Building resilience in light of American aggression
Horticulture in times of trade chaos. | 8
Tasting local Impact of variety, freshness, and terroir on hops flavour. | 12
Managing orchard soils
How to start off right. | 18
March 2025
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Building
resilience
in light of American aggression
What the horticulture sector can do given potential tariffs and trade chaos.
BY MATT MCINTOSH
Kiwi berries resemble grapes more than they do their fuzzy counterparts. See page 14.
merc67 / iStock / Getty Images Plus/Getty Images
How a lab analysis can help you crack the code on how much compost to add to your system. Managing orchard soils 18
How to start off right and what to do if you don’t.
Tasting local
The
BY TIMOTHY FOWLER
Seeds of opportunity: Kiwi berries
Are the challenges growing kiwi berries worth the reward? BY
TIMOTHY FOWLER
Photo:
FROM THE EDITOR
Let’s get personal
The last time I wrote an editorial for Fruit and Vegetable magazine, it was 2020 and I was the editor. Since then, I’ve crossed the line from reporting on agriculture to working within it. Moving from publishing into the world of vertical farming increases my appreciation for the fruit and vegetable growers who keep this industry moving forward. It also turned me into a reader of the industry magazines I used to write for – happy that I have a place to go to for my niche.
At first, I worried that stepping away from traditional horticulture might distance me from the realities of farming. But I’ve realized I never truly left. If anything, being on the front lines of food production gives me a new perspective. I now help make the news I once wrote about, and the challenges facing growers feel more personal than ever.
vegetable growers. The editor in me would say, “This is a timely story, and it needs to be recorded in our industry’s history.” The version of me who now works within agriculture asks a different question: “How will this uncertainty affect the business? What’s in my control to create more stability?” In a way, my empathy for growers has only deepened.
This industry is tough; filled with good years, bad years, unpredictable weather, shifting markets, and minimal recognition. Some days, it’s easy to wonder: Why keep growing food at all?
I suspect, and hope, I’m not alone in that feeling. But something always pulls us back in. Maybe it’s a sense of duty, a shared community, or the belief that producing food is one of the most meaningful things a person can do.
It’s unsurprising that I’m at a loss
“Agriculture is a balancing act—taking the good with the bad, finding stability where we can, and pushing forward even when the future feels uncertain.
This issue covers topics that remind us of both the complexity and opportunity in this industry: soil management in apple orchards, compost amendments for healthier crops, and the way the land influences hops flavour. I’m also delighted to see that Seeds of Opportunity, a series I launched during my tenure, is still uncovering niche crops that might offer new market potential - this time with kiwi berries.
But the story I want to highlight is on page 8 about the ongoing trade tensions between Canada and the U.S. and their impact on fruit and
for words on what to say to you here when everything feels so precarious. I guess in the next few months all we can do is keep a cool head and not get swept up in a ferocious news cycle.
Agriculture is a balancing act— taking the good with the bad, finding stability where we can, and pushing forward even when the future feels uncertain. As you flip through these pages, I hope you see glimmers of hope that change can be good. Uncertainty can be good. Most importantly, we’re not alone. We’ll ride this wave and stay grounded together like we always do. •
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B.C. announces $5 million in funding to support tree-fruit growers
The government of British Columbia is making $5 million available to provincial tree-fruit growers to help prepare their orchards for extreme weather.
The funding, made available through the new Tree Fruit Climate Resiliency program, will aid in the purchase of protective covers, energy-efficient heaters and wind machines, canopy sprinklers, shade protection and more.
“Last summer, British Columbians saw almost no local cherries available and missed out on having delicious Okanagan peaches to enjoy,” said Lana Popham, minister of agriculture and food, in a media release. “We know these climate impacts will continue, which is why we’re helping growers with a new program so their crops and businesses become more resilient in the face of increasingly challenging growing conditions.”
The summer of 2024 was a rough one for B.C. fruit
growers with an extreme cold snap in January devastating crops before the season began and then the closure of the B.C. Tree Fruit Co-operative left some growers scrambling for alternative channels for their produce.
On August 13, the B.C. government announced it was raising the compensation rate to 90 per cent from 80 per cent within the AgriStability program and doubling the compensation cap for all farmers for the 2024 year.
The recently announced $5 million program allows farmers to buy equipment and pursue projects that were not eligible under previous programs. The program will provide 80 per cent cost-share funding for eligible projects up to a maximum of $100,000 per farm business. Multiple growers may also jointly apply for a project that benefits more than one producer, such as a wind machine that could be used on multiple properties.
HEALTH CANADA CANCELS LAMBDA-CYHALOTHRIN
INSECTICIDE
Health Canada’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA) has cancelled the use of the pyrethroid insecticide lambda-cyhalothrin for apples and peaches, while simultaneously reinstating certain feed uses.
FOR PEACHES AND APPLES
Lambda-chyalothrin is an insecticide used to control many types of insect pests, and goes by product names Matador, Silencer, Zivata, Warrior and Labamba insecticide.
Under the authority of the Pest Control
Products Act, as of February 3, Health Canada is cancelling registration for use on apples and peaches.
Health Canada is also re-instating the following livestock feed uses: canola/flax – seed and
BY THE NUMBERS in 2023 $4.4 billion
meal, field corn grain and milled byproducts, popcorn grain, sweet corn grain, legume vegetables (including pulses) – seeds, soybean seeds, hulls, meal, and cereals – grain and milled byproducts.
The United States absorbs
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BUILDING RESILIENCE IN LIGHT OF AMERICAN AGGRESSION
What the horticulture sector can do given potential tariffs and trade chaos.
BY MATT MCINTOSH
BELOW
Making improvements to farm safety nets to reflect growers’ cash flow realities and adding greenhouse producers in economic safety programming can help fortify the industry from tariffs and other destabilizing factors.
Trade chaos came thick and fast after the most recent U.S. presidential election. With significant tariffs and general obstructions to cross-border trade a now omnipresent threat, if not hard reality, Canada’s fruit and vegetable growers are strapping in for what might prove a difficult and tumultuous period.
However, not all hope is lost and the fruit and vegetable sector faces opportunities to build domestic resilience, and potentially, other markets.
CONSUMERS MUST BEAR COSTS
Jan VanderHout, greenhouse vegetable grower from the Hamilton, Ont. region, says tariffs on Canadiangrown produce will have a very significant impact given the greenhouse sector exports over 80 per cent of its product to America.
“Quite frankly there are no margins, hardly, these days. There’s no way under the sun that this can come out of our pocket,” VanderHout says. The additional costs will thus be borne by the end consumer.
On the production side, getting ahead of potential tariffs by stockpiling important materials is also very difficult. At the time of writing, for example, the imposition of 25 per cent across-the-board tariffs on Canadian goods was delayed by one month. Even if that month reprieve had lasted – the White House announced 25 per cent tariffs on Canadian steel and aluminium mere days after announcing the previous general reprieve. VanderHout says it would not have been enough time to order and receive even basic supplies, such as corrugated boxes.
VanderHout does wonder whether tariffs could spur some opportunity domestically, though, at least for specific products.
If American produce – apples from Washington state for example – are hit with counter tariffs, consumers might be more attracted to grown-in-Canada options which had been previously undermined by cheaper American imports. The same might not be said for more perishable products. Regardless, VanderHout thinks it’s a good time to reconsider how Canada’s food system works, and what would be required to ensure it’s both secure and “vibrant,” rather than “just surviving.”
“I really hope that we can find some diplomatic way to resolve this tariff conversation,” he says. “The complications around a border like ours are far and great.”
SHORING UP DOMESTIC RESILIENCE
The current trade confusion reflects the general market unpredictability long known to Canada’s produce sector, according to Massimo Bergamini, executive director of Fruit and Vegetable Growers of Canada. The “very mercurial” nature of the sitting American president – and the fact that it’s “very difficult to engage in traditional diplomacy” because no one knows who has the president’s ear at any given time – necessitates reflection on how Canadian agricultural safety nets could be enhanced.
Making improvements to farm safety nets, Bergamini says, could include financial structures and payment periods more fitting of produce growers’ cash-flow realities. Another improvement could be the inclusion of greenhouse producers in economic safety programming – something which he says is not the case currently. Analyzing vulnerabilities across fruit and vegetable supply chains is also important since “tariff dislocation up and down the supply chain” will be felt for years.
“In as much as these tariffs are in place for a period of time, providing some adjustment assistance for the sector to do their work is an absolute necessity,” Bergamini says.
Finding alternative markets for Canadian produce, while taking steps to improve domestic food security, are additional actions to be considered. Bergamini admits alternative market development and the perishable nature of many fruit and vegetable products make finding new destinations more challenging. Nonetheless, he argues Canada is “at a pivot point” where long-standing economic relationships with our to-date largest trading partner must be reimagined. Similarly, rising food insecurity among Canadian families should spur policymakers to “embrace a food lens” when developing any strategic policy. Does a carbon tax on agricultural-use petroleum, for example, make sense from a competitiveness and food security perspective? If not, Bergamini suggests the policy should be reconsidered.
After attending the federal government’s economic summit in Toronto on February 7, Bergamini – one of only two agriculture sector representatives he was aware of in attendance – says he was heartened to notice a widespread and “clear-eyed assessment” of the need to show solidarity in the face of aggression from south of the border.
“I came out of that meeting inspired, feeling energized. I think everyone I spoke to felt that same way,” Bergamini says. He hopes, however, the lack of agricultural ambassadors in the room “doesn’t reflect a sense that agrifood is a secondary concern.”
“We do have a responsibility as leaders in the sector to be very clear with the government of Canada. It is absolutely essential the government of Canada focuses on the needs of our industry very closely so we don’t get caught in massive Covid-like adjustment programs that may or may not work.”
A SIEGE MENTALITY
For Tom Heeman, berry grower and cider maker based near London, Ont., local demand for his family’s farm products have been a great insulator against international trade issues. He considers their diversification as a multi-faceted farm market and agritourism business a vital means of avoiding the need to participate in produce export.
Things are different with his cider and mead production, though.
Currently producing a combined 70,000 litres per year, Heeman has been working with an American distributor to export both products to retailers in the United States. An additional 25 per cent import tariff cost, and the possible impact on sales, is concerning to both parties. The price of aluminium, the material in which Heeman packages the beverages, is another area of concern given the focus on metals in tariff talks.
“There’s no consideration for the independent businessperson,” says Heeman about entrepreneurs on both sides of the border. He adds the last time tariffs were imposed on aluminum and steel, his packaging costs “went though the roof.”
“We just have to act like it’s business as usual. It’s a siege mentality. Whoever breaks their spirit first is going to lose . . . It’s a bit of a game of chicken.”
Bergamini expresses a similar sentiment, referring to the new U.S. presidential administration as engaging in “tariff carpet bombing.”
“Canadians have fought in all the big battles. We’ve never backed away from a fight and we’re not going to back away today.” •
Compost Selection for High Tunnel Soils
How a lab analysis can help you crack the code on how much compost to add to your system.
BY TALIA PLASKETT, PROTECTED CROP PRODUCTION SPECIALIST, PERENNIA
Compost is a commonly used, slow-release source of nutrients for crop production. It is a great way to use existing waste products, build organic matter, contribute to healthy soil microbial communities and feed our crops. However, compost composition is variable and should not be applied at the same rate year after year.
Compost analysis is an affordable and accessible way to get a sense of the nutrient breakdown and availability in slow-release amendments. The results
will help make decisions on amendment suitability, volume needed and nitrogen availability over time. Unfortunately, compost does not have the same resource and research backing as manure when it comes to nitrogen breakdown over time. Compost is inherently more variable than manure, where the materials that can be used to create a compost are vast, vary in origin and can be combined many ways. We can gain some useful insights from a lab analysis on our composted amendments.
Continue on page 22
ABOVE
Compost is more unpredictable than manure, because the materials used are vast, vary in origin and can be combined in many ways.
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Want to help support the next generation of agri-food leaders?
Become a “Champion of CABEF.” This program allows your organization to directly sponsor a deserving student. Contact CABEF at info@cabef.org.
TASTING LOCAL
The impact of variety, freshness, and terroir on hops flavour.
BY TIMOTHY FOWLER
Terroir is a French word for land, encompassing the full array of the natural environment and growing conditions that impact the flavour of a product: soil composition, sunlight, moisture, temperature, topography and climate.
Think of a crisp McIntosh apple. If you sampled three apples grown in different provinces, you would note those apples reflect the terroir where they were grown, but only after recognizing the familiar taste of a classic McIntosh. If you were eating that McIntosh right off the tree during peak season, the flavour would be influenced by the freshness. The terroir of the apple takes a third place behind the variety (McIntosh) and freshness. Hops are the same. First, Centennial hops will have the taste profile of the variety. Second, fresh Centennial hops will have a particular flavour profile. Finally, the flavour influence of terroir comes third.
Hans Doef grew up in central Alberta working at the family greenhouse business. Doef is the co-founder of Blindman Brewing in Lacombe, Alta.
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which is a short bike ride from Blindman River, that inspires the brewery’s name.
“I left the fold, now I am the black sheep––makin’ booze,” Doef starts.
Blindman Brewery is known for their award-winner the Brett 24-2 Stock Ale. The beer is made with hops and barley grown just a few kilometers from the brewery—on Range Road 24-2. The beer sells out fast; it is a once-a-year batch.
“We would buy all their Chinook and use that in one fresh hop beer. The whole crew would go pick bags of fresh hops. That evening, we would throw it all into our kettle and do a seasonal fresh hopped beer every fall,” Doef says.
While Doef appreciates what fresh, local hops have to offer, hobby growers are challenged to meet the quality, consistency, and pelletized format that larger breweries require. Quality, consistency, availability, and price are the deciding factors for the bulk of Doef’s purchases, which are from Washington or Oregon.
Sandra Gowan, who owns Prairie Gem Hop Yard in Manitoba, advises deciding the
Hops are easy to grow but a challenge to control.
PHOTO
size of your operation based on your market.
“Hops take significant attention throughout the growing season. We learned the hard way, starting with a small dryer, and then that wasn’t big enough, so we had to get a second, bigger dryer. The same with freezers. Set a size goal in mind about how big you want your operation to be and then buy the equipment right off the bat to work to that scale,” Gowan says.
One of Prairie Gem’s biggest customers is One Great City Brewing Co. in Winnipeg, Man. and their brewmaster, Scott Barber, appreciates the local hops.
“Not only does [Gowan] give us a unique seasonal one-time offering, but flavours you get from fresh off-the-vine hops is much different than any other type of pelletized hops,” Barber says.
The most important thing for these oncea-year fresh-hopped beers, after quality, is proximity to the brewery. Customers are happy to taste a hyper-local product as a one-off beer for an annual celebration.
“These local wet-hopped beers are not much about capturing a particular flavour, they are about being community-centric. It is a ‘we brew-this-with-your-neighbours’ product. For us, the local angle is more
about branding and giving customers a beverage that is unique,” Barber says.
While Barber loves the one-of-a-kind seasonal specialty beer, most of the hops used for their brew comes from large commercial hops growers that meet the brewery’s demand for a pelletized format and consistent blends. When customers land on a favourite beer, they want to be able to repeat that experience and this requires consistency in hops.
Topp’s Hops in Abbotsford, B.C. established a consistent product, which allows them to tap into the commercial macro brewery market. Topp’s now markets 13 varieties of hops with an average production rate of about 1,500 pounds per acre across those various cultivars. Some customers contract 700-800 pounds or more of one variety annually, while smaller brewers are making purchases in the 20-pound range.
“Other than being a smaller producer, we’re using the same metrics as the largest growers, the number ones in hops,” says Mark Topp, the owner. “We use the same temperatures, air flows, we’re looking at the same metrics of pellet density, how we’re packaging and the materials we’re
using for storage and packaging.”
“Hops are bittering products. You’re looking at alpha-acids convert to IBUs (International Bitterness Units), and you put a price point on that. Part of what growers need to measure is how many alpha acids can I produce in an acre, and what can I sell that for?” Topp says.
As Topp reflects, he wished he would have understood the importance of alpha acids to brewers before putting any poles in the ground. He says understanding the various ways hops are incorporated in beer would have saved him time and money. Then he would tackle building production to what the brewers require.
“There were new craft breweries popping up every year. We got carried away with the idea that growing hops is a no brainer, and it can’t fail. That approach was a rude awakening. We continue to struggle today, to get ourselves in the system of anticipating the production cycle for the beer, managing the growing cycle to match that in volume, timing and quality, and (hopefully) maintaining and securing that market for years to come.”
To hops growers, terroir is tertiary to your target market. •
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SEEDS OF OPPORTUNITY: KIWI BERRIES
Are the challenges growing kiwi berries worth the reward?
BY TIMOTHY FOWLER
When one thinks of a “kiwi,” the larger egg-sized fuzzy kiwi fruit is what comes to mind. But, a smaller more niche variety, the kiwi berry, could be a seed of opportunity for adventurous growers.
Kiwi berries resemble grapes more than they do their fuzzy counterparts, but once you cut them open, they have the distinct green flesh and black seed details. Kiwi berries are also sweeter than fuzzy kiwi and have smooth edible skins with a sour aftertaste. Plus, they are nutritional powerhouses packed with vitamin C, potassium, and fibre.
Tam Andersen with Prairie Gardens in Gibbons, Alta. has had good luck with her kiwi berries despite living in plant hardiness zone 3b and dealing with temperature drops to -40°C during the winter. Her plants have flourished and remain pest free. In addition to the small crop of kiwi berries produced on her farm, she focuses on providing vines to gardeners and growers who want to add some diversity to their small orchards or home gardens.
“We’re familiar with what grows here in northern Alberta, north of the 56 parallel. We specialize in fruit trees that are hardy for the north as far up as the Yukon,” Andersen starts. “Edmonton, Alta., [one hour south of us] is a zone 4, but we are a zone 3b.
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Other parts of Alberta tend to be zone 2 or a 2b so it’s a pretty challenging region for fruit growing. I think kiwi berries are really a home gardener project. I don’t foresee, in Alberta, it being a commercial crop.”
Kiwi berries are native to northern regions in Asia, such as central China, Siberia, Japan, and Korea. While kiwi berries might not rise in popularity as a commercial crop, their sweet tart taste has many fans.
“The fruit is delicious, kind of like a tart grape crossed with kiwi. They were known as ‘Chinese gooseberries,’ so if you think gooseberry in your mind, it’s more like a gooseberry than a traditional New Zealand kiwi. Fresh eating is spectacular,” Andersen says.
“Eating fresh is probably the best application for them. Putting them on a pavlova, I think would be like my happy world,” Andersen says, adding that kiwi berries will prevent gelatine from setting because of an enzyme, but they make great jam too.
“You do start to see them more now. There is success growing them commercially in Ontario, so we’ll see them filtering all the way out here to Alberta, and you can buy them by the clamshell at the local grocer,” Andersen says.
Kiwi berries resemble grapes more than they do their fuzzy counterparts, but once you cut them open, they have the distinct green flesh and black seed details.
PHOTO COURTESY OF TAM ANDERSON, PRAIRIE GARDENS.
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While kiwi berries have a long history in Ontario, according to Ontario’s Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Agribusiness, very little commercial production exists. The specialty fruit is re-emerging in Ontario grocery stores as an imported fruit and on a handful of farms experimenting with domestic production. Ontario growers rely on the kiwi berry breeding and production research at the University of New Hampshire for variety recommendations and agronomic practices.
HARDINESS
“It’s never the winter that kills them, it’s always the spring,” Andersen explains about tender crops like apricots and kiwis.
“When we have these wild fluctuations of temperature, where in March we have a plus 20°C kind of a day, the plants start to come out of dormancy too soon. They get caught with sap up in the stems, which just blows the plumbing apart when it freezes again. Our native plants go dormant both on temperature and day length and stay dormant based on those two factors. They’re not fooled by plus 20°C days in March. The European plants think, ‘Oh, spring has arrived.’ With no reason to doubt it, the sap starts flowing. If you have that perfect north-facing slope, sheltered with wind breaks, it could be something fun to experiment with, but not typically an easy crop to grow by any means in Alberta.”
PLANTING
For those not dissuaded from planting kiwi berries, Andersen has picked up some tips over the years. She recommends planting kiwi berries on a north facing bank or on the north side of buildings in well-drained soil. Growers install the vines on a trellis system much like grapes or train them to climb a pergola.
“Appropriate trellising is important because the vines are so prolific and become heavy once they get going commercially, you’d want huge fence posts and wire structures to support them. Because we get the cold winters, it’s also nice to be able to lay those vines down on the ground,” Andersen says.
Andersen recommends Arctic Kiwi (Actinidia kolomikta) which require both male and female plants. She prefers varieties Pasha Arctic Beauty (male) and September Sun (female). Andersen recommends one male for every seven females, planted within the space that “a
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While kiwi berries might not rise in popularity as a commercial crop, their sweet tart taste has many fans.
bee would travel.” “Bee” distance means planting vines three metres apart, so the most distance between males and females is 21 metres.
If you have a beehive and a high concentration of bees, then the distance can be extended. In city yards where there tends to be a shortage of bees, consistent pollination may be a problem because there is not enough bees to go around. Prairie Gardens also markets Actinidia arguta ‘Issai’ which is a self-fertilizing variety.
Kiwi berries do well in well-drained soil. They like water, so regular moisture through the season is important, but never standing water. Careful watering during the establishment years is critical, because they have a tremendous root system. There are as many roots below as vine above, which helps when fruiting is in September, a typically dry period in the Prairies. Even so, Andersen recommends judicious watering in fruiting season to ensure good fruit size and reminds us that any berry, is actually 80 per cent water.
HARVEST
When it comes to harvest, growers are at the whim of mother nature at the end of the season. Kiwi berries planted for northern exposure typically ripen in late September. The goal is avoiding frost while keeping the berries on the vines long enough to build sugars until they’re ripe enough to pick. Andersen sees historical temperatures trending warmer in the fall running through September and October. It is not uncommon to harvest 45 kilograms of fruit from a single plant. Just make sure all the fruits are harvested before frost strikes.
POST HARVEST
In the fall, Andersen covers the vine’s roots with 12” deep mulch (like wood shavings).
Kiwi berries require significant and regular pruning. Most of the pruning can be done in winter when plants are dormant, focusing on removing branches that produced fruit the previous season, in addition to dead and crossing branches. The vines require additional pruning two or three times throughout the summer too, removing long arching vines that extend beyond developing fruits. Because one-year-old branches produce the most fruit, trim these back to the eighth node up from the base of the plant, instead of pruning the whole branch.
Andersen reports her hardy kiwis are among the most pest-free fruits she can grow. The plants are not fussy, nor do they require any spraying.
“REGULAR” KIWIS
If kiwi berries are not worth the challenge, what about kiwi fruit? Currently, New Zealand grows 90 per cent of the world’s kiwi fruit, but growers in California and the southern tip of Vancouver Island have been able to grow kiwi commercially too.
In Fraser Valley, B.C., Gorgi Petkov produced 150 metric tonnes of kiwi fruit. During those best production years, it was enough kiwis to stock the local Real Canadian Superstore. The sweet fruit retailed for $7.00/ kilo in 2022 and provided an excellent income for his farm.
In 2008, Petkov imported Hayward and Tomuri kiwi plants from Italy. The 2,000 plants were prolific producers, until he found Psa (Pseudomonas syringae actinidiae) on his plants. Psa is a disease of kiwi fruit that can spread rapidly through orchards and cause disease in vines.
With no approved solution to address the problem, Petkov pulled the plants and is now searching for a suitable table grape to take their place. He blames a particularly wet and cool spring for the proliferation of the disease and regrets there was no suitable approved treatment available to resolve the Psa issue.
Pest issues aside, tests in B.C. and New Zealand show that a kiwi fruit plant is killed if the temperature drops below -18°C. Since kiwi fruit needs a long season to ripen, areas like the southern part of Vancouver Island and its moderate temperatures are more suited to the plant’s characteristics.
However, kiwi berry – as seen on Andersen’s farm – is a hardier berry that can handle the cold better. •
RECOGNIZEGREATNESS
Do you know an influential and innovative woman in Canadian agriculture? We’re looking for six women making a difference in the industry. This includes women in:
• Farm ownership and operations
• Ag advocacy and policy
• Research and education
• Agronomy
• Business development
• … and more!
Managing orchard soils
How
to start off right – and what to do if you don’t.
by Matt McIntosh
Getting soil organic matter, fertility, and pathogens under control prior to planting new or replacement orchard acres is ideal. But when time is short, and not everything gets done, some remedial actions can still be taken.
According to Erika DeBrouwer, tree fruit specialist with the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Agribusiness (OMAFA), prepping the ground for “the lifespan of the orchard” begins by planning ahead – that is, having a plan several years prior to planting, and at least two full growing seasons to enact that plan. She points to a variety of soil fertility and water management strategies identified in the Ontario Ministry’s spring 2024 edition of On Core, a resource for commercial apple producers, as go-to methods for ensuring long-term success.
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Cover crop research analyzed the impacts of a “Swiss Sandwich System” comprised of Timothy grass, alfalfa, alsike clover and red clover mixtures planted in orchard alleyways.
relationship with orchard crop roots, and one which benefits from organic amendments. The species is considered beneficial enough for some growers to inoculate soils or tree roots with the fungus. When things don’t go as planned prior to orchard planting, Lyndsey King, British Columbia’s Ministry of Agriculture and Food tree fruit specialist, says top-dressing compost or mulch can still assist in improving – or at least protecting – organic matter and microbial communities in the soil. Higher organic matter also increases water holding capacity – something King considers ever-more important as growers in the province experience more extreme weather.
Recommendations include removing old tree stock, if applicable, as early as possible to maximize the time available for soil remediation and preparation. Good soil management during this period is essential for the management of soil pests, fertility and organic matter improvements, water holding capacity, and active beneficial biology.
FERTILITY AND ORGANIC MATTER
Danny Jefferies, OMAFA’s horticulture soil management specialist, stresses the importance of ensuring soil pH matches conditions required for the forthcoming orchard crop. Testing pH levels should ideally begin in the years leading up to tree removal or new orchard establishment, providing time to remediate pH concerns with lime applications. Consider data on what pH the intended orchard crop prefers, what type of lime – dolomitic versus calcitic –is best suited to the task at hand, and other factors.
Higher organic matter soils are more resilient to environmental stresses. Consequently, Jefferies says the addition of organic amendments like manure and compost can help raise organic matter levels, boost soil microbial activity, and reduce susceptibility to compaction.
There are benefits to soil microbial communities, too. Jefferies identifies a fungus called endo arbuscular mycorrhizal as a particularly desired organism because of its symbiotic
“We struggle with having adequate access to irrigation water . . . As our summers get hotter and dryer, and we see more drought concern, organic matter and mulch can hep retain that moisture and limit the amount of water they need to use,” King says.
VALUE IN COVER CROPS
DeBrouwer, Jefferies, and King cite cover crops as an excellent way to improve soils before orchards are planted, and potentially, in established acres as well. Jefferies, for example, highlights the ability of some cover crops to boost populations of the fungus, endo arbuscular mycorrhizal. King points to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada research highlighting the impact cover crops can have on nitrogen fixation and water retention capacity, when planted in the alleyways of established orchards. This research, conducted in conjunction with Nova Scotia organic apple grower Brian Boates, analyzed the impacts of a “Swiss Sandwich System” comprised of Timothy grass, alfalfa, alsike clover and red clover mixtures planted in orchard alleyways.
As detailed in a Fruit and Vegetable article from 2016 – still early days for the project – the researcher working with Boates observed the orchard’s trees “were looking better, with greener leaves indicating higher chlorophyll content.” Speaking in February 2025, Boates says his focus has evolved to focus on fertilizer substitution and the associated cost savings. A working strategy involved mulching young trees, with cover crop strips on either side.
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“The legumes, probably for the first two, three or four years, would actually generate enough feed for the tree,” Boates says. “We definitely thought there was good tree response.”
Using legumes like red clover, a go-to species for Boates, does not bring orchards to production as quickly as would be the case with the addition of nitrogen fertilizer. However, he says taking the legume route is “really cheap” by comparison, and a great fit one is not “in a huge hurry.” Pea and oat cover crops have also proven their worth on Boates’ farm, being mixed with apple pumice for compost.
“During the pandemic we didn’t buy fertilizer. It was a good time to be able to coast,” he says. “Fertilizer is only going to go up. . . When you get working in organic systems, your price of nitrogen is really high. Anything you can do to try and save some is going to help.”
Different cover crop species do different things. As DeBrouwer and Jefferies describe in On Core, growers should select cover crops to address specific problems, and conversely, be aware of potential risks.
Winter rye and buckwheat, for example, are good for supressing weeds, while red clover, peas and vetch are excellent nitrogen fixers. However, cover crops can also absorb muchneeded moisture in dry conditions, and attract pests like apple leafcurling midge, tarnished plant bug, and two-spotted spider mites. Conversely, they also play host to beneficial insects and supress nematodes in the soil.
The take-away message is positive. The combination of organic matter support, weed suppression, aid in water retention, beneficial insect attraction, and other qualities mean the right cover crops, in the right setting, brings “lots of benefits” to the orchard. •
TABLE 1: Selecting a Cover Crop (Source: On Core by OMAFA, Volume 28, Issue 2, Spring 2024)
Function
of the
Cover Crop Best Choice for Cover Crop
Nitrogen production Legumes – red clover, peas, or vetch
Nitrogen scavenging Fall uptake – cover crop radish and other brassicas, oats
Weed suppression
Nematode suppression*
Winter/spring uptake – rye, winter wheat
Cover crop radish and other brassicas
Winter rye, sorghum sudan
Buckwheat
Mustards: Caliente, Cutlass, Forge
Sudans/Sorghums: Sordan 79, Trudan 8
Pearl millet: CFPM 101
Marigold: Crackerjack, Creole
Oilseed radish: Adagio, Colonel
Soil structure building Grasses like oats, barley, rye, wheat, triticale, ryegrass
Fibrous root system plants such as red clover
Diverse cover crop mixtures
Compaction reduction
Strong tap root plants that grow over time
Alfalfa, sweet clover
Biomass return to soil Fall: oats, oilseed radish, diverse cover crop mixtures
Erosion protection (wind or water)
Summer: millets, sorghum sudan
Winter rye, winter wheat
Any well-established cover crop, e.g. ryegrass
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*Nematode suppression is specific to the variety of cover crop, the species of nematode and the management of the cover crop materials.
Sample ID Compost
Parameter
Potassium (%) 0.071 0.158
K2O (%) 0.086 0.191
Phosphorus (%) 0.609 1.353
P2O5(%) 1.396 3.099
Magnesium (%) 0.312 0.693
Sodium (%) 0.097 0.215
Boron (ppm) 9.50 21.10
Copper (ppm) 11.55 25.64
Iron (ppm) 1036.31 2300.86
Manganese (ppm) 240.06 533.00
Zinc (ppm) 31.95 70.93
Compost analysis is recommended yearly before making decisions on the volume applied to the production space, because the nutrient composition of compost changes as it breaks down. The more information we have on the ‘current’ state of our amendments, the better we can meet the needs of our crops and support productive soils. If you source your compost from a supplier, it is still worth submitting your own sample to verify and know what is going into your soil.
The results generated from a compost analysis are going to depend on the lab used for analysis. We will reference a sample report from Nova Scotia’s Department of Agriculture’s Analytical Lab (Table 1) for the purpose of this article.
NITROGEN (%)
The nitrogen reported on the analysis is our total nitrogen in the sample. This includes our inorganic, immediately plant-available forms of nitrogen (NO3-N, NH4-N), as well as our organic, not yet plant-available forms. We can use this number as a measure of how much nitrogen is in the amendment itself, but we do not gain any information on how much of this needs to be mineralized for it to become plant available.
C:N RATIO
The carbon to nitrogen ratio will give us an indication of how quickly our amendment may break down. Generally, a higher ratio will break down slower compared to an amendment with a lower ratio. Anything with a ratio that is greater than 40:1 requires more nitrogen to mineralize than what is present in the amendment itself, so it will pull nitrogen from the surrounding soil. If we use the sample analysis provided here, we can see a C:N ratio of 12.18:1. Most composts fall between 8:1 and 30:1.
POTASSIUM AND PHOSPHORUS
For calculation purposes, we want to refer to the compound values (K2O and P2O5) as opposed to the elemental forms (potassium, phosphorus).
SOLUBLE SALTS (Mg, Ca, K2O, Na)
This is a highly important area to focus on when we are making our amendment selections. Greenhouse soils are highly prone to salt accumulation over time, so extreme care should be taken when deciding what is going to be the most suitable to apply and how much. Unlike outdoor fields, salts do not get leached out by precipitation in a greenhouse. Using the sample provided, the reported total nitrogen in the source material is 0.9 per cent. The calcium is reported as 5.79 per cent in this sample, meaning if we were to try and hit a target of 200 pounds of nitrogen (lbs. N) for a tomato crop, we would be applying six times that in calcium, which is quite excessive. Calcium is going to hang around in our soils and out-compete magnesium and potassium uptake, so considerate application is important here.
When making selections, it is worth comparing the lab analysis for a handful of composts/amendments against each other, while keeping the most recent soil test results front of mind. Rising levels of phosphorus or soluble salts in soil
FIGURE 2: Application of amendments based on other crop nutrient targets.
tests should be an indication the next amendment going into the greenhouse will have low levels of those things.
APPLICATION RATES
Most composts contain lower amounts of nitrogen compared to a manure or conventional product. They also tend to have high levels of “hitchhikers” (salts) depending on the source ingredients. It does not mean that cannot be used in greenhouse fertility plans, but it does mean a more mindful approach to the volumes being applied.
Figure 1 shows the amendment application approach of hitting our target nitrogen. In this case the target is 115 lbs. N./acre. The crop’s need and the volume applied match up perfectly for nitrogen. In the process, we have also supplemented 60 lbs Phosphorus/acre and 115 lbs potassium/acre. Both phosphorus and potassium have been applied in excess due to the amount of these compounds in relation to the amount of nitrogen this amendment had to offer.
Figure 2 shows the application approach of amending based on other nutrient targets. In this case, we have chosen potassium as our target. We can see the crop need and the applied amount is spot on for potassium as opposed to 80 lbs/acre in access that the first strategy resulted in. There is still some excess phosphorus being applied here but not as severe as when nitrogen was our target. In terms of nitrogen, we have not hit our target but point source of nitrogen can be used to bring that value up.
Compost application does not have to be all or nothing and we can still gain some of the amazing benefits of using slow-release fertility sources on our farms. The use of a lab analysis on these sources will help guide decisions on appropriate volumes added into the system, ensuring our greenhouse soils remain productive for many years to come. •
FIGURE 1: Application of amendments to hit target crop nitrogen needs.
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