Rapid Biodiversity Assessment and Community Resource Use Training Manual
This publication was produced by the USAID Sustainable Interventions for Biodiversity, Oceans, and Landscapes Project under Agreement No 72049220CA00005 and prepared by RTI International and consortium partners at the request of the United States Agency for International Development This document is made possible by the support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development Its contents are the sole responsibility of RTI and its consortium and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the U.S. Government.
Philippines Sustainable Interventions for Biodiversity, Oceans, and Landscapes (SIBOL)
Rapid Biodiversity Assessment and Community Resource Use Training Module
Table 2. Three types of species commonly used in the management of biodiversity
Table 3. Species information of selected priority species for conservation
Table 4. Summary of field techniques for biodiversity assessment and monitoring, and identification of community resource use (GIZ and BMB, 2017; BirdLife International, 2022)
Table 5. Matrix used for assessing post-disaster vegetation damage
Table 10. Sample encoded raw data of flora species (canopy data) This datasheet shows the tree species observed in transect one, quadrat one during the green assessment in Palawan
Table 11. Sample RTE table of flora (tree) species
Table 12. Sample Avifauna Point Count Data Sheet
Table 13. Sample Avifauna Line Transect Data Sheet
Table 14. Sample Mammal Datasheet
Table 15. Sample Herpetofauna Line Transect Datasheet
Table 16. Sample encoded raw data of fauna species This datasheet shows records of amphibians and reptiles observed in one transect (Transect 12) during the herpetofauna survey
Table 17. Sample Species Information Database for Avifauna
Table 18. Sample RTE table of fauna (mammals) species
Table 19. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of flora species
Table 20. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of avifaunal species
Table 21. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of mammal species
Table 22. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of herpetofaunal species
Table 23. Engagement methods used to gather on-site data
Table 24. Potential benefits and drawbacks in using FGD, KII or both techniques
Table 25. Sample CRM Data
Table 26. Sample Encoded Raw Data for Ground Validation
Table 27. Areas for mapping and their respective description pre-disaster
Table 28. Areas for mapping and their respective description post-disaster
Table 29. Sample data format for damage assessment mapping
Table 30. Sample habitat data format after adding the Order column field
List of Figures
Figure 1. Diagram of the Green Assessment Framework presenting the three stages: (1) rapid appraisal to determine the extent of damage to ecosystems; (2) post-disaster assessment of biodiversity, ecosystems, and ecosystem services; and (3) green reconstruction and resilience planning
Figure 2. Workflow of training outputs for the stage 2 rapid biodiversity assessment and community resource utilization
Figure 3. Pre- and post-Odette map of land cover types and land cover changes within the area of interest (AOI) in Palawan
Figure 4. Palawan hornbill (Anthracoceros marchei) seen perching on a tree during the biodiversity assessment
Figure 5. Species distribution models of Palawan hornbill, showing the areas with low (green) to high (red) habitat suitability in a pre-and post-Odette scenario
Figure 6. An Island flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus) sleeping on its roost
Figure 7. Species distribution models of Island flying fox, showing the areas with low (green) to high (red) habitat suitability in a pre-and post-Odette scenario
Figure 8. Sample mark (colored ribbon) placed at 50 m intervals. Each colored ribbon is labeled with a unique code as an identifier to differentiate one point from another within and between transect lines
Figure 9. A 20m x 20m quadrat showing the different parts as a reference during plot establishment (CCIPH, 2021)
Figure 10. A photo guide on measuring the extent of damage caused by defoliation in narrow-leaved trees (Photo Reference: P Fabianek & ICP Forest Intercalibration)
Figure 11. A photo guide on measuring the extent of damage on vegetation caused by defoliation in broad-leaved trees. (Photo Reference: P. Fabianek & ICP Forest Intercalibration)
Figure 12. A photo guide on measuring the extent of damage on vegetation caused by broken stems and branches
Figure 13. A photo reference for estimating tree lean angle
Figure 14. Sample densiometer reading
Figure 15. Sample canopy opening marks on the datasheet
Figure 16. Sample canopy reading from GLAMA application
Figure 17. A photo reference for Closed Forest (NESW)
Figure 18. A photo reference for Open Forest (NESW)
Figure 19. Matrix of Habitat Damage Assessment Data
Figure 20. A modified belt transect design, showing a 2-km transect with point stations (green dots) every 50 meters and quadrats every 250 meters (yellow squares)
Figure 21. A nested quadrat sampling setup, showing the 20m x 20m quadrat for tree sampling, with 5m x 5m, and 1m x 1m nested quadrats for understory and ground cover vegetation, respectively
Figure 22. Guide on measuring diameter at breast height (DBH)
Figure 23. Illustration of the point count method
Figure 24. Illustration of the line transect method
Figure 25. A standard mist net (FFI, 2014)
Figure 26. Process flow for Community Resource Utilization Assessment
Figure 27. Sample FGD Data
Figure 28. Species accumulation and rarefaction curves for avifauna, herpetofauna, and trees
Figure 29. Sample NDVI difference map of Central and Northern Palawan
Figure 30. Sample damage assessment map in Barangay Marufinas, Puerto Princesa
Acronyms
AOI
CRM
CRU
DAO
FGD
GA
GBIF
GLAMA
GPS
HCV
HCVA
IP
IUCN
KII
MaxEnt
MIS
NDVI
NESW
QGIS
RBA
RTE
SDM
TWG
Area of interest
Community Resource Map
Community Resource Use
DENR - Administrative Order
Focus Group Discussion
Green Assessment
Global Biodiversity Information Facility
Gap Light Analysis Mobile Application
Global Positioning System
High Conservation Value
High Conservation Value Area
Indigenous People
International Union for Conservation of Nature
Key Informant Interviews
Maximum Entropy
Management Indicator Species
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
North, East, South, West
Quantum Geographic Information System
Rapid Biodiversity Assessment
Rare, Threatened, and Endemic
Species Distribution Modeling
Technical Working Group
Preface
In a world characterized by increasing environmental challenges and heightened frequency of natural disasters, it is paramount that we equip ourselves with innovative tools and methodologies to assess and mitigate the impacts of such events This training module represents a significant leap in our collective efforts to safeguard the Philippines' natural resources and communities in the face of adversity.
This training module serves as a bridge between theory and practice, offering participants the knowledge, skills, and hands-on experience required to effectively implement the Green Assessment (GA) Framework.
In this comprehensive five-day training program, participants will gain valuable knowledge and skills in applying the GA Framework to their local conservation areas, using updated assessment methodologies and analyses The course curriculum has been designed to immerse participants in real-world scenarios, to equip them with the essential tools to adeptly navigate and address the intricate challenges that arise in the aftermath of disasters
This training module was prepared by Center for Conservation Innovations Ph Inc (CCIPH) for the National Capacity Development on Green Assessment Stage 2: Rapid Biodiversity and Community Resource Use Assessment under the USAID Sustainable Interventions for Biodiversity, Oceans, and Landscapes (SIBOL) Project
Training Design
1. Overview
This training module runs for five days The module is composed of twelve lecture series with seven essential hands-on activities. These activities are direct practical applications of the Green Assessment Framework - Stage 2. Upon completion, a final exam awaits participants that will gauge the newly cultivated expertise they have acquired during the training
2. Objectives
This training module was created for participants to:
Get familiar with the Green Assessment Framework and gain experience on how it is implemented;
Advance their knowledge on conducting rapid biodiversity assessment and community resource utilization for post-disaster scenarios; and
Learn proper data curation, in preparation for data analyses and interpretation
Accomplished pre-evaluation questionnaire
List of indicator species within the respective area of interest (AOI)
Species Distribution Modeling (SDM) map/s of indicator or target species
Map of sites selected for ground assessment
Community Resource-Use Map
Summary Report of the Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Field Plan
Habitat Analysis
Accomplished post-evaluation questionnaire
Training Resource Requirements
Certain training qualifications and resource materials are required to accomplish the objectives and activities in a seamless manner. The training qualifications and resource materials for both the facilitators and participants are listed below.
4.1 Training Requirements for the Facilitators
Computer/Workstation/Laptop
Computer Software:
Participants for this training
have the following:
Training Design: 4.3 Training Qualifications for the Participants
Bachelor’s degree in natural sciences (e g , Biology, Forestry, Environmental Science, Geology, and other related courses)
Basic skills and knowledge of statistics and basic mapping
Prior experience in conducting biodiversity surveys and monitoring (this is desired, but not required)
Personal or work laptops
Completed pre-registration form
5. Course Content
This section provides a brief description of the topic of each lecture series. Each lecture series introduces different methods used for conducting a rapid biodiversity assessment in a post-disaster event Participants will be given specific time durations to apply what they learned through activities
Table 1. Time duration and brief background of the course content.
Length of Session Lectures and Activities Covered
30 mins
30 mins
Lecture Series 1: Introduction to Green Assessment Framework
30 mins
30 mins
Lecture Series 2: Case Studies on Green Assessment
Lecture Series 3: Priority Species for Conservation Management Activity 1. Selecting Management Indicator Species
Brief Description
The Green Assessment (GA) Framework is a tool for assessing postdisaster ecosystem health, biodiversity, and community This lecture series elaborates on the purpose of the GA Framework and its three major stages
The GA Framework was used to assess damages incurred by typhoon Odette. Case studies in Palawan and Siargao (pilot sites) are presented in this lecture series.
This lecture series introduces the concept of management indicator species (MIS), umbrella species, and flagship species. Through the use of filters, we demonstrate how to narrow down a list of species into a shorter list of candidate priority species for conservation management
Training Design: Course 5, Table 1. Time duration and brief background of the course content
Length of Session Lectures and Activities Covered
45 mins
5 hr 45 min
1 hr 1hr 30 min
Lecture Series 4: Species Distribution Modeling
Activity 2. Modeling Indicator Species for Management
Lecture Series 5: Survey Design and Site Selection Post-disaster
Activity 3. Preparing for Fieldwork (Site Selection Using Maps from Green Assessment Stage 1)
1 hr
1 hr
Lecture Series 6: Transect and Plot Establishment
1 hr
Lecture Series 7: Postdisaster Habitat Sampling Techniques
This lecture series provides a brief background on the importance of using species distribution modeling (SDM) in modeling indicator species for management Here, the participants will also learn about the different software used in running the models and how to generate SDM maps
Planning, designing, and selecting sites for rapid biodiversity assessment in a post-disaster event is far from conventional This lecture series discusses the proper way of designing surveys and selecting sites particularly tailored for post-disaster scenarios
This lecture series introduces strategic ways on how to establish transect lines and plots for post-disaster biodiversity assessment.
Assessing habitat damage postdisaster also requires different methods than the conventional This lecture series includes techniques used in assessing vegetation damage by estimating tree defoliation, the extent of damage in stems/branches, tree lean angle, canopy cover, and number of uprooted trees.
This lecture discusses the methods used in flora sampling, and the proper ways of collecting data on canopy, understory, and ground vegetation
2 hrs
1 hr
Lecture Series 9: Fauna Sampling Techniques
1 hr
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification
2 hrs
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
Activity 5. Community Resource Mapping and Focus Group Discussion
When assessing biodiversity, proper fauna surveys are equally as important as flora sampling Here, you will learn different methods used to survey different taxa of fauna: avifauna; mammals; and herpetofauna
When presented with an unfamiliar species, it can be overwhelming to sift through details and resources to identify an organism accurately. Here, we present key starting points and some helpful references that will aid in identifying Philippine fauna and flora.
Natural disasters such as typhoons not only damage natural resources but also cause adverse impacts on local communities. This lecture series dives into the post-disaster impacts from a local community-level point of view This lecture will provide an understanding of the importance of assessing the impacts of natural disasters on local community resource use, and the different approaches applied. Here, you will learn how to use participatory approaches in assessing habitat damage and resource use change post-disaster
Lecture Series 12: Methods for Analyzing Green Assessment Data
Activity 6. Habitat Analysis
Activity 7. Preparing for Species Distribution Modeling After-event Scenario
Analyzing and interpreting a large number of data and information collected requires appropriate tools and software so that the assessment objectives are achieved. This lecture demonstrates how the primary GA data are analyzed
LECTURE SERIES 1
Introduction to Green Assessment Framework
Duration
Purpose of Learning
Be familiar with the Green Assessment (GA) Framework
Know the process involved in GA Framework
30 mins
Understand the application of the high conservation value (HCV) concept in the GA Framework
Apply the GA Framework into conservation management
As a response to the onslaught of Category 5 Super Typhoon Odette in December 2021, the Green Assessment (GA) Framework was conceptualized and implemented in order to evaluate the impact of extreme weather events on natural resources. The GA Framework is an assessment and planning tool to determine the health of existing ecosystems, biodiversity, and communities in a post-disaster scenario and inform recovery plans
The GA Framework employs a three-stage approach (see Figure 1):
Stage 1 - Rapid Appraisal to determine the extent of damage to ecosystems
This involves the collection of pre- and post-disaster satellite images, primary and secondary data on land cover classification, biodiversity, and drivers of land cover change This allows for the identification of possible damages to vegetative cover in areas affected by the typhoon. An intensive review of available reports and other sources of information relevant to the aforementioned data is also being conducted
Stage 2 - Comprehensive assessment of biodiversity, ecosystems, and ecosystem services. This involves doing ground work and validating sites selected during Stage 1. Comprehensive assessment employs ground validation through piloted aircraft systems, rapid biodiversity assessment, community focus group discussions (FGDs), and key informant interviews (KIIs) Data and information collected herein are used as bases for green reconstruction and resilience planning (Stage 3).
Stage 3 - Green Reconstruction and Resilience Planning
This involves the active participation of technical working groups (TWGs) composed of members from relevant stakeholders in each respective area of interest (AOI) The TWGs are facilitated and trained in creating and implementing their respective green recovery plans, which involve the use of the Green Restoration Catalyst Framework.
The Green Assessment Framework and High Conservation Values
High Conservation Values (HCV) refers to globally or nationally significant biological, ecological, social, or cultural worth (HCVRN, 2013) HCVs exist in natural areas vulnerable to degradation due to limited protection Regions containing HCVs are labeled as High Conservation Value Areas (HCVA) The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) introduced the HCV Concept in 1999 for forest management certification, obligating protection and monitoring within forest management units The concept expanded in 2005, incorporating non-forest ecosystems and gaining prominence in certification standards by 2012 (HCVRN, 2013). The HCV approach is now used in spatial planning and biodiversity conservation. FSC has outlined six HCV categories, namely: (1) species diversity, (2) landscape-level ecosystems and mosaics, (3) ecosystems and habitats, (4) ecosystem services, (5) community needs, and (6) cultural values
The Green Assessment Framework is inspired by the HCV Framework Both are spatial planning tools used to evaluate conservation values The Green Assessment Framework, however, was particularly designed to assess damage hotspots in postdisaster scenarios. The results of the Green Assessment are expected to provide an understanding of the scale and intensity of post-disaster impacts on biodiversity, ecosystems, and community
Figure 2. Workflow of training outputs for the stage 2 rapid biodiversity assessment and community resource utilization
The workflow presents the required outputs for this stage 2 training Pre-work must be done to select priority areas for stage 2, these outputs will help us to strategically focus on species that are highly affected by immediate changes in habitat, and selecting priority areas for stage 2 green assessment. This will also help us evaluate the condition of target areas where severe damage and high species habitat suitability coincide and spot-check the status of species and ecosystems Additionally, the evaluation of impacts of post-extreme events on community and resource utilization are assessed to see changes and shifts in resource utilization Finally, this will prepare for various ecological analyses to further understand the effects of post-extreme events on biodiversity, ecosystems, and ecosystem services, which shall then lead to the development of green reconstruction and resilience plans to assist in the restoration of damaged ecosystems
LECTURE SERIES 2
Case Studies on Green Assessment
The GA Framework was pilot-tested in Siargao Island Protected Landscape and Seascape (SIPLAS) and in Central and Northern Palawan, particularly in Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park (PPSRNP), Cleopatra’s Needle Critical Habitat (CNCH) in Puerto Princesa City, and selected areas in the municipalities of Roxas and San Vicente This section shows the post-disaster impacts of the super typhoon Odette based on the results obtained during Green Assessments
Green Assessment in Palawan
The results of the detailed mapping (Figure 3) during Stage 2 revealed the major damages caused by Odette to northern and central Palawan’s landscape, with forests and settlements in CNCH being annihilated due to river flooding and landslides.
Figure 3. Pre- and post-Odette map of land cover types and land cover changes within the area of interest (AOI) in Palawan.
Lecture Series 2: Green Assessment in Palawan
Green Assessment in Palawan
Figure 4. Palawan hornbill (Anthracoceros marchei) seen perching on a tree during the biodiversity assessment.
IMPACTS TO BIODIVERSITY Key Findings
Damaged habitats caused by fallen and broken trees, damaged understories, and defoliated vegetation resulted to high species count, but relatively low species detection and encounter compared to pre-Odette scenarios
The habitats of key species such as the Palawan hornbill (Anthracoceros marchei; Figure 4), Palawan peacock-pheasant (Polyplectron napoleonis), Busuanga wart frog (Barbaroula busuangensis), and Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis) were adversely impacted by the onslaught of Odette The results of the habitat suitability models for A marchei is shown in (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Species distribution models of Palawan hornbill, showing the areas with low (green) to high (red) habitat suitability in a pre- and post-Odette scenario
IMPACTS TO COMMUNITY RESOURCES
Key Findings
Altered water flow caused rivers and falls to dry up Due to this, some barangays experienced lack of water supply
River siltation was also prominent as a consequence of soil erosion
Damage and loss of Almaciga trees led to scarcity of Almaciga resin, which is a source of community livelihood This led to unsustainable collection of resin from few Almaciga stands that survived the typhoon.
Damage and loss of rattan in areas where IPs collect them for handicraft making as part of their livelihood.
Damaged croplands and plantations (e g cashew nuts, rice, sweet potato, coconut) affected the community livelihood, forcing some locals to shift into alternative means of support
Areas that used to provide sources of honey were severely damaged This greatly affected the IP’s income as honey collection is crucial to their living
Lecture Series 2: Green Assessment in Palawan
Lecture Series 2: Green Assessment in Siargao
BIODIVERSITY STATUS
Key Findings
The number of species encountered was high despite an incomplete species detection Low species detection was potentially due to rampant anthropogenic disturbances on the ground
The predicted habitats of key species like the Island flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus; Figure 6) were affected by the damages brought by Odette. The remaining small patches of predicted suitable habitats on lowland areas have disappeared The results of the habitat suitability models for P hypomelanus is shown in Figure 7
Green Assessment in Siargao
Figure 6. An Island flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus) sleeping on its roost
Figure 7. Species distribution models of Island flying fox, showing the areas with low (green) to high (red) habitat suitability in a pre-and postOdette scenario
Lecture
Series
2: Green Assessment in Siargao
IMPACTS TO COMMUNITY RESOURCES
Key Findings
Local communities were displaced Some transferred near farmlands, coconut plantations, and near mangrove areas close to strict protection zones (SPZ)
As resources became scarce post-Odette, there was a growing competition for resources among communities that are dependent on agriculture and croplands.
Communities had to shift into alternative income-generating activities While tourism-related activities were stopped, some farmers had to cut coconut trees for commercial purposes, while others opted for timber poaching
LECTURE SERIES 3 Priority Species for Conservation Management
Duration
30 mins
Requirements:
Purpose of Learning
1 Understand the concepts and process in choosing Management Indicator Species (MIS)
2 Select a species (indicator, umbrella, or flagship) to guide conservation efforts within the management unit/area
List of species found within the management area
Information on habitat preference, conservation status, and endemicity of species found within the management area
What are indicator species?
Selecting priority species is important for conservation planning, monitoring, and management Umbrella species, flagship species, and indicator species (Table 3) are useful in biodiversity conservation and management as they provide relevant information on an ecosystem’s status and condition The use of indicator species has been widely applied in the practical management of biodiversity (Nguyen 2007; Holt and Miller 2010; Siddig et al., 2016; Mekonen 2017). Indicator species can be a single or set of species that are used to track changes in environmental conditions (Landres, et al 1988; Hutcheson and Walsh 1999) When selected properly, their presence informs conservation practitioners of relevant information on habitat changes, ecological interactions, and ecological trends (Carignan & Villard 2002; Simberloff 1998; Siddig et al. 2016).
Indicator Species
Umbrella Species
Species sensitive to changes in the ecosystem.
Flagship Species
Species that encapsulates other associated species because it requires large areas to survive
Species used as conservation advocates
The Palawan peacock pheasant (Polyplectron napoleonis) was identified as an ideal candidate management indicator species for PPSRNP because its status and distribution can provide insight into the state of old-growth forests within the park (Masigan et al 2020 Unpublished Technical Report)
The giant golden-crowned flying fox (Acerodon jubatus) requires wide expanses of habitat to feed and roost in large colonies, and are thus considered an umbrella species of the Subic Forest Watershed Reserve (Mildenstein et al 2005)
The Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) serves as a symbol of conservation for Apo Reef Natural Park, Mindoro (Villanueva 2018)
Table 2. Three types of species commonly used in the management of biodiversity
Lecture Series 3: Priority Species for Conservation Management
Why are indicator species useful for management?
Although conducting a comprehensive species inventory is a conceivable approach, it may be impractical to do it for post-disaster assessments. The inherent challenge lies in achieving total counts because of incomplete detection. These questions then arise: How can we effectively determine our priorities? Which species should be selected as representatives for gauging ecosystem health? Enter the concept of management indicator species – used as barometers to help capture an immediate snapshot of the condition of an ecosystem post-disaster.
What makes a good indicator species?
Ideally, all taxa can be considered as indicators Birds are commonly used for detecting changes in patterns of rare and threatened species (Thompson et al , 2007) They easily respond to small- and large-scale disturbances (Mekonen 2017) Birds are also essential components of biodiversity monitoring schemes (Mac Nally et al 2004) as they are important indicators of high species richness and endemism patterns (Bibby et al., 1992; Burges et al. 2002). Endemic and/or threatened species are always considered target species for setting management priorities (Bonn et al., 2002; Song et al., 2015). The use of these species has led to the recognition of biodiversity hotspots (Mittermeier et al., 1998; Myers et al., 2000), center of plant diversity (Davis and Heywood 1994-97), important or endemic bird areas (Stattersfield et al , 1998), and valuable ecoregions (Olson and Dinerstein 1998) However, aside from the ‘normally’ selected endemic and threatened species, the presence of nonspecialist (e g , non-forest) or even invasive species can indicate disturbance or significant change in certain ecosystems Invasive plants are used as indicators of ecological integrity and evidence of increased human-caused disturbance in forests and wetlands Similarly, the increase in the number of opportunistic species post-disaster denotes changes in the forest structure, particularly the sudden transition from closed-canopy forests to open forests.
How are indicator species selected?
Identify specific management objectives
Determine whether each objective is leaning towards the assessment of environmental integrity and health, or focused on monitoring for early warnings of environmental change, or restoration of degraded ecosystems
Identify the ecological settings (forest, watershed, wetland, etc ) and spatial extent of the study site (i e scope of inference)
Select the candidate indicator species based on the specific management objectives and ecological settings.
There are no concrete guidelines for selecting indicator species Studies suggest that indicator species should be easily detected, can be assessed over large landscapes, should be representative of a large number of ecological conditions, and should be relatively easy and cost-effective to assess using standardized methodologies (Mazerolle and Villard 1991; Villard et al., 1995; Robinson et al., 1995; Carignan and Villard 2002). Indicator species can be identified using the modified process of Siddig et al. (2015): 1 2. 3. 4.
Select ecological or environmental factors (e.g. habitat types, climatic factors, soil properties, water chemistry) to which the indicator species is particularly responsive.
Lecture Series 3: Priority Species for Conservation Management
Activity 1: Selecting Priority Species for Conservation
A number of data types would be needed to test your hypothesized management indicator species (MIS) using statistical tools (Masigan et al 2020 Unpublished Technical Report) A preliminary list of candidate MIS can be generated using secondary data To identify potential flagship, umbrella, and/or MIS, the following steps outlined below should be followed:
Step 1: Identify the management objectives related to the following scenarios:
a Assessment of the ecosystem health and integrity, including monitoring for early signs of environmental change
b Threat abatement
c Restoration of damaged ecosystems
d Garner public attention for conservation
Step 2: Obtain a list of species that are present within your selected management area/unit
Step 3: Identify the ecological settings by determining the various ecosystem types present within the management area
Step 4: Select possible indicator species, umbrella species, and flagship species based on the identified management objectives and ecological settings.
Step 5: Identify the ecological or environmental factors to which the candidate indicator species is sensitive or particularly responsive (e g , habitat type, water quality, soil properties, etc )
Step 6: Compile your gathered information in a table. See the sample table below.
LECTURE SERIES 4
Species Distribution Modeling
Purpose
Grasp what SDMs are and learn how to use them for management decision-making
Comprehend the advantages and disadvantages of SDM, and why it is not meant to be used as a stand-alone model
Practice creating and interpreting SDMs using readily available species occurrence records and environmental GIS data
Requirements:
Laptop
Mapping Software (e.g. QGIS)
R Software and R Studio
Model Algorithm (e g MaxEnt)
Maxent software (Java-based programming language)
Database of Species Occurrence Records (e g GBIF)
Set of environmental GIS data (e.g. biogeophysical, climate)
CSV file of metadata for SDM
What is SDM?
Species Distribution Modeling (SDM) is an ecological modeling tool for predicting patterns of species distributions across space and time It is a predictive modeling used to show the extent of species survival envelopes (SSEs) suitable habitats for the survival of a species across a landscape (Sofaer et al. 2019; Falk and Mellert 2011; Elith and Leathwick 2009; Wisz et al. 2008). Modern uses of SDMs include planning conservation efforts for threatened species (Chunco et al. 2013), assessing the proliferation of invasive species in an area (Srivastava et al 2019), identifying key biodiversity areas that need prioritization (Moradi et al 2019), and analyzing the response of species to climate change through changes in distribution patterns (Allouche et al 2006)
Advantages and disadvantages of using SDM for management planning
SDMs are effective in showing species-habitat associations when the right environmental predictors are chosen As such, SDMs can be a powerful way of identifying and monitoring suitable habitats for rare, threatened, and endemic species or RTEs (Sofaer et al. 2019; Falk and Mellert 2011; Elith and Leathwick 2009; Wisz et al. 2008). However, SDMs are not meant to be used as stand-alone models and are often subject to misinterpretations Like any other modeling technique, SDM can only predict species distributions and habitat suitability The strength of the models produced is dependent on the quality and quantity of data being collected
Note: Be aware of the limitations of your data and how it can influence your SDMs and its interpretations
Lecture Series 4: Species Distribution Modeling
Applications of SDM
SDM have been applied in different fields with various purposes For instance, it is used to guide field surveys (Raxworthy et al , 2003), infer suitable habitats for the reintroduction of threatened species (Adhikari et al , 2012), find optimal sites for ecosystem restoration for a wide variety of species, including plants (Yanget al., 2013) and animals (Pearce and Lindenmayer, 1998; Wilson et al., 2011), reconstruct historical distribution of interest species (Banks et al., 2008), impact of climate change (Thomas et al , 2004), and invasive-species management (Peterson and Robins, 2003)
Model Algorithms
Various modeling algorithms can be used for predicting and fitting SDMs (Zurell et al 2020; Guisan et al 2017; Thuiller et al 2009; Elith et al 2006) These models are broadly classified as geographic (convex hull, Voronoi hull), profile (BIOCLIM, BIOMAPPER), regression-based (GLM, GAM), or machine learning (MaxEnt, Random Forest) Each model algorithm will require different species data types such as presence-only, presence and absence, pseudopresence, presence, and background Ideally, it is good to test several algorithms and compare model performance for species-environment relationships Programming software just like R or R Studio can utilize different statistical packages that can produce various models from several algorithms (e g biomod package) While other programs such as MaxEnt, SDMToolbox of ArcGIS, Bioclim, and Geomapper can only run single algorithms
Maximum Entropy Algorithm
Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) is a key statistical modeling technique of probability distributions that maximizes entropy while adhering to ecological data-derived constraints. It aids in understanding species distribution by integrating environmental variables and species occurrence data MaxEnt is also the most widely used model algorithm because it is able to handle a small sample sizewhich is useful for dealing with low species detection post-disaster
For this training module, we will only discuss the Maximum Entropy Algorithm using the Maxent software and QGIS We outlined the methodologies and provided examples of SDM maps of indicator species in Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park in the succeeding section.
Maxent (v.3.4.4), a user-friendly, less computing skills and well documented software, is widely acknowledged to be efficient in performing SDM with small datasets (Phillips et al. 2004, 2006; Pearson et al. 2007; Wisz et al. 2008). In this training module, we chose Maxent that is reproducible without needing high computational power and which can be undertaken by any end-users (government agencies, NGOs, academes) with moderate background knowledge of SDMs
Lecture Series 4: Species Distribution Modeling
Activity 2: Modeling Indicator Species for Management
Creating an SDM involves several steps, from data collection to the interpretation of MaxEnt outputs Here are step-by-step instructions:
Preparing Species Data for MaxEnt
Step 1: Curate Primary Field Data
Conduct field surveys to collect species occurrence data, including geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) and environmental variables like temperature, precipitation, and habitat type
Step 2: Obtain Species Occurrences from Secondary Data
Visit the GBIF website (https://www gbif org/) or any other online species databases such as iNaturalist, Birdlife International, Wild Bird Club of the Philippines, eBird, AmphibiaWeb, Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines
Search for and copy relevant information to your target species.
Develop your species occurrence database and save it as comma-separated values (.csv) format with the following information (scientific name, longitude, latitude, source, year/date).
You may also use geo-referenced presence-only data of candidate indicator species from existing monitoring systems (BMS, BAMS, LAWIN), research expeditions, and technical reports Geo-referenced presence-only data can be organized in Excel and saved as comma-separated values ( csv) format
Tip: The R software can be used to obtain geographic coordinates for SDM using the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, or rgbif’ package (https://www gbif org/tool/81747/rgbif) This package enables users to access GBIF species database and extract species occurrence records from sources all over the globe
Step 3: Check for Data Quality and Information
Information from online databases must be reviewed before we can use it as input data
Examine the compiled species occurrence records through QGIS Clean the extraneous data columns by selecting only the needed information - Species, Longitude, and Latitude Remove the duplicated records of species or coordinates Make sure that occurrence records appear to be within the area of interest (AOI), and remove duplicate records or outliers.
Ensure both datasets are in the same coordinate reference system (CRS).
Save it as comma-separated values (.csv) format.
Activity 2: Modeling Indicator Species for Management
Preparing Environmental Data for MaxEnt
Step 1. Inspecting the environmental GIS data for data consistency
Note: Environmental data can be downloaded from numerous online data sources, to name a few: climate (WorldClim, TerraClimate, and CHELSA (Climatologies at High Resolution for Earth’s Land Surface), topography (ASTER, SRTM, FABDEM), global land cover (AVHRR, ESA), and remote-sensed products (Landsat Sentinel, MODIS) at varying spatial and temporal scale
Process raster data (NDVI, elevation, slope, and aspect) into respective AOI.
Import the processed raster layers in QGIS
Check the metadata in Layer Properties
Ensure all the raster layers have the same spatial properties (e g extent, size or resolution, number of columns and rows, coordinate reference system, and data type)
Step 2. Converting the environmental GIS data as a resampled ASC raster format
Use the Extraction tool (Clipping raster by mask layer) in the Raster Menu To short cut the clipping of raster layers, apply the Batch process Follow these parameters:
Input layers: NDVI, elevation, slope, aspect
Mask layer: AOI
Source and target CRS: EPSG: 4326
Assigned specified no data value: - 9999
Output data type - Float32
Add command line (GDAL script): -tr 0 00027777 0 00027777 (grid or pixel resolution ~ 30m)
Output raster filename: Save as ESRI ASCII (asc) raster format
Tip: QGIS Graphical Modeler (or Model Builder in ArcGIS) can automate workflows of inputs, algorithms, and outputs In this exercise, you can process the environmental GIS data or rasters by batch if the graphical modeler is available
Using Maxent software for Species Distribution Modeling
Download MaxEnt at https://biodiversityinformatics amnh org/open source/maxent/ Launch MaxEnt If an error is encountered in opening MaxEnt, make sure you have installed Java programming language
Load curated species occurrence data (in comma-separated values or CSV format) into the samples data panel of the MaxEnt interface. The application will display species names when successfully opened.
Activity 2: Modeling Indicator Species for Management
Using Maxent software for Species Distribution Modeling
Load environmental covariates into the environmental layers panel of the MaxEnt interface. Define the data type, each environmental layer is either continuous (bioclimatic data) or categorical (land cover, soil) data. A processed non-normalized vegetation index (NDVI) can also be used as an environmental parameter
Set MaxEnt parameters (e g , regularization multiplier, feature types), and define the output directory
Run the MaxEnt model
Interpreting MaxEnt Outputs
1
Results Folder: MaxEnt generates a folder with various outputs:
results html: Open this file for an overview of model performance and output interpretation
response curves: These graphs show how each environmental variable influences species distribution.
jackknife results: Assess the contribution of each variable to the model.
output grids: These show the predicted distribution probabilities.
2. MaxEnt Output Interpretation:
AUC (Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve): A measure of model performance; higher values indicate better model fit
Response Curves: Analyze these to understand how environmental variables affect species distribution.
Contribution of Variables: The jackknife results can help identify the most important variables.
Predicted Distribution Maps: Use output grids to visualize the predicted species distribution
3. Validation and Testing: Consider using independent datasets or cross-validation to validate the model's accuracy.
4. Model Selection: Compare MaxEnt results with other modeling techniques to ensure robust predictions
5. Decision Threshold: Choose a threshold probability to classify presence/absence
Remember: Interpreting MaxEnt results requires an understanding of the species and its habitat. Check MaxEnt documentations and literatures to guide your own model interpretation
LECTURE SERIES 5
Survey Design and Site Selection Post-Disaster
Duration
30 mins
Purpose of Learning
Understand the importance and learn about the fundamentals in planning a sampling design.
2.
Develop your own sampling design.
Requirements:
Rapid assessment maps from stage 1 (i e , Normalized Difference Vegetation Index or NDVI map)
SDM outputs of your selected indicator species
Biophysical map layers available e g , topography, slope, elevation, and land cover QGIS software (recommended and most stable version; you may also use other GIS software that you are familiar with)
How to identify sampling sites?
The survey team must have a clear idea of the sampling design, understand the methods that will be employed, and be cognizant of the general post-disaster conditions of the area before starting the fieldwork While the accuracy and quality of data collected during biodiversity assessments are influenced by how well the sample site represents the Area of Interest (AOI), there are limits to the level of effort that can be sustained when assessing biodiversity in the aftermath of severe weather events. For this reason, we are recommending using a purposive or non-random sampling approach for identifying sampling sites
Purposive sampling is when a site is selected “ on purpose ” based on a set of criteria The site is sampled deliberately to provide the best available information to achieve survey objectives We recognize that using this approach may lead to potential biases in the results because the AOI may be disproportionately sampled. However, using random sampling or stratification techniques proved to be difficult and inefficient for rapid assessments where fieldwork conditions are arduous In our experience with conducting GA, searching for randomly stratified points took a lot of time and effort because most of the trails leading up to these points were blocked by fallen trees and broken branches. We were also unable to locate geographic markers due to some stream beds drying up because of severe canopy defoliation, uprooted vegetation everywhere, the incidence of exposed boulders, eroded soil, and landslides
Lecture Series 5: Survey Design and Site Selection Post-Disaster
We used the following criteria for site selection:
1.Intensity of potential damage
Using the NDVI difference map from stage 1 (rapid appraisal), sampling sites may be positioned in areas that are predominantly damaged. This will allow us to observe and analyze habitat and species patterns at a finer scale
2. Possible habitats of selected indicator species
Fundamental to planning your survey is identifying the range of habitats where target indicator species are likely to occur. Models produced from Activity 2 show the predicted distribution of species based on the probability of them occurring in the area Use these models to guide the selection of sampling sites
3. Other biophysical conditions
Best to check other biophysical layers available to plan for the survey. Elevation, for example, is one of the most commonly cited physical features affecting species distribution. It may also provide information on zoning patterns or if habitats and ecosystems are altered because of extreme weather events or human activities Other relevant features are slope, aspect, distance to nearest rivers or streams, land use, and land cover
4. Natural areas significant to local communities
You may also want to consider identifying areas that are significant to local communities, such as areas for non-timber forest products collection (e.g., rattan and honey), areas for tapping and collection of almaciga resin by indigenous peoples, and areas holding cultural (hunting and fishing grounds) and spiritual (sacred ground) significance to them Local communities often rely on forests for their livelihoods, consumption, and traditional practices Extreme weather events such as typhoons often cause extensive physical damage to these natural areas, including uprooted and defoliated trees, landslides, soil erosion, siltation, and destruction of culturally significant sites. Observation of these areas may provide insights into the effects of extreme weather events on habitat, wildlife, ecosystems, availability of resources in the affected areas, and other alterations in the landscape
Tip: Overlay these layers in a GIS software for better visualization We also recommend having dialogues with local communities who are more knowledgeable about the area.
What methods will I use?
Methods to be employed shall depend on the survey objectives and type of indicator species. The table below summarizes the methods used for habitat, flora, and faunal assessments Details of these methods will be discussed in the succeeding lecture series.
Avifauna
Herpetofauna
Point transects, Line transect, Mist-netting, and Distance sampling, indirect observations (nests, carcasses, etc ) Lecture Series 9
Line transect, strip transect Pit-fall trapping, Opportunistic sampling Lecture Series 9
Mammals Mist-netting and cage-trapping
Non-volant Mammals
Live trapping, Transect Walk
Series 9
Series 9
Series 8 Habitat
Disaster-themed Quadrat sampling
Community Resource Use
Series 7 Activity 4
Community resource use mapping, focus group discussions, and informal interviews Lecture Series 11 Activity 5
Table 4. Summary of field techniques for biodiversity assessment and monitoring, and identification of community resource use (GIZ and BMB, 2017; BirdLife International, 2022)
Will my effort be enough?
This is unlikely. Because you are conducting the assessment after an extreme weather event, logistics around the area will be challenging Some sampling sites will not be accessible, which may affect how well your sample is representative of your AOI. The probability of detecting species will also be low in spite of repeated visits. Understanding the delimitations of your survey is critical when drawing conclusions This will be further discussed in Lecture 13 of this module
Do I need to conduct a reconnaissance survey?
Yes! This is your time to scope out potential sampling sites and transect lines, determine the location of your base camp, check the accessibility of trails and possible routes, and identify logistical support before actual data collection.
Note: Don’t forget to get permits and prior informed consent from key stakeholders All activities, including your ingress and egress, must be well coordinated with relevant agencies
Lecture Series 5: Survey Design and Site Selection Post-Disaster
Must be strategically located near your target transect lines
Preferably near water sources BUT don’t establish your camp directly beside streams for safety reasons
Have a space large enough to pitch tents based on the size of your team. Check for hazards or vulnerability. Avoid establishing tents near broken branches or dead trees. Always get the GPS coordinates of your campsite.
Teamwork makes the dream work!
The size of your team will depend on how big the area that you need to cover, budget, time, and volume of data you need to collect While having a large group will enable you to collect more data in a shorter amount of time, it may also be more expensive to fund and difficult to move around At the very least, your team should be composed of the following members:
One observer who can identify faunal indicator species
One observer who can identify trees and other floral indicator species
Three members who can establish transect and plots, and conduct habitat damage assessment
One recorder that can quality check and encode your data (preferably with GIS knowledge)
Two members who will focus on conducting community resource mapping
Local guides who are familiar with the area and have local knowledge of wildlife The number of guides must be proportional to the size of your assessment team For safety reasons, DO NOT collect data by yourself! Establish a buddy system. You may also hire a cook that will stay at the campsite to make food and ensure that you have water all the time.
Porters can carry your equipment and supplies You may hire porters for the whole field duration or hire them during ingress and egress to reduce costs We recommend having “ on call” porters that you can coordinate with to bring food supplies regularly or assist during emergencies.
Tip #1: Assign a team leader who will oversee the assessment, provide directions, resolve conflicts, and streamline decisions
Tip #2: Consider inviting local stakeholders to join the assessment to assist in coordination and to cover more areas. For example, when conducting the green assessment in Palawan, we were joined by representatives from the local government (e.g., City/Municipal Environment and Natural Resources Office, City/Municipal Planning and Development Office, City/Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office), DENR, Palawan Council of Sustainable Development Staff, protected area management office, and indigenous peoples groups
Lecture Series 5: Survey Design and Site Selection Post-Disaster
Safety first!
Be ready to make adjustments to secure the health and safety of the team. For example, avoid staying in potentially dangerous areas or establishing transect lines in landslide-prone slopes. Also, be prepared for the possibility that some of your teammates might get sick during the course of the assessment We recommend having a safety and security plan in place before going out on the field Here’s a sample checklist of basic things to prepare before your fieldwork:
Always coordinate with stakeholders before entering the area
Make sure that all the members of the field assessment team (including local guides and porters) are in good medical condition
The team must have a member who can perform basic first aid.
Prepare a communication plan
Know who to contact first, and have a list of everyone who should be informed.
Have first aid kits prepared. Anticipate which medications you might need Make sure you also have different kinds of bandages, sterile swabs and pads, creams, and gels to treat different injuries
Have a list of emergency contacts such as nearby police station, hospital, barangay/local authorities, field coordinators, etc
Know the location of the nearest hospital or health center.
Stick to the plan! Just follow whatever you have agreed to do during the reconnaissance and prefield coordination meetings
Please remember that this checklist is not exhaustive. Logistics may vary per site. Other things may come up during your recon survey so be sure to document those and plan a course of action
Activity
3: Preparing for Fieldwork (Site Selection
Using Maps from Green Assessment Stage 1)
Create a Field Plan using what you have learned from Lecture Series 5.
Submit your maps and presentations by uploading them into your assigned folder:
GA2 RBA Submissions Field Plan
LECTURE SERIES 6
Transect and Plot
Establishment
Duration
Purpose of Learning
Learn how to establish transects and plots for rapid biodiversity assessments during post-disaster events
1 hr
Requirements:
Know the strategic steps in establishing transects and plots for biodiversity assessment during Green Assessment
Meter Tape (you may also use a rope that is calibrated to the length you need)
Compass
GPS device
Ribbon/Markers (use bright colors only like orange, pink, or red)
Pentel Pens
Step 1. Find the start of your transect line
Place your starting points randomly within your designated sampling area Your starting points should be at least 250 m away from your campsite
Discuss with your local guide to determine the direction of your transect line. The orientation can be chosen purposively based on your NDVI map and your indicator species, or subjectively based on the observer's convenience If you are sampling birds, talk to your guide about vegetation types in the area prior to the typhoon For amphibians and reptiles, it would be best to walk transects along streams or near rivers. If you are interested in trees, it’s better to determine the forested areas pretyphoon and follow the elevational gradient of vegetation. For habitat-themed damaged assessments, ensure that your transect lines will cover different elevation gradients or levels of degradation
Step 2. Establish your 2-km transect line
Establish the 2-km biodiversity transect along the selected area damaged by the typhoon You can use a meter tape or a calibrated rope to determine the length
Using your brightly colored ribbon, place a mark at an interval of 50 meters. Don’t forget to label your ribbon with a unique code as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Sample mark (colored ribbon) placed at 50 m intervals Each colored ribbon is labeled with a unique code as an identifier to differentiate one point from another within and between transect lines
Avoid making frequent turns to make sure that the transect line is heading straight You may also use a compass to help ensure that the line is headed in one direction
The 2-km transect line can be used for rapid assessments of fauna and flora. Ecosystemlevel assessments are conducted at 50 m intervals, whereas species-level surveys are done at point stations every 250 m
We recommend establishing at least four transect lines per sampling area, but this is not always the rule! The number of transect lines per sampling area will depend on the size of the area damaged, the budget allotted, and the size of your team. As much as possible, try positioning your transect lines strategically so they are not too close to each other nor do they cross each other You may position your transect lines in opposite directions or parallel to each other with a distance of at least 250 meters
Step 3. Establish your sampling plots or quadrats
In every 250 m (point station) of the transect line, establish 20m x 20m quadrats in alternating directions to minimize bias in sampling site selection It is also recommended to establish the quadrats two to five meters away from the transect since the inclusion of the trail might result in an underestimation of species diversity. Specific steps for quadrat establishment are described below
Lecture Series 6: Transect and Plot Establishment, Step 3. Establish your sampling plots or quadrats
Select a center point for the quadrat and insert the stake. This will mark the center of the 20m x 20m quadrat, and the common point from which all four corners of the quadrat will be established (Figure 8) A person must walk from the center point, down the line with a meter tape or a cord that stretches up to 14 124 m (half the diagonal distance of the quadrat) Push aside any stems or vegetation that will deflect the tape until it reaches the target corner Repeat the procedure until a stake is set in each corner (Figure 9).
After setting the stakes, recheck the measurements by verifying the distance from one corner to the adjacent corner Each corner must be 20 m apart Upon checking the measurements, tie the string to the stakes to establish clear quadrat boundaries
Record the GPS coordinates of the center point and the four corners. While doing this, take note of the GPS accuracy level.
9. A 20m x 20m quadrat showing the different parts as a reference during plot establishment (CCIPH, 2021)
From the center point, take photos of the site from all cardinal points (N, E, W, S).
Lay out a 5m x 5m and 1m x 1m nested quadrat in the randomly selected corners within the 20m x 20m quadrat The use of an accurately constructed frame makes the delineation of small quadrats much more rapid than the use of tape and a compass
Figure
Lecture Series 6: Transect and Plot Establishment, Step 3. Establish your sampling plots or quadrats
Select a center point for the quadrat and insert the stake. This will mark the center of the 20m x 20m quadrat, and the common point from which all four corners of the quadrat will be established (Figure 8) A person must walk from the center point, down the line with a meter tape or a cord that stretches up to 14 124 m (half the diagonal distance of the quadrat) Push aside any stems or vegetation that will deflect the tape until it reaches the target corner Repeat the procedure until a stake is set in each corner (Figure 9).
Step 4. Record the location of your transect and plots
Record the geographic location of your transect line Get the coordinates from the start of your transect and every 50 m interval This can be done simultaneously while marking every 50 m with a ribbon during transect establishment
LECTURE SERIES 7 Post-disaster Habitat Sampling Techniques
Understand the importance of assessing habitat damage in areas affected by natural disasters
Learn about assessing the extent of habitat damage in post-disaster scenarios
Requirements:
Photoguide
Densiometer
Mobile phone with GLAMA
Compass
Datasheet
Identifying the extent of habitat damage involves evaluating the existing vegetation conditions in an area This includes a visual examination of the tree's lean angle and crown condition, as well as the foliage, trunk, and branches. The data and information collected from the examination will provide a better understanding of the relationship and influence between forest ecosystems, anthropogenic activities, and natural disasters This enables informed decisions towards improved conservation management, enforcement, and rehabilitation/restoration plans as needed This lecture series introduces different methods of assessing the extent of habitat damage through visual assessment of forest crown conditions and tree leans.
Assessing Vegetation Damage
Weather disturbances such as heavy rainfall, tropical storms, or typhoons can cause significant damage to vegetation Several types of damage could arise on trees during typhoons – crown defoliation, leaning, and broken branches. Severe typhoons often have major impacts on forests and can cause widespread tree breakage, massive crown defoliation, and uprooting Even less severe typhoons may leave trees damaged, leaning, or partially uprooted Vegetation damage could vary greatly, hence careful evaluation of each damaged area should be the first step to recovery following a severe weather event The matrix (Table 6) presents a simple way to categorize the extent of vegetation damage in a sampling plot or quadrat.
2 Moderate
3 Severe
0 to 10% of trees are damaged
Only broken branches are present, with minor damage to tree stems across the stand
Crowns are defoliated by 10-25%
Most bent trees have a leaning angle below 45 degrees
On average, 35% of the trees are damaged (approx 1 damaged out of 3), with a range of 11% - 50% damage across the tree stand
Presence of broken branches on the trees, with visible damage to tree stems across the stand
11% - 50% of the stems in the stand have damage to tree stems
Crowns are defoliated by 26-60 %
Up to half of the trees in the stand may be snapped, noticeably uprooted, or have a severe leaning angle greater than 45 degrees
On average, 75% of the trees are damaged (approx 3 out of 4) with a range of 51%-100% damage in the stand.
51% - 100% of the stems are broken
61% - 100% of the crown are defoliated
Tops broken out across the stand`
Trees bent more than 45 degrees or mostly uprooted
The quadrat method can be utilized in assessing the extent of damage in a habitat
Quadrats measuring 20m x 20m are laid along the transect lines in damaged areas
Percent defoliation and damage to stems and branches are estimated in each quadrat. Other parameters will also be measured. Using the data generated from the assessment, each quadrat will be categorized according to the intensity of damage: light, moderate, or severe Table 6 will serve as a guide in the categorization process
It is important to take note that to be able to use the matrix, subsequent procedures are done to identify crown defoliation, damage to stem and branches, and tree lean
Additional information such as canopy cover, number of uprooted trees, and leaf litter are also included in the post-disaster habitat assessment to determine changes in forest conditions, specifically, the conversion from closed forest to open forest
Table 5. Matrix used for assessing post-disaster vegetation damage
Lecture Series 7: Post-disaster Habitat Sampling Techniques
Estimating Tree Defoliation
Defoliation may be caused by anthropogenic and/or natural factors Identifying the extent of tree defoliation through visual observations involves checking the tree crown for evident leaf loss when compared to the same tree under normal conditions This method is anchored on a matrix specifically developed for the habitat damage assessment, as shown in Table 6.
The extent of leaf loss is usually done by estimating the extent (in percentage) of crown defoliation across a tree stand within a given quadrat/plot Below are photo guides used for estimating tree defoliation in narrow-leaved and broad-leaved trees (Figure 10 and Figure 11).
Figure 10. A photo guide on measuring the extent of damage caused by defoliation in narrow-leaved trees (Photo Reference: P Fabianek & ICP Forest Intercalibration)
Figure 11. A photo guide on measuring the extent of damage on vegetation caused by defoliation in broad-leaved trees (Photo Reference: P Fabianek & ICP Forest Intercalibration)
Lecture Series 7: Post-disaster Habitat Sampling Techniques
Estimating the Extent of Damage in Stems and Branches
The extent of damage in stems and branches is assessed by estimating the percent of broken stems and/or branches visible on a tree and across a tree stand within the plot/quadrat Below are photo guides used to identify the extent of damage in broken stems and branches (Figure 12)
Figure 12. A photo guide on measuring the extent of damage on vegetation caused by broken stems and branches
Estimating Tree Lean Angle
In post-typhoon scenarios, trees that do not grow perfectly upright or are leaning have a lesser chance of survival and are often considered predisposed to failure Low survival rates related to lean can either be trunk failure or root-related failures While there is no generally accepted maximum angle of lean, it is proven that the greater the angle, the greater the risk of tree failure. When lean exceeds 45 degrees, the probability of tree failure is higher. For reference, Figure 13 shows a tree leaning about 45 degrees from the vertical position Plot or quadrats dominated with trees leaning greater than 45 degrees are often categorized as ‘severely damaged’ areas (Table 6)
Figure 13 A photo reference for estimating tree lean angle
Lecture Series 7: Post-disaster Habitat Sampling Techniques
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Canopy Cover
Canopy Cover is the perpendicular projection of tree crowns onto a horizontal surface Estimation of canopy cover by visual observation is commonly used in vegetation science and forest ecology for the description of vegetation structure In post-disaster scenarios, canopy cover readings are usually utilized to validate whether closed forests were converted into open forests due to typhoon-related damages It could be measured using a densiometer and the newly developed Gap Light Analysis Mobile Application (GLAMA)
I. Measuring Canopy Cover
Using a densiometer or GLAMA, the canopy cover must be measured five meters from the center of the 20 m x 20 m plot in all cardinal directions (NESW) Then, calculate the average readings to determine the appropriate forest classification.
Measuring Canopy Cover in a Forest Area (using Densiometer) 1 2. 3
Locate the center of the 20 m x 20 m plot From the center, walk an additional 10 steps North or at least five meters away from the center point Hold the densiometer 12”-18” in front of the body at elbow height. This is to ensure that the operator’s head is outside the grid. Looking into the densiometer, observe the squares with canopy openings Visualize imaginary four equispaced dots in each grid (Figure 14) Ensure that the canopy cover reading is not obstructed by understory vegetation You can do this by minimally clearing leaves or lianas.
4. On the datasheet, mark equi-spaced dots or ‘X’ for each square with an open canopy or no canopy (see Figure 15)
Figure 15 Sample marks of canopy opening when recorded on the datasheet
5 Multiply the total count of canopy opening marks to 1 04 This will determine the percentage of the overhead area not occupied by the canopy The difference between this and 100 is an estimation of overstory density (canopy) in percent Alternatively, you can encode the dot readings from the densiometer on the canopy cover field calculator to get the canopy cover in percentages.
6. Repeat steps 2-5 for the remaining cardinal directions (i.e. E, S, W).
Locate the center of the 20 m x 20 m plot. From the center, walk an additional 10 steps North or at least five meters away from the center point
Using the GLAMA installed on the Android phone, take a picture of the canopy then click ‘Analyze’ To recheck the canopy reading, the ‘Back’ button and ‘Manual Adjustment’ can be used to ensure that all open canopy areas within the application are covered by an orange color (Figure 16).
Write down the result captured by the Glama application, take note of the percent canopy closure and canopy openness (Figure 16)
Repeat steps 2-3 for the remaining cardinal directions (i e E, S, W)
16
Measuring Canopy Cover in a Forest Area (using GLAMA) 1.
Figure
II. Classifying Canopy Cover
Based on the canopy readings obtained, forested areas can be identified as either closed or open forests. If the area cannot be classified as either closed or open forest, a preliminary classification should be written in the data sheet (e g , shrubland, grassland, cropland) and a short description of the area must be provided in the remarks column
Closed Forest
Closed forests are formations where trees in various storeys and undergrowth cover a high proportion (>40 percent) of the ground and do not have a continuous dense grass layer (FMB PFAG 2020) These are either managed or unmanaged forests, primary, or in an advanced state of reconstitution, and may have been logged over one or more times, but have kept their characteristics of forest stands, possibly with modified structure and composition (FRA 2000 & 2001)
Figure 17
Figure 16. Sample canopy reading from GLAMA application
Lecture Series 7: Post-disaster Habitat Sampling Techniques, Classifying Canopy Cover
Open Forest
An open forest refers to formations with discontinuous tree layers but with coverage of at least 10% and less than 40% (FMB PFAG 2020)
Figure 17. A photo reference of closed forest (NESW)
Figure 18. A photo reference of an open forest (NESW)
Lecture Series 7: Post-disaster Habitat Sampling Techniques, Classifying Canopy Cover
Number of Uprooted Trees
The scale and intensity of typhoon disturbances are typically larger than those of tree fall gaps created from the death of a single or a few trees Thus, it is essential to determine tree mortality by counting the specific number of fallen or uprooted trees within a typhoondamaged area. Similar to live trees inventory, the process of counting starts with the corner of the 20m x 20m quadrat, following a clockwise spiral manner, from the periphery to the center of the quadrat
Leaf Litter Depth
Extreme events such as typhoons and hurricanes have a significant impact on litterfall rates and biogeochemical processes The ground of recently disturbed forests is usually covered with freshly fallen leaf litter and woody debris that can potentially alter nutrient cycling and availability. This change in the abiotic condition of the forest floor can alter the performance of surviving and recruiting of plant species in a post-disaster scenario Leaf litter is measured in the center point of the plot or quadrat by inserting a ruler or a wood rod marked in 1 cm increments down to mineral soil
Number of Regenerants
Generally, surviving natural regenerants are more resilient to drought, disease, windstorms, or heavy rainfall and they might be sufficient to ‘kick-start’ the forest recovery process Hence, the number of native seedlings or regenerants (<1 m in height) must be identified and counted in each quadrat as one of the initial data for natural regeneration. The counting of regenerants will start at the corner of the quadrat, following a clockwise spiral manner from the periphery to the center of the quadrat
Data Curation for Habitat Analysis
In curating your data for habitat analysis, make sure to include the following information from the datasheet (refer to Table 7 and Figure 19 below):
Transect number, Quadrat number, Locality
Defoliation, Damage to stem/branches, tree lean angle
Number of damaged trees (from flora datasheet), Number of uprooted/fallen trees, Number of regenerants, Leaf Litter
Quadrat Coordinates (Four corners)
Average damage within the quadrat
For each sampling point (quadrat), enter the corresponding data in the appropriate cells of the spreadsheet Each row represents one sampling plot, and each column contains the recorded values for that plot As you enter data, double-check for accuracy and completeness Check if you haven't missed any values or made any errors
Lecture Series 7: Post-disaster Habitat Sampling Techniques
Scenario (Based on the description of Simon Scriven, 2022)
Three months after Super Typhoon Odette, the damage was very evident in the forests of Puerto Princesa. The typhoon began near the equator in December 2021, dissipating and then intensifying as it howled through the Philippines. Palawan was its last landfall. Tree trunks were caught in huge tangles on riverbanks or, if still standing, tipped at drunken angles. Odette tore the canopy off the forest, punched up houses, and scrunched up galvanized iron roofing like crisp packets. At high tide, the mangroves in the ocean looked as if they had waded out to get away from it all.
As a forest ranger in Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park, you and your team were tasked to conduct the initial damage assessment. Based on the guidelines given during your training, estimate the extent of damage using the crown defoliation, broken stem/branches, tree lean angle, and number of fallen trees in the following quadrats established in Barangay Marufinas, Puerto Princesa.
Demonstrate the process of differentiating canopy trees from understory vegetation
Collect and collate canopy, understory, and ground cover vegetation data
Camera or mobile phone
A flora survey involves the gathering data on naturally occurring plants (flora), and the collection of individual plants (vegetation) present in a particular area, usually to provide guidance for impact assessment and management planning This may include an inventory of existing plant species, identification of rare, threatened, and endemic species, and monitoring of plant species in a specific area However, assessing the vegetation of a whole area is a daunting task and it is impossible to conduct an inventory of all the plants Therefore, it is necessary to conduct sampling techniques, wherein sampling areas are assumed to be representatives of the whole area In post-disaster surveys, sampling techniques are highly dependent on rapid appraisal maps produced in stage 1, which presumably portray the highly damaged areas based on the vegetation index
Assessing vegetation structure and species composition of plant communities
Modified Belt Transect Method
A modified belt transect method will be used for flora and habitat assessment. A 2–km transect shall serve as a baseline wherein a total of nine quadrats (20m x 20m) will be laid out along the transect at every 250m interval (refer to lecture series 6 and Figure 20 below)
Figure 20. A modified belt transect design, showing a 2-km transect with point stations (green dots)
every 50 meters and quadrats every 250 meters (yellow squares)
Lecture Series 8: Flora (Trees) Sampling Techniques
Nested Quadrat Sampling
A modified belt transect method will be used for flora and habitat assessment. A 2–km transect shall serve as a baseline wherein a total of nine quadrats (20m x 20m) will be laid out along the transect at every 250m interval (refer to lecture series 6 and Figure 20 below)
Figure 21 A nested quadrat sampling setup, showing the 20m x 20m quadrat for tree sampling, with 5m x 5m, and 1m x 1m nested quadrats for understory and ground cover vegetation, respectively (CCIPH, 2021)
Data Collection for Canopy Layer
Starting at a 20m x 20m quadrat corner, proceed in a clockwise spiral from the periphery to the center of the quadrat Record the species name, diameter at breast height (DBH) (Figure 22), and total height (TH) of each tree.
Make sure that the recorded trees have diameters 10> centimeters If the tree falls on the boundary line, record and measure it only if at least half of the stem is within the quadrat, otherwise do not include it Take note of the phenological observations such as flowering and fruiting of the individual trees and other tree disturbance/damage (e g scar, forking, diseased, defoliated, covered by parasitic plant, etc.).
22
Figure
Lecture Series 8: Flora (Trees) Sampling Techniques
Figure 22. Guide on measuring diameter at breast height (DBH) Illustration by J L Bibar (CCIPH, 2021).
Lecture Series 8: Flora (Trees) Sampling Techniques
Table 7. Sample Canopy Datasheet
Data Collection for Understory Vegetation
Within the 5m x 5m nested quadrat, record all understory vegetation (shrubs, poles, saplings) with a diameter of less than ten centimeters and over one meter in height In case of individuals found on the quadrat boundary, list the species if 50% of its body falls inside the quadrat, otherwise do not include it In addition, identify the epiphytes nesting in the trees and take note of the flowering and fruiting understory plants Use the datasheet sample below (Table 9) as a reference.
Data Collection for Ground Cover Vegetation
A 1m x 1m collapsible frame is particularly useful in recording ground covers such as grasses, herbaceous plants, ferns, and other erect plants less than one meter in height Identify each species rooted within the frame, and estimate the percent cover of each species that is present (Table 10) Direct estimation of the cover or estimation using photographs of the plot can be used in estimating percentage cover.
Table 8
Canopy Datasheet
Lecture Series 8: Flora (Trees) Sampling Techniques
Understorey Vegetation Datasheet
Encoding field raw data
Encode all raw data from the field datasheet to an electronic datasheet (could be an online or offline spreadsheet), following the sample shown in Table 11 It is important to take note that all data and information should be encoded properly Use the same format so that repeating data entries can be easily sorted or filtered later on. Double-check all the data entries and make sure that the scientific names are updated based on the current classification.
Table 8. Sample Understory Vegetation Datasheet
Ground Cover Vegetation Datasheet
Table 9 Sample Ground Cover Vegetation Datasheet
Lecture Series 8: Flora (Trees) Sampling Techniques
Canopy Datasheet
Table 10. Sample encoded raw data of flora species (canopy data). This datasheet shows the tree species observed in transect one, quadrat one during the green assessment in Palawan
Creating an RTE Table
“RTE” stands for rare, threatened, and endemic species An RTE Table is a summary table showing the conservation status and endemicity of each species recorded during the assessment (Table 12). This table typically includes the following information: family, scientific name (Genus species), common name, IUCN conservation status, DAO conservation status, and endemicity To create the RTE table, extract the species list from the encoded data sheet then identify the species endemicity and conservation using the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Philippine Red List category DAO 2017-11, and Co's Digital Flora of the Philippines.
Table 11. Sample RTE table of flora (tree) species
LECTURE SERIES 9
Fauna Sampling Techniques
Duration
Purpose of Learning
1 Understand and familiarize the different methods used to survey different taxa of fauna
2 hours
Requirements:
Handheld GPS
Camera
2 Demonstrate proper data collection during fauna surveys
3 Participate in identifying faunal species under different taxa
Conducting faunal surveys provides invaluable insights into the local species, their population dynamics, and their influence on the surrounding environment Data on local fauna are critical resources of information for stakeholders to make informed decisions, specifically for ecological restoration post-disaster Before commencing faunal surveys, careful consideration must be given to selecting suitable methods tailored to the taxon of interest, and the analyses to be used afterward This process should include prioritizing the assessment of management indicator species and ensuring the safety of the survey team, especially in post-disaster scenarios In the following sections, we outline various methodologies for surveying avifauna, volant mammals, non-volant mammals, and herpetofauna
Rapid Avifauna Survey
Avifauna survey is the process of identifying and collecting data on the location of birds (avifauna) present in a particular area This involves an inventory of current and/or previously recorded avifauna species, and identification of rare, threatened, and endemic (RTE) species in the area Assessing the avifauna present in an area requires the utilization of proper field methods to minimize sampling bias It is important to take note that avifauna surveys should be done under favorable weather conditions when it is neither raining nor foggy. In this lecture, three methods are introduced: (1) point count; (2) line transect; and (3) mist netting
Lecture Series 9: Fauna Sampling Techniques
Brief background on the point count method
Point Count Method
Purpose: Used to determine the species of birds present in an area, and monitor their population
Involves: Manual counting of birds detected by the observer at a specific position during a specific time Can be done through direct (seen) and indirect (heard) observations
How: Stand quietly at the center of your designated point station while carefully observing the surroundings. Using the datasheet, record all the species of birds seen and/or heard within <30m distance from where you are standing Record the distance from the main biodiversity transect line as well Do this for eight (8) minutes every 250-m of the transect line
When: Often done when bird activity is at peak, i.e., early in the morning between 5:00 am to 10:00 am, and at dusk between 4:30 pm to 6:30 pm
Brief background on the line transect method
Line Transect Method
Purpose: Used to determine the species and number of birds present in the area, and monitor their population
Involves: Laying out a 2-km transect along the sampling area while making sure that it passess through varying elevation and habitat gradients
How: Walk slowly along the transect line, starting from one end (0 m) until reaching the opposite end (2km) All species of birds encountered within <30m distance perpendicular to the transect line should be listed on the datasheet.
When: Do this in the day between 5:30 am to 8:00 am, and in the afternoon within 4:30 pm to 6:30 pm
Figure 23. Illustration of the point count method (CCIPH, 2021)
Figure 24. Illustration of the line transect method (CCIPH, 2021)
Lecture
Detailed steps on establishing and removing mist nets.
Mist Netting
Purpose: Used for capturing specimens, for species inventory (including morphometric measurements), and monitoring trends in species abundance and populations Involves: Capturing of birds using mist nets, with scheduled observations every 45 minutes (15 mins if the weather is hot) to check if there are animals captured. How:
Setting up a mist net 1.
Select an area along or near the transect line with potential flyways The area should be free from tall grasses or branches that may get tangled into the net
a. Establishing a mist net requires at least two people. Prepare two poles which will serve as support to allow the mist nets to stand erect. These can be made of aluminum, or you may create stakes using bamboo or makeshift poles Make sure the mist net does not touch the ground A mist net consists of several loops on each opposite ends Let the loops on one end of the net slide into the first pole – this should be done beginning with the bottom loop and finishing with the one on top Secure the top loop, making sure that it is properly fixed at the top of the first pole
b. The first pole should now be held upright by one person. The second person has to go towards the second pole at the opposite end, while making sure that the net does not reach the ground Upon reaching the second pole, repeat the previous step
c Stretch the net across the sampling area, along with the poles, so that the mist net and the poles are erected like a volleyball net Make sure that the net is not too tightly stretched to avoid birds from bouncing off The mist nets have several loose tiers that create pockets so that birds will not be harmed when trapped into the net Double check that the pockets are not tangled.
d Fix the poles on the ground with ropes Check the poles’ sturdiness and stability by lightly and quickly pressing against the net Figure 25 shows an example of a standard mist net set up
25. A standard mist net (FFI, 2014)
Figure
Lecture Series 9: Fauna Sampling Techniques
Detailed steps on establishing and removing mist nets.
2. Taking down a mist net
Make sure that there are no animals caught on the net Also, keep an eye that the net does not touch the ground or get tangled from any debris.
a Each person at the opposite ends of the net has to take the poles down
b Slide the net’s loops carefully to remove from the pole – make sure to remove the loops without changing their sequence
c Keep the net by rolling or folding it in until it is small enough to fit into the bag
Table 12 Sample Avifauna Point Count Data Sheet
Table 13. Sample Avifauna Line Transect Data Sheet
Lecture Series 9: Fauna Sampling Techniques
Rapid Mammal Survey
Rapid mammal surveys are conducted to identify the mammals present in a specific area This includes surveying both volant (flying mammals) and non-volant (those that cannot fly) mammals using different sampling techniques In this lecture, mist netting and live trapping are introduced for surveying volant, and non-volant mammals, respectively
Mist Netting (Volant Mammals)
Purpose: Capture live specimens, for species inventory (including morphometric measurements), and monitoring trends in species abundance and populations
Involves: Regular checking of the mist nets and retrieval of captured animals
How: (Please see Box 5 on how to establish and put down a mist net).
When: Observers need to keep the nets guarded from 6:00 pm to 10:00 pm
If the observer decides to leave the nets open overnight (under favorable weather conditions), it is important to make sure that all captured animals will be retrieved from the net before 6:30 am the following day
Important note: Regular checks will help in keeping off potential predators and avoid the nets from getting damaged as some bats may destroy the nets by chewing them when left tangled for too long
Live Trapping (Non-volant Mammals)
Purpose: Capture small, non-volant mammals, and for species inventory
Involves: Setting up of baited cage/live traps How:
a. Prepare the bait. Earthworms or toasted coconut bits with peanut butter can be used as bait Place the bait on the hook inside the trap.
b. Select location. Choose potential pathways of target specimen along the 2-km transect line. This could be along edges, narrow paths, burrows, and trees, or at least 5m away from human trails Place the trap and cover with leaf litter to mimic the surroundings. Make sure the door of the trap is open To easily locate the trap when checking or retrieving, place a tape/ribbon above the trap is placed
c. Leave the traps overnight.
d. Check the traps. Check the next morning Record the GPS coordinates if a specimen is trapped. If the species cannot be identified, place in a clean cloth bag and take to the basecamp for proper identification Record the morphometric measurements using the datasheet.
e. Mark and release captured specimen. Before releasing, mark the specimen by trimming a portion of the hair on the dorsal side of the torso Release the species back to where it was caught
f. Replace traps with new & fresh baits every afternoon.
When: Can be baited and set in the afternoon from 4:00 pm to 5:00 pm and during the next day from 6:00 am to 7:00 am
Table 14. Sample Mammal Datasheet
Rapid Herpetofauna Survey
Herpetofauna surveys are done to identify the amphibians (e.g., frogs and caecilians) and reptiles (e.g., lizards, skinks, and snakes) present in the area. Basic information will be recorded, such as transect station, distance from the transect, height, and means of observation (seen, heard, or caught) (Table 16). Their geographic locations are also recorded. In this lecture, the line transect method is introduced for conducting rapid herpetofauna surveys.
Purpose: Used to determine the species and number of amphibians and reptiles present in the area of interest
Involves: Laying out a 2-km transect along selected sampling site; day and night survey from 7000 to 1100 hours and 1800 to 2400 hours, respectively.
Pace slowly along the transect line, starting from zero (0) meter until reaching the other end (2km) of the transect
Record all species observed, including the number of individuals encountered
Species are collected if taxonomic identification is not possible on site, specimens are placed in a clean resealable plastic for further identification. Morphometric measurements are taken and photographed properly. Capture-and-release method are employed
When: Surveys are done from 7:00 to 11:00 in the morning and 6:00 to 12:00 in the night.
Line Transect Method
Curating field species observation records in fauna surveys
Data curation is the process of collecting, organizing, preserving, and maintaining data for current and future use. It is an important part of data management and involves a variety of activities such as selecting and acquiring species information data, cleaning and transforming data, organizing data, and making data accessible.
Encoding field raw data
Transfer all raw data to an electronic datasheet (could be an online or offline spreadsheet), following the format shown in Table 16
It is important to take note that all data and information should be encoded properly Use the same format so that repeating data entries can be easily sorted or filtered later on
Put all the data parameters into the datasheet Leave no blanks
Double-check the numerics to be entered and make sure that each data entry is correctly assigned with the appropriate data type in the spreadsheet
Amphibians and Reptiles Datasheet
1.
Table 15. Sample Herpetofauna Line Transect Datasheet
Lecture Series 9: Fauna Sampling Techniques
Table 16. Sample encoded raw data of fauna species This datasheet shows records of amphibians and reptiles observed in one transect (Transect 12) during the herpetofauna survey
Table 17. Sample Species Information Database for Avifauna
Lecture Series 9: Fauna Sampling Techniques, Curating field species observation records in fauna surveys
2. Creating a Species Database for Fauna
From your datasheet, copy and paste the corresponding data to each column indicated in your species database (Table 17)
For reference, we recommend that you use these templates: Fauna Database (https://t ly/GQ1YP)
“RTE” stands for rare, threatened, and endemic species. An RTE Table is a summary table showing the conservation status and endemicity of each species recorded during the assessment
This table typically includes the following information: family, scientific name (Genus species), common name, IUCN conservation status, DAO conservation status, and endemicity (Table 18)
For reference, we recommend that you use this as a template: RTE Table (https://tinyurl.com/4eu6mxd6)
To identify species endemicity and conservation status, refer to: IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and Philippine Red List category (DAO 2019-09).
3. Creating an RTE Table
Table 18. Sample RTE table of fauna (mammals) species
LECTURE SERIES 10
Tools for Taxonomic Identification
Duration
1 hour
Requirements:
Laptop
Purpose of Learning
1. Be familiar with the various field guides, and publications used in taxonomic identification
2. Demonstrate the use of taxonomic identification tools
Access to libraries, field guides, and herbaria
Taxonomic identification plays a vital role in the accurate identification of species It is, in fact, critical in all areas of biology and biodiversity conservation (Wiens and Penkrot, 2002) Being good in taxonomic identification requires skills training, first-hand experience, and to some, years of study
No one can become an expert overnight! This is why it is necessary to get familiar with tools and references for identifying, especially at the species level In addition, taking good photographs of the specimen, and recording as much biometric and habitat data as possible, helps species identification become easier and more convenient That being said, you have to make sure that the photos are clear, and include both up close and full body photos (with a ruler or caliper beside so that scale measurements and the relative size can be seen) In obtaining biometrics (i e morphometry and behavioral characteristics), each taxonomic group has a particular set of measurements that are considered diagnostic for the species. For the safety of both the handler and the animal, it is best to consult or train with a professional before attempting to gather this data. Approach any and all wildlife with caution.
Below are some additional but pertinent information that should be recorded per species:
Coordinates of sighting
Elevation of sighting
Habitat type and photos
Audio or video recordings of species vocalization or natural behavior
I. Flora Identification
Identification of unknown plant specimens is accomplished with the use of dichotomous keys, published plant descriptions, illustrations, photographs, and comparisons with properly identified herbarium specimens For initial identification, consult relevant literature and databases Identification from photographs of fresh plants (prior to pressing) is often easier than identification of the dried specimens. Hence, it is important to follow specific guidelines in photographing unknown plants. Online taxonomic websites have interactive keys and online image databases for comparison (Table 19). For final identification, compare the collected specimen to the herbarium-type specimens or on image databases containing the type specimens.
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification
Table 19. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of flora species.
Taxa Resource Status Use
JOURNAL
Flora The Philippine Journal of Science
Flora Leaflets of Philippine Botany
Flora Blumea
Flora A Flora of Manila (Merrill, Elmer D , 1912)
Flora Flora Malesiana
FloraAngiosperms
Flora
Flora
Flora - Trees
An Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants (Merrill, Elmer D , 1925)
A dictionary of the plant names of the Philippine Islands (Merrill, Elmer D , 1903)
New and Noteworthy Philippine Plants (Merrill, Elmer D , 1904)
Philippine Native Trees: Upclose and Personal 101 (2012)
Available online at https://www biodiversitylibrary o rg/bibliography/50545 Protologues
Available online at https://www biodiversitylibrary o rg/bibliography/259 Protologues
Available online at https://www naturalis nl/en/scien ce/blumea-journal
BOOKS
Available online at https://www biodiversitylibrary o rg/bibliography/10789
Available online at https://floramalesiana org/new/
Available online at https://www biodiversitylibrary o rg/bibliography/49412
Available online at https://www biodiversitylibrary o rg/bibliography/10879
Available online at https://www biodiversitylibrary o rg/bibliography/11045
Available in bookstores and online stores
Taxonomic treatment and type specimens
Flora - Trees
Philippine Native Trees: Upclose and Personal 202 (2015)
Available in bookstores and online stores
Taxonomic descriptions and taxonomic treatments
Taxonomic descriptions and taxonomic treatments
List of Philippine flowering plants with distribution and original publications
List of Philippine plant names (scientific and local names)
Taxonomic descriptions and distribution
Photographs and taxonomic descriptions of native trees and their geographic distributions
Photographs, distribution, and descriptions of Philippine native trees
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification, Table 19. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of flora species.
Flora - Trees
Flora - Trees
Flora - Orchids
Philippine Native Trees: Upclose and Personal 303 (2018)
Alay: Philippine Native Trees at the Victor O Ramos Arboretum (Pastor Malabrigo Jr and Arthur Glenn Umali, 2022)
Available in bookstores and online stores
Available in bookstores and online stores
Photographs, distribution, and descriptions of Philippine native trees
Photographs, distribution, descriptions, and conservation status of Philippine native trees
Flora - Gingers
Flora - Psychotria
Philippine Native Orchid Species (Jim Cootes, 2001)
Available in bookstores and online stores
A Guide to Gingers of Sorsogon (Rudolph Valentino Docot, 2021)
The Genus Psychotria (Rubiaceae) in the Philippine Archipelago (Seymour Hans Sohmer and Aaron P Davis, 2007)
Available in bookstores and online stores
Photographs, distribution, and taxonomic descriptions of Philippine native orchids
Photographs, distribution, and taxonomic descriptions of Philippine native gingers
Available in bookstores and online stores
Available
ONLINE DATABASES
Flora Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines http://www philippineplants o rg/
Photographs, distribution, and taxonomic descriptions of Philippine Psychotria
Rattan morphology, distribution, habitat, uses, and collecting methods
Nomenclatural data (spelling, author, types, first place/date of publication, distribution, endemicity, conservation status) for the scientific names of Philippine vascular plants
Flora Plants of the World Online (POWO) https://powo science kew org/ Taxonomic data
Flora - Rattan A field guide to Philippine rattans (Aida Lapis, 2010)
in libraries
Flora JSTOR Global Plants https://plants jstor org/collecti on/TYPSPE Type specimens
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification, Table 19. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of flora species.
Flora International Plant Name Index (IPNI)
https://www ipni org/
Flora - Ferns and Lycophytes Ferns and Lycophytes of the World
https://www fernsoftheworld c om/
Nomenclatural data (spelling, author, types and first place/date of publication) for the scientific names of vascular plants from family to infraspecific ranks
Photographs, distribution, and descriptions of ferns and lycophytes
Guidelines for photographing unknown plants based on Co's Digital Flora of the Philippines (2011 onwards).
Plant habit: tree, shrub, herb, climber, epiphyte
For large plants, photo of twig: position of leaves, inflorescences or infructescences
Close-up photo of twig: leaf arrangement and presence, shape, size of stipules
Close-up photo of tip of twig: presence and type of indumentum of young leaves and internodes
Flat leaf photos of both sides: shape (apex and base) and size (length and width)
Close-up photo of both leaf surfaces: presence and kind of indumentum
Photo of inflorescence/infructescence: size, branching pattern, number of flowers/fruits
Close-up photo of inflorescence/infructescence: presence, size, shape of bracts and bracteoles, and presence/kind of indumentum
Photo of flower in side view: size and shape of pedicel, calyx, corolla, or perianth and position of ovary (superior/inferior)
Photo of flower in top view: presence and number of petals, stamens, pistils
Photos showing if petals/sepals are fused or free
Photos showing shape, size, and indumentum of individual sepals/petals
Photo of the longitudinal section of flower: size, shape, position, indumentum of stamens/pistils
Photo of the transverse section of ovary: number of locules/ovules
Photo of fruit in side view: size, shape, and if the calyx is persistent
Photo of fruit in top view: presence of any remains of stamens and styles
Photos of transverse and longitudinal sections of fruit: number of locules/seeds
II. Avifauna Identification
Digital images and illustrations in published literature and field guides have made it easy to identify and verify observed bird species. If you have sufficient knowledge and experience related to the taxa, it is also possible to identify the species through its call (i.e. vocalization), biometrics, and the geographic locations where it is often observed. Every year, bird taxonomists and bird communities update the list of birds observed within the Philippine boundaries. Table 20 shows a list of different resources often used in identifying birds.
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification, Avifauna Identification
Table 20. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of avifaunal species.
Resource
Philippine birds (John du Pont)
A field guide to the Philippine Birds (Kennedy et al )
Field guide to the Philippine birds (Desmond Allen)
Birds of the Greater Sundas, the Philippines and WallaceaNorman Arlotte
A field guide to the Water birds of Asean- Asean korea 2018
Status
BOOKS
Downloadable PDF Copy online https://ia800605 us archive org/0/items/p hilippinebirds00unse/philippinebirds00u nse pdf
For sale online at https://global.oup.com/academic/produ ct/a-guide-to-the-birds-of-thephilippines-9780198546689? cc=ph&lang=en&
For sale online at https://www amazon com/BirdsPhilippines-BirdLife-InternationalGuides/dp/8416728313
For sale online at https://www vogelboekhandel nl/boek/bi rds-of-the-greater-sundas-thephilippines-and-wallacea/
Downloadable PDF Copy online http://www birdwatchingvietnam net/img /user/news/Sample ASEAN%20Waterbir ds combined pdf
A Naturalist’s Guide to the Birds of the Philippines - Maia Tañedo, Robert Hutchinson, Adrian and Trinket Constantino
Birds of the World - The Cornell Lab of Ornithology
For sale in bookstores and in online shops (e g , Shopee)
For sale online at https://www veldshop nl/nl/all-the-birdsof-the-world html
Use
Bird identification and Geographic range
Birds identification Biometrics, Spp description Geographic distribution Conservation status
Birds identification Biometrics, Updated species description Geographic distribution Conservation status
Bird list
Birds descriptions Geographic range Conservation status
Bird list
Birds descriptions Geographic range Conservation status
Identification of the 280 species of birds commonly seen in the Philippines
Geographic range
Conservation status
World list of Birds
Geographic distributions
Species descriptions Conservation status
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification, Avifauna Identification
Resource Status Use
Web base
ebird
WBCP 2023 list
Inaturalist
Application https://ebird org/home
Downloadable online
https://birdwatch ph/philippinechecklist/
Web page
Application https://www inaturalist org/
Xeno-canto
Available for free online https://xeno-canto org/
III. Mammal Identification
Online birds identification Online database
Updated list of the Philippine birds year 2023
Online identification using uploaded digital images.
Geographic information
Online database
Online birds calls compilation (downloadable)
A number of species checklists for mammals (volant and non-volant) can be found on Google Scholar If you search for “Mammals Philippines” on Google, you can see multiple lists of published works on mammal inventories across different provinces in the country (e g , The mammals of Mt Natib, Bataan Province, Luzon, Philippines by Rickart et al 2013)
In the absence of reference photos, as in the publication by Rickart et al 2013, you can use local species lists as a starting point to narrow down the identity of your species to at least the order or family level based on what has already been recorded in your area Then, you can compare your species data with that of more comprehensive resources such as the Synopsis of Philippine Mammals by Heaney et al , 2010
Table 21
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification, Mammal Identification
Table 21. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of mammal species.
Synopsis of Philippine Mammals (Heaney et al , 2010)
Available for free online (See archive fieldmuseum org/phili ppine mammals)
The Mammals of Luzon Island: Biogeography and Natural History of a Philippine Fauna (Heaney et al 2016)
pigs
For sale online at Amazon com
Available for free online
The taxonomy, distribution and status of Philippine wild pigs (Oliver 1995)
IV. Herpetofauna Identification
Available for free online
Species distribution and habitat information BOOKS
Species descriptions, photos, habitat information, and distribution
Species descriptions, photos, habitat information, and distribution
Illustrations to help with family level ID, species list
Google Scholar has a number of species checklists for herpetofauna species. By searching “Checklist of Reptiles” on Google, you will find multiple published works on herpetofauna surveys and inventories across different provinces in the country (e.g., amphibians and reptiles, Romblon Island Group, Central Philippines: comprehensive herpetofauna inventory by Siler et al. 2012).
Certain herpetofauna, particularly frogs and geckos, can be identified through their calls or croaks. Audio or video recordings of these calls would greatly aid in the identification of the species. For the safety of both the handler and the specimen, practice extreme caution when handling herpetofauna for biometric measurements. Frogs are highly sensitive to toxins due to their permeable skin and could die from stress when mishandled Also, never attempt to handhold a snake if you are unsure of the species, and even then, practice utmost caution with the proper safety equipment
Bats
Bats of Mindanao Island, Philippines (Ingle et al 1999)
Wild
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification, Herpetofauna Identification
Outlined below (Table 22) are useful references for species identification.
Table 22. Sample resources for taxonomic identification of herpetofaunal species
Taxa Resource Status Use
Snakes, lizards, crocodiles, and turtles
A Naturalist’s Guide to the Reptiles of the Philippines by Emerson Sy (2023)
BOOKS
For sale online at haringibon.com
Frogs
Snakes
Snakes
Frogs
Amphibians and reptiles
Amphibians and reptiles
Philippine Amphibians: An Illustrated Field Guide (Alcala & Brown)
Illustrated Key to the Snakes of the Philippines (Weinell et al 2019)
Synopsis of Snakes in the Philippines (Leviton et al 2018)
Amphibians of the Philippines, Part I: Checklist of the Species (Diesmos et al 2015)
The amphibians and reptiles of Mindanao Island, southern Philippines, II: the herpetofauna of northeast Mindanao and adjacent islands (Sanguila et al 2016)
The amphibians and reptiles of Luzon Island, Philippines, VIII: the herpetofauna of Cagayan and Isabela Provinces, northern Sierra Madre Mountain Range (Brown et al 2013)
For sale in Mt Cloud Bookshop
Species descriptions, photos, habitat information, and distribution
Species descriptions, photos, habitat information, and distribution
Available for free online Taxonomic key, illustrations
Available for free online Checklist of species per province, photos
Available for free online Distribution, photos
Available for free online Distribution, photos
Available for free online
Species descriptions, photos, habitat information, and distribution
Lecture Series 10: Tools for Taxonomic Identification, Herpetofauna Identification
Taxa Resource Status Use
Amphibians
AmphibiaWeb (University of California Berkeley)
Reptiles Reptile Database
Available for free online
Available for free online
Species descriptions, photos, habitat information, distribution
Species descriptions, photos, habitat information, distribution
LECTURE SERIES 11
Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
Duration
1 hour
Requirements:
Purpose of Learning
1. Learn how to do on-ground methodologies and participatory approaches in assessing the impacts of natural disasters on resource utilization of local communities in post-disaster scenarios
2. Understand the importance of high conservation values and the potential impacts of natural disasters on these areas in the context of local communities
Powerpoint Presentation
Community Resource Map (A0 size)
Focus Group Discussion Activity Design
Datasheet for Ground Validation
Regulating and maintenance ecosystem services (e g water flow regulation, soil erosion and landslide control) reduce disaster risks and allow us to adapt to adverse effects of climate change and natural disasters Areas that contain these ecosystem services (i e HCVAs) can attenuate hazards and reduce risk exposure However, extreme weather events can result in degradation, decrease, and damage to HCVAs, which may disrupt or alter ecosystem services and affect resource availability (Walz et al , 2018)
Local communities residing near HCVAs can be vulnerable to natural disasters The level of vulnerability can be influenced by factors such as socioeconomic status, access to resources, and repeated exposure to extreme weather events These communities often rely on provisioning ecosystem services (e g livestock, aquaculture, crop, fish) and cultural services (e g , ecotourism) either for subsistence or for livelihood These services can be disrupted in the event of a natural disaster and could lead to economic losses Similarly, when HCVAs that hold spiritual significance to local communities and indigenous peoples (IPs) are also affected, the following consequences may arise: damage to cultural heritage sites; disruption of traditional practices; and strain on community cohesion Addressing these impacts requires a holistic understanding of the cultural ties between communities and their environments
The impacts of natural disasters on HCVAs, in the context of local communities, are multifaceted and can vary depending on several factors including the type of natural disaster, the resilience of the ecosystem, the preparedness and response of local communities, and the level of integration between conservation efforts and community well-being A comprehensive approach wherein ecological, social, and cultural considerations are incorporated is therefore required to assess post-disaster impacts
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
Community resource utilization
Studying the changes in resource utilization and identifying the different drivers of change postdisaster is crucial when developing green recovery plans, especially where local communities are concerned Therefore, it is important to get the active participation of stakeholders involved
Where to start? How do we engage the local community?
Prior to data collection, it is important to know first who the stakeholders are and what engagement methods should be used Identify and develop a proper engagement plan to streamline data collection Table 23 below shows the engagement methods used to gather data on-site
Table 23 Engagement methods used to gather on-site data
Methods of Engagement Details
ONE-ON-ONE/FACE-TO-FACE ENGAGEMENT
Key Informant Interview
Consultation
Household interview
A face-to-face interview using a structured questionnaire to draw answers from respondents Include notes on verbal communication and behavior Record the conversation through video or audio (ONLY if consent is given by the participant)
Target respondents: Local government representatives and other local authorities/entities, IP leaders, and local communities
A face-to-face interview with a small group (3 to 6 pax) of individuals with guidelines for topics that need validation and nuanced feedback from the group Conversations will be recorded via video or audio (ONLY if consent is given by the participant)
Target respondents: Local government representatives and other local authorities/entities, IP leaders
A face-to-face interview using a structured questionnaire to draw answers from respondents Photos need to be taken (but only upon the respondent’s approval)
Target respondents: IP communities, non-IP communities/Local communities
PARTICIPATORY/ GROUP ENGAGEMENT
Focus Group Discussion
Meeting with a target number of participants (10 -20 persons) The facilitator will ask the questions, take notes, and use interactive visual tools (maps, presentation deck, etc ) The facilitator must engage and actively listen to better understand the information shared by the participants You may record the discussion through video or audio (if consent is given)
Target participants: IP community members and leaders, Local communities, Local government representatives, and other local authorities/entities
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities, Table 23. Engagement methods used to gather on-site data
PARTICIPATORY/ GROUP ENGAGEMENT
Group discussions participated by key members of the communities This will enable the facilitators to map current historical land use and identify the key elements in the landscapes essential to meet the basic needs of communities
Participatory mapping
Facilitators will guide the group during discussion, record the event, and take notes, videos, and audio recordings (if consent is given)
Target participants: IP community members and leaders, Local Communities
Reference: FSC-GUI-30-011 V1-0 (Guidance for Stakeholder Engagement)
Things to consider in choosing the proper engagement methods:
Data need Matrix: Develop a matrix for all the information you need to collect
Know your audience: Define your audience and participants and develop contact lists for each group and establish engagement schedule with the identified stakeholders and participants as well as logistics
Key points in Stakeholder Identification EXAMPLE OF AN ENGAGEMENT PLAN
Use existing lists available
Categorize them in the context of:
Affected stakeholders
Leadership (formal role within an organization or activity area)
Responsibility (who are the people responsible for the activities or tasks?)
Knowledge (of the area/policy/etc)
Inclusion (by ensuring to include any underrepresented actors)
Effectiveness (who can make the initiative more effective through participation?)
Other local authorities Target Participants/Stakeholders
Indigenous Peoples
Government representatives
Local communities
Identified methods of engagement
One to one/face to face engagement
Consultation KII CRM FGD
Participatory/group engagement
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
More on selecting appropriate engagement methods
1. Focus Group Discussions, Interviews, or both?
Things to Consider
It is critical to consider who will participate
Consider how responses will likely vary across sub-groups
Explore broad questions with focus groups; explore specific questions with interviews Enumerating your objectives typically happens at the start of your study. This can be aided by laying the groundwork with your stakeholders and identifying the key features of your communities In such cases, in-person focus groups or interviews can be far more effective than written surveys
Focus groups or Focus group discussions (FGDs) are typically semi-structured facilitated discussions that aim to collect first-hand knowledge from individuals coming from similar groups or backgrounds This involves gathering of purposively selected leaders and/or members from LGUs, local communities, indigenous peoples communities, or non-government organizations to participate in the discussion
Key informant interviews (KII) are conducted one-on-one following standardized or semi-structured questionnaires KIIs are often essentially qualitative and unstructured to provide flexibility to explore new ideas and issues that may not have been anticipated but are relevant A key informant must be knowledgeable about existing operations and conditions of your AOI such as the Protected Area Superintendent (PaSu), Municipal Environmental and Resources Office (MENRO), and Municipal Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (MDRRMO), local community leaders and Indigenous Tribe leaders Ideally, begin by conducting a focus group (pre-FGD) that ultimately leads to a KII and ground assessment This is followed by another FGD (post-FGD) to validate the information gathered on the ground
The table below provides more detailed information on the potential benefits and drawbacks of these techniques.
Method Potential Benefits
FGD
FGDs followed by/or with interviews
Ideal for exploring a broad question about which you have limited information; groups are able to brainstorm more than individuals
Ideal for finding specific answers Less likely to be influenced by social pressure
Participants may feel more comfortable discussing sensitive topics
Findings from focus groups can be used to develop an interview protocol, which can then be used to design a survey
Table 24. Potential benefits and drawbacks of using FGD and KII
Potential Drawbacks
Social pressure may change results Participants may not feel comfortable discussing controversial topics in groups
May yield less information about exploratory questions because individuals cannot brainstorm as readily as with groups
Using standardized protocols, which are necessary to compare across responses, discourages probing into tangents
Requires more time
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
More on selecting appropriate engagement methods
2. Community Resource Mapping (CRM)
Community resource mapping (CRM) is a participatory approach that can be used to illustrate information related to the occurrence, distribution, access to, and use of resources, topography, human settlements, and their activities (FFI, 2013) This can be incorporated in FGDs, as an activity divided into sessions depending on the data you need to collect
CRM is useful for…
Exploring how different people understand their local environment, resources and land use
Examining the relationships between different factors (resources, topography, settlement, utilization, etc) and in identifying problems and opportunities
Identifying the location, access and use of key resources, including biodiversity and ecosystem services, in relation to different social groups
Monitoring changes in resources and land use over a period of time
Mapping hazard-prone features of the landscape (e g floodplains, infrastructure vulnerable to floods, drought-prone areas)
CRM will involve the identification of the following:
Resources that are important to the communities and wildlife Participants will record in a table form all the provisioning, regulating, and cultural services they acquired from their identified sites
Areas where communities get their resources
Areas with HCVs severely damaged by the onslaught of the natural disaster.
You need to identify the boundaries of your CRM. A CRM is suitable for use in a geographically limited area and you may produce more than one map for larger areas With a stable internet connection, mapping can be done using Google Earth and overlaid with your Stage 1 rapid appraisal maps (pre-NDVI, post-NDVI, and NDVI difference maps).
Do I need to have a GPS to do CRM?
Nope! There are a lot of ways to do resource mapping, many of which you can do with no more technology than a pen, paper and a map! You can do mapping thru:
Pointing on a map using stickers or markers Online using Google Earth
CRM outputs can be georeferenced or digitized and used as reference points for conducting ground-truth validation in damaged areas. It can also be used as a basis for conducting semi-structured interviews on specific topics of interest (e g how and why land use patterns have changed) or for more in-depth participatory mapping of resource use boundaries
Lecture
Series 11:
Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
The following are sample questions that guide the CRM discussion:
Where do people obtain water, timber, NTFPs, bushmeat and firewood?
Where do people take livestock to graze (if available in the area)? Who is responsible for this?
How does access to land (or another specified resource) vary between households or social groups ?
Has access changed and if so, when, why and how?
Which areas are most vulnerable to risk (including climate change impacts)?
What (other) changes have there been in the last x (number of) years?
What resources are abundant or scarce?
What resources are often used? Which are unused?
Who makes decisions about land (water, or another specified resource) allocation?
Georeferencing and Digitization of CRM using QGIS
Georeferencing is the process of assigning spatial coordinates to geographical entities within a specified geographical context In numerous fields, geospatial technologies, such as geographic information systems (GIS), are deemed indispensable. We outlined the steps in using the Georeference Plugin in QGIS to reference raster images to the geographic or projected coordinate systems below.
A. Scan Community Resource Map
The first task you will have to do is scan your map If your map is too big, then you can scan it in different parts, but keep in mind that you will have to repeat the same tasks (e g preprocessing, georeferencing) for each part
Note: If you are going to use a different map than the one used in this manual, you will need to scan it as an image file with a resolution of at least 300 dots per inch In the instance that your map includes color, you should scan with color In this module, we will use the Community Resource Map in Bislig as example
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities, Georeferencing and Digitization of CRM using QGIS
B . Load the scanned image in QGIS
C. Add Control Points
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities, Georeferencing and Digitization of CRM using QGIS
Transformation Settings
E. Start Georeferencing
D.
F. Digitizing and Creating a Shapefile
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities, Georeferencing and Digitization of CRM using QGIS Ground Validation
3. Ground Validation
Ground validation is conducted to validate reference points i.e., data collected during the series of KIIs, FGD, and CRM Ground truthing activities are conducted by locating and validating the areas with high conservation values, threats (natural and anthropogenic), and observed typhoon impacts on local communities and resource use
Identified reference points can be located and surveyed using handheld GPS and Locus Map Pro Information on-site can be recorded using data sheets
Triangulation
Triangulation is a way to cross-check information for accuracy by looking at any piece of information from as many perspective as possible but at least three It helps to minimize bias, verify data, distinguish fact from fiction, and enables deeper analysis of an issue (FFI, 2013).
It can be achieved by:
Using different tools to gather information (e.g. maps, transects, and trend lines, ground-truthing to examine environmental changes) Using different methods (e.g. interviewing, observing, discussing, using secondary data). Listening to different people with different points of view about the same topic (e g women/men, young/old, wealthy/poor about food production)
Things to consider during ground validation are as follows:
Prior to the ground truthing, CONSENT (for site visits and photo documentation) must be obtained so that local communities are informed. This is done in observance of the tribal customs that forbid outsiders from entering sacred ground without permission Permits and consents must also be obtained from barangay captains before the survey
Make ties with the locals, the elders, and the tribal leaders Always be respectful
3.
Team safety is of utmost importance Proper field and safety attire should always be worn
Regroup and make any necessary adjustments if the target points are in a dangerous location. Do not go out when the weather is bad or during reported security issues
The buddy system is mandatory. Field teams should consist of at least three (3) people.
Make sure that basic necessities like shelter, food, and water are sufficient
The team's dietary restrictions should be met, and meals should be nutritious and sensitive to cultural considerations
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
Equipment for Ground Assessment
Ground validation is conducted to validate reference points i.e., data collected during the series of KIIs, FGD, and CRM Ground truthing activities are conducted by locating and validating the areas with high conservation values, threats (natural and anthropogenic), and observed typhoon impacts on local communities and resource use
Identified reference points can be located and surveyed using handheld GPS and Locus Map Pro Information on-site can be recorded using data sheets
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities, Equipment for Ground Assessment
Figure 26. Sample Process Flow for Community Resource Utilization Assessment
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of
4. Curating Data on Community Resource Use
Data Management
Encoding raw data
In Lecture 11, it was explained that post-disaster information can be collected by FGD, CRM, and ground-truthing All raw data collected should be transferred to an electronic datasheet (it could be an online or offline spreadsheet).
Always cross-check the entries and make sure that each data entry is correctly assigned with the appropriate data type in the spreadsheet Figure 27 and Tables 25 and 26 below show sample encoded raw data for FGD and CRM respectively Recordings must also be reviewed to ensure that all important information is noted
Figure 27. Sample FGD Data
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
Table 25. Sample CRM Data
Table 26. Sample Encoded Raw Data for Ground Validation
Lecture Series 11: Gauging the Impacts of Natural Disasters to High Conservation Values in the Lens of Local Communities
Activity 5: Community Resource Mapping and Focus Group Discussion
Duration of the game:
1 hour
Requirement/s:
Powerpoint Presentation
Presenter
Demonstrate how to assess areas impacted by a disaster through Community Resource Mapping and Focus Group Discussion 1.
Maps/shapefile layers/Google Earth
USB Flash Drive
Community Resource Map (A0 Map)
FGD Activity Design
Manila Paper
Meta cards
Pentel Pens
Push pins
Post it notes
Tack it or double-sided tapes
Scissors
Markers
Scotch or packing tapes
Canvas/cartolina (50cm x 80cm)
In this activity, participants will map resources important to wildlife and local communities that are severely impacted by a natural disaster
Instructions
Part 1 - CRM
Participants are asked to locate high conservation value areas that provide various ecosystem services such as: Regulating (those areas/resources containing ecosystem services in critical situations), Provisioning (areas/resources that provide/satisfy the basic need of local and indigenous peoples for livelihood, health, consumption, water, etc ) and Cultural or recreational (areas/resources that have cultural and sacred importance for the traditional cultures of local and indigenous peoples) that are affected by natural disaster. After identifying the areas, they will be asked to describe the current conditions of the conservation values in their area after the disaster
Mechanics for CRM
Participants will be grouped into clusters based on their agency affiliations
Each cluster will be provided with a blank canvas and other materials for resource mapping The canvas will be used by the team to draw their site boundaries, scales, etc
Participants will develop the content of their map based on the scenarios below
Activity 5: Community Resource Mapping and Focus Group Discussion
Scenario 1 (Pre-Disaster): The respective sites have various conservation values providing various ecosystem services to wildlife and local and indigenous communities Locate and map these areas.
Area
Areas with water resources
Areas with NTFPs, agriculture, and crops
Areas with sacred and cultural significance
Areas with local and indigenous communities
Description (Pre-disaster)
Refers to rivers, creeks, waterfalls, springs
Refers to agricultural production areas such as rice fields, coconut, Banana, Sweet Potato corn, collection areas for Honey, Almaciga Resin and Rattan
Refers to Hunting Ground, Sacred Ground, Burial Ground, and Ritual Ground
Refers to settlements, roads, buildings, etc.
Table 27. Areas for mapping and their respective description pre-disaster
Fifteen minutes will be provided for the preparation of the tables and identification of areas required in the maps. Each category area/resource will be provided with photographs or icons to be used and pinned on their map
1. 2 After the given time, 1 member of the team must take photo documentation of their output for Scenario 1 before mapping out Scenario 2.
Scenario 2 (Post Disaster): A strong typhoon wreaks havoc on your site. Trees are severely defoliated, uprooted, fallen, and cut. Rivers and creeks overflowed and are lodged with debris affecting the local communities dependent on it for water. Areas where local and indigenous communities gather NTFPs (honey, rattan, etc.) are severely damaged affecting their consumption and livelihood. Fishing and hunting grounds are impacted causing minimal to no hunting activities in the areas. Upland dwellers are evacuated due to flooding, landslides, and damage to properties. Develop a map based on this scenario.
Table 28
Activity 5: Community Resource Mapping and Focus Group Discussion, Scenario 2 (Post Disaster)
Table 28. Areas for mapping and their respective description post-disaster
Area
Areas with water resources
Areas with NTFPs, agriculture, and crops
Areas with sacred and cultural significance
Areas with local and indigenous communities
Description (Pre-disaster)
Refers to damaged rivers, creeks, waterfalls, spring,
Refers to damaged agricultural production areas such as rice fields, coconut, Banana, Sweet Potato, corn, and collection areas for Honey, Almaciga Resin and Rattan
Refers to damaged Hunting Ground, Sacred Ground, Burial Ground, and Ritual Ground
Refers to damaged settlements, roads, buildings, etc.
3. Fifteen minutes will be given to each group. Photographs or icons will be used and pinned on their map
4. After mapping out scenario 2, one team member must take photo documentation of their output
5 The cluster/team with the most pinned areas/resources in their maps during the duration of each activity will be the winner
6. For the presentation of outputs, each team must identify the resources that were severely affected by the typhoon (Scenario 2) and talk about it in five minutes The order of office/region presentations will be determined randomly.
7. Other offices/regions are allowed to comment on the results at the end of each presentation
Part 2 - FGD
Participants are asked to describe the conditions of the conservation values after the typhoon identified during the CRM and to provide nature-positive recommendations on mitigating post-disaster impacts on conservation values.
Mechanics
Activity 5: Community Resource Mapping and Focus Group Discussion, Part 2- FGD
Mechanics for the FGD
Each cluster will be provided with the needed materials that will be used for the activity 1
2. Activities will be in the form of a game. The FGD session will be divided into 3 games: Free listing, pile sorting, and ranking Mechanics of the game will be provided by the facilitators
3. Each team will be given enough time to complete all the games
4. Each team will be given 10 minutes to present their results. The team who will present will be chosen via draw cards
LECTURE SERIES 12
Methods for Analyzing Green Assessment Data (post-fieldwork only)
Duration
1 hour
Requirements:
Laptop
R Software
R Studio
Purpose of Learning
Gain an understanding on how to choose the most appropriate analyses in order to utilize primary data from the ground survey. Be familiarized with the commonly used analyses for Green Assessments.
Mapping Software (QGIS)
Microsoft Excel
Rapid assessment maps from stage 1 (i e , Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) difference map)
Using diversity indices to measure biodiversity post-disaster - what will it tell you?
A. Flawed indices
Biodiversity indices are the most widely used measure for assessing patterns and trends in biodiversity and are valuable tools in ecological research, conservation planning, and environmental management Three metrics of species diversity are commonly usedspecies richness, the Shannon index, and the Simpson index. They help quantify and compare the diversity of species within ecosystems, providing insights into their health and stability. Many community ecologists already pointed out that the use of diversity indices has serious drawbacks, however, these indices continue to appear in many published papers and textbooks which can be misinterpreted in ways that hinder our understanding of ecosystems and may even lead to misguided conservation actions
The primary issue with conventional diversity indices lies in their measurement of different aspects. Species richness quantifies the number of species, while the Shannon index assesses uncertainty regarding species identity within the sample, expressed in information units
One common mistake is treating biodiversity as a single numerical value. Indices like the Shannon-Wiener index or the Simpson index provide a single number that summarizes species diversity While these indices are useful for comparing different sites or time periods, they oversimplify the complex nature of biodiversity Biodiversity encompasses not only the number of species but also their interactions, functional roles, and genetic diversity Reducing it to a single number can lead to a loss of critical information about the ecosystem Oversimplification can result in the neglect of key aspects of biodiversity, potentially leading to misguided conservation priorities. For example, a high biodiversity index in a degraded habitat might mask the loss of critical ecosystem services and ecological functions
Lecture Series 12: Methods for Analyzing Green Assessment Data (post-fieldwork only)
We do not recommend using biodiversity indices as metrics for post-disaster scenarios for the following reasons: 1) species composition may result in significant changes overnight, and diversity indices may not capture the rapid shifts in species composition as they only provide an overview of species diversity; 2) diversity indices do not account for changes in suitable habitats or habitat quality which affects species recovery; 3) challenges in data collection e g inaccessibility, limited resources, and safety may affect sampling effort and achieve high detection probability In many ecological contexts, biodiversity indices may be a valuable tool, but this may not be the best choice to measure biodiversity in post-disaster scenarios
B. Incomplete detection
Traditional methods for biodiversity assessments often overlook incomplete detection of species Incomplete detection leads to biases when estimating species diversity wherein not all species present are observed or recorded This situation arises from a variety of factors, including the limitations because of field survey methodologies, the behavior and ecology of target species, and the spatio-temporal variability of ecosystems. Some species may be rare, elusive, or exhibit cryptic behaviors, making them difficult to detect. In other cases, environmental conditions (i.e. post-disaster event scenarios) or survey timing may affect the detectability of certain species, leading to underestimations of their presence. When conducting post-disaster biodiversity assessments, one must be cognizant of incomplete detection. We advise that you be careful in making conclusions about the results of the field assessment. For example, low species richness (number of species observed) post-disaster does not immediately mean local extinction, rather can be attributed to artefacts of sampling.
C. Sampling effort
Species accumulation curves or SAC are used to estimate the number of species in a particular area. SAC can also be used to indicate the adequacy of sampling. It is also termed as the collector's curve, where it records the total number of species revealed, during the process of data collection, as additional individuals are added to the pool of all previously observed or collected individuals or samples. In contrast, a rarefaction curve is produced by repeatedly re-sampling the pool of N individuals, at random, plotting the average number of species represented by individuals or samples. In postdisaster scenarios, we expect these curves to not reach a plateau due to extreme changes in the habitat condition which may result in species displacement, or species migrating to a safe space or refugia. In this situation, biodiversity assessments shift from achieving a plateau accumulation curve to documenting changes in species composition (if pre-disaster data is available), monitoring recovery trends, and prioritizing strategic areas for restoration.
We conducted ground validation assessments in Puerto Princesa City to spot-check the condition of biodiversity in the areas of PPSRNP, CNCH, LGU San Vicente, and LGU Roxas. Presented in the image below are species accumulation and rarefaction curves (on a per-site basis) for the Green Assessment - Rapid Biodiversity Assessment in Palawan (Figure 28) It can easily be interpreted that there is enough sampling effort for the avifaunal assessments compared to the herpetofauna and flora (trees) which tends-
Lecture Series 12: Methods for Analyzing Green Assessment Data (post-fieldwork only)
-to be increasing Since this is a post-event (typhoon) scenario for assessing biodiversity, we do not expect the accumulation and rarefaction curves to reach the plateau, this may be due to: direct effects and changes in the landscape; canopy openness; inaccessibility of common forest trails; changes in water flow and depth of inland waters; and damaged habitat of known species. It can be assumed that adding more sites or employing other methodologies to observe species can increase species detection for both herpetofauna and flora, but not for avifauna
Habitat analysis post-disaster
Figure 28. Species accumulation and rarefaction curves for avifauna, herpetofauna, and trees
Lecture Series 12: Methods for Analyzing Green Assessment Data (post-fieldwork only)
Habitat analysis post-disaster
Typhoon disturbance is one of the main factors that create a mosaic of heterogeneous habitat patches at different spatial scales in forest ecosystems. Typhoon-induced canopy gaps can range in size from a single uprooted tree to widespread blowdowns, which is a crucial factor in the forest species composition Hence, it is essential to determine whether the changes shown in the rapid appraisal maps are actually reflected in the ground Aside from validating the typhoon-induced damages and vegetation loss, the severity of damage and possible sources of regenerants are taken into consideration These are important factors in deciding immediate management actions or interventions needed to initiate the restoration process
Activity 6: Habitat Analysis
Lecture Series 12: Methods for Analyzing Green Assessment Data (post-fieldwork only)
Activity 6: Habitat Analysis
The resulting Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) difference map from stage 1 showed that a prominent red color would indicate a drastic change in vegetation from the pre-to post-disaster event (see sample in Figure 29) To verify the vegetation loss shown in the NDVI difference map, the habitat assessment in stage 2 will show the type and severity of damage observed on the ground The data obtained will determine whether the changes in vegetation were most likely due to crown damage (defoliation, broken branches) or uprooted trees.
Collate all the data from the habitat assessment datasheet and based on these, determine the severity of damage (1-light, 2-moderate, 3-severe) using the matrix discussed in lecture series seven.
After identifying the level of damage, follow the data format below then save the file in comma-separated values (.csv). Make sure that the quadrat number, geographic coordinates, and damage are included in the data table.
Figure 29. Sample NDVI difference map of Central and Northern Palawan.
Table 29. Sample data format for damage assessment mapping
3. Using any mapping software (ArcGIS, QGIS), overlay the plot coordinates with the associated damage in the NDVI map produced in the green assessment stage 1.
4 Add land cover data with NDVI difference for additional validation metric
5. Check whether the severely damaged areas based on habitat assessment coincide with the ‘red’ areas or possible damaged areas on the NDVI difference map This will validate whether vegetation loss on the NDVI difference map is reflected on the ground.
6. Add an attribute field in the metadata of the point layer to connect the corner points or vertices. Name the new column field as ‘Order’. Enter the number for each quadrat in an ordered manner in the Order column (Table 30)
Table 30. Sample habitat data format after adding the Order column field
7. Convert the point layer to a path or line using the “Points to Path” in the Processing Toolbox Select the point layer as the input layer and choose an output file
8. Then convert the path or line layer to a polygon using the “Line to Polygon” in the toolbox. Select the line layer as the input layer and choose an output file. A new polygon layer showing habitat plots or quadrats is added to the layers panel (see Figure 30)
Figure 30. Sample damage assessment map in Barangay Marufinas, Puerto Princesa
Lecture Series 12: Methods for Analyzing Green Assessment Data (post-fieldwork only)
Activity 7: Preparing for Species Distribution Modeling After-event Scenario
In Activity 2, pre-event distribution models for identified management indicator species In this section, preparing first-hand data information gathered through rapid biodiversity assessments enables users to analyze post-event distribution models to understand the changes in distribution patterns
Step 1: Curated Primary Field Data
The rapid biodiversity assessments (RBA) in areas severely damaged by natural calamities entail securing species occurrence data, which include geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) The only information needed to be prepared for post-event SDMs
Based on your learnings from Lecture Series 2 and 3, follow the steps to select management indicator species for conservation This shall represent the species pool on range shifts and contraction/spread of species distribution after massive changes in the landscape Refer to your species database and utilize your RTE tables for species selection Ensure that the species you choose aligns with the criteria outlined in the previous lecture
In situations where a specimen cannot be identified to the species level, assign a temporary or preliminary identification This practice is especially pertinent for unidentified or unknown species encountered during your survey If a species can only be identified at the genus level, denote this by appending ' sp ' to the name, indicating that the identification is at a broader taxonomic level
Note: For flora species, it's crucial to verify whether their scientific names are current and officially recognized Always use the most recent and valid scientific names available In case of discrepancies or outdated names, make the necessary updates
Species detection in post-event scenarios is expected to be lower especially when severe damage to habitats is observed. Gathering secondary data information is essential to model species distributions appropriately. Refer to Lecture Series 3 for steps in obtained species occurrence from secondary data
3: Check for Data Quality
and Information
Information from online databases must be reviewed before we can use it as input data. Examine the compiled species occurrence records through QGIS. Make sure that occurrence records appear to be within the area of interest (AOI), and remove duplicate records or outliers
Ensure both datasets are in the same coordinate reference system (CRS)
Step 4. Run you SDMs.
Refer to the next training module - Green Assessment Analysis and Interpretation for steps in preparing post-disaster SDMs.
Step 2: Obtain Species Occurrences from Secondary Data
Step
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