KLASS Khronicles Season 4_June 2024

Current Affairs

WERE THE APOLLO 11 MOON LANDINGS REALLY FAKED OR NOT?

Danha Kim

MANY YEARS AFTER the “Eagle” Apollo 11 Lunar Module (LM) supposedly landed on the moon back in 1969, rumours and conspiracy theories began to escalate on whether or not it was fake

Theory 1 - Shadows from the picture taken during the moon landing prove that the landing was faked

After examining the picture of Neil Armstrongs’ shadow and another object just out of sight, people observed that the shadows shown in this picture were not parallel. Their reasoning was that, “If the sun was the only light source, then the shadows should’ve been parallel ”

However, this theory was quickly disproved when Professor Ojha explained in an article that, “Anyone can reproduce this effect for themselves If you are trying to reduce onto a 2D plane a 3D situation, lines can do all sorts of weird things that make lines appear not parallel ” He lay the blame on perspective, and pretty soon the accusations saying the picture was mocked up in a studio simmered down.

Conspiracy status - debunked

Theory 2 - There is no wind on the moon, but the Apollo 11 US flag is waving in the wind

In the picture of Buzz Aldrin, one of the 24 to go to the moon (and one of the 12 to walk on it), we can see that the American flag is flapping in the wind. Way back in the 18th century, it was revealed that there was no atmosphere on the moon (therefore no wind), so why was the flag waving without a source too?

To debunk this theory took some time, but in the end, it was all thanks to NASA’s organisation and attention to detail On the particular edge of the flag, there is said to be a telescopic pole that has been extended along the top to make the flag fly proudly in the ‘wind’

Conspiracy status - debunked

Theory 3 - Apollo astronauts could not have survived Earth’s radiation field

This theory is slightly different to the others, as it implies that not only was the moon landing faked, but so was every single other space visit out of the Earth’s Van Allen radiation belt The Van Allen belt surrounds Earth with a zone of charged particles. If you enter these regions, there are extremely high radiation concerns If that was the case, how did the Apollo astronauts travel through that belt and out of Earth’s orbit unharmed? Surely the lethal amount of radiation would’ve killed them? ‘The Apollo moon landings were a hoax’, many agreed

Insert (Above): Photograph taken by Neil Armstrong during the Apollo 11 Moon Landing

Insert (Above): Buzz Aldrin saluting the US flag

Insert (Above): A picture explaining the Van Allen radiation belt

Science didn’t. Right at the beginning of the Apollo voyages, the transit time through the Van Allen radiation belt was very very short Travelling through the Van Allen belt, if you are going fast enough, which is required if you’re headed to the Moon, is no problem whatsoever

Conspiracy status - debunked

Theory 4 - Why are there no stars in pictures of the NASA Moon landings?

Theory 5 - If we really went to the Moon in 1969, why have we never been back?

“If this image was really taken on the Moon, shouldn’t the sky be filled with stars?”

This image really spoke out to one conspiracy theorist, who made a point about the absence of stars in the picture of an astronaut walking on the moon After all, there is no atmosphere to distort the image, no clouds to interrupt that spectacular view.

If you’re going to take a picture of a brightly lit scene (remember, the sky may look black, but this is daytime on the Moon), your camera’s shutter speed needs to be incredibly fast and your aperture (the opening in the lens that allows light to enter your camera) small In that situation, faint objects like stars simply aren’t going to show up.

Conspiracy status - debunked

Apollo 17, the last Apollo mission to land astronauts on the Moon took place in 1972 Since then, humans have never gone back to the moon Of course, Apollo 17 wasn’t meant to be the end of the story. Through the 20th century there were many ambitions to establish a permanent lunar base However, it never happened This was no grand conspiracy; this was geopolitics. The answer was that people changed their priorities Attention shifted to the Space Shuttle programme and the ISS (International Space Station), but that doesn’t mean humans can’t return to the Moon in the future

Conspiracy status - debunked

WHY DO WE FEEL CERTAIN EMOTIONS?

Chantal Yong

WHY DO WE feel happy, sad or frightened?

Many neurologists ponder the same question and study the relationship between our minds and emotions It concludes with one stimulus -- hormones Hormones are chemical messengers, secreted from our endocrine glands Hormones greatly influence our emotions and behaviours Our mental health is strongly impacted by hormones because hormones have a major role to play in mental regulation. Scientists have concluded there are “Over 50 hormones identified in humans”.

However, the main 8 hormones that greatly affect our human bodies:

Dopamine

Serotonin

Endorphins

Oxytocin

Oestrogen

Progesterone

Thyroid hormones

Cortisol

“Feel good” hormones: How do they affect us?

One group of hormones called “feel good” hormones is because of the happy, euphoric feelings they produce They are classified as neurotransmitters as they carry messages across the spaces between nerve cells These “Feel good” hormones are dopamine, serotonin, endorphins and oxytocin

Insert (Above): Buzz Aldrin carries experiment equipment on the Moon

Insert (Above): Apollo 17 project, the last Moon project as of now

KLASS KHRONICLES,

Dopamine is important in creating a pleasant, reward-like feeling for us as it’s part of the brain’s reward system. These hormones are produced in the adrenal glands using amino acids Amino acid tyrosine is converted into an amino acid called L- dopa The brain then undergoes another change of L-dopa into dopamine. Dopamine is then secreted from the hypothalamus in our brains. Besides making the mind feel pleasant, Dopamine can react to bodily uses like vasodilation and vasoconstriction, increasing salt and urine removal from your body, and protecting your GI (Gut) lining

You may wonder how Dopamine releases that pleasant feeling you get all the time Your mind has a reward system and dopamine plays a role in it. Our brains are to be actively seeking out behaviours that release dopamine in our reward system. The familiar pleasant feeling you get is released, and then you seek more and more of that feeling When you have the right amount or balance of dopamine, common emotions found are being happy, motivated, alert or focused. However, when there’s a low level of dopamine inside your body, emotions like tiredness, unmotivation or unhappiness start to arise Which can then drive the effects of memory loss, mood swings, and sleep deprivation But this doesn’t mean that high levels of dopamine are good for the body, because side- effects of trouble sleeping, poor impulse control or aggression will start to appear. So finding the balance of this hormone is very necessary.

Neuroscientists have researched that having a “diet that’s high in magnesium and tyro-sine rich foods” can help increase levels of dopamine as more tyrosine amino acids are being “absorbed in your body” and are then transported to the brain and “converted into dopamine Food like chicken, almonds, apples, and chocolates are tyrosine-rich foods Other Dopamine hormones and oxytocin hormones are a big part of “feel good” hormones Oxytocin, like endorphins or serotonin, helps us bond with loved ones and promotes positive feelings Oxytocin is produced in the hypothalamus and is secreted into the bloodstream by the posterior pituitary gland. The electrical activity of neurons in the hypothalamus is released into the blood when these cells are stimulated. Studies have shown that music also seems to increase oxytocin levels, which adds the element of bonding Simple things like the act of touch boost oxytocin release. Research stated that “oxytocin can positively impact social behaviours related to relaxation, trust, and psychological stability ” Other than “feel-good” hormones

One of the hormones that balance the ‘good and bad’ hormone levels is Serotonin Serotonin is a 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), which is a monoamine neurotransmitter 90% of serotonin is found in the cells lining your gastrointestinal tract(Gut intestines) And the other 10% is produced in your brain. This hormone is made from a type of amino acid tryptophan, and It can only be obtained from the foods consumed. Serotonin influences learning, memory, and happiness as well as regulating body temperature, sleep and appetite When there’s an imbalance of serotonin, extreme mental health issues could arise-- depression, anxiety, mania…

Serotonin hormone mainly plays roles in biological factors like digestion, nausea, sleep, wound healing and bone health Serotonin in your GI tract helps control your bowel function and protection of your gut Increasing serotonin can speed up digestion to get rid of irritating foods or toxic products in your body Not only the digestive system, Serotonin can also promote wound healing Serotonin is released by platelets in your blood to help heal wounds It triggers the arterioles (tiniest blood vessels) to narrow and slows down the blood flow This process helps clots to form, encouraging the process of wound healing.

However, the negative effects of Serotonin can definitely be extreme. Studies have shown that “high levels of serotonin in your gut” can lead to or be associated with “making bones weak”, which in turn can lead to serious bone issues like “bone breaks and osteoporosis” This is not only on the body, but mental and emotional impacts are also a huge problem When there are low levels of serotonin, conditions like depression and mood problems may arise, and sleep problems and anxiety are common; which unfortunately, when not taken seriously, can lead to suicidal behaviours Low levels of serotonin can be caused by multiple reasons like limited production of serotonin or non-effective use of serotonin (due to lack of serotonin reception or efficiency in working). Some factors can’t be forcefully controlled, however, researchers have found methods to help boost and increase serotonin levels Consuming more tryptophan-containing foods (Salmon, eggs, cheese, pineapple), getting more sunlight or lowering stress levels can all help with increasing serotonin levels.

Another extremism hormone found in the body is Epinephrine, commonly known as Adrenaline Some special about Epinephrine is that it’s both a hormone and a neurotransmitter As a hormone, it is produced in the adrenal glands-- hat-shaped glands that are found on top of the kidneys This hormone is part of your sympathetic nervous system, in simple words, your body’s emergency response system to danger Triggering the acute stress response or ‘fight or flight’ response.

When your body is in a situation of danger, fear, life or death, your brain perceives the danger and nerves around your hypothalamus send a signal to the CNS (spinal cord, central neuron system) The nervous system sends a message to the body on what to do based on the stimulus or condition provided Some of the rapid body reactions would be pupil dilation, skin turning pale, increase in heart pumps and breathing rate. The pupils would dilate to let more light in to better observe the surroundings. The skin turns pale to divert the blood to areas more in need like muscle groups, so you can fight or run away

These hormones not only have the use of ‘fight or flight’ responses but also help in ‘life or death’ situations When a patient is in cardiac arrest or needs CPR, there’s an increased production of Epinephrine to stimulate the heart On the other hand, if you're experiencing an asthma attack, Epinephrine opens the airway so more oxygen is delivered to the blood It also reduces airway spasms

THE FUTURE OF SOLAR PANELS: TANDEM PEROVSKITE SOLAR CELLS

Zhang Ning Chia

HOW THE PHOTOVOLATIC EFFECT effect leads to electricity

To understand how Tandem Perovskite solar cells work, we must first understand the basic principles of silicon solar cells This requires complicated quantum particle physics, however, at the most basic level we can look at the current created from a semiconductor as a flow of charged particles, whether that is electrons or “holes” In solar cells, there is an n-type semiconductor and a p-type semiconductor which forms the p-n junction

P-type semiconductors are when the semiconducting material is “doped” with an atom that has one fewer valence electrons which causes gaps known, very creatively, as holes. For example, using boron with silicon. These holes readily accept free electrons which is important as this causes the flow of current

Insert (Above): An image illustrating P-type doping

Similarly, n-type semiconductors are “doped” with an excess of electrons by adding atoms with greater valence electrons than the semiconductor material For example, with silicon, we could use phosphorus as it has one more valence electron than silicon The rest of the electrons are used to bond to the silicon so one more electron is free to move into the conduction band when silicon is doped with phosphorus.

Insert (Above): An image illustrating N-type doping

The conduction band is above the valence band and it is an orbital where free electrons can jump if they have enough energy and move freely in the material. This energy comes from photons, which are just light, but as a particle.

The free electrons from the n-side diffuse across the junction into the p-side leaving it with a positive charge and the hole on the pside does the same to the n-side leaving it with a negative charge. This causes a deficiency in free charge carriers near the junction so the area is known as the depletion region and the two sides are separated by opposing electrical fields; held together by a crystal lattice so they cannot move. The excess of holes and electrons can flow in the opposite direction which creates a current.

Reaching maximum efficiency

The issue with this is that we are reaching maximum efficiency The theoretical maximum of silicon solar cells is 29%. For example, LONGi currently holds the record for silicon solar cells at 26.81% efficiency. This is because certain materials only absorb certain wavelengths of light that cause a photovoltaic effect Silicon has a band gap of ~1 1 eV so it can only absorb photons of 1.1eV to cause the valence electrons to jump into the conduction band This can be illustrated by the Shockley–Queisser limit which defines the maximum theoretical efficiency of certain bandgaps

Where tandem perovskites come into play

Perovskites are semiconductors that have a specific structure and follow a general chemical formula of ABX3, for example, calcium titanium oxide. Generally speaking, silicon absorbs red light from the visible spectrum whereas blue light can be absorbed by perovskite This increases efficiency as more energy can be utilised to generate current in a solar cell.

Perovskite can be used in two ways as solar cells. Firstly, thin-film cells, where you only have perovskite as the photovoltaic material

This is similar to a normal silicon photovoltaic cell just replacing the material used to perovskite instead of silicon

However, perovskite and silicon can also be used in tandem (together) to increase solar efficiency Tandem solar cells consist of top cells that absorb high-energy photons and a bottom cell that absorbs low-energy photons

What this looks like specifically are silicon heterojunction cells with perovskite Silicon heterojunction is more efficient because it uses three layers of absorbing materials combining thin-film and traditional photovoltaic technologies as it is more efficient and there is less surface recombination

Traditional crystalline silicon undergoes a phenomenon called surface recombination which is where the dangling bonds (unpaired electrons) at the end of the semiconductor combine with holes which means they cannot contribute to generating electricity To combat this, heterojunction uses a passivating semiconductor (intrinsic silicon which means that it is undoped) to act as a buffer, as well as a wider bandgap layer made of amorphous (non-crystalline) silicon This means that the charge can trickle fast enough to create enough voltage, but also slow enough that recombination is reduced significantly, thus increasing the efficiency

Heterojunction cells, however, are more difficult to make as they require more silver and indium, both of which are scarce Silver is used in a lot of applications and there is a very high demand for it and indium is rare and found in tiny traces

Perovskite is a very useful material to use in a solar panel because not only are they relatively easy to manufacture and deposit onto a surface using low-cost processes, they can also be “tuned” to specific wavelengths of light so they can be maximised in efficiency which can be illustrated in the Shockley–Queisser limit

Insert (Above): An image illustrating how current is created with semiconductors

Insert (Above): An image illustrating the structure of perovskite

Insert (Above): An image illustrating what dangling bonds are

Insert (Above): An image of the Shockley-Queisser limit, which defines the theoretical maximum for the efficiencies of certain materials

However, perovskites break down over time when exposed to moisture, light, heat and oxygen, meaning there needs to be additional technologies developed to stabilise the cells for widespread use This is an immense setback because solar cells are constantly exposed to moisture and oxygen in the air as well as light and heat from the sun. Moreover, the very best perovskites at generating energy contain lead, which is a neurotoxin; however, the industry is working on ways to reduce potential perovskite toxicity

In conclusion, the technology for tandem perovskite works, for example, a company called KAUST claims 33.7% for perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells However, it is a 1 cm2 cell which means that it is not yet ready for commercial use. Before tandem perovskite solar cells can be readily on the market, we must first ensure the stability of perovskite so that they may be used for the long term, without needing to be replaced We must also solve the issue of scarcity for this technology to be cheap and appealing to invest in.

WHAT REALLY HAPPENED TO MH370, THE ‘DISAPPEARING PLANE’?

Cara Lee and Danha Kim

“PLANES GO UP, planes go down.What planes don’t do is just vanish off the face of the Earth ”

Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 (MH370) was an international passenger plane operated by Malaysia Airlines While passing over the Indian Ocean on the 8th of March in 2014 (12:17AM local time), the plane disappeared from satellite images completely, leaving the world utterly bewildered. The search for any remnants of this plane or what could’ve caused the disappearance have all proven unsuccessful, but there have been a few clever theories…

Theory 1 - Cracks in the plane

example of cracks in plane

Despite this rarely happening, cracks in the plane can occur due to stress and corrosion in the metal aircraft components (engines, wings, landing gear). Pilots and passengers would have not been able to put their oxygen masks on in time if this happened However, this theory does not give evidence as to why the plane disappeared completely from satellite images

Theory 2 - Pilot Responsibility

Another spinning theory is that the co-pilot, Zaharie Ahmad Shah, committed was responsible as friends claimed that he was clinically depressed. The tale was he asked the other pilot, Captain Fariq Abdul Hamid to check something outside the cockpit, locked the door, then turned down the cabin pressure levels Since the flight oxygen masks will last for a couple of hours (unlike the passengers’, which last 10-15 minutes), it was considered possible that, after all the passengers were unconscious, he steered the plane towards the ocean Apparently someone had switched off the ACAR system (tracker) so someone had planned for the plane to go south At 1:19 AM Malaysian traffic controllers received a message from Captain Fariq who didn't sound agitated about the ACAR system This shows that Fariq did not tamper with the system, he may have not known what was even wrong

Theory 3 - 9/11Hijacking Mission

Some people have guessed that Israeli agents plotted to crash the Malaysia Airlines plane into a building and blame it on Iranian forces. Of course, like many other theories, that was never proven to be true

Theory 4 - Fire in the cockpit

Different theories suggest that MH370’s cockpit, cargo compartment, landing gear or another part of the plane caught fire However, the theory was later proven wrong by Christopher Goodfellow , a former pilot If the engine had caught fire, the pilot would be dead and not be able to control a fully functional plane towards the ocean surface

Sadly, the mystery remains Teams of professionals and dedicated others continue to search for answers Hopefully, soon the mystery may be solved A reminder air travel remains one of the safest forms of transport though

Insert (Above): An

(Not pictures from MH370)

Insert (Above): A picture of co-pilot Zaharie Ahmad Shah

Insert (Above): An example of a cockpit fire (Not of MH370)

THE GAME THAT BLEW UP ACROSS THE WORLD— GENSHIN IMPACT!

Dora Du and Kershin Loo

ON THE 28TH of September 2020 Mihoyo, a game company, designed a new online RPG battle game - a life changing decision for them and us This game absolutely blew up across the globe two years later - officially creating the largest fan base ever There are now millions of reels, posts, fan art and more about Genshin Impact and we doubt you haven’t seen it before scrolling through social media.

If you’re still curious about what we mean, let’s talk about it! Genshin impact is a free RPG battle game with an amazing gacha system, which was part of the reason why this game absolutely blew up. Let us break apart why we love this game so much.

THE AMAZING GRAPHICS

One of the first things that comes to mind when we think of Genshin impact is its graphics. Its graphics are stunning and detailed to the core from its buildings and landscapes to its animals and ability to obey laws of physics!

However, you will never know the true beauty of Teyvat (the universe that you travel through) until you see it for yourself!

THE PLOT

The game starts with two twins, Aether and Lumine, walking through a door in the sky Just when they were about to pass, an ancient god, Celestia stopped them in their tracks and attacked them. This is the part where you come in. The game gives you a choice - you have to pick the twin that you want to play in This is a once in a lifetime chance, which means you cannot change it in the settings, so think carefully

After you have chosen a twin - the other twin that you did not choose gets trapped by Celestia and vanishes Then, Celestia turns to you and transports you to an unknown continent called Teyvat And thus, your adventure to find your lost sibling begins.

You manage to survive in Teyvat and also gain a flying guide called Paimon, a cute entity that you saved from drowning (and is also possibly your emergency food for later). Together the two of you head over to Mondstat, the city of freedom, where you hope to find your missing brother There, you meet Amber - one of the knights of Favonius - the guild that protects Monstadt, who is your tour guide of the day She takes you to the knights of Favonius’ headquarters, where you meet the grandmaster, Jean and the librarian Lisa At the headquarters, you are notified about the dragon, Dvalin, who recently has gone on a rampage and asks you to help stop him And then the adventure officially begins!

THE GACHA SYSTEM

On the journey to find your brother, you will encounter lots of different characters who will help or hurt you. These characters can be obtained for a limited amount of time through their banners Different characters' banners will come up at different times and you can pull for these banners using wishes, which are obtained using primogems 160 primogems are needed to create one wish, so collecting and saving up for your favourite characters are not easy!

A banner will remain in the game for 20 days before moving into the next character banner However, don’t worry as these characters will get reruns after a few updates so you have plenty of time to save up for a character and their weapon In 80 pulls you are guaranteed to have a 5 star character or weapon if you are wishing on a weapon banner. But be careful as the 5 star character might not be the character you want and since there are a few 5 stars, this is very possible.

If you pull a character again, don’t fret. That will unlock one of its constellations A character has a max of 6 constellations To unlock these constellations, you have to be able to get the character again Different characters have different constellations, so unlocking these constellations will give them more talents

These are the 3 reasons we love Genshin Impact and we highly recommend you download this game over the summer and engage in the captivating storyline and pull all your favourite characters!

Insert (Above): A screenshot of a scene in Genshin Imapct

Insert (Above): An image showing the two twins, Aether and Lumine, of which you chose one from and play as them for the remainder of the game

Insert (Above): Venti, an example of a 5 star character banner

FIXED VS GROWTH MINDSET: CAROL DWECK’S THEORY

Rivkah Frolov

FIXED AND GROWTH mindsets are terms that we hear ever so often at school, but what do they actually mean?

Carol Dweck, an American psychologist, first introduced the concepts of fixed and growth mindsets According to her Mindset Theory, people with a fixed mindset believe that intelligence is innate and determined from birth, and we are either talented or not, with little room for improvement in our everyday lives. There is nothing or very little that can be done to better yourself or your situation, and you would often end up feeling hopeless in tough situations

On the other hand, those with a growth mindset see intelligence to be flexible and capable of growth through effort and learning over time This means that our skills can change through practice and that mistakes are merely a stepping stone for improvement, and in the most optimistic way possible, are nothing but learning opportunities

Dweck suggests that people with a growth mindset are more motivated to learn and embrace mistakes, viewing them as an inevitable and even essential part of the learning process These mistakes range from trivial ones such as getting a maths question wrong in your homework, to big life-changing decisions that may not have turned out quite as you expected Dweck’s theory states that learning from mistakes with a determined, positive attitude is the key to personal growth and academic success

EDITOR’S NOTE

If a fixed mindset is something you think you might have though, there’s no need to worry. The good news is that you can always start putting your growth mindset skills to good use by starting to be more self-aware of how you face new challenges and situations, and how you react when faced with failure Failure and new, tougher challenges can always be a channel for opportunities to better yourself and develop into something better

Another way you can cultivate a growth mindset is by something Dweck calls ‘purposeful engagement’ This focuses on feedback from people around you, seeing through mistakes, enjoying the learning process, and constantly striving to become more productive, which are all ways in which you can improve as a person.

In her research, Dweck builds on the concept of neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to form new connections throughout a lifetime, even after damage This suggests that a growth mindset can be adopted at any point in time in one’s life. Next time you catch yourself feeling slightly hopeless about a situation, always try to remind yourself of Dweck’s growth mindset theory, and it might just inspire you to find an opportunity for growth in the hopelessness of the situation!

As the 2023/2024 academic year ends, all we can say is that this year has gone by faster than ever for us In the past year and a bit that this newspaper has existed for, it is very clear how much we have grown.

In this year, we as editors, have focused on delivering small pieces of passions that each of our writers carry in them and in this season’s edition, besides the serious academics, facts and stats, we hope you also enjoy a sprinkle of conspiracy and the passion for a game

This edition is notable shorter than before and that is because we had to make do with how much shorter season 4 is in comparison to the other seasons this year Nevertheless, we have bought to you the season 4 edition of Klass Khronicles

With this being said, look forward to more editions of the school newspaper and don’t hesitate to sign up next academic year to put a little bit of yourself out for everyone in the school community to see

And as the buzz for summer begins, all we have left to say is have an amazing summer holiday and we look forward to seeing you again next year!

Insert (Above): A fixed mindset VS a growth mindset

Insert (Above): ‘Purposeful engagement’

Insert (Above): A growth mindset