National COVID-19 Resiliency Network (NCRN) AUDIENCE BLACK/AFRICANPROFILEAMERICANS Prepared by
Black/African American communities are affected more by COVID-19 than non-Latino Whites, though only making up about 14% of the population.1 Racial discrimination, historical mistrust, and general suspicion of the healthcare system and the government are contributors to why Black/African Americans are reluctant in seeking medical advice (i.e., doctor visits) and routine preventive care, such as COVID-19 testing, even when experiencing symptoms, or vaccination. The lack of insurance coverage, limited culturally congruent healthcare, and racial inequities in the U.S. health systems are significant barriers impacting Black/African Americans’ access to a usual source of quality healthcare for medical visits and COVID-19 testing and treatment services. , 5 , 6 Black/African Americans also often face homelessness, poverty, lack of higher-paying employment opportunities, and increased incarceration rates.2 All of these can contribute to an increase in COVID-19 rates, hospitalization, and death. Black/African Americans heavily rely on social media, mainly via mobile devices, for COVID-19 information. They have the highest smartphone ownership and usage of the total population.4 In the traditional media category, radio remains a tried and trusted channel for news and information, followed by broadcast and cable television as a source of entertainment and news.7 Social networking sites and online audio streaming services, including podcasts, are the heaviest used digital platforms.4
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NCRN Black/African American Audience ProfilePage 2 13.6% Black/African Americans make up 13.6% (50,835) of COVID-19 deaths.6 11.1% Of COVID-19 diagnoses, 11.1% are Black/African Americans, and they are 2.8 times more at risk for hospitalization.6 8 46.8M Black/African Americans make up almost 14% of the nation’s total population.1 10 States with the highest Black/African American population:1 + Texas + Florida + Georgia + New York + California + North Carolina + Illinois + Maryland + Virginia + Louisiana Profile Summary
TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
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In the scope of the pandemic, where you live, where you work, and whom you live with can bring about factors affecting health and social equity that make it challenging for racial and ethnic minority groups like Black/African Americans to avoid getting sick and dying from COVID-19 or to obtain treatment. These factors include discrimination, healthcare access and use, occupation, education, income and wealth gaps, neighborhood and physical environment, and housing.12
NCRN Black/African American Audience Profile Page 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
COVID-19 Impact on Black/African Americans
Black/African Americans are also at an increased risk for serious illness if they contract COVID-19 due to facing higher rates of underlying health issues such as diabetes, asthma, hypertension, and obesity.
Since early 2020, disproportionate COVID-19 illness and death rates in Black/African American communities have been reported in U.S. cities and states. For instance, 42% of deaths in Georgia have been among Black/African Americans even though they represent only 32.6% of Georgia’s population, and they are dying at much higher rates (about four times) from COVID-19 than Whites across all age groups.9 Likewise, in Los Angeles County, Black/African Americans have been dying at slightly higher rates than other races, despite comprising only 9% of the population. Although data on COVID-19 testing rates for specific racial and ethnic groups is limited, a recent study conducted in New York City found that COVID-19 testing rates were significantly higher among Black/African Americans compared to Caucasians, which researchers indicate is a result of Black/African American residents having limited access to health-promoting living and working conditions.11 For COVID-19 vaccinations nationwide, Black/African Americans make up 8.5% (5,233,577) of fully vaccinated individuals and 8.7% (7,146,379) of individuals who have been administered at least one dose.8
As of May 2021, in the United States, roughly 11% of Black/African American individuals have been diagnosed with COVID-19, and they make up 13.6% of COVID-19 deaths.8
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Recent research finds that half of Black/African Americans who do not intend to get vaccinated note their major reason is they have seen too many mistakes from the medical care system in the past; 43% say they do not get vaccines in general, and 37% say they don’t think they need the vaccine.16
+ Though they can find a test, there are barriers that would decrease their likelihood in getting the COVID-19 test, including unreliable online systems for test sign-ups, long waiting times at testing sites, and the discomfort felt during the testing procedure’s swabbing.14
COVID-19 Perceptions
+ Black/African Americans share a low perceived effectiveness of the COVID-19 vaccine due to the uncertainty around new COVID-19 strains, confusion about which of the vaccines that have been or remain to be approved works best, questions about why vaccinated people still get COVID-19 or still must take preventive measures (e.g., mask wearing), and uncertainty about populations not included in clinical trials.14
Low perceived susceptibility among the audience is common. Many Black/African Americans see themselves as unlikely to get COVID-19 due to low or no exposure to the virus, their healthy lifestyle, and their adoption of other preventive measures such as mask wearing.14
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Of those Black/African Americans hesitant to get a vaccine, there is a belief of negative outcome expectations. The prevalent concerns are the potential the vaccine could have negative side effects that remain to be revealed, such as causing harmful reactions because of one’s genetic background, underlying health issues, or allergies; or be lethal.14
+ Decisions to get tested for COVID-19 are typically driven by cues to action. Testing is sought out by many Black/African Americans for travel requirements, medical procedures, employer requirements, COVID-19 symptoms, and plans to visit high-risk family members during the holidays.14
+ Black/African Americans not planning to get the COVID-19 vaccine have distrust in the government, pharmaceutical companies, and the healthcare system due to their past ethical abuses, and question vaccine safety given the “rushed” vaccine development process and emergency authorization approval by the Food and Drug Administration.14
18 TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
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+ Within their close social networks, Black/African Americans perceive a social norm of family and friends preferring to “wait and see” to learn more about the COVID-19 vaccine’s safety and effectiveness before deciding to get vaccinated.
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A recent survey assessing COVID-19 vaccination intent found that a significantly higher ratio of Black/African American individuals were not sure or not intending to get the COVID-19 vaccine (61%) compared to White individuals (37%).15
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For individuals who were open to the vaccine, family members expressed disapproval of their getting the vaccine.14 COVID-19 Behaviors
+ The strongest predictors for COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy were lower educational attainment, Black race, and not having had a recent flu vaccination. Flu vaccination among Black/African Americans (50%) was slightly lower than among Caucasians (58%) during 2020 to 2021.17
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+ For Black/African American men, female partners often have an influence on health-seeking behaviors. Children are also big motivators for Black/African American men because of the desire to see the younger generation grow up.20
+ Organizations such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), spokespeople such as faith leaders, and public figures that promote healthy lifestyles are also trusted sources of information among Black/African Americans.14
TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
+ Trusted sources of health-related information for Black/African American community members include mass media channels such as national and local TV and news outlets, followed by internet searches using Google.14
NCRN Black/African American Audience Profile Page 5 Trusted Sources and Influencers
Trusted sources of health-related information for women are physicians, media, and health/medical-related associations, but women were skeptical of the information if it differed from their personal experience. Addressing health and health outcomes in the current political climate often is cast under the shadow of access to care, access to quality care, and health insurance coverage.19
The top two trusted sources for receiving health information for Black/African Americans are physicians and the internet. Black/African Americans are more likely to use the internet over any other source (e.g., newspapers, radio, magazines) to seek health information. However, it is important to note that the internet is usually used to complement or clarify information that was given by a healthcare provider, rather than to seek information on its own.24 The need to clarify health information from a physician could be associated with poor health communication between health providers and patients. Fifty-eight percent of Black/African Americans have below basic health literacy skills, which could make it harder to understand health information that is given from a provider.25 Black/African American women tend to use the internet to search for health information for themselves and others, such as a spouse or kid.13
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Faith-based settings are key to Black/African American community life, particularly among older and Southern Black/African Americans. Health conversations starting around and centered on faith are well-received and acted upon. Black/African American churches often break down barriers imposed by age and socioeconomic status.21 Due to COVID-19, Black/African American consumers have begun to shift their buying patterns toward household care and other items that protect them from the virus.22 During 2020 and COVID-19, Black/African Americans are looking for brands that can satisfy their needs for value, ease pandemic concerns, and showcase the Black/African American Sharingcommunity/culture.experiences and social networking are fundamental to the Black/African American community. In today’s digital age, online social networks have become the virtual gathering forum to exchange ideas, feelings, aspirations, and plans. Social media is a critical information source and connection for many, and ultimately can bring Black/African American families together. Black/African Americans have become leaders in expressing their feelings and advancing their causes through social networks by becoming their own authors—sharing news and bringing widespread awareness to social issues and trends.23
TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
Health Behavior and Information Seeking
+ Complacency and fatalism. Most Black/African Americans know at least one person who tested positive for COVID-19. One in three Black/African Americans know at least one person who has died from COVID-19.27
TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
Cultural relevance. It is important to make sure that the message can relate to the priority community. Do not underestimate the important role of healthcare providers as trusted messengers in overcoming vaccine hesitancy. Therefore, having Black/African American healthcare providers at the forefront of vaccine rollout efforts and delivering messages is key.26
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+ Skepticism. Black/African American participants expressed uncertainty about the effectiveness of the vaccine given the different COVID-19 strains that continue to appear; therefore, it is important that message concepts should also aim to increase the perceived effectiveness of the vaccine.22
Considerations for Messaging
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+ Cultural terminology. Messages should use terminology that is informative, concise, and easy to digest. Fifty-four percent of Black/African Americans have below basic health literacy skills, meaning that they have no more than the most simple and concrete literacy skills.25 When developing messages, plain language should be used. Messages in plain language should include how the vaccine was developed, timeline of development, and side effects and results of clinical trials.14
+ Distrust in Federal Government. Black/African Americans’ level of distrust of Federal Government health programs continues to escalate. Message concepts should aim to increase trust and decrease distrust in institutions and science. Messages should acknowledge Black/African Americans’ distrust in government institutions, potential racial bias, and health inequities while maintaining a reputation as an honest and transparent source for vaccine information.14
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+ Focus on parents or older adults. Parents and older adults are key figures, also serving as gatekeepers for communication and decision-making, and influence actions and outcomes within Black/African American families.29
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. Engage lay health educators, local healthcare providers, community leaders, leaders of faith-based organizations, and public figures to share information. To effectively reach the Black/African American community and to increase trust in COVID-19 testing and vaccines, messages should be delivered by these recognized and trusted local messengers.28
Proven Strategies
+ Promote across communication channels. Engage Black/African Americans through a mix of communication channels that work in exposing them to messages and materials at different places and times, including through local TV news channels, radio, social media, and interpersonal relationships such as family, church members, friends, and trusted organizations such as the CDC and state and local health departments to promote COVID-19 information.24
+ Share COVID-19 processes and experiences. It is important to leverage messengers who can relate to the community for sharing insight on COVID-19 testing and vaccination processes. Sharing real experiences on live television news, webinars, and via photos on social media are helpful to ease negative community perceptions.24
+ Foster culturally tailored behavioral and mental health dialogue and response. Comprehensive prevention education strategies that encourage resilience (positive adaptation to adversity) must be proactively integrated into COVID-19 initiatives and promoted in Black/African American communities. This promotion should entail advocating for proactive self-care, reducing stigma, and encouraging integrated healthcare.31
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Leverage community and family. Black/African American “family” may include fellow church members, sorority sisters, best friends, old college roommates, close neighbors, as well as blood relatives.30 Engaging members of one “family” fosters an environment for trusted motivators to take action.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
Conduct outreach with trusted community messengers
Focus on women. Black/African American women are the family health gatekeepers.29 Appeal to the women’s caregiving nature and encourage them to help get the entire family to take preventive actions to protect one another.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
+ Growing diversity in the Black/African American population. As the U.S. Black/African American population grows, so does its diversity. The Black population has increased from 36.2 million in 2000 to 46.8 million in 2019. Additionally, the foreign-born Black population has increased from 7% in 2000 to 10% in 2019. Black immigrants are mostly from two regions of the world. Nearly 9 in 10 (88%) of Black immigrants were born in African and Caribbean countries. Of that group, 46% were born in Caribbean nations, and 42% were born in African countries. The remaining 12% of the Black immigrant population migrated from other parts of the world, with Mexico, Guyana, and Honduras as the top three countries of origin.32
As of 2019, 46.8 million people in the United States identified as Black/African American, which represents approximately 14% of the total population.32 Black/African Americans are the second largest minority population, following the Hispanic/Latino population.32
+ Distribution in the United States. In 2019, most Black/African Americans lived in the South (58.7% of the Black/African American U.S. population), with 32.8% living in Louisiana, and 32.6% living in Georgia.1 33 34 Black/African American remigration to the South continues, affecting culture and economies across the Black/African American community.1
Geographic Data
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In addition, during the second Great Migration in the early 1900s, Black/African Americans began to migrate west to Los Angeles to escape the racial violence of the South with hopes of better opportunities.35 Now, of the 10.1 million people living in Los Angeles County, approximately 9% are Black/African American.36
Geography and culture. Black/African American audiences represent a blend of cultures and traditions that reflect their diverse, rich history. The population incorporates cultural influence from Africa, the Caribbean, Latin America, Europe, and North America. Over time, the audience has collected these influences and created a unique culture that is ever evolving and both forward-thinking and reflective.
According to a 2019 U.S. Census Bureau report, the average Black/African American household median income was $43,771, compared to $71,664 for Caucasian households. In 2019, the U.S. Census Bureau reported that 21.2% of Black/African Americans in comparison to 9% of Caucasians were living at the poverty level.1 Additional reports highlight that while Black/African Americans only represent 13% of the general population, they account for 39% of people experiencing homelessness, and more than 50% of homeless families with children.37 In addition, while Black/African American homeownership has increased, the gap in homeownership is still very apparent, with approximately 42.1% of Black/African American families owning their homes compared to 73.3% of Caucasian homeowners.38
Economic Implications
The economic impact of COVID-19 on Black/African Americans cannot be overlooked. Not only are they facing more deaths from COVID-19 and higher unemployment than any other population in the United States, but they are also at the forefront of the pandemic, employed as essential workers. Black/African Americans are often frontline workers, making up more than 20% of employees in transportation and utilities work, home health and residential care, and childcare, putting Black/African American families under heightened pressure and increased risk for contracting COVID-19.7
According to this report, the Black/African American buying power is projected to reach $1.8 trillion in 2024. The report shows that Black/African American consumers represent the largest consumer group in the marketplace.4
Despite economic inequities, according to a 2020 Nielsen report, Black/African American buying power stood at $1.4 trillion in 2019, a 48% increase from 2010, and an increase that surpasses the buying power of Caucasians (40% increase) and the overall U.S. population (43% increase).
TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
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In addition, historically, the Black/African American population has been distrusting of the U.S. healthcare system because of unethical studies such as the infamous Tuskegee study, as well as overall structural racism.40 Therefore, to reach maximum outreach effectiveness in the COVID-19 vaccine rollout, it is important to consider the factors and methods of engagement:
In 2019, a lower percentage of Black/African Americans, as compared to Caucasians ages 25 and over, had earned at least a high school diploma (87.2% and 93.3%, respectively).
About 22.6% of Black/African Americans had a bachelor’s degree or higher, as compared with 36.9% of Caucasians.
Characteristics and Cultural Understanding
+ Use graphics and images.
More Black/African American women than Black/African American men had earned at least a bachelor’s degree (25% compared with 19.7%), while among Caucasians, a higher proportion of men than women had earned at least a bachelor’s degree (37.3% and 36.5%, respectively).1 This educational disparity contributes greatly to the health literacy gap. One study reported that physicians overestimated the health literacy scores of 54% of Black/African American patients, compared with 11% of non-Hispanic White and 36% of patients of another race/ethnicity.39
+ Explain data with social math.
+ Use culturally relevant, relatable examples.
+ Confirm understanding through repeated affirmation.
For a culture often defined by coming together on a regular basis socially, through family meals, worship services, and visits to the local barbershop or salon, the pandemic presented Black/African American families with common and unique challenges, especially families with children. With the events of the past year, discussions with family and loved ones have centered on social justice topics of structural racism and civic duty as frequently as conversations on juggling childcare or healthcare access during a pandemic.7 Family time has also evolved over the last year to include more screen time, increased access to content, and an appetite across all age groups for culturally relevant and representative programming.7 Black/African American consumers, particularly women, are increasingly resisting perceived Western views of health, beauty, fitness, and levels of success. According to Forbes, the notion of being Black/African American and a woman is having a key moment in society, between Black Girl Magic and Black Lives Matter. Investments are being made to support and shape Black/African American consumerism, which is largely driven by the idea that Black/African American women influence the shopping habits and purchases of their peers.41 With the increase in and access to research about ancestry and familial relationships to Africa, Black/African Americans ages 45 to 64 are more interested in reflecting their connection to Africa.41 Black immigrants are a diverse group with significant differences in demographic, economic, and geographic characteristics. These characteristics are often tied to their birth country. Black immigrants are more likely than other immigrants to hold U.S. citizenship, with 54% having achieved this status. Additionally, more than 90% of Black immigrants speak English well or only speak English. They are more likely to have a college degree or to be married than U.S.-born Black/African Americans. Black immigrants primarily live in the Northeast and South.42
+ Use plain language to explain scientific terms.
43 TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access topics of interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African Americans COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted Sources and Influencers Health Behavior and Information Seeking Considerations for Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding Media ReferencesHabits
NCRN Black/African American Audience Profile Page 11
Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy
+ Provide relatable and trusted messengers when possible (same ethnicity, same gender, same age range).
Socializing is very important in the Black/African American community. Annual events such as family reunions, cultural festivals, and alumni gatherings connect Black/African Americans in a unique way that focuses on fellowship and is cross-generational.23
+ Black/African Americans trust media that speaks in their own voices two times more than mainstream media.46
Black/African Americans are widely recognized as avid consumers of all media types, particularly television, music, and social media. They’re media savvy, ranking as the number one ethnic group in watching live TV, playing game consoles, consuming media via smartphones, and streaming audio.4
COVID-19 Perceptions COVID-19 Behaviors Trusted
Information
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A full 92%, or 31 million, of all Black/African Americans listen to the radio weekly.44 Black/African Americans listen to more radio than the total population at all age levels, particularly in the youngest and Boomer age ranges: 12 to 17 (+11% more) and 50 to 64 (+9% more). Black/African Americans also listen to the radio more than any race or ethnic group, at 13 hours per week.44 More than one-third of Black/African Americans report spending more time with radio because of COVID-19, and 33% of Black/African Americans still spend most of the time listening to the radio in the car.4
Radio and Podcasts
As leaders in African-American radio and syndicated radio programming, Reach Media reaches nearly 90% of Black/African Americans and is considered a key source for programs with trusted voices that attract Black/African American listeners.46
Black/African Americans are consumers across multiple channels of media and increasingly using “internet on the go,” with more time spent on video, audio, and social networking than the total population.44 The year 2020 represented a year of adaption for Black/African Americans, given the COVID-19 crisis coupled with the ongoing pursuit of racial justice and the need to make an impact and engage and celebrate Black culture, while maintaining social distancing practices.7
interest. Profile COVID-19SummaryImpact on Black/African
Influencers Health
Digital Black/African Americans are digital influencers. They’re more likely to use smartphones, with about 96% of households owning a smartphone.4 They are even spending the most time on their smartphones when compared to the total population, given the pandemic presented the need for those working outside the home to stay in touch with family members staying inside the home due to lockdowns.4 Black/African Americans have an affinity for using apps that fill information gaps. Black/African Americans are also more likely to download health apps compared to other races.45
+ Popular Black/African-American syndicated shows include The Al Sharpton Show, The D. L. Hughley Show, The Rick Smiley Morning Show, Get Up! Mornings With Erica Campbell, The Morning Hustle, The Nightly Spirit With Darlene McCoy, The Willie Moore Jr. Show, and the Russ Parr Morning Show.46
+ Along with radio, more Black/African Americans are listening to podcasts during the pandemic. Almost 49% of Black/African Americans spend one to four hours per week streaming podcasts.4 The top genres among Black/African American podcast listeners include music, health and fitness, religion, and news podcasts that are culturally relevant to the Black/African American community.48 topics of Americans Sources and Behavior and Seeking Considerations for Media ReferencesHabits
TABLE OF CONTENTS Click sections to access
Media Habits
Messaging Proven GeographicStrategiesData Economic Implications Education and Its Impact on Health Literacy Characteristics and Cultural Understanding
Instagram has a huge reach, actively reaching about 55% of Black/African Americans, with this group’s use surpassing the total population’s by about 20%.44 Twitter is another popular social media choice for Black/African Americans, reaching about 37% of this audience.44 But authenticity is key. Social sites for favorites—media outlets, personalities (media, celebrities, athletes, musicians, actors/actresses), social consciousness-raisers—are key influencers. In addition, for educated Black/African Americans, social alumni groups, university sites, and fraternity/sorority groups are important influencers. Black/African American consumers are skilled and well-informed commentators who are making their voices heard, and in many cases, defining and leading the national conversation on important social issues.23
+ The top three genres among Black/African Americans ages 12 and older are R&B, hip-hop, and gospel stations.47
9. Corwin T. Black death rate from COVID-19 in Georgia far higher across all ages. Augusta Chronicle. September 18, 2020.
8. Demographic Trends of COVID-19 Cases and Deaths in the US reported to CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
13. Peek ME, Simons RA, Parker WF, et al. COVID-19 among African Americans: An action plan for mitigating disparities Am J Public Health. 2021;111(2):286–292. National COVID-19 Resiliency Network Report on Black/African American and Hispanic/Latino Focus Groups. Morehouse School of Medicine. Fisher KA, Bloomstone SJ, Walker J, et al. Attitudes Toward a Potential SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine: A Survey of U.S. Adults Annals of Internal Medicine. 2020. Funk C, Tyson A. Growing share of Americans say they plan to get a COVID-19 vaccine – or already have. Pew Research Center. March 5, 2021. National COVID-19 Resiliency Network Priority Populations Chartbook. Morehouse School of Medicine.
11. Douglas JA, Subica AM. COVID-19 treatment resource disparities and social disadvantage in New York City Prev Med. 2020;141:106282.
5. Cuellar NG, Aquino E, Dawson MA. Culturally congruent health care of COVID-19 in minorities in the United States: A clinical practice paper from the national coalition of ethnic minority nurse associations. Journal of Transcultural Nursing. 2020 6. Double Jeopardy: COVID-19 and Behavioral Health Disparities for Black and Latino Communities in the U.S Office of Behavioral Health Equity, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.
1. Profile: Black/African Americans. Office of Minority Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2021.
2. Vasquez Reyes M. The disproportional impact of COVID-19 on African Americans Health Hum Rights. 2020;22(2):299-307.
30. Taylor RJ, Chatters LM, Woodward AT, Brown E. Racial and ethnic differences in extended family, friendship, fictive kin and congregational informal support networks. Family Relations. 2013;62(4):609–624. Akintobi TH, Jacobs T, Sabbs D, et al. Community engagement of African Americans in the era of COVID-19: Considerations, challenges, implications, and recommendations for public health. Prev Chronic Dis. 2020;17:20025. Tamir C. The growing diversity of Black America. Pew Research Center. March 25, 2021. QuickFacts: Louisiana. U.S. Census Bureau. 34. QuickFacts: Georgia. U.S. Census Bureau. Simpson K. The Great Migration: Creating a new Black identity in Los Angeles KCET; 2012. 36. QuickFacts: Los Angeles County, California. U.S. Census Bureau. 37. Homelessness and Racial Disparities. National Alliance to End Homelessness; 2020. Housing Vacancies and Homeownership (CPS/HVS), Annual Statistics: 2019 (Including Historical Data by State and MSA). U.S. Census Bureau. Muvuka B, Combs RM, Ayangeakaa SD, et al. Health literacy in African-American communities: barriers and strategies. Health Lit Res Pract. 2020;4(3):e138–e143. U.S. Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2021. 41. Bracken-Ferguson K. Influencers are benefitting niche communities: How Black female bloggers are defining beauty. Forbes Agency Council. March 29, 2017. Anderson M. Statistical portrait of the U.S. Black immigrant population. Pew Research Center. April 9, 2015. 43. Power of the Purse: The Contributions of Black Immigrants in the United States. New American Economy Research Fund. March 19, 2020. It’s In The Bag: Black Consumers’ Path to Purchase. Diverse Intelligence Series Report. Nielsen; 2019. Krebs P, Duncan DT. Health app use among U.S. mobile phone owners: A national survey. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2015;3(4):e101. Urban One Portfolio. Reach Media. 47. Listen Up: African-American Consumers and Music. Diverse Intelligence Series Report. Nielsen; 2019. 48. Podcasting Today: Insights for Podcast Advertisers. Nielsen; 2021.
25. The Health Literacy of America’s Adults: Results From the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy. National Center for Education Statistics, US Dept of Education; 2006. 26. Robeznieks A. How to overcome COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among Black patients American Medical Association. December 29, 2020. 27. June 9–14, 2020, Washington Post-Ipsos poll The Washington Post. June 26, 2020. 28. National COVID-19 Resiliency Network Report on Black/African American In-Depth Interviews. Morehouse School of Medicine. 29. Hood SM, Golembiewski EH, Hadyatoullaye S, et al. Structural and contextual patterns in family health history knowledge among African American Adults: A mixed-methods social network analysis study Journal of Social Structure. 2019;20(3):96–118.
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7. The New Black Family Culture: Navigating Crises Through Content. Diverse Intelligence Series Report, Nielsen; 2021.
20. Eley NT, Namey E, McKenna K, Johnson AC, Guest G. Beyond the individual: Social and cultural influences on the health-seeking behaviors of African American men. Am J Men’s Health. January 2019. 21. McDonnell J, Idler E. Promoting advance care planning in African American faith communities: literature review and assessment of church-based programs. Palliative Care and Social Practice. 2020. 22. COVID-19: A New Normal for African Americans. Data Infographic. Nielsen; 2020. 23. Increasingly Affluent, Educated and Diverse: African-American Consumers. Diverse Intelligence Series Report. Nielsen; 2015. 24. James DCS, Harville C. Online health information seeking behaviors among African Americans. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2019;7(3):19–32.
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4. The Power of the Black Community: From Moment to Movement. Diverse Intelligence Series Report, Nielsen; 2020.
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