Pei psia final draft final revision june 2016 2 signed

process in remote pastures.

Besides, poor herders are most affected by the lack of modernisation in animal products´ processing and trading channels, whereas rich herders can guarantee high income simply by selling high volumes of big livestock alive. In this respect, the extensive rather than intensive use of natural resources is confirmed in the KR. As a result, the income of richest herders is perceived by interviewees as growing more intensively than the income of other herders´ groups. Objective data on income also suggest that a high social mobility is common among herders, opening up opportunities for some and increasing vulnerability for others, although respectively the richest and the poorest seem to be proportionally less affected by such mobility. Therefore, the concentration of benefits from a booming beef market in the hands of a few “fatteners-finishers” is a threat to the redistributive purpose of the Law of Pastures that cannot be underestimated as mentioned in Martiniére (op.cit.), although we found no strong evidence that it can be related to lack of empowerment of medium-small herders deriving from the manipulation of PCs by wealthy and powerful livestock owners, as from Kasymov and Thiel (op.cit.) and Kasymov (op.cit.).

Processes at work favouring income concentration seem to be of an economic rather than political nature, as it is also the case in animal products´ trading whereby PSIA survey results seem to confirm that a large part of the added value can go to traders and intermediators, with whom pastures users are engaged in constant bargaining on prices and conditions as according to Kasymov (op.cit.).

In contrast, the problem of scale has been positively addressed in jamaats by means of landsharing and cooperative working and marketing arrangements. Different from Mal Koshuu, scale is searched for on equitable bases in jamaats (actually, the relationship among parties is also different – cooperative rather than contractual). Jamaats´ composition reflects the overall economic structure whereby livestock and land concentration go hand in hand, but the landsharing arrangement of jamaat favours the poor more than herding as in jamaat they benefit from larger scale in land, whose main contributors are large cattle/land owners. Therefore, an articulate farming/herding strategy is recommendable for the reduction of rural poverty and attainment of the redistribution purpose of pasture reforms. According to the typology of Martinière (op. cit.), destitute farming families (FFS1) when included in jamaats may have the opportunity to access the market and improve living conditions, and farming families who are not marginalised from the market but are vulnerable due to the small scale of production resulting from the lack of capital (FFS2) might increase their sustainability, as productive factors in general (including capital) are upscaled from the pool of resources in jamaats and efficiency is gained from the division of labour of jamaats.

As demonstrated by the experience of jamaat, introducing further cooperative arrangements in the herding side of this strategy (for instance in joining small herds to upscaling for easing remote pasturing) could contribute to improve the distributional impact of reforms.

Last but not least, the fact that a minority of herders actually receives and follows grazing plans is clearly a flaw in PUA/PC performance, with negative environmental consequences. This is possibly related to some of the institutional fragilities of PUA/PC as previously discussed, including the low enforcement of sanctions as confirmed by the present PSIA survey. More broadly, the need to revise a rural poverty reduction strategy based exclusively on quantitative livestock growth and of including climate risk management in pasture use management has been stressed.