and continue to persist.

Gender

The World Health Organisation defines gender as ‘the characteristics of woman, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed’ (World Health Organisation, 2023). This definition emphasises the influence of social and cultural factors on an individual’s identification as male orfemale, irrespectiveof biological sex.Yet, theconcept thatgenderis limitedto twoattributes (masculinity or femininity) poses challenges as individuals may not neatly adhere to either category. Instead, gender exists on a spectrum rather than conforming strictly to a binary classification, “Gender is the apparatus by which the production and normalization of masculine and feminine take place” (Butler, 2004, p. 42). This dissertation acknowledges the non-binary/transgender perspective in relation to experiences of masculinity and recognises such viewpoints as being acutely distinct and underrepresented in the studies of masculine theory (Gottzén and Straube, 2016). However, for the purposes of this dissertation and when referring to external studies, the notion of men experiencing masculinity presumptively encompasses the experiences of male-identifying, non-binary, and transgender individuals collectively.

1.1 Database

1.2 Data Collection

The British Library digital repository for UK research theses (EthOS), was used to access virtually all UK doctoral theses awarded by UK universities (British Library, 2020) I have produced an original database using this quantitative research method. According to Gørrill (2020),theuseoforiginal databasesforagroundedtheoryapproachisarobustresearchmethod for gender studies projects Using search terms of “Scotland Masculinity” revealed that 52 theses had been written referencing these terms. These search terms were used as, given the word constraints, they best described my area of research and would reveal the most relevant existing theses. This was done to give a broad overview of what had already been written, within the field of this dissertations research topic, attempting to prove or disprove the need for further research to be made surrounding Scottish masculinity. All the theses were published from 1990 onwards, disregarding one from 1951 as its general relevance was negligible, given the quantity of other applicable, more recent theses.

Each paper was assessed under 7 headings to evaluate how closely they related to this dissertations research area. Each paper was given a score out of 10 under each heading, excluding ‘Sample size’. The first being ‘Recency’, how recent the paper was published, therefore how valid the study is, due to when the research was conducted. Recency was calculated as a percentage of years since 1990, to accurately determine its recency in a 1-10 scale. For example, an article from 2001 would get a score of 3, as 11/33= 33% then rounded to 3. ‘MasculinityRelevance’, meaning how closely the study references masculinity. ‘Scottish Specificity”, how closely does it reference Scotland and Scottish culture as a variable in its research. ‘Recency of topic’, how recent is the topic being researched. ‘Men’s Health’, how closely it relates to Men’s health, be it mental or physical. ‘Sample size’, how large the sample of data was. If there was a questionnaire, interview etc, if none was mentioned then N/A. ‘General relevance’, how closely the paper relates to this dissertation’s topic of research generally. This was weighted double as it gives the clearest indication as to the paper's relevancy. A total score for each paper was calculated out of 70. An average score under each heading and average total score was calculated.

1.3 Critical Analysis

This dissertation acknowledges this method for data collection is not perfect, as it is based on subjective opinion on the article's relevance to each heading. However, given strict time constraints of this dissertation, it was very capable of giving a rough but broad oversight into what has already been written in a given field. The ‘recency of topic’ heading, while still relevant, should not have been weighted as highly as the other headings. For example, a paper published in 1990 would automatically get a very low ‘recency of topic’ score yet its content could be very relevant to the subsequent research. This showed that regardless of when the thesis was written, if the topic of research was still relevant to the modern day, then further

research should be made. Through acquiring the data, it was discovered that the ‘sample size’ heading was mainly irrelevant. Due to time constraints, there was an inability to analyse each paper as thoroughly as one would have hoped. Most theses had no mention of a quantifiable method for gathering data, therefore for the majority of papers this was inapplicable.

The analysis found that the average paper was written in 2013, this showcasing a positive trend of more papers being published in relation to this topic each year. ‘Men’s Health’ acquiring the lowest average score displayed the desperate lack of written research surrounding this issue, in relation to Scotland. This illustrates the taboo nature of this issue and apparent necessity for further research on how Scottish masculinity, specifically, affects men’s health. Each field of ‘General Relevance, Masculinity Relevance, and Scottish Specificity’ concurrently had the next lowest scores, all less than 6/10. This displays the lack of written research into these fields collectively, with research into how masculinity effects men in Scotland being minimal. The total scores were all 55 and below, the average being 31/70. This represents a gap in research where each of these topics are discussed in tandem.

All data analysis was manually coded/converted. Within the confines of this dissertation, IBM Statistical Package for the Societal Sciences (SPSS) is acknowledged as a future method to carry out more complex statistical data analysis. This would allow for further insight into the gap in knowledge by uncovering greater statistical trends. In conclusion, through this analysis, I have found that there is a distinct lack in doctoral research in the field of Scottish masculinity. More specifically, how masculinity impacts men’s health within Scotland. This gap in knowledge I aim to fill throughout my own research.

2 Contemporary Masculinity: Scotland

2.1 Masculinity

The Oxford English dictionary (2023) defines masculine as, “Of a personal attribute, an action, etc,: having a characterbefittingorregarded as appropriateto themalesex: vigorous, powerful. Of a man...” This definition affirms the idea that to be worthy of the male sex, you must exude masculine qualities. Characterised as the standards and principles enabling men to uphold power and advantages, masculine norms encompass dominance, violence, resistance to femininity, emotional restraint, and self-reliance (Connell, 1987).

In Ivan Jablonka’s (2023) ‘A history of masculinity’ the concept of masculinity is discussed at length; Misogyny being its perversion, giving a detailed history of the worldwide atrocities committed by men, towards woman, through a feminist lens. Men allowing themselves every freedom, while restricting women of their own. There is an argument that the necessity of woman’s maternity freed up men to produce, while women reproduce. “This was the revenge of males, their biological inferiority led to their social hegemony” (Jablonka, 2023, p. 27). Men have forcibly exercised their physical superiority over women to believe they can degrade all woman at will. “Misogyny springs up as the ideology that denigrates woman in order to justify their lowly status” (Holland, 2012, p. 206). This is thought to be legitimised through the concept of hegemonic masculinity. These masculinities being the social and cultural constructs that justify men’s power and authority over women Connell and Messerschmidt (2005) propose that since the idea of hegemonic masculinity was first conceptualised in 1982, it has been crucially influential in gender and men’s studies since.

Traditional masculine identities cause men to feel alienated, lost, and insecure, if they don’t fit into this mould of what it means to be a man. This can then lead to life threatening consequences. Pirkis et al. (2017) investigates into how masculinities heighten the risk of

suicidal thinking, finding that the notion of being self-reliant was a notable variable. In the current day, many men now feel lost as they carefully traverse a post feminism sociological landscape, “No one has of yet invented a feminist GPS system for men to follow” (Jablonka, 2023, p. 238). This paired with the ever present need to be a man, “at every moment, and be ever more manly” (Jablonka, 2023, p. 191), leads men to walk on a tightrope of contradictions. They feel pressured to show virility while hopefully, desiring equality for all. Malley (2019) asks artist Amber Vittoria their thoughts on masculinity, “Ideally, masculinity and femininity live in a balance within all of us; masculinity should be defined differently on a person-toperson basis”. This shares a link to Butler’s (2004) views on gender as a performance, some aspects of such masculine performances should be refrained from, while also exploring all other experiences of gender freely

However, the patriarchy will not disappear just through men’s own insecurity. The concept of the masculine needs to be challenged and politicised, which will take a number of changes that men must ensure that they each uphold. “The emancipation of woman portends to the emancipation of all” (Jablonka, 2023, p. 335). Men must reflect upon their own tolerance to everyday injustice, in order to live out the ideal of equality. By breaking away from their own tyranny of gender they can escape the masculine of oppression and live their lives as free men, free from the never-ending chase of virility. Not by throwing away the masculine entirely but by offering a new one. Malley (2019) interviews artist Gianna Lee on the shifting of masculinity in the modern art industry, “as a heterosexual male I am becoming an endangered species. While I support interpretations of masculinity shifting, I am a strong believer in some traditional forms of masculinity. I feel all variables should be explored to create a more wellrounded multi-dimensional. man”. The new masculine should portend to the liberation of all, while allowing space to act and think freely without stigma.

2.2 Scotland

TherelationshipbetweenScotland’snationalidentityanditsimpactonthewaymenexperience masculinity is unique. Scotland’s rich history and cultural identity have birthed and perpetrated many stereotypes that are inextricably linked to masculine ideals. The necessity for a rugged Scottish masculinity, can be argued, arose out of a sense of English emasculation. During the 19th Century, a time of profound economic transformation, advancements in commerce, and widespread social upheaval, “’Scotland’ could be narrated as Britain’s masculine heartland” (Abrams, 2010).

Media representations, including film, television, and literature, often play a role in shaping stereotypes. Stereotypes of Scottish masculinity might include images of rugged, kilt-wearing men, or the "Braveheart" archetype. The 1995 film received great success in Scotland, with Scottish audiences making up a 20% increase of the collective British market (Edensor, 1997) This inspired a great resurgence in Scottish patriotism, further solidifying the countries masculine stereotypes of bravery, resilience, and connection to the land. These stereotypes influence and reflect societal expectations of what it means to be a Scottish man. The emphasis on qualities like stoicism and toughness may impact the expectations placed on men.

In her (2019) documentary, The Ideal Scotsman, Rachel McCormack attempts to answer the question of what it means to be a man in Scotland, beginning with a quote from the country’s first king, Kenneth MacAlpin, declaring that “Scotland would be a place where men talk and everyone else listened” (McCormack, 2019). This displays how the country’s social foundations have been dominated by men as far back as the 8th century (BBC, 2014). By looking to the 20th century, we can see how the Scottish hard man ideology, even then, gave men a sense of purpose to live by. “Scots men, whether working class or middle class, had a senseoftheirimportanceandpower”(Hassan,2010,para.9).Asourcountry’spastwasgrossly economically unequal, this shows how this ideology of the rugged Scotsmen provided some

sense of hope for men, of all social backgrounds. Stockman (2012) investigates how during this era, for men, masculinity was an extension of their own identity, and their economic background would dictate which masculine ideals they would subscribe to.

Thesociallandscape ofScotlandremainedmaledominatedforyears;generations ofmenbeing shaped by this patriarchal society further cementing it as the norm in our country (Cornell, 2017). But this way of living wouldn’t last forever. “The decline of shipyards, factory closures and mass unemployment resulted in a crisis of working-class masculinity” (Jablonka, 2023, p. 219) Scottish men began to feel like their comfortable grip on our society started to slip. A whole era of working-class men had their carpet of community dragged out from under them. They began to question their own identity, as their purpose for being started to change. They had to take on jobs that they didn't consider macho enough. Much has been written on the loss of masculine privileges of the working class. For example, Stockman (2012) writes on how these men became socially subordinate due to their skilled work now being viewed as undesirable by employers. They could no longer trap their wives at home and had to now share a lot of the responsibilities of the household. Sandler, (1992) discusses the huge impact that unemployment in the 1980s had on marriages and subsequent divorce numbers rising.

Now fast forward to the modern day and countless men are still trying to carefully put together the broken pieces of this crisis of masculinity. Finding solace in subcultures like football where theycan find asenseofbelonging andcamaraderie. Menfeel ashamedto desiremalecompany, sotheydisguiseitwithintheconfoundsofsport(McCormack,2019).Therearemanyacademic papers which discuss masculinity and sport. For example, Macdonald (2014) has written on hegemonic masculinity and football in England. Scottish men generally seem to have a desire, yet paradoxically an equal unwillingness, to talk about their emotions. Hassan (2010) reflects on his own experiences in running a men’s group in Glasgow and the common stigma associated with it. Recalling a conversation had with a member of the group, about people’s

reactions to the men’s group, noting woman generally being more open to the idea, “It would never be the start of a conversation with a man. It would be the end” (Hassan, 2010, para 19).

Members of the group enjoyed making the conscious effort to talk about their feelings, not talking about politics or sport, outside of the pub or a football match. (Henderson, Potts and

Robinson, 2020) conducts research into how young men in the UK have a general hesitance when seeking informal support with their mental health, in comparison to young women

This pressure in our countryto be ever moremanly at everymoment causes manymento suffer in silence, attempting to still fit into this grossly outdated mould of what it means to be a man. By having a stiff upper lip and being as strong as they are silent, greatly factors into our country’s epidemic of men's mental health. The rate of suicide in Scotland is higher than any other part of the UK. Just under three quarters of suicides in Scotland are male (Scottish Government, 2022). These are just few of the countless statistics clearly pointing out the current and urgent issue of poor men’s mental health in our country. The way in which masculinity contributes to poor mental health has been explored in academic writing. Seidler et al. (2016) conducts an eye-opening study where they discuss how the pressure to conform to masculine norms impact on men’s willingness to seek help when experiencing depression. Some research has been made into how community-based organisations in Scotland can aid men’s health. Kelly et al (2021) investigates how attending community-based men’s shed groups could beformally offeredthroughhealth careservices as an alternativemethodto tackle declining men’s health. However, generally the topic of men’s mental health, specifically in relation to Scotland, has not been researched enough, as displayed in my own quantitative database above.

These Scottish masculine constructs affect more than just men. Many women suffer at the hands of abusive men, at an alarming rate in Scotland. The number of cases of domestic violence in Scotland has steadily been increasing year on year, with 81% of victims being

female with a male suspected perpetrator (Scottish Government, 2022). There has been much research into how masculinity plays a huge part in the perpetration of domestic violence. With men’s adherence to traditional masculine values increasing the risk of committing violent acts toward their partner (Reidy et al., 2014). More must be done to dismantle such harmful masculinities in Scotland, this potentially leading to less instances of domestic harm as a result.

The country has also faced longstanding issues with harmful levels of alcohol consumption, which has been a significant public health concern for many years. Recent studies found that at least 1 in 4 Scots admit to consuming hazardous or harmful levels of alcohol per week (Scottish Government, 2021) Scotland having higher volume of pure alcohol sold per adult compared to England and Wales (Public Health Scotland, 2022). With Scottish stereotypes associated with this heavy drinking culture, linking alcohol consumption to the country’s national identity. Alcohol is also an integral part of the country’s social life, it’s widely acceptedand celebrated, potentially contributing to higherlevels of consumption. Acommonly discussed narrative links masculinity with alcohol consumption, suggesting that the validation of masculine identity frequently requires extensive drinking in group environments. Furthermore, this discourse suggests that matters pertaining to male respect may be resolved and preserved through instances of violence related to alcohol (Hunt and Antin, 2019). The unique and concerning aspect of the Scottish masculine experience is characterized by the intersection of elevated levels of alcohol consumption and the achievement of masculine validation through such high drinking rates.

Scotland has consistently had the lowest life expectancy of all nations in the UK since 1980 (The Scottish Parliament, 2023). General dismissal of the country’s low life expectancy was brought on by Scottish stereotypes of violence, characterised as the “Glasgow effect” (Hassan, 2010, para 3). However, it is much more nuanced than this, due to the country’s great health disparities, toxic masculinities, unhealthy relationship with alcohol, self-harm and the harming

of others. Clearly this issue has more causes than simply location-based violence. Research has been conducted investigating how Glasgow’s low life expectancy could be explained through comparisons to equally deprived areas of England, offering societal deprivation and age distribution of mortality as possible key factors (Seaman et al., 2015).

3 Public Opinion

This chapter is structured into two distinct parts: the Questionnaire and Interview sections. Each outlines the methods employed for data collection, offering a comprehensive understanding of the procedures involved. Following the data collection, a thorough and insightful discussion is presented, delving into the nuanced findings derived from both the questionnaire and interview processes.

3.1 Questionnaire

3.1.1 Data Collection

Quantitative data was collected via an online survey/quiz through Kahoot conducted in person. Twenty-eight participants answered a series of ten questions related to contemporary masculinity in Scotland. Eight of these questions were structured as a multiple choice, with answers ranging, (yes definitely, yes slightly, not really, definitely not), two of the questions were structured in a quiz format with four possible answers and one correct answer. These questions were chosen to gather a consensus of the Scottish general public’s individual opinions on the topic of masculinity, Scottish masculinity, and its effects. Kahoot was used as itisalreadyaverywell-establishedandintuitivemethodfordatacollection.Thismethodwould also allow for data to be collected within a finite timeframe, thereby cutting down the time taken, in comparison to collecting each participants individual responses.

Again, this dissertation acknowledges IBM Statistical PackagefortheSocietalsciences (SPSS) as a useful tool for future research and a standard in industry statistical analysis. Given the confinesofthisdissertationMicrosoftExcelwaschosenas an appropriatemethodforstatistical analysis and data representation.

Pictorial charts were created using Microsoft Excel to visually illustrate the collected data. Pie charts were used to convey the proportion of each opinion as a percentage in relation to the whole group of participants. The number of responses were displayed, and a legend was provided to distinguish data groups. This dissertation acknowledges the bias that may be put in place given the data collection was conducted during a masculinities conference at Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design. Participants may have felt pressure to give answers that coincide with the current zeitgeist of the conference or the art school. However, this possible bias was seen as negligible as for most of the questionnaire (8/10 questions) no participants name was displayed. This would hopefully help to eliminate any bias within the data. In future research data collection would be conducted in a more neutral setting

3.1.2 Statistical Analysis

Generally, the results of the data collection produced encouraging results. The group recognised masculinity as a pressing issue that is not being discussed enough (see figure 3.1 & figure 3.3). Interesting discussion could be opened up around needs for a new masculine, what masculinities should be lost, and which should remain (see figure 3.3 & figure 3.8). Also, the group recognised a specificity to this issue in Scotland. With a great majority agreeing that there is a difference to how masculinity is experienced in Scotland (see figure 3.7), also concluding that there is a definite need for a new form of masculinity in Scotland (see figure 3.8). The participants responses to questions on suicide rates in Scotland, however shocking, we’re somewhat predictable. Results showed a lack of awareness to the severity of these issues (see figure 3.9 & figure 3.10), calling for change around how these figures are publicised and how further positive change could be made to tackle such issues.

Do you think the topic of masculinity is talked about enough?

Almost half of the respondents (48%) perceived that the topic of masculinity was definitely not talked about enough, while an overwhelming majority (86%) of participants also thought that the topic was generally not discussed enough. Not much has been written on how the concept of masculinity could be a neglected parameter in discussions of men’s health. Investigations into the lack of self-reporting males suffering from depression, suggest gender related traits and masculine attitudes to mental health as a key factor (Sigmon et al , 2005) 4

Yes

definitely

Yes slightly

Figure 3.1 ‘Do you think the topic of masculinity is talked about enough?’ (2023)

Do you think there is a place for masculinity in the modern day?

Yes definitely

Yes slightly

Not really

Definitely not

The vast majority of participants (93%) agreed that there is still a place for masculinity in the modernday. Thetopicof masculinity is oftendiscussed with muchtrepidation incontemporary social settings, however there is little written on how the current social climate can impact men’s explorations of masculinity. Loewenthal (2022) writes from the perspective of a psychotherapist, proposing that the consulting room could be one of the few places left where clients feel they can freely explore issues of masculinity. They also fear their colleagues don’t feel comfortable discussing similar issues with their clients, further hindering explorations of healthy masculinity. Perhaps more could be done by allowing men other spaces to voice their experiences without inherent stigma.

Figure 3.2 ‘Do you think there is a place for masculinity in the modern day?’ (2023)

Do you think all aspects of masculinity should be forgotten?

Yes definitely

Yes slightly

Not really

Definitely not

More than half of the participants (55%) declared that all aspects of masculinity should definitely not be forgotten, with a further quarter still (28%) agreeing, but with less certainty. This would suggest that some aspects of masculinity are beneficial for all, with the concept of masculinity not inherently negative. With growing discourse around ‘toxic masculinity’ & ‘healthy masculinity’, much is unclear. Some arguing that the term ‘toxic masculinity’ only aids to further present men as the victim, shielding them from their own responsibility in circulating such masculinities of harm. Conversely, ‘healthy masculinity’ asserts itself as the only valid expression of gender, cementing the notion that expressions of femininity and androgyny are somehow lesser (Waling, 2019). However, whilst such discussions don’t eliminate all forms of masculinity, there should be steps made, to encourage all expressions of gender.

Figure 3.3 ‘Do you think all aspects of masculinity should be forgotten?’ (2023)

Do you think men feel masculine pressure in some way?

Yes definitely

Yes slightly

Not really

Definitely not

With the most sizeable common response of the entire questionnaire, (97%) of participants strongly agreed that men feel masculine pressure in some way. It is promising that the common consensus recognises this with such certainty, as thepressureto conform to masculineideology can lead to a number of harmful consequences. Research into non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) in men, propose that the pressure to conform to masculine norms was a potential risk factor. Again, finding that masculine gender socialization was leading to a lack of openness, therefore causing an inability for men to freely articulate their intentions around self-harm (Green et al., 2015).

Figure 3.4 ‘Do you think men feel masculine pressure in some way?’ (2023)

Do you think a man must show “manly” qualities to be seen as worthy?

Yes definitely

Yes slightly

Not really

Definitely not

Three quarters (76%) of participants strongly disagreed that men must show ‘manly’ qualities to be seen as worthy. This was encouraging as it shows general opinion has swayed away from traditional ideologies around the masculine. Men shouldn’t feel the need to exude virile qualities to feel a sense of self-worth or acceptance of others. Much has been researched partially disputing this, arguing that traditional masculinity rewards men who are conforming with masculine norms of power. Men are thereby punished physically and emotionally for failing to conform, this reaction being distilled within them through their childhood upbringing and masculine gender conditioning (Rivera and Tilcsik, 2019). This proposes the issue as men harming men, which largely is correct as the proprietors of the traditional masculine are in fact men. However, this doesn’t mean to say it must remain like this. This promising result shows a break from the traditional masculine as a hopeful indicator of the current shifting views on masculine conformity.

Figure 3.5 ‘Do you think a man must show manly qualities to be seen as worthy?’ (2023)

Do you think men feel they can talk about their emotions as openly as other genders in our country?

Yes definitely

Yes slightly

Not really

Definitely not

A resounding number of participants (93%) agreed that men do not feel they can discuss their emotions as openly as other genders in Scotland. Clearly there is a widespread acknowledgment that men suffer with expressing emotional openness in Scotland. McQueen (2017)conductedinterviewswith16menlivinginScotland,examiningtheiremotionalfluency within intimate relationships. Concluding that hegemonic values of masculinity caused men to feel a sense of vulnerability when discussing their emotions. This confirms the findings that men feel they can’t be as emotionally open as other genders, offering masculinities of oppression as a potential cause.

Figure 3.6 ‘Do you think men feel they can talk about their emotions as openly as other genders in our country?’ (2023)

Do you think there is a difference to how masculinity is experienced in Scotland?

Yes definitely

Yes slightly

Not really

Definitely not

a

A great majority (93%) of participants generally agreed that there is a difference to how masculinityis experiencedin Scotland. However,themajority only agreed slightly(55%).This could perhaps suggest that they believe the difference, although noticeable, does not bear as much weight with specificity to Scotland. With Scotland consistently having the lowest life expectancy compared to the UK (The Scottish Parliament, 2023), there is much research into potential causes. O’Brien (2009) investigates how constructions of masculinities tie into our country’s unhealthy living habits, finding men feel pressured to partake in unhealthy behaviours to appear masculine. Heavy drinking, smoking and relationships with sport all are inextricably linked to practices of masculinity. Perhaps more could be done to spread awareness of masculinities bearing on low life expectancy in Scotland.

Figure 3.7 ‘Do you think there is

difference to how masculinity is experienced in Scotland?’ (2023)

Is there a need for a new masculine in our country?

Yes definitely

Yes slightly

Not really

Definitely not

A large bulk of participants (90%) agreed that there is a need for a new masculine in our country. This is especially intriguing when looked at in tandem with (figure 3.3) where a majority agreed that not all aspects of masculinity should be lost. There is a strong desire for a new masculine in our country, yet not all aspects of the traditional masculine should be lost. This opens interesting discussion again around how we discern positive and negative masculinities. In (2018) guidelines were released by, the American Psychological Association, in relation to working with boys and men.Recognising that traditional masculinity was harmful and that there should be greater understanding of ‘toxic masculinity’, its role in societal norms and gender socialisation. This of course was met with backlash, again with critiques arguing that the term ‘toxic masculinity’ presents men as the victim and devalues masculinity entirely (Boise, 2019) Nevertheless, there is still a definite need for discussion around the negative effects of masculinity. Whether or not the term ‘toxic masculinity’ paints men as the victim of their own ideology, is irrelevant. It is an issue still affecting men today, that must continue to be explored

Figure 3.8 ‘Is there a need for a new masculine in our country?’ (2023)

Which country in the UK has the highest suicide rate?

Northern Ireland

Wales

England

Scotland

Although the majority of participants (52%) correctly identified Scotland as the country with the highest suicide rate, still almost half (48%) of participants answered incorrectly. There is little publicised fact around Scotland’s suicide rate, especially in relation to the rest of the UK, attributed to ‘psychotropic (prescription) drugs, alcohol and drug use, socioeconomic deprivation, social fragmentation, and other health-related indices’ (Mok et al., 2013). Perhaps there could be more publicity around the risks of suicide in Scotland, with more funding spent on mental health services and suicide prevention.

Figure 3.9 ‘Which country in the UK has the highest suicide rate?’ (2023)

75% of Scotland’s suicides are men (Scottish Government, 2022). A large majority of the participants (76%) underestimated the ratio of male suicides in Scotland by <10%. This shows the glaring lack of publicity surrounding the severity of this epidemic of men’s mental health in Scotland. The Scottish Government (2021) did commit to doubling their funding for suicide prevention, that took action in 2022. This aimed to expand awareness and training on suicide prevention. This will not solve the issue, but any aid in promoting suicide prevention and awareness in Scotland is a promising step in the right direction.

Figure 3.10 ‘What percentage of our country’s suicides are men?’ (2023)

What percentage of our country’s suicides are men?

3.2 Interview

3.2.1 Approach

For an original source of research, an interview was conducted with Matthew Wilson-Green, a PhD student conducting one of the latest British Doctoral theses on Masculinity. This was a semi-structured interview where the topics of masculinity, fear anxiety and men’s health were discussed and its relation to both research enquiries (MacKay, 2023).

3.2.2 Discussion

How do you feel about masculinity in the current day?

“Neoliberalism influences individualism which diminishes men’s access to communities that further learning and behaviours”.

Wilson-Green talked at length surrounding the concept of Neoliberalism and its link to masculinity. Neoliberalism is an economic and political philosophy that advocates for limited government intervention in the market (Navarro, 2007). This emphasising independence and competition commonly associated with masculine traits such as assertiveness, ambition, and desire for dominance (Mikkelsen, 2017). Wilson-Green argues that this ideology prevents men’s access to communities, hindering the development of positive behaviours that could enable them to move away from individualistic masculine ideals.

Do you think issues of masculinity are talked about enough?

“Different spaces offer different cultural rules, some do allow it some don’t but ultimately it needs to be improved”.

The taboo nature of masculine pressures makes discussing such issues difficult. Different settings allow for men's experiences to be acknowledged, fostering an environment where they feel comfortable discussing them openly. However, some groups and communities are less accepting, men don’t feel there is a place for these discussions to take place due to the cultural

norms that heavily stigmatise such discourses. Overall, there is a need for improvement in addressing issues related to masculinity, as the current level of discourse may not be sufficient and needs to be more widespread.

Do you think masculinity needs to change?

“The short answer is yes. We need to look at new ways to tackle masculinity, I look at that through exposure to fear and exploring, Judith Butler’s ‘Doing Gender’”.

In Wilson-Green’s area of research, issues of men’s mental health in relation to masculinity is looked at through the lens of rock climbing. As a sport where fear and vulnerability play a huge part, Wilson-Green explores how these environments that promote such emotional states can help in challenging masculine gender norms. Allowing men to expose their own weaknesses can help them become much more emotionally open and connect with a broader community. Referencing Bulter’s (2004) reflections on gender as a set of actions and behaviours that we must all at times aim to undo to create more inclusive and liberating possibilities for selfexpression. Masculine ideology being at the heart of many gender performances that limit the manifestation of more fluid identities.

What can we do to create a new masculine and better the lives of men, negatively affected by traditional masculinity?

“Explore and understand cultural practices media artifacts that have created such behaviours and look at ways to challenge and tackle them for the next generation”.

There is obviously a definitive need to assess the ways in which cultural norms and practices have contributed to the development and perpetration of damaging, traditional masculine norms. The ways in which media is portrayed and its link to reinforcing masculine ideals are clear. Various forms of media such as movies, television, advertising are all examples of media artifacts contributing to such gender conventionalities “Capitalism has discovered ways of glorifying the accessories of virility: Borsalino or Stetson hats, Zippo lighters, Marlboro

cigarettes and so on” (Jablonka, 2023, p. 58). We should address current issues and actively seek strategies that address such behaviours, hopefully creating a lasting change for future generations.

Would you be able to give any practical changes that could initiate change?

“Individualised exposure to personal fears and vulnerability blended with exposure to art therapy”.

Research has proven that adhering to traditional and hegemonic masculine norms has been associated with negative impacts on men's mental health, specifically contributing to heightenedlevelsofanxiety(BoxerandGill,2021).Wilson-Greenalongwithotherresearchers identify that fear exposure therapy can help to lower levels of anxiety and enhance therapeutic outcomes (McGuire, Lewin and Storch, 2014). Much has been written on the benefits of art therapy in the treatment of mental health disorders (Chiang, Reid-Varley and Fan, 2019). Wilson-Green also discussed his own proposal to utilise creative art therapeutic practices to help tackle men’s anxieties, that can be attributed to masculine pressures. These suggested methods of intervention can help to address masculine pressures head on and promote positive men’s mental health.

Conclusion

Inconclusion, this section summarises theresearch conductedforthis dissertation,highlighting key findings, acknowledging limitations and identifying areas for future research. Throughout the course of this research-driven dissertation, a substantial array of resources, encompassing books and numerous academic journals, were examined to shed light on the multifaceted landscape of masculinity in Scotland. Part 1 attempted to prove that there was a necessity for further research around the topic of Scottish masculinity, through a critical analysis of existing doctoral theses. Part 2 unveiled a complex interplay of historical factors, societal expectations, cultural norms, and individual experiences that factor into how masculinity is uniquely experienced in Scotland. Part 3 presented the original research that was carried out in aid of this dissertation: detailing the methodology of both research methods coupled with a comprehensive analysis of the resultant findings.

Outcomes

Themainobjectiveofthis research was to begin to explore themultifaceted concept of Scottish masculinity, by drawing on existing literature to understand the historical context of the topic in addition to its complex bearing on contemporary society. Aiming to present further research into the present consensus surrounding issues related to Scottish masculinity attempting to understand the ever-changing current climate.

The key findings of the research displayed that through analysis of existing doctoral theses, there is a lack of research into masculine ideology, with specific relation to Scotland, and its effects on men. Existing literature and current statistical data suggest that many of the challenges that affect Scottish people today can be linked to masculine influence. Further efforts should be made to challenge and address the detrimental behaviours associated with traditional masculinity. Through proactive measures we can positively influence the attitudes

and lives of all Scottish people. Analysis of this dissertation’s original research into public opinion on issues relating to the Scottish experience of masculinity proved that generally there is a need and desire for these issues to be discussed. There is an interesting dialogue to be had surrounding traditional masculine values; some should be forgotten, and some should remain. Ultimately the necessity for a new form of masculinity in Scotland is certain, whatever that may be. Results also highlighting the need to improve awareness and education on the vast number of potential ramifications caused by harmful masculinities Steps should be made to discern which behaviours and attitudes condone and perpetrate masculinities of harm to improve mens health and the lives of all people living in Scotland.

Limitations

There were some limitations due to the confines of this dissertation. Within the analysis of existing doctoral theses, ideally a more comprehensive study into each paper would have provided more clarity into each thesis. Allowing for a more encompassing summary of each study would allow for more accurate values to be determined. Potentially offering more ways to incorporate concrete comparable values could have also helped to eliminate much of the subjectivity of the database, thereby improving its validity. Within the original research into public opinion the sample size of 29 participants in conjunction with the data being collected during a masculinities conference, while providing valuable insights, may not be fully representative of the diverse perspectives within the broader Scottish population. Participants may exhibit self-reporting biases, providing responses that align with social desirability or perceived expectations given the setting of the questionnaire This could impact the accuracy of responses, particularly on sensitive topics like suicide and mental health. Generalising the findings to the entire population should be approached cautiously. While Microsoft Excel was used for all statistical analysis, its capabilities might be limited compared to more specialised statistical software like SPSS. This could impact the depth and accuracy of the findings

Another limitation was in relation to the interview with Wilson-Green as the semi structured nature of the interview may introduce subjective bias. The lack of standardised formatting in the surrounding discourse could impact on the validity of the data collected as personal bias could intervene.

Considerations for Future Research

Regardlessofitslimitations,thisdissertationopensupalotofinterestingdiscussionsthatcould be expanded upon within further research. Attempting to look at the issues of Scottish masculinity in a broad all-encompassing manner leaves a multitude of narrow areas of study that could be expanded upon. Getting to the heart of masculinities link to many of the issues currently impacting the lives of Scottish people.

In further research a larger data-set collating from a wider array of thesis databases might be sufficient in giving a clearer representation of the necessity for this area of study to be investigated further. More varied research methods could provide more detailed insights into the many differing facets of masculine experience in Scotland. Continued inquiry into what makes themasculineexperienceuniqueto Scotlandwouldhopefully provide clearer rationality into the urgency for such masculine issues to be confronted. Further qualitative research could be carried out, such as in-depth interviews and focus group discussions, possibly providing a more general view on individuals experiences. Also, explorations into the efficacy of interventions that challenge traditional masculine norms could be beneficial, as suggested by Matthew Wilson-Green. Examining the impact of male psychologies in the perpetration of traditional masculinity. Exposure to personal fears, vulnerability, and art therapy on men's mental health outcomes could be a promising avenue.

A more accurate representation of the country’s general opinions could be achieved through an increased number of varied quantitative research methods. Possibly through increasing the

sample size and conducting multiple separate data collection methods, in differing environments, could give a more nuanced understanding of the diverse experiences of masculinity in Scotland. Longitudinal studies could track the changing attitudes to masculinities over time. Evolving societal norms could be insightful in understanding generational shifts in the perceptions of masculinity, possibly offering up promising outlooks to the future.

The findings of this dissertation hold significance for broader society due to the undeniable bearing that masculinity holds over all men’s lives. The need for a new masculine seems unavoidable and made possible through discussions into areas of change. Initiating change requires collective effort of individuals communities, institutions, and policymakers. Specific enquiry into Scotland showcases how a multitude of cultural and societal factors can perpetrate masculinities of harm. As a result, the sooner we confront masculinity at a national level, the sooner we can begin to understand its effects globally

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