Zootecnica International - English edition - 03 March - 2021

Zootecnica International – March 2021 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze

Principles and practical feeding of the modern laying hen under alternative productions systems The forgotten world: the chicken meat industry in the least developed countries Aspects of LED lighting: turkey behavior, performance, and well-being

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2021

The new feeders of the «Gió» range, specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.

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EDITORIAL The repeated international market crises, in our sector too, are an indication that we have reached a turning point and in order to survive, we must innovate. The frenetic development of technology, the ever-fiercer competition, the saturation of certain markets and the rapid evolution of consumer preferences and life style are all elements which a company must consider today. The management must avoid the state of inertia, which is triggered from the incapacity to look beyond the limits of one’s own company, from a lack of humbleness in the changing of opinions or from over confidence with regard to success already achieved. In the context of a free trade market where realities are diverse and rapidly changing, it is necessary to search out a methodology and a logic which is of both a qualitative and creative nature. Innovative managers are certainly available, but they are often limited and frustrated by a cold and overly rigid company structure. On the other hand, it happens that in constantly seeking innovation, a company is unable to find its identity or motivation for research into new areas. Therefore, it is necessary to provide technical means and ‘know-how’ to render creative solutions organic and comprehensible.

But what is intended by ‘creativity’? There are those who, in terms of management, define creativity as the dialogue between the rational and the emotive, taking into account the numerous factors within the company and in the external environment.

There are those who define it as the ability to find original and brilliant solutions to problems that may arise. It is rather difficult to find a definition for or to codify the term ‘creativity’.

In recent years, many companies have explored various ways to defend their market position. They are stimulating their managers and their entire staff by hiring marketing experts in order to obtain new ideas and motivation. Nevertheless, the fact remains that creativity is an innate gift, just as ‘something’ that allows a person to be more or less incline towards a certain talent. However, it is certainly true that is possible to stimulate and in a certain sense to educate towards greater creative imagination. The path taken by many companies, which have organized training sessions for creativity, may prove to be of a great help to the success of company strategies. The important thing is to individualize all means by which it is possible to attain success and maintain a high level of competitiveness.

YOUR TURNKEY SOLUTION. HIGH QUALITY SINCE 1963

Our reliability and efficiency have enabled us to be internationally recognized over the years.

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Our 50 years of history.

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SPEROTTO S.p.A. - POULTRY SHEDS AND EQUIPMENT Via Luigi Galvani, 6 - 36066 Sandrigo (VI) Italy Tel +39 0444 461700 - Fax +39 0444 461710 info@sperotto-spa.com - www.sperotto-spa.com

SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................... 8 REPORTAGE Research examines different dietary treatments for woody breast.................... 10

20

FIELD REPORT Challenges and opportunities in establishing a new turkey parent stock operation in a remote location................................. 12

DOSSIER Overview and challenges of poultry production in India................................... 16

FOCUS Principles and practical feeding of the modern laying hen under alternative productions systems: effects on bird welfare and production........... 20

28

MARKETING The forgotten world: the chicken meat industry in the least developed countries..................................................................... 28

MANAGEMENT Aspects of LED lighting: turkey behavior, performance, and well-being............................................................................................... 34

NUTRITION Spirulina platensis Algae, a novel poultry feed additive.................................... 38 Effect of graded levels of supplementary phytase in diets with and without rapeseed meal..................................................................... 44

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VETERINARY SCIENCE Key global health issues in cage-free and organic laying hens......................... 48

MARKET GUIDE.................................................................................52 EVENTS.................................................................................................55 INTERNET GUIDE.............................................................................56

WORLDWIDE NEWS

The European poultry sector at the forefront in the reduction of antibiotic use

©Van Gent

The European poultry sector promotes а responsible use of antibiotics and is committed to improving production conditions in terms of resource conservation and animal welfare.

The current standards that apply to EU poultry meat are among the highest in the world.

Significant antibiotics use reductions already achieved Several EU Member States have developed comprehensive plans to mitigate the use of antibiotics in poultry production and have achieved impressive results.

Among best performers, the Italian poultry sector has seen its use of antibiotics slashed bу 82% in all poultry species (and bу 87% only in broilers) from 2011 to 2019, while the Dutch poultry sector has reduced their use bу 75% since 2009. In addition, significant reductions are also seen in other Members States: the French poultry sector has achieved its objective of reducing bу 60% the use of antibiotics 5 years in advance. Breeders, hatcheries, and alI professionals in the sector prioritise preventive measures; bу constantly improving the well-being

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and the daily monitoring of their animals, they manage to limit the risk of contracting any disease.

Antibiotics are only prescribed bу veterinarians ‘as little as possible, as much as necessary’ In Europe antibiotics are never administered to animals as а preventive measure, but only if the birds are sick and оп prescription bу а veterinarian.

When а bacterial infection occurs, just like people, animals need an antibiotic treatment to cure the disease and make sure that their health does not deteriorate further.

“Antibiotics remain ап essential tool for guaranteeing animal health and welfare, but their use must bе prudent and

- worldwide news -

WORLDWIDE NEWS

rational", says Birthe Steenberg, secretary General of AVEC. "The EU poultry sector is fully committed to а responsible use of antibiotics which means to use as little as possible but as much as needed".

European poultry is free from antibiotic residues Consumers may bе reassured in all respects that any antibiotic residue is completely disappeared from the meat before it is placed оп the market. If the birds are sick and the antibiotic treatment is unavoidable, as with all other drug applications, sufficient time must elapse before slaughter to make certain that the active ingredients are sufficiently broken down and are по longer detectable in the meat. This withdrawal period ensures that the meat that is later purchased and prepared bу consumers по longer contains any traces of medication. In addition, the meat in the slaughterhouses is also regularly inspected for traces of antibiotic residues.

Reduced use of antibiotics in the Farm to Fork strategy The Farm to Fork strategy that has been launched in Маy 2020 includes an ambitious target in order to reduce the use of veterinary antibiotics. Although the significant progress already made in the meat sector by farmers, the European Commission proposes to go further and take action to reduce overall sales of antimicrobials for farmed animals by 50% within 2030. In this sense, AVEC, the voice of Europe’s Poultry Meat Sector, welcomes positively this ambitious target оп the reduction of the use of antibiotics.

Nevertheless, according to Avec, it is important to acknowledge the achievements that have already been made in several Member States and the frontrunners should not bе penalised for their early and successful actions.

Source: Avec - en.eu-poultry.eu/press-area/

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WORLDWIDE NEWS

SPACE 2021: new dates and format The challenging 2020 confirmed that SPACE is and will remain the key annual event for livestock professionals.

The Expo is eagerly awaited and for many of its participants it marks the beginning of a new year. In 2020 it was sorely missed. SPACE is a unique professional event, focusing on innovation, performance and socialising. The large livestock family meets in Rennes in September and the reunion is essential for business as well as for morale.

Like farmers who are able to adapt to new conditions, SPACE accelerated its digital transition in 2020 and now offers a full range of online services to be able to connect with each other on website space.fr or via mobile app all year long. Featuring the list of exhibitors, product descriptions, Innov’Space winners, webinars, podcasts and much more, in our fast-paced digital world, this online version of the Expo is the perfect place to continue meeting up all year round.

In order to meet the increasingly strong demand from exhibitors, to keep pace with the growth in the number of visitors starting on the first day of the Expo, and to take into account the increasingly international nature of SPACE, the organizers have decided to switch to a shorter, three-day in-person event from Tuesday to Thursday.

This is the fourth time in the Expo’s history that SPACE

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dates have been changed to meet the expectations of exhibitors and visitors or due to the national and global situation. Exclusive highlights will be available online on Friday to extend the Expo.

The two inseparable facets of SPACE will make the Expo a hybrid, tailored event in keeping with the times, featuring an in-person event and an online presence with resources, content and interactions. Nothing will ever replace the full, live version of the Expo, which immerses participants in the fair's unique atmosphere where people do business, network and socialise. SPACE will stay open until 8 p.m on Thursday 16 September, instead of closing at 6 p.m. as it does on the first two days, to allow more time for networking. The new, modified and proactive format will make this key September event even more successful.

Next SPACE fair will take place from 14 to 16 September 2021 at the Rennes Exhibition Centre and Friday 17th for a special all-digital day.

Registrations for the 35th SPACE on: uk.space.fr/exhibitor/participation/registration.aspx

- worldwide news -

Old Aza factory

Image: Fotolia - © Minerva Studio

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WORLDWIDE NEWS

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COMPANY NEWS

New X-Streamer™ incubator by Petersime turns data into maximum hatchery performance Petersime, a leading player in incubators and hatcheries, has launched the X-Streamer™, its new range of single-stage incubators. The X-Streamer™ is the world’s first intelligent incubator that turns data into maximum hatchery performance thanks to a unique combination of built-in intelligence, patented Embryo-Response Incubation™ technology and advanced design features.

Maximum results, minimum costs With a clear focus on maximising incubation performance, the X-Streamer™ fully exploits Petersime’s patented Embryo-Response Incubation™ technology. By means of various algorithms, Embryo-Response Incubation™ generates the best possible incubation environment for each specific batch of eggs, during the entire incubation cycle.

This guarantees optimum hatchability, chick quality and post-hatch performance.

All X-Streamer™ models have been thoughtfully engineered for maximum user-friendliness, minimum labour costs, high energy efficiency and optimum biosecurity.

They require a minimal amount of maintenance, ensuring maximum uptime.

Petersime X-Streamer™ 24S setter.

Built-in intelligence and big data With hatcheries becoming larger and more integrated, data and traceability have become increasingly important. In answer to this trend, Petersime has developed the X-Streamer™, the first intelligent incubator that knows which eggs are on board and uses this knowledge to guide its users to the best incubation practices and results; not only for eggs from easy-to-incubate mid-age flocks, but also for more challenging young and old flocks.

The X-Streamer™ brings powerful software and tools to the hatchery that help hatchery managers maximise their hatchery’s profits.

Based on information about the hatching eggs and their background, the software built into the X-Streamer™ automatically provides accurate programming information for each specific batch of eggs. “The intelligent functions of the X-Streamer™ ensure that hatchery managers can maximise incubation performance, while making working procedures for hatchery operators simple and error-free”, says Rudy Verhelst, Business Development Manager at Petersime. “What is more, the software offers full traceability at hatchery level and provides extra insight in the hatchery operations by connecting data. This way, big data from a hatchery’s perspective become a reality.”

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A full range to cover all needs As a lifelong incubator innovator, Petersime knows the different needs in today’s modern hatcheries. The X-Streamer™ range holds a solution for all individual requirements in terms of capacities, functionalities, configurations and avian species.

For more information: info@petersime.com Petersime provides world leading incubator and hatchery equipment aligned with the expertise and support to maximise return on investment. Headquartered in Belgium with offices in Brazil, China, Russia, Malaysia and India and a worldwide sales network, Petersime commits to a dedicated customer service.

- company news -

COMPANY NEWS

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REPORTAGE

Research examines different dietary treatments for woody breast

The research was made possible in part by an endowing Foundation gift from Peco Foods and is part of the Association’s comprehensive research program encompassing all phases of poultry and egg production and processing.

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©cantekgroup.com

©static.wixstatic.com

©hotraco-group.imgix.net

USPOULTRY and the USPOULTRY Foundation announced the completion of a funded research project at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama, in which researchers examined different dietary treatments for woody breast.

Project #706: Nutritional strategies to reduce the incidence of wooden breast in pectoralis major muscles in broiler chickens - (Dr. W. A. Dozier, III, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama).

of broilers destined for further-processing markets. Data indicated that the different dietary treatments implemented in this study did not alter the incidences or the severity of wooden breast or white striping.

Dr. Dozier and colleagues from Auburn University recently completed a research project in which they determined the effects of various levels of dietary lysine, vitamin C, phytase and potassium concentrations on reducing the incidence of wooden breast

Wooden breast is a breast muscle myopathy that is characterized with fillets being pale in color, exhibiting a hard-bulging appearance and having altered texture due to an increase in connective tissue. The altered texture can result in consumer complaints of poultry products.

- reportage -

REPORTAGE

Some companies have observed the incidence of wooden breast in the range of 10 to 40%, particularly for broilers grown to weights exceeding 7.5 lbs. The affected fillets may be downgraded or condemned, resulting in loss of yield and revenue to broiler complexes. Defining dietary interventions to reduce the incidence and severity of wooden breast is a short-term approach, whereas genetic selection would be the long-term goal strategy of potentially reducing the incidence and severity of this meat quality defect.

The objectives for this study were to: 1. determine the additive effects of dietary lysine deletion and increasing phytase concentrations on reducing the incidence of wooden breast of broilers destined for further-processing markets, and 2. ascertain the additive effects of dietary lysine deletion with vitamin C and potassium concentrations on reducing the incidence of wooden breast of broilers destined for further-processing markets.

For objective 1 An experiment was conducted to evaluate growth performance, meat yield responses and breast meat quality of broilers fed diets with varying levels of dietary lysine and phytase supplementation. Six dietary treatments with 10 replicate pens per treatment were evaluated. These diets were fed to male broilers from 1 to 53 days of age. None of the dietary treatments had any effect of the incidence or severity of wooden breast.

For objective 2 An experiment was conducted to evaluate growth performance, meat yield responses and breast meat quality of broilers fed diets with varying levels of dietary lysine, vitamin C and potassium. Seven dietary treatments with nine replicate pens per treatment were evaluated. These diets were fed to male broilers from 1 to 55 days of age. None of the dietary treatments had any effect of the incidence or severity of wooden breast.

In general, data indicated that the dietary treatments implemented in this study did not alter the incidences or the severity of wooden breast or white striping.

A complete report, along with information on other Association research, may be obtained by going to USPOULTRY’s website: www.uspoultry.org

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FIELD REPORT

Challenges and opportunities in establishing a new turkey parent stock operation in a remote location The Russian turkey market has shown substantial growth during the last decade with new and very large companies willing and able to invest considerable sums in growing and processing turkeys as well as marketing turkey meat and turkey meat products. These companies usually run their own hatcheries very successfully. Nevertheless, they mostly depend on imported eggs from various suppliers in Europe and North America.

Introduction Aviagen Turkeys Ltd (ATL) decided several years ago to invest in a new turkey parent stock operation in Russia. Along with ATL using their own team of technical specialists ATL also hired consultancy services from Moorgut Kartzfehn (MK). With over 60 years of experience in the turkey breeding business, Moorgut Kartzfehn supported the entire project from choosing sites through to fixing the final screw. This included all aspects of construction, design and advice on management issues such as maintenance and service, preparing schedules for egg production and feed supply etc.

Florian Matter Moorgut Kartzfehn Turkey Breeder, Germany (sponsored by Aviagen Turkeys)

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The aim of the project was the development of 5 paired rearing and laying farms for turkey hatching egg production. Each farm within the pair was required to be a minimum of 2 kms apart. The first stage was to produce an annual capacity of 8 m hatching eggs, in the second stage the capacity will increase to 11 m hatching eggs starting from 2021. The main focus was to build state of the art farms with maximum biosecurity, from both internal and external aspects.

- field report -

FIELD REPORT

Land identification The first visit of the project team to the potential region took place in March 2017. Different sites in various areas of the Penza region (750 kms South of Moscow), in close proximity to power lines and pipelines for natural gas have been presented to the project team by official representatives from the region and from the construction company. The Governor of the Penza region also welcomed the project team in his region and promised his support for the turkey parent stock operation.

One of the biggest opportunities of this remote location is the absence of other livestock, which is connected with no transportation of feed, manure and animals. The region is sparsely populated with only few small villages which means very few backyard fowl.

This also made distances of more than 2 km between laying and rearing farms within a pair and more than 3 km between farms and villages possible. Thousands of hectares of agricultural land are unused and this lack of feeding alternatives especially in combination with the absence of big lakes, rivers or ponds makes the area unattractive to migratory birds. Large pieces of land are available at low cost. The area provides an excellent quality of air and ground water due to the absence of industrial complexes.

On the other hand the remoteness of the area and the absence of agricultural companies made it impossible to

DRINKERS

TRANSPORT CAGES

establish cooperation for carrying out tasks during service period like mucking out, transporting and spraying the manure etc.

All agricultural equipment like lorries, tractors, manure sprayers or skips for manure need to be owned and operated by ATR.

Farm construction

By April 2017 10 sites were identified. The work on the project started with different steps. The project team identified the optimum layout of the farms which is based on Kartzfehn’s internal project the “Ideal Turkey Parent Stock Farm” with a few adjustments to regional particularities. Detailed technical drawings were made and the decision for the five most suitable farm locations out of numerous different options was made. The intensive cooperation with the construction company started with regular meetings, either in person on the sites, in the office or by conference calls and video conferences. Different possible suppliers of farm equipment were contacted, their technical solutions for the farms were compared and a decision for one supplier was made.

Following the founding of Aviagen Turkeys Russia (ATR), a construction company was appointed in November 2017. The first objective was to prepare the documentation to submit to the authorities for approval of building farms and accessing water.

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FIELD REPORT

Ruskontraktor, suppliers like MGH and Big Dutchman and Aviagen Turkeys and guests from partner companies and customers took place on the 25th September 2019.

The breeders were transferred middle of October and egg production started in November 2019. The finalization of the next two laying farms was also a very tight race but it has been managed to finish all farms just in time for the sufficient cleaning and disinfection procedures.

Picture 1 – 3D-layout of a laying farm.

The next steps were to identify and choose the sites for manure storage, land for spraying manure after storage and the location for the installation of the central incineration.

The construction work started in May 2018 with first excavation works for the foundations and the waste water tanks. In the beginning the works were carried out at an insufficient speed due to a shortage of work forces on the sites. In July 2018 the number of construction workers exceeded 50 on 4 construction sites. The number of workers increased as the project progressed, peaking at over 340 workers in the Autumn of 2019. Over 40 pieces of heavy machinery like trucks, cranes or excavators were used.

The construction company was very experienced in constructing commercial turkey grow-out houses, having constructed more than 400 houses recently. All constructive details had to be double checked because numerous things needed to be done in a different, more sophisticated way with more attention to the details and sometimes different solutions in the construction of a state-of-the-art turkey parent stock farm.

The first four rearing farms were finished on time. It was very difficult to find a subcontractor for building the fifth rearing farm so we had to change the schedule for placing the following flocks from 6 weeks to 8 weeks and increase the number of poults to maximum capacity of the farms to compensate the changes in the egg production schedule.

The first of the laying farms was finished long before the first breeders needed to be transferred to the farm so the planned ‘Opening Day’ with the governor Mr Ivan Beloserzev, EW shareholder Mr Dirk Wesjohann, representatives from the government, the construction company

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Today three laying farms are already producing top quality hatching eggs for the Russian market and the fourth will start in April this year. Sites for further expansion in this area have been identified.

Utilities The availability of gas and electricity was limited to only a small number of possible spots for the farms but the government subsidised the construction of power lines and gas pipelines to the sites. The feed mill used at the moment with free capacity to produce pelleted parent stock feed and with required biosecurity standards is 650 km away.

The quality of the roads turned out to be critical in some of the sites. Roads with no limit to axle weight for trucks and a promising looking asphalt surface turned into dirt tracks with limited axle weight within only a few months of transportation of construction materials to the sites.

Furthermore winter road repairs also seem not to be top priority.

Farm staff ATR will employee 118 people when fully operational, currently at 80 employees. ATL have 4 technical persons there all the time training the staff, and this will continue for at least another 6 months.

In September 2018 a group of nine newly hired employees at Aviagen Turkeys Russia were invited to Germany for intensive 4-week training on Kartzfehn’s parent stock farms with ATL technical team to receive a comprehensive insight into all activities on the farms, including service and maintenance and preparation work. Other groups went on training camps in UK and Italy.

Although the unemployment rate in the area is quite high, it has been difficult to find staff willing to do the work on

- field report -

FIELD REPORT

a farm. Minibuses had to be purchased to take all staff to work.

The countryside is not overly attractive to management staff. The next big city, Penza, the capital of the region, with theaters, cinemas, shopping opportunities and a wide variety of restaurants is 120 km away.

Farm equipment During farm construction the supply of natural gas and the ability to run the gas heaters was the key issue to concreting inside the houses even during winter time without a loss of quality of the finished concrete floors.

The farms were constructed throughout the year even in the winter months where temperatures averaged -15 °C during the day.

Installation of the equipment was very well planned and carried out with only minor delays. The first rearing farm was finished at the end of February 2019 and the first poults placed on March 22nd 2019 (Picture 2).

Initially the layout of the laying farms was made for manual nests but during the project automatic nests were reconsidered and eventually it was decided to choose automatic nests.

Comfort 2.0® aviary system Design stimulates the natural behaviour of the birds Hygienic housing environment and easy cleaning Good overview and easy management Optimal use of the available space

Picture 2 – First breeders on the laying farm in October 2019.

Conclusion Besides all the challenges the region is extremely suitable for turkey parent stock production in the actual size and is also very suitable for further expansion. This investment helps to satisfy the increasing need of Turkey hatching eggs in the very fast growing Russian turkey market.

Check www.jpe.org for more information

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- march 2021 -

www.jpe.org

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DOSSIER

Overview and challenges of poultry production in India

©TNAU Agritech Portal

The poultry industry is one of the fastest growing segments of the agricultural sector with around 8 to 10% growth rate per annum. In earlier years broiler farms produced on average a few hundred birds (200-500 chicks) per cycle.

Today units with fewer than 5,000 birds are becoming rare, and units with 10,000 to 50,000 birds per cycle are common.

Yashpal Singh, Associate Professor College of Veterinary Science. Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University, Ludhiana, Punjab, India

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Similarly, in layer farms, units with a flock size of 20,000 to 50,000 birds have become common. Small units or backyard poultry are probably finding themselves at a disadvantage because of high feed and transport costs, expensive vaccines, and veterinary care services along with the non-availability of credit.

However, it should be noted that the structure of India’s poultry industry varies from region to region. While independent and relatively small-scale producers account for the bulk of production, integrated large-scale

- dossier -

producers account for a growing share of output in some regions. Integrators include large regional farms that incorporate all aspects of production, including the raising of grandparent and parent flocks, rearing DOCs, contracting production, compounding feed, providing veterinary services, and wholesaling. The southern region account for about 57% of the country’s egg production, the eastern and central regions of India account for about 17%, while the northern and western regions contribute 26% of egg production.

DOSSIER

In addition to modern hybrid layers and broilers, India has a huge (300-500 millions) population of indigenous backyard free range chickens which is a source of pin money for housewives. The Japanese quail farming is also growing rapidly as an alternative to chicken. Native Ducks and their cross with Khaki Campbell are grown free range in north eastern state and in Kerala, mostly by nomadic tribes.

Historical background Backyard poultry keeping dates back to the pre-historic period but the modern commercial poultry production in India is barely 50 years old. In the period 1955 to 1965 certain Christian missionaries imported White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red and White Rock breeds to upgrade the local chicken, due to their high brooding and high disease resistant characteristics. Later hybrid broiler (Arbor Acres) and layer (Babcock) strains were brought to India in early seventies to start the era of modern poultry. Amongst the two, the layer strains took wings early and showed a spectacular growth rate between 1970 to 1985. Other hybrids like Bovans, Hisex, Hyline, Keystone and Lohmann were introduced into the Indian Market for the production of white shelled eggs. Native chicken and crossbreeds developed by Agricultural and Veterinary Universities produces brown shelled eggs which constitute around 18% of the total eggs produced in India. The broiler industry came to existence around 1974 with the imports of Arbor Acres and Cobb broiler G.P stock and later on other hybrids such as Hubbard, Hybro, Marshall and Ross hybrid G.P stock were introduced. Around 18% of the broiler market in India is made up of indigenously developed cross-bred coloured broilers and local free range birds.

Native chicken breeds of India A total of sixteen native chicken breeds have been recognized and registered as indigenous breeds of chicken in India (Table 1). Among them, the most popular breeds are Aseel, Kadaknath, Nicobari etc.

Some of the native chicken breeds of India are under threat of extinction due to various factors including incidence of diseases and other re-emerging diseases. Furthermore, introduction of exotic/improved chromosomes

Table 1 – Registered native chicken breeds of India.

Sl. No.

Breed

Home Tract

1

Ankaleshwar

Gujarat

2

Aseel

Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Chhattisgarh

3

Busra

Gujarat and Maharashtra

4

Chittagong

Meghalaya and Tripura

5

Danki

Andhra Pradesh

6

Daothigir

Assam

7

Ghagus

Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka

8

Harringhata

Black West Bengal

9

Kadaknath

Madhya Pradesh

10

Kalasthi

Andhra Pradesh

11

Kashmir Favorolla

Jammu and Kashmir

12

Miri

Assam

13

Nicobari

Andaman & Nicobar

14

Punjab Brown

Punjab and Haryana

15

Tellichery

Kerala

16

Mewari

Rajasthan

(Source: http://www.nbagr.res.in/regchi.html)

is diluting or eroding the genetic base of native chickens.

So conservation of native breeds is a top priority for the Indian government if they wish to protect the livelihood of rural (backyard) poultry production.

Current scenario The recent annual data shows that India ranks 3rd in the world in egg production and 5th in chicken meat production (Tables 2 and 3). The growth rate of the layer market is 6 to 7% per annum and broiler market is 8 to 10% per annum. Approximately 75% of egg production is produced by commercial poultry farms with the remaining percentage coming from household/backyard poultry.

Poultry associations in India There are several poultry associations in India such as: • Poultry Federation of India (PFI) • Compound Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association (CLFMA)

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DOSSIER

Table 2 – Production and per capita availability of eggs in India 1950-51 and 2016-2017.

Years 1950-1951

Egg Production (In Million Nos.)

Human Population (In Million Nos.)

Per Capita Availability (In Nos./Annum)

1,832

359

5 5

1955-1956

1,908

393

1960-1961

2,881

434

7

1968-1969

5,300

518

10

1973-1974

7,755

580

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• National Egg Coordination Committee (NECC) • Indian National Federation of Animal Health (INFAH) • Broiler Coordination Committee (BCC) etc.

These associations also play an important role by regularly guiding the farmers, creating awareness among consumers and presenting industry requirements to the Table 3 – Broiler meat production and growth rate in India 19902018.

1979-1980

9,523

664

14

1980-1981

10,060

679

15

Market Year

1981-1982

10,876

692

16

1982-1983

11,454

708

16

1983-1984

12,792

723

18

1984-1985

14,252

739

Production

Unit of Measure

Growth Rate

1990

190

(1.000 MT)

NA

1991

420

(1,000 MT)

121.05%

19

1992

520

(1,000 MT)

23.81%

1993

560

(1,000 MT)

7.69%

1994

507

(1,000 MT)

-9.46%

1985-1986

16,128

755

21

1986-1987

17,310

771

22

1987-1988

17,795

788

23

1988-1989

18,980

805

24

1995

578

(1,000 MT)

14.00%

1989-1990

20,204

822

25

1996

665

(1,000 MT)

15.05%

1990-1991

21,101

839

25

1991-1992

21,983

856

26

1997

596

(1,000 MT)

-10.38%

1992-1993

22,929

872

26

1998

710

(1,000 MT)

19.13%

1993-1994

24,167

892

27

1999

820

(1,000 MT)

15.49%

1994-1995

25,975

910

29

1995-1996

27,198

928

29

2000

1,080

(1,000 MT)

31.71%

1996-1997

27,496

946

29

2001

1,250

(1,000 MT)

15.74%

1997-1998

28,689

964

30

2002

1,400

(1,000 MT)

12.00%

1998-1999

29,476

983

30

1999-2000

30,447

1,001

30

2003

1,500

(1,000 MT)

7.14%

2000-2001

36,632

1,019

36

2004

1,650

(1,000 MT)

10.00%

2001-2002

38,729

1,040

37

2005

1,900

(1,000 MT)

15.15%

2002-2003

39,823

1,056

38

2006

2,000

(1,000 MT)

5.26%

2003-2004

40,403

1,072

38

2004-2005

45,201

1,089

42

2007

2,240

(1,000 MT)

12.00%

2005-2006

46,235

1,106

42

2008

2,490

(1,000 MT)

11.16%

2009

2,550

(1,000 MT)

2.41%

2010

2,650

(1,000 MT)

3.92%

2006-2007

50,663

1,122

45

2007-2008

53,583

1,138

47

2008-2009

55,562

1,154

48

2009-2010

60,267

1,170

51

2011

2,900

(1,000 MT)

9.43%

2010-2011

63,024

1,186

53

2012

3,160

(1,000 MT)

8.97%

2011-2012

66,450

1,210

55

2012-2013

69,731

1,212

58

2013

3,450

(1,000 MT)

9.18%

2013-2014

74,752

1,228

61

2014

3,725

(1,000 MT)

7.97%

2014-2015

78,484

1,244

63

2015

3,900

(1,000 MT)

4.70%

2015-2016

82,929

1,260

66

2016-2017

88,139

1,275

69

2016

4,200

(1,000 MT)

7.69%

2017

4,400

(1,000 MT)

4.76%

2018

4,600

(1,000 MT)

4.55%

Source: State/UT Animal Husbandry Departments.

Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. (ON1300), (1328) & (ON1617)

18

Source: United States Department of Agriculture

- dossier -

DOSSIER

government, promoting egg consumption on various occasions.

• Issues relating to animal welfare and environmental pollution in poultry units have been of increasing concern recently.

Challenges

India is focusing on “Development” i.e. Good Food, Bet-

In recent times, in spite of rapid growth, the poultry industry suffered many setbacks due to rising feed costs, emergence of new or the re-emerging of existing diseases, fluctuating market price of eggs and broilers, etc. Among the matters which need to be addressed in order to make the poultry sector a sustainable enterprise are: • The lack of basic infrastructure regarding storage and transportation, including a cold chain network.

• An inefficient marketing system.

ter Health & Living conditions for its 1.25 billion people and poultry production and consumption pattern in India foresee its further expansion and industrialization.

Adoption of small scale poultry farming in backyards of rural households will enhance the nutritional and economic status of the rural people. Large commercial layer and broiler industries with the advent of knowledge, sustainability and profitability can lead to a bright future for the poultry industry.

• The price and availability of feed resources.

• Emerging and re-emerging diseases of poultry, mutations in viral genomes leading to new variants of viruses developing resistance to vaccines and antibiotics.

- march 2021 -

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the NZ Poultry Industry Conference

19

FOCUS

Principles and practical feeding of the modern laying hen under alternative productions systems Effects on bird welfare and production

G.G. Mateos, L. Cámara, G. Fondevila and A.F. de Juan Animal Science, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain

20

The European ban on the use of conventional cages, moulting the birds, and beak trimming, together with the implementation of the new systems, have changed bird behaviour and thus, flock management. Under the new conditions, hens are attracted to activities other than eating and drinking, with effects on behaviour, feed intake and flock uniformity.

- focus -

FOCUS

Introduction Consumer demands and the pressure of supermarket chains are changing rapidly the way eggs are produced.

Enriched cages are not considered a sound alternative to improve animal welfare standards in the developed countries. Consequently, the industry is moving hens from battery cages towards alternative systems, such as deep litter and aviary barns, with or without access to an outdoor area. In addition, organic production with non-beak trimmed hens, under free range conditions, is gaining popularity. In 2018, the percentage of hens reared under these systems in key countries of the European Union (EU-28) is shown in Table 1.

Table 1 – Alternative systems for laying hens by country. European Union-28, 2018 (European Commission, 2019).

Hens

Country × 10 6

% of total

Free Organic range

Cages1

Barn

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

Germany

53.5

12.8

6.5

62

19.5

12.0

Italy

50.0

12.0

54.7

38.1

3.3

4.0

Poland

48.5

11.6

84.5

11.2

3.6

0.7

UK

46.6

11.2

35.2

5.2

56.9

2.7

France

46.5

11.2

60.8

8.0

21.3

9.9

Spain

43.6

10.4

82.3

9.4

7.4

0.9

Total

417

100

50.4

28.5

15.7

5.4

1

Egg production in alternative systems requires expertise on behaviour and management of the birds. Nutrition is, after management, the main factor to control in modern egg production. Areas of concern (and requiring improvement) in practice, include a) maximize feed intake (FI), especially in small frame hens exposed to the environment and with high physical activity, b) increase BW uniformity of the flock to decrease safety margins in feed formulation, c) reduce the incidence of feather pecking and cannibalism to increase liveability and animal welfare and d) produce high quality eggs of adequate size for the first months and good shell quality for the last months of the egg cycle.

Maximizing feed intake The goal of all the alternative systems is to optimize hen production to reach similar performance to that of caged hens at similar cost. In general, hens reared under alternative systems lose weight during the first 2 to 3 wk of the pre-peak period (entry into the barn) and thus, max-

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Enriched (750 cm2/hen)

Of note is the growing interest for organic and free-range production systems in Northern Europe as compared with the relative high percentage of caged hens in the Eastern and Southern parts of Europe. Historical data on the production systems in Spain, a key country in egg production in Europe, are shown in Table 2. From 2016 to 2018 the percentage of caged hens decreased from 92.9% to 82.3%. A greater rate of change is expected for the next 2-3 years.

Table 2 – Alternative systems for egg production in Spain. Historical data (European Commission, 2019).

2016

2017

2018

Trend1

Enriched cages, %

92.9

88.0

82.3

↓↓

Barn2,

2.4

6.0

9.4

↑↑

Free range, %

4.0

5.0

7.4

↑

Organic, %

0.6

1.0

1.0

↑

1Less

%

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than 40% hens expected in cages by 2025 aviary type

2Mostly,

- march 2021 -

21

FOCUS

“Modern lines of laying hens have been selected for years for reduced frame size and for increased persistency in egg production.

Thus, feed efficiency has improved but the intake capacity of young hens, under stressful situations, might not be sufficient to meet nutrient requirements. As a consequence, hens lose BW with a subsequent reduction in egg size and egg production”

imising body weight (BW) of the pullets before the onset of egg production is a sound management and nutritional strategy. Maintenance requirements are higher for hens in alternative systems than for hens in cages, especially in aviaries with access to an outdoor area.

At low ambient temperature, hens consume energy to maintain body temperature resulting in poor feed efficiency, a problem that is aggravated in flocks with poor feather cover. Peguri and Coon (1993) reported differences in feed intake (FI) from 82 g/d in well feathered hens under heat stress conditions (33.9 °C) to 147 g/d in totally de-feathered hens at 12.8 °C (Table 3). On the other hand, good feather cover might reduce energy intake below requirements of laying hens under hot weather conditions. Under these circumstances, an increase in the energy content of the diet, or changing feed form from mash to crumbles, might help to solve the problem.

Table 3 – Influence of ambient temperature and feather cover on feed intake in Single Comb White Leghorn hens (Peguri and Coon, 1993).

T ºC

Feather cover, %

Average

100

50

0

12.8

108

128

147

128

23.9

105

112

125

115

33.9

82

91

99

90

Average

98

110

124

22

Modern lines of laying hens have been selected for years for reduced frame size and for increased persistency in egg production. Thus, feed efficiency has improved but the intake capacity of young hens, under stressful situations, might not be sufficient to meet nutrient requirements. As a consequence, hens lose BW with a subsequent reduction in egg size and egg production. Data in Table 4 illustrate that maintenance needs of aviary hens with access to the outdoors might be up to 10 to 15% higher than those of caged hens. However, it should be noted that the energy requirements for egg production with mash diets are similar for all systems.

Table 4 – Energy requirements of laying hens for optimal egg production. A comparative study.

Egg production

Physical activity

Ambient T ºC

Energy needs

Cage

3+

+

+

+

Barn indoor

3+

2+

+

2+

Aviary indoor

3+

3+

+

3+

Aviary free range

3+

4+

3+

4+

Three strategies used to overcome the problem of low FI at the start of the egg cycle under stress conditions are 1) apply the empty feeder technique, 2) improve feed structure of the diet and 3) increase the fibre content of the pullet diet from 10 to 17 wk of age. The empty feeder technique consists of training the pullets (after 4 to 5 wk of age) to consume as much feed as possible. Immediately after the lights go on, an extra amount of new feed is placed in the feeders as needed. At mid-day, pullets are forced to clean the feeders, consuming all fines left in the feeders for 60 min. Then, new feed is supplied 2 to 3 times during the afternoon, until the lights go off. A similar strategy should be used in the laying hens to ensure that at least 60% of the feed (and Ca) is consumed in the afternoon, resulting in an increase in BW gain and shell quality during the entire egg cycle.

Feed form, average mean particle size (MPS) and feed uniformity affect FI in all types of birds. Usually, pullets and laying hens are fed mash diets because of cost and the apparent lack of benefit of pelleting (or crumbling) on performance. The use of crumbles, however, might be recommended under some circumstances, such as pullets from 0 to 5 wk of age, and light hens at the start of laying cycle (15 to 25 wk of age). Feeding high quality crumbles during

- focus -

FOCUS

the prestarter period increases BW gain and uniformity as well as feed efficiency. Also, young hens fed low energy diets, under hot weather conditions, might benefit of the use of crumbles during the pre-peak period. However, feeding crumbles jeopardizes the development of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), reducing future voluntary FI, a current situation at the initial stages of the egg cycle. Under these circumstances, the inclusion in the diet of insoluble fibre sources might help to overcome the problem.

It is accepted that laying hens show a preference for consuming coarse vs. fine particles which, in turn, might result in an increase in egg production and egg weight (Table 5).

The data available, however, do not show a clear, linear, positive relation between MPS of the diet and voluntary FI and egg production of laying hens under commercial practices. Herrera et al. (2017, 2018a) reported a preferTable 5 – Influence of particle size of the diet on feed intake and egg production in brown laying hens (ISA, 2008).

Standard diet (%)

ence of laying hens for coarse particles but the preference did not result in an increase in hen production (Tables 6 and 7).

Similarly, Herrera et al. (2018b) did not show any benefit in terms of egg production when the main cereal of the diet was ground with a 6- or 10- mm screen. We hypothesised that the enhanced FI observed when hens are fed mash diets, might not depend exclusively on the proportion of coarse particles.

Data from our lab suggest that poultry in general, and hens in particular, decline to eat fines and do not necessarily eat “preferentially” coarse particles. In this respect, hens eat more of diets ground with a roller mill than of diets ground with a hammer mill. The main difference on the MPS produced by these 2 grinding processes is not Table 6 – Preference of brown egg laying hens for the coarse particles of the diet1 (geometric mean diameter of the feed remaining in the feeders) (Herrera et al., 2018).

Screen size (mm)

Fine diet (%)

9

31

0.5 – 3.2

81

69

> 3.2

10

0

> 1.6

65

21

Egg production Egg rate (%)

94

91

Feed intake (g/d)

118

114

Egg weight (g)

63.3

62.7

1 2

Difference

06:00 am

14:00 pm

4

1050

900

150

6

1102

881

221

8

1313

991

322

10

1386

1017

369

12

1494

1061

433

SEM (n=10)

11.1

16.0

P-value (L)

***

***

Mean particle size, mm < 0.5

Sampling time2

Average of maize and barley diets Data at 8:00, 10:00 and 12:00 am, not shown

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- march 2021 -

23

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FOCUS

the size of the resulting particles, but the lower uniformity and higher percentage of fines produced by the hammer mill.

Table 7 – Effects of mean particle size of the diet1 on production of brown egg laying hens from 17 to 49 wk of age (Herrera et al., 2018).

Egg rate (%)

ADFI (g)

Egg mass (g/d)

FCR (g/g)

4

91.7

112.6

56.5

1.99

6

93.0

112.7

57.7

1.95

8

93.0

112.9

57.5

1.96

10

92.9

112.9

58.0

1.95

12

93.1

113.2

58.0

1.95

Screen size2,3 (mm)

Dietary fibre

1

Average of the maize and barleys diets Hammer mill 3 P<0.05 for all variables when comparing 4 mm vs. all others 2

In fact, two strategies used to increase FI under hot weather conditions, are the supplementation of the diet with fat and an increase in the percentage of coarse calcium carbonate particles of the diet. Adding fat to mash diets agglomerates the fine particles present in the feed,

24

increasing MPS and improving FI. Also, it is recommended to use at least 70% of the calcium carbonate of the diet as coarse particles (2-4 mm Ø) to improve calcium (Ca) digestibility and feed structure. Similarly, a by-pass of the hammer mill of ingredients already ground (i.e., soybean meal), reduces the percentage of fines and improves FI in commercial laying hen operations.

Diets for modern laying hens are formulated to maximise FI, especially at the start of the laying cycle. It has been assumed that dietary fibre (DF) reduced FI as well as the digestibility of other components of the diet, resulting in digestive disorders in broilers and young pullets. As a result, diets for poultry are often formulated with a low fibre content, a practice that results in poor structure of the feed and of the excreta. Poultry, however, require a certain amount of fibre for optimal development of the GIT. Insoluble DF increases gizzard size, nutrient digestibility and GIT health, and reduces gizzard pH. A well-developed gizzard is associated with strong contractions of the muscular layers, which ensures the complete grinding of

- focus -

FOCUS

the feed and helps to regulate the flow of the digesta from the gizzard to the small intestine, facilitating the mixing of the chyme and the gastric juices. In addition, a more functional GIT increases mucosa wall motility and prevents the adherence of pathogenic bacteria to the mucosa of the intestines, reducing the risk of enteric disorders.

As a consequence, the inclusion of moderate amounts of insoluble fibre might improve the structure of the excreta and reduce the incidence of wet litter in poultry.

The beneficial effect of fibre on poultry performance is a subject of debate, with contrasting effects among research studies. Fibre effects vary with type of bird and type and level of fibre. In general, moderate amounts of insoluble fibre improve GIT function and nutrient digestibility in young broilers fed low fibre diets. In pullets, the effect of additional fibre on nutrient digestibility is more neutral than in broilers of the same age, probably because of the higher fibre content of commercial pullet diets. An increase in DF in pullets from 10 wk of age to the peak of egg production (pre-peak diets), however, might

help to develop the GIT, increasing voluntary FI at the time it is more needed by the hen. In laying hens, the most relevant effect of DF is the reduction in aggressive behaviour with less incidence on cannibalism and mortality (Table 8).

Table 8 – Influence of the inclusion of additional fibre sources in the diet on performance of Single Comb White Leghorn hens under free range conditions (Albiker et al., 2015).

Crude fibre1

Probability

3.5%

7%

Egg rate, %

94.0

94.0

NS

Feed intake (g/d)

122.6

123.7

NS

Egg weight, g

67.2

67.5

0.19

Feed conversion

2.05

2.06

NS

Mortality, %

7.8

5.5

?

Cannibalism, %

1.2

0.4

0.04

Excreta quality

1.4

1.53

NS

1

Isonutritive diets to 64 wk of age. The high fibre diet contained: oats, SFH, alfalfa and 2.5 % lignocellulose

inal !

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25

FOCUS

netics and poor management and nutrition practices, especially during the rearing period. Flock uniformity, lack of attention to chicken behaviour, boredom, bright light and excessive density are some of the poor management practices affecting this multifactorial problem. In particular, it is important to avoid feather pecking during the rearing period and keep the hens busy (increase time dedicated to eating, playing and searching) at all times during the egg production cycle.

Of note is that DF has two contrasting effects on energy intake in the laying hen: a) an increase because of the increased capacity of the GIT and b) a decrease (under cold conditions) because of the protection caused by the extra feather cover.

As a result, the effect of the inclusion of moderate amounts of fibre on FI is often of limited importance in healthy birds.

Feather pecking and cannibalism Feather pecking and cannibalism are major problems affecting animal welfare and production in alternative systems for egg production. In practice, the aggressive behaviour is accentuated in non-beak-trimmed birds, and increases as the hens move from traditional to enriched cages, to aviaries, to deep litter barns and finally, to free range and organic production systems. The causes are multiple and include ge-

Feeding strategies to reduce the incidence of the problem include a) decrease the energy content of the diet while maintaining nutrient specifications (keep hens busy), b) increase the insoluble fibre level of the diet (satiation and GIT comfort), c) avoid faulty nutrition (e.g., deficiencies in met+cys, Na and digestible P levels), d) provide coarse particles (grains, grit, straw) in the floor of the barn and e) supply feed as mash rather than as crumbles.

Macro-minerals Macro-mineral feeding affects the liveability of the laying hen and the quality of the eggs at the end of the production cycle (>70 wk of age). Three points of interest to maintain egg quality and hen performance are a) use of prelay diets with a high Ca content, b) formulate diets based on digestible Ca and phosphorus (P) rather than total Ca and available P, and c) evaluate the use of the electrolyte balance (sodium + potassium – chloride ions), taking Table 9 – Influence of the level of calcium of the pre-peak diet (15-26 wk)1 on shell quality of the eggs.

Pullet 2

Pre-layer 2

Layer 2

Layer plus3

Pre-layer plus3

Calcium, g/kg

10

25

38

38

25

AMEn, MJ/kg

11.3

11.5

11.5

10.9

10.9

Contrasts4

SID Lys, g/kg

6.1

7.8

7.8

8.2

8.2

1

2

Shell strength, kg/cm2

4.28

4.22

4.29

4.31

4.25

0.684

0.079

Shell weight, g

6.20

6.20

6.29

6.26

6.21

0.304

0.342

Shell weight, % EW

9.97

9.94

10.1

10.1

10.0

0.082

0.039

Shell thickness, µm

389

391

394

395

390

0.135

0.025

Undergrades5

1.78

1.60

1.01

0.91

1.46

0.058

0.018

Broken eggs5

1.10

0.746

0.600

0.627

0.835

0.015

0.144

0.678

0.858

0.414

0.341

0.624

0.399

0.007

Egg-shell less5 1

From 27 to 62 wk of age all the hens received a common diet with 11.5 MJ, 7.8 g SID Lys and 38 g Ca/kg 2 Fed from 16 to 18 wk of age 3 Fed from 16 to 26 wk of age 4 1= Contrast (pullet diets vs. others); 2 = Calcium level effect (2.5% vs. 3.8%).

5 Incidence per each 100 eggs 16 replicates (10 hens each) per treatment

26

- focus -

FOCUS

into consideration the type of salts used to maintain the balance. Recent research has shown that Ca availability varies widely with factors such as origin, particle size and rheological characteristics of the source and P and phytase content of the diet.

Studies conducted in our department show clearly the need for using high Ca diet during the pre-peak (>15 to 16 wk of age) period to improve shell quality at the end of the egg cycle. In this research, we studied the influence of the nutritive value [nitrogen-corrected apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn), standardized ileal digestible lysine (SID Lys) and Ca] of diets fed to pullets from 15 to 26 wk of age, on productive performance and egg quality of brown egg-laying hens from 27 to 62 wk of age. Five feeding strategies were used (Table 9). Three of them differed in the nutrient content of the diet fed from 15 to 18 wk of age: a) a pullet diet (11.3 MJ AMEn, 6.1 g SID Lys and 10 g of Ca/kg), b) a pre-lay diet (11.5 MJ AMEn, 7.8 g SID Lys and 25 g of Ca/kg), and c) a layer diet (11.5 MJ AMEn, 7.8 g SID Lys and 38 g of Ca/kg), respectively.

The other 2 strategies (D and E) consisted of feeding the hens from 15 to 18 wk of age a diet low in energy (10.9 MJ AMEn/kg) and high in SID Lys (8.2 g/kg) with a medium or a high level of Ca (25 vs. 38 g/kg, respectively). After 18 wk (diets A, B and C) or 27 wk (diets D and E) of age, all the hens received the C layer diet to 62 wk of age. Each treatment was replicated 18 times (a cage with 10 hens).

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Feeding strategy did not affect any of the productive performance traits studied. Cumulatively, all shell quality variables were better (P<0.10) in hens fed the 38 g Ca/ kg during the experimental period than in hens fed 25 g Ca/kg or less.

Finally, recent research shows that the requirements for digestible P are very low (<0.28% digestible P) in old hens and that an excess at this age reduces egg shell quality. Finally, the formula used to evaluate the electrolyte balance of a feed should be more precise, using laboratory values for the mineral content of the ingredients, and including the SO4= ion as a part of the equation. In summary, management practices and sound nutritional strategies are key issues to successful egg production in hen alternative systems.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium 2020

+45 75771922 | mail@dacs.dk | www.dacs.dk

- march 2021 -

27

MARKETING

The forgotten world: the chicken meat industry in the least developed countries The analysis will deal with chicken meat production in the least developed countries (LLDC).

Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is scientific director of the WING at the Hannover Veterinary University and Prof. emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany

Analyses dealing with the dynamics and patterns global poultry meat production mostly focus on the leading countries. This is also the case for many papers of this author dealing with that commodity. When preparing a detailed analysis dealing with the dynamics of global poultry meat trade, I realized that the least developed countries (LLDC)1 were ignored. That was the reason for dealing with this group of countries in more detail. In a first paper, their role in the global egg industry was documented. This analysis will deal with chicken meat production in this country group.

1

28

A list of the LLDC is available from: www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL.

- marketing -

MARKETING

Wide gap between their share in global population and poultry meat production

Table 3 – The share of the LLDC in the population, chicken slaughter and chicken meat production in 2018 at continent level (own calculations based on FAO data).

In 2018, 127 mill. t of poultry meat were produced worldwide. To this, the 46 LLDC contributed only 3.6 mill. t or 2.8%. From the data in Table 1 one can see that their share in the four main poultry meat types differed considerably. While they contributed 5.5% to global duck meat production, their share in turkey meat was only 0.2%.

Chicken meat had a share of 92.3% in the overall poultry meat production of the LLDC. That why this analysis will focus on this meat type.

Table 1 – Share of the LLDC in global poultry meat production in 2018; data in 1,000 t (source: FAO database).

Meat type

Word

LLDC

112,267

3,328

3.0

5,901

10

0.2

Duck meat

4,465

245

5.5

Goose meat

2,646

23

0.9

Other meat

2,019

-

-

127,298

3,606

2.8

Chicken meat Turkey meat

Total

Share (%)

Share (%)

Africa

650.7

Asia

332.2

Oceania America

Meat Share production, (%) (1.000 t)

Slaughter (mill. birds)

Share (%)

51.0

994

22.5

1,078

7.3

1,971

6.6

2,238

5.6

1.9

4.6

3

0.4

3

0.2

11.1

1.1

9

< 0.1

8

< 0.1

not become obvious because of the dominating role of China. In Oceania and the Americas, the contribution to the production volume of the continents was negligible.

It is worth noting that the LLDC in Asia produced twice as much chicken meat as those in Africa, although the relation of the population was the opposite.

A few countries dominated chicken slaughter

Table 2 documents impressively the extreme imbalance between the share of the country group in global population and chicken meat production. It is also worth noting that the data for chicken slaughter and chicken meat production differed considerably. This is an indication for the low slaughter weights.

Table 2 – The share of the LLDC in the global population, chicken slaughter and chicken meat production in 2018 (own calculations based on FAO data).

Population (mill.)

Share (%)

Slaughter (mill. birds)

Share (%)

Meat production (1.000 t)

Share (%)

LLDC

1,009.7

13.2

2,938

4.3

3,328

2.9

World

7,631.1

100.0

68,785

100.0

114,266

100.0

Region

Population (mill.)

Continent

When going down to the continent level, the data reveals the wide differences between the shares of the LLDC in the population, chicken slaughter and chicken meat production in the respective continents (Table 3).

In Africa, the LLDC shared 51.0% in the population but only 18.8% in chicken meat production. In Asia, the situation was more balanced. A detailed analysis at country level will show that some Asian countries produced considerable amounts of chicken meat, but their role did

At country level, the wide gaps between the singe LLDC become obvious. Between 2008 and 2018, the number of slaughtered chickens increased by 1.1 billion birds.

Of these, 908 mill. or 80.7% were contributed by the ten leading countries (Table 4). A comparison of the composition and ranking of the countries in 2008 and 2018 shows that there was no change in the top three positions. Malawi, which was not listed among the top ten countries in 2008, ranked in fourth place. Nepal, also not listed in 2008, ranked as number seven. These two countries replaced Zambia and Senegal. The fast growth of chicken meat slaughter is reflected in the relative growth rates; in Malawi, the relative growth was 400%, in Nepal 385%.

The development in Myanmar is remarkable. The number of slaughtered chickens increased by 616 mill. birds, a share of 54.8% in the overall growth of the LLDC and of 67.8% in the ten leading countries. The absolute increase in Malawi (+72 mill.) and Nepal (+57 mill.) was much lower despite the high relative growth rates.

In 2008, the regional concentration was already quite high with 79.6%. Until 2018, the share of the ten leading countries increased only moderately. Myanmar could strengthen its leading position. The share in the overall slaughter grew by 5.6% and reached a value of 45.7% in 2018. In second and third place ranked Bangladesh and Yemen. These three Asian countries together contributed

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18.8

©Marisol Collins

MARKETING

61.5% to the chicken slaughter of the LLDC. The share of the African countries, listed among the top ten, was much lower with only 15.9%.

Table 4 – The ten leading LLDC in chicken slaughter in 2008 and 2018 (source: FAO database).

2018

2008 Country

Slaughter (mill. birds)

Share (%)

Country

Slaughter (mill. birds)

Share (%)

Myanmar

727

40.1

Myanmar

1,343

45.7

Bangladesh

215

11.9

Bangladesh

285

9.7

Yemen

151

8.3

Yemen

179

6.1

Tanzania

78

4.3

Malawi

96

3.3

Ethiopia

61

3.4

Tanzania

95

3.2

Mali

49

2.7

Ethiopia

92

3.1

Madagascar

46

2.5

Nepal

77

2.6

Burkina Faso

42

2.3

Mali

64

2.2

Zambia

39

2.1

Madagascar

61

2.1

Senegal

35

1.9

Burkina Faso

59

2.0

10 countries

1,443

*79.6

10 countries

2,351

80.0

LLDC total

1,813

100.0

LLDC total

2,938

100.0

*sum does not add because of rounding

30

- marketing -

High regional concentration also in chicken meat production Between 2008 and 2018, the production of chicken meat of the LLDC increased by 1.6 mill. t or 95.1%, in the ten leading countries by 1.4 mill. t or by 97.6% (Table 5).

The production volume almost doubled, indicating the growing importance of chicken meat as a valuable protein source for the increasing population.

The lack of religious barriers regarding the consumption of this meat type was an important steering factor for the fast growth. Myanmar had the highest absolute increase with 944,000 t, contributing almost

MARKETING

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MARKETING

Table 5 – The ten leading LLDC in chicken meat production in 2008 and 2018 (source: FAO database).

2008

2018

Country

Production (1,000 t)

Share (%)

Myanmar

785

Bangladesh

151

Yemen Tanzania

Country

Production (1,000 t)

Share (%)

46.0

Myanmar

1,729

52.0

8.9

Bangladesh

199

6.0

136

8.0

Malawi

191

5.7

77

4.5

Yemen

180

5.4

Ethiopia

49

2.9

Tanzania

101

3.0

Uganda

45

2.6

Mozambique

86

2.6

Senegal

41

2.4

Ethiopia

74

2.2

Mali

39

2.3

Sudan

70

2.1

Zambia

39

2.3

Uganda

70

2.1

Madagascar

37

2.2

Senegal

64

1.9

10 countries

1,399

*82.0

10 countries

2,764

*83.1

LLDC total

1,706

100.0

LLDC total

3,328

100.0

*sum does not add because of rounding

two thirds to the total growth in the LLDC. Similar to the dynamics in egg production, investments of the Thai CP Group explain the remarkable dynamics. In Malawi, the production volume grew by 172,000 t, a tenfold increase. This extraordinary growth is a result of the initiative of a single company (Incubators Malawi). The company installed small incubators in various parts of the country. In the incubators, chicks of hybrid lines were hatched.

The chicks were sold to small farmers who produced chicken meat for the rural population (Ralte 2017).

Myanmar´s could increase its contribution to the production volume of the LLDC by 6.0%, and in 2018 shared already 52.0% in the total production volume of this country group.

The share of Malawi grew from 1.1% in 2008 to 5.7% ten years later. High relative growth rates showed Mozambique (352.6%), Sudan (159.2%) and Myanmar (102.3%). A compari-

32

son of the composition and ranking of the countries in 2008 and 2018 reveals some interesting changes. Myanmar and Bangladesh still ranked in the top two positions, followed by Malawi. Mozambique and Sudan replaced Mali and Zambia.

The regional concentration of chicken meat production in the LLDC increased from 82.0% to 83.1%.

Table 6 – Average slaughter weight of chickens in selected LLDC in 2018 (source: own calculations based on FAO data).

Country

Slaughter weight (kg)

Malawi

2.0

Madagascar

1.7

Mozambique

1.7

Senegal

1.4

Myanmar

1.3

Uganda

1.3

Ethiopia

0.8

Burkina Faso

0.8

Mali

0.8

Nepal

0.8

Bangladesh

0.7

LLDC

1.0

World

1.7

- marketing -

Large differences in slaughter weight A comparison of the slaughter weights in the LLDC shows considerable differences (Table 6). The average slaughter weight was 1.0 kg.

The highest value reached Malawi with 2.0 kg, in 2008 it been only 0.8 kg. The success of Malawi Incubators is obvious.

A higher slaughter weight than average had Madagascar and Mozambique with 1.7 kg. Myanmar reached 1.3 kg; in 2008, it had been only 1.3 kg. Very low were the slaughter weights in Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, Mali and Nepal with 0.8 kg and in Bangladesh only 0.7 kg.

When evaluating the data, on has to consider that they are in most cases based on estimates by FAO. The FAO database does also not distinguish between slaughtered broilers, double purpose hens or spent hens.

That is why the presented data can only serve as an approximation regarding the differences in the production systems of backyard flocks and the growing of hybrid lines in broilers.

Date source an suggestions for further reading FAO database: www.faostat.org.

Ralte, R.: Made in Malawi Incubators Boost Poultry Industry. In: The Poultry Site, November 1st, 2017. https:// thepoultrysite.com/news/2017/11.

Windhorst, H.-W.: The forgotten world. Part 1: The egg industry in the least developed countries. In: Zootecnica international 43 (2021), no. 2, p. 22.

MARKETING

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MANAGEMENT

Aspects of LED lighting: turkey behavior, performance, and well-being

Brooke M. Bartz, PhD Candidate, MS Poultry Science, North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

34

Lighting regiments are crucial for poultry production and include three main parameters: daylength, intensity, and chromaticity. The interplay of these 3 factors impact physiology, behavior, and influences performance and wellbeing in poultry.

With the rise of the energy efficient light emitting diode (LED) bulbs in today’s market, there is an opportunity to refine lighting regiments to these new bulbs. Lighting studies involving

- management -

MANAGEMENT

monochromatic or mixed LEDs have been completed in quail, broilers, and layers, however, they have not been completed in turkeys. Although turkeys are markedly different from other poultry species with evidence that turkeys and broilers respond differently to lighting regiments, management decisions for turkeys are often based on information gained from broiler experiments. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to concisely report the effects of LED lighting regiments, specifically in turkey hens, raised at the Talley Turkey Educational Unit located in Raleigh, NC between the years 2016 and 2019.

What makes LEDs different from incandescent bulbs Visible light is a small fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum nestled between shorter wavelengths with more energy: cosmic, gamma, x-ray, & ultraviolet, and longer wavelengths with less energy: infrared, radio, & electric waves. Traditional light occurs when heat is created causing energy to be emitted as perceived (visible) light. Incandescent bulbs work with this principle, and when an electrical current is run through a tungsten filament, heat is created, causing a glow to be emitted, producing light.

Incandescent bulbs contain all the colors of the visible spectrum emitting a small amount of short wavelengths with high energy violets (380nm) and increasing amplitude towards the longer wavelengths with low energy reds (700nm) (Figure 1). LEDs produce light through a principle of electroluminescence, allowing them to emit very specific and precise wavelengths of light within the visual spectrum.

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Consumer LEDs are mixed colors and very few are monochromatic or emit only one wavelength of light. LEDs are also graded on a chromaticity scale, or color temperature expressed as a Kelvin (K) temperature (Figure 1).

Color and intensity matter Chromaticity, or color temperature is very important when determining which type of LED to purchase. Different wavelengths emit different colored light and each color has an ability to penetrate through layers of the skin, allowing them to interact with tissues, including the retina.

Poultry species have 4 types of cones (humans = 3) making them more sensitive to different colors including: vi-

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MANAGEMENT

380

420

460

500

540

580

620

660

700

740

780

380

420

75W Incandescent

460

500

540

580

620

660

2,700K LED

700

740

780

380

420

460

500

540

580

620

660

700

5,000K LED

740

780

380

420

460

500

540

580

620

660

700

740

780

Monochromatic red LED

380

420

460

500

540

580

620

660

700

740

5.000K + red LED

Figure 1 – Comparison of visible spectrum emitted by different types of LEDs.

olet (415nm), blue (460nm), green (510nm), and yellow/orange (560– 580nm) (Figure 2). During our studies, when common mixed LEDs (5,000K “blue” and 2,700K “yellow”) were dimmed from high intensities (10fc) to low intensities (2fc), the spectral output was altered in areas containing the sensitive color cones specific to poultry species.

Lighting effects on eye health Turkeys require a higher intensity of light compared to chickens for proper eye development and welfare. If light intensity is too low in turkeys, eyes become elongated, causing myopia (blurriness), and if daylength is too long it can cause cataracts. In our studies, birds that were reared under 5,000K + RED LEDs (12h or 18h daylength) or under 5,000K LEDs (14h daylength) had elongation of the eyes. What is significant about these results is that spectral differences may be just as important in eye health as daylength and intensity effects.

Novelty in production Novelty refers to experiences that are new which may elicit intrigue or fear in animals causing behavioral changes. In poultry, fear responses are associated with feather pecking, the bird’s ability to cope with social isolation, and their level of exploratory motivation. There were no differences between lighting groups based on their time to explore the novel items. At this time, behavioral footage is being reviewed to determine if there were differences between treatments with regards to types of behaviors displayed (i.e. eating, drinking, resting, walking, aggression, etc.).

Figure 2 – Visible spectrum with color specific cones for poultry highlighted.

36

- management -

Daylength effects turkey performance with LEDs The majority of birds are photosensitive breeders, especially those used for meat production. This means that daylength initiates reproductive cycles in birds. These cycles can be altered by lighting causing birds to produce eggs year-round, semen to be collected, and to promote growth in meat production species. Our results (Table 1) indicate that sunlight + 18h of 5,000K LED increased body weight gain at 5 weeks of age, whereas 18h of 5,000K LEDs with no sunlight increased feed intake from 5-9 weeks. However, there were no differences between treatments by the end of the study.

Feather coverage Feathers are unique to birds and are an extension of the integumentary system plays a role in thermoregulation, insulation, and energy conservation.

Feathers develop from keratinized epithelium derived from specialized follicles in the dermis. Infrared thermal imaging is an alternative way to access feather coverage based on heat signatures. A long daylength (18h), regardless of type of light was associated with a larger red signature over the breast tissue, indicative of less feather coverage. However,

780

MANAGEMENT

Conclusion

Table 1 – LED daylength effect on performance of turkey hens grown to 14wks.

Light Treatment

0-5 Week Performance

5-9 Week Performance

9-14 Week Performance

5-14 Week Performance

Daylength

NAT

NAT + 18h

12h

18h

12h

18h

LED Light Type

NONE

5,000K

5,000K

5,000K

5,000K + RED

5,000K + RED

P-Value

FI (kg/bd)

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

> 0,05

BWG (kg/bd)

↓

↑

≈

≈

↓

↑

< 0,05

FCR

↑

≈

↓

≈

≈

≈

< 0,05

FI (kg/bd)

↓

↓

↓

↑

≈

≈

< 0,05

BWG (kg/bd)

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

> 0,05

FCR

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

> 0,05

FI (kg/bd)

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

> 0,05

BWG (kg/bd)

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

> 0,05

FCR

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

> 0,05

FI (kg/bd)

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

> 0,05

BWG (kg/bd)

↑

≈

≈

≈

≈

↓

> 0,05

FCR

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

≈

> 0,05

↑increased, ↓decreased, ≈ no difference; intermediate in response within rows.

FI = feed intake; BWG = body weight gain; FCR = feed conversion ratio; bd = basal diet

when birds were reared under 14 hrs of light, regardless of intensity level, there were no differences in feather coverage. Although a direct comparison cannot be made between our two studies, there was a 4% increase in feather coverage in our intensity study. At this time, we must further investigate the possible reasons for this increase in feather coverage. Is this simply due to natural variation between flocks or perhaps the introduction of novelty allowed birds to redirect their behaviors from feather pecking towards the objects?

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Lighting regiments are necessary and include three main parameters: daylength, intensity, and chromaticity; all of which have been shown to impact bird physiology, behavior, well-being and performance in poultry. As LEDs continue to grow in popularity, additional studies must be completed to determine the effects in poultry management and may allow producers to establish a lighting program specific to their poultry needs.

At this time novelty interactions must be further studied to determine if there was an added benefit to bird welfare as seen by a decrease in loss of feathers and possible reduction in aggression. As research moves forward, it is imperative to remember that turkeys may respond differently to lighting treatments than other types of poultry species and must be taken into consideration.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Midwest Poultry Federation Convention

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For a constant supply of clean and fresh drinking water

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©Chokniti Khongchum

NUTRITION

Spirulina platensis Algae, a novel poultry feed additive Identifying alternative replacements for soybean meal in a high quality and reasonable price is of importance in poultry production and physiological parameters. Spirulina platensis Algae (SPA) is a natural feed additive with 40-45% crude protein (CP), 2.44% calcium, and 6.27% phosphorus. The effects of dietary supplementation of SPA on productive performance, serum lipid profile, calcium (CA) and inorganic phosphorus (IP) content in serum and tibia bone was investigated.

A.M. Abd El-Hady and O.A.H El-Ghalid Faculty of Agriculture (El-Shatby), Poultry Production Department, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21526, Egypt

38

Introduction The continuous development of the poultry industry and the use of antibiotics for the prevention of diseases in order to raise production efficiency for production of meat and eggs as well as use of antibiotics in feed resulted in the development of drug-resistant bacteria, antibiotic residues

- nutrition -

NUTRITION

body weight in broiler chickens and decreased numbers of intestinal microflora.

The current trend in poultry feed is to use natural ingredients as an alternative to antibiotics, artificial colors, and other chemicals in order to maintain human health and safety.

Spirulina (blue and green algae) is one of the high quality natural feed additives and nutritional efficiency of animals and poultry feed. Spirulina platensis are widely diffused and is widely found in Africa, Asia and South America.

Blue and green algae (Spirulina platensis) have been used for hundreds of years as an important food source for humans and animals because of the high nutritional value and high content of carotenoids. Spirulina is rich in protein content ranging from 55 to 65% as well as containing most essential amino acids. Spirulina contains a high content of thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, vitamin B12, vitamin C, carotenoids, calcium, iron and antioxidants.

However, there are some biological sources of calcium that can be used in a broiler chicken diet. Spirulina platensis Algae (SPA) is one of these biological sources of calcium that is found in the Red Sea, on a large scale. In addition, Spirulina has been shown to improve immune system, reproduction and growth traits. Spirulina supplements in chicken feed were found to be defense systems improver by increasing the ability to kill microbes, to synthesize antigens and increase T cell activity.

The aim of this work is to study the effect of Spirulina platensis Algae (SPA) supplementation in broiler chicken diets on productive performance, lipid profile and metabolism of calcium-phosphorus.

Materials and methods The current study was conducted at the poultry research center, Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University, over the period from March to May 2015.

Preparation of samples

Spirulina platensis Algae (SPA) used in this experiment was purchased from commercial company in Borg El-Arab City. The company harvested Spirulina from red sea, oven dried at 60 °C for 24 h and ground to powder by a hammer mill, finally stored in polyethylene bags until used in formulations.

Chemical analysis

Duplicate samples of SPA were analyzed for chemical composition in our birds feed laboratory (Table 1). In brief, the samples were dried out of the oven and the chemical components of crude protein samples, moisture, crude fat, crude fiber, soluble carbohydrate; total ash, calcium and total phosphorous were analyzed according to the methodologies described by AOAC (2000).

Table 1 – Chemical composition of Spirulina platensis Algae (as air dry basis).

Nutrient

Value

Crude protein

%

43.39

Moisture

%

4.67

Crude Fat

%

16.46

Crude Fiber

%

0.75

Soluble carbohydrate

%

1.97

Total Ash

%

32.67

Calcium

%

2.44

Total Phosphorus

%

6.27

Birds and their management

A total number of 480 Cobb broiler chickens were acquired from a local commercial breeder. A program was used to vaccinate chickens against Newcastle and infectious bronchitis (IB) diseases when hatched and vaccinated against H5N2 at the age of 9 days. Chicks are raised from day to 7 days together and under the same conditions. The ambient temperature was maintained at 32 °C for the first three days and then gradually decreased to 21 °C in 21 days of age. Starting from day 8 of age, chicks were divided into 3 random experimental groups of 4 replicates each with 40 chicks and were housed in a clean floor house.

Table 2 contains the nutrient composition of feed mixtures and experimental treatments. One of the 3 experimental groups was fed this diet as such to serve as control while; the remaining two groups were fed diets with SPA 30 and 60 kg/ Ton diet (3 and 6%) till 42 days of age.

SPA was included into diet by substituting the soybean meal content all mostly. The chicks control group and experimental groups with 3 and 6% SPA were reared under similar management conditions with ad libitum supply of feed and water.

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NUTRITION

Data collection

Blood collection and biochemical analyses

Growth performance traits

At the end of the experimental period, 16 broilers from each treatment were randomly taken for slaughter 3 ml of blood samples were collected before slaughtering birds from a vein in the wing for biochemical analysis.

Serum total lipids, triglyceride and cholesterol were determined by using special kits by means of spectrophotometer according to recommendation of several authors. Low density lipoprotein (LDL) and high density lipoprotein (HDL) were determined using colorimetric method by commercial kits obtained from Reactivos GPL, Barcelona, Spain.

Serum calcium (Ca) and inorganic phosphorus (IP) concentrations were determined by colorimetric method, using double beam spectrophotometer with commercial kits transmitted from sentinel CH. Milano, Italy.

All birds were individually weighed weekly from 7 and 42 days (Slaughter age).

The weekly weight gain of broilers and feed consumption were taken and calculated at the end of each week. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated subsequently based on the weekly body weight gain and feed consumption.

Mortality was recorded daily and morbidity as mortality rate (MR) per weekly basis and calculated at the end of experimental period (42 days of age).

Table 2 – Composition and calculated analysis of the starting and finishing diets with Spirulina platensis Algae (SPA) supplementation in broiler chickens.

Ingredients

Starter diet

Finisher diet

0%

3% SPA

6% SPA

0%

3% SPA

6% SPA

Yellow corn

560

564.5

566

615

616

617

Soybean meal 44%

280

250

224

248

222

203

---

30

60

---

30

60

Corn gluten meal

100

99

96

72

69

61

Vegetable oil

20

20

20

25

25

25

Di-Calcium phosphate

17

15

13.5

17

15.5

13

14.5

13

12

14.8

14

13

Salts (NaCl)

4

4

4

4

4

4

Dl-Methionine

1

1

1

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.4

3

3

3

3

3

3

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

1000

Spirulina platensis algae

Limestone

L-lysine Minerals Premix* Total Calculated analysis: Crude protein (CP%)

23.14

23.10

23.09

20.51

20.51

20.50

Metabolizable energy (Kcal/kg)

3035

3041

3044

3096

3092

3091

Ether extract (EE%)

2.85

2.86

2.86

2.90

2.89

2.90

Crude fiber (CF%)

3.51

3.35

3.41

3.34

3.20

3.17

Calcium (%)

0.97

0.99

1.01

0.94

0.95

0.96

Available phosphorus (%)

0.47

0.46

0.47

0.43

0.44

0.45

Lysine (%)

0.98

1.01

1.00

0.96

0.98

0.98

Methionine (%)

0.70

0.70

0.72

0.63

0.65

0.65

* Minerals premix added at this rate yields: 149.60 mg Mn, 16.50 mg Fe, 1.70 mg Cu, 125.40 mg Zn, 0.25 mg Se, 1.05 mg I kg-1 diet. Vitamins premix added at this rate yields: 11,023 IU vitamin A, 46 IU vitamin E, 3,858 IU vitamin D3, 1.47 mg minadione, 2.94 mg thiamine, 5.85 mg riboflavin, 20.21 mg pantothenic acid, 0.55 mg biotin, 1.75 mg folic acid, 478 mg choline, 16.50 μg vitamin B12, 45.93 mg niacin and 7.17 mg pyridoxine per kg die.

40

- nutrition -

Tibia traits

The left tibia of each slaughtered bird was taken to measure the tibia characteristics and minerals (Ca and IP) concentrations. Briefly, tibia was de-fleshed, and cartilaginous caps were removed immediately after collection. To determine the minerals concentrations, all frozen tibias were kept in plastic bags at a temperature of -20 °C to maintain wetness until the analysis was performed. Then dissolved by leaving it in plastic bags at room temperature for one hour and then dried in the oven at 105 °C for 12 h.

The samples were then grinded in a mill, weighed and placed in a muffle furnace overnight at 550 °C for 3 h.

The ash was used to quantify calcium and phosphorous amount in the

NUTRITION

tibia with atomic absorption spectrophotometer using appropriate lamp (AOAC, 2005 method).

Economical efficiency

Economical efficiency of production was calculated from the input-output analysis of the money, based on the differences in both growth rate and feeding costs.

The value of the economical efficiency was calculated as the net revenue per unit of total feed costs.

The prices of experimental diets and live body weight were calculated according to the prices of the local Egyptian market at the time of experiment (2015) according to the formula of Riad et al., 2010.

Table 3 – Least square means ± SE of productive performance added different level of Spirulina platensis Algae in broiler diet.

3%

6%

2327.0±201.2b

2311.0±175.6b

2454.0±155.8a

2380.7±161.3

Week (1-2)

242.2±21.3a

184.3±18.9 b

227.5±13.5a

217.3±14.5

Week (2-3)

460.5±28.7a

384.5±21.1b

442.5±22.3a

442.5±19.8

Week (3-4)

504.0±33.5b

511.0±32.5b

560.1±23.5a

530.9±22.2

Week (4-5)

470.2±29.8b

516.0±24.4b

522.0±25.6a

482.5±20.9

Week (5-6)

477.0±36.7b

540.3±38.7a

528.4±34.9a

535.5±35.5

Week (1-6)

2153.7±210.3b

2136.1±184.4b

2280.5±162.8a

2208.8±155.8

Week (1-2)

368.1±27.4

327.2±14.8

332.8±18.7

342.5±15.9

Week (2-3)

926.3±44.7a

713.4±46.7c

835.9±34.9b

825.1±30.8

Week (3-4)

929.9±55.9

896.7±34.8

999.4±49.7

942.0±42.8

Week (4-5)

915.6±47.2ab

873.3±44.6b

997.4±48.7a

928.4±45.6

Week (5-6)

920.8±60.5b

1040.0±62.3a

1094.1±51.7a

1017.3±56.5

Week (1-6)

4060.6±245.3

3850.7±210.3

4259.6±174.2

4055.7±195.4

Week (1-2)

1.52±0.08b

1.78±0.07a

1.46±0.10 b

1.58±0.5

Week (2-3)

2.01±0.14a

1.86±0.11b

1.73±0.07b

1.87±0.07

Week (3-4)

1.85±0.09

1.75±0.08

1.72±0.05

1.75±0.05

Week (4-5)

1.95±0.12

1.92±0.10

1.91±0.07

1.92±0.08

Week (5-6)

1.93±0.08a

1.73±0.06b

2.07±0.04a

1.91±0.05

Week (1-6)

1.89±0.16a

1.80±0.12b

1.82±0.13b

1.83±0.10

3.75±0.25

3.25±0.18

3.34±0.18

3.42±0.14

BWG

FC

FCR

Relative economical efficiency (%) affecting the control treatment = 100%

Mortality rate %

Statistical analysis The experiment was set in a completely randomized design. Analysis of variance using the general procedure of the liner model for analyzed data experimental (Proc GLM; SAS Institute, 1999). The Duncan test was used to calculate differences between methods.

Results and discussion Growth performance

Table 3 shows that broilers BW and weekly BWG of 6% SPA recorded higher (P≤0.05) final BW and BWG at 42 days of age, compared to 3%

Overall mean

Control

Body weight at 42 days

Net Revenue = Total Revenue - Total feed cost Economical efficiency = Net Revenue / Total feed cost x 100

Spirulina platensis algae

Items

a,b…

Means with different letters in the same row are significantly different at P≤ 0.05

and control groups by (5.45 and 6.19%) and (5.89 and 6.76%), respectively.

It is worthy to note that the improvement in final BW and BWG which occurred in broiler chickens administrated SPA may be due to the biological functions of the main components of the residual essential amino acids in SPA. SPA supplementation to broiler diet had no effect on feed consumption at the end of experimental period, but improved feed conversion ratio (FCR). Results on Table 3 showed

- march 2021 -

that average values of FCR of broiler chickens in 3 and 6% SPA improved significantly by 4.76 and 3.70% comparing with control group at 42 days of age, respectively. The improvement of FCR as a result of SPA supplementation to broiler diet could be attributed to the increase in BW accompanied with no effect on FC. Mortality rate (MR) was not significantly decreased in all groups. Our obtained results were in accordance with those of other research carried out by Hussein (2015) who noticed an improvement in the BW

41

NUTRITION

and BWG at the end of the experiment (d 42), when broiler chickens supplemented with Spirulina platensis as compared with controls birds supplemented with prebiotic. Also, feed conversion ratio (FCR) was lower for birds supplemented with SPA (1.78) than control birds (1.88).

The mortality rate was lower for the SPA supplemented group (2.5%) than both of prebiotic and prebiotic supplemented groups (3.5% and 3%, respectively) compared to the control group (4%).

Spirulina has been shown to enhance the immunity, reproduction and growth, as concluded by Khan et al. (2005) feeding diets containing Spirulina may increase the lactobacillus population and promote the absorbability of dietary vitamins. In addition, Spirulina enhance the defense systems by increasing microbial killing, antigen processing and T-cell activity. Moreover, some authors noticed that broilers fed Spirulina containing diets it was observed that the productive performance was superior to control birds. BW and BWG of broilers fed 0.3g Spirulina/ kg diet was significantly increased and improved feed conversion ratio compared to control group.

Some authors reported that Spirulina inclusion by 2% into the diet showed a significant reduction in the mortality rate in quails (P<0.05) during the experimental period. Poultry receiving dietary Spirulina showed better health than the control group indicating the enhancement of disease resistance with increased dietary Spirulina levels in poultry.

Serum biochemical parameters

Groups 3% and 6% SPA showed significant (P≤0.05) decrease in

42

Table 4 – Least square means ± SE of serum biochemical parameters and calcium and phosphors of tibia bone added different level of Spirulina platensis algae (SPA) in broiler diet.

Spirulina platensis algae

Items

Overall mean

Control

3%

6%

Total lipid (mg/dl)

482.22±30.11a

467.35±24.64ab

453.91±26.50 b

467.80±22.81

Triglyceride (mg/dl)

123.83±9.47a

118.74±9.84a

92.56±7.42b

111.36±8.41

Cholesterol (mg/dl)

164.50±11.39a

145.44±8.46b

139.42±10.25b

149.32±7.45

HDL (mg/dl)

54.72±3.20 b

62.54±5.60a

64.38±3.12a

60.51±4.66

LDL (mg/dl)

92.13±5.40a

77.47±7.61b

69.52±4.59 b

79.64±5.02

Ca (mg/dl)

8.87±0.46b

9.78±0.50ab

10.94±0.40a

9.85±0.33

IP (mg/dl)

4.63±0.37b

5.12±0.21a

5.64±0.23a

5.11±0.20

Ca of tibia ash (%)

26.45±1.51b

28.44±1.12b

30.74±1.22a

28.52±1.11

IP of tibia ash (%)

13.75±1.13c

±1.23b

14.66±1.21a

14.21±1.21

a,b…

14.25

Means with different letters in the same row are significantly different at P≤ 0.05

serum total lipid, triglyc eride, cholesterol and low density lipoprotein (LDL) levels when compared with control group (Table 4).

The decrease in serum lipid profile of broiler chickens fed dietary Spirulina may reflect the hypo-cholerolemic properties attributed to reducing the absorption and/or synthesis of cholesterol in the gastro-intestinal tract

by Spirulina supplementation which increase Lactobacillus population.

Serum high density lipoprotein (HDL), Ca and IP concentrations of broilers of 3 and 6% SPA significantly (P≤0.05) increased by (14.29 and 15.01%), (10.3 and 23.34%) and (10.58 and 21.81%), respectively compared with control group in Table 4. Also, data showed that concentrations of Ca and IP of tibia ash were significantly (P<0.05) increased in broilers that feed SPA in T2 and T3 groups by (7.52 and 16.22%) and (3.64 and 6.62%) than control group.

The high content of Ca and P in SPA resulted in concentrations of Ca and IP in Tibia bone.

- nutrition -

In accordance with the present results, some authors showed that values of total lipids, triglycerides and cholesterol in blood plasma significantly decreased by inclusion Spirulina in diets of birds, in particular those contained 0.2 or 0.3 g/kg.

Economical efficiency

The results in Table 5 showed that economical efficiency of birds fed dietary Spirulina (SPA) was higher than that of the control group. Birds fed 3% and 6% SPA of the diet had the higher net revenue and economical efficiency (7.04 and 20.29%), (18.78 and 27.36%) than that of birds fed control diet, respectively. Dietary SPA has been associated with greater cost efficiency in chicken production. Some authors found that vitamin-mineral premixes typically added to chicken feed rations can be omitted when Spirulina is included, due to its nutrient-rich composition.

Mariey et al. (2014) concluded that broiler fed Spirulina had the higher economical efficiency than that of birds fed control diet. In conclusion,

NUTRITION

Table 5 – Effect of added different level of Spirulina platensis algae (SPA) on economical efficiency in broiler diet at 42 days of age.

Experimental treatments

Items

Feed

Meat

Net Revenue (L.E) Economic efficiency Relative economic efficiency (%)

taking the economical aspect into account, SPA could be safely used in broiler feeding, at level up to 6% of the diet with superior effects on their productive performance.

Control

3%

6%

Total intake (kg/chick)

4.06

3.85

4.26

Price/kg (L.E)

3.81

3.62

3.43

Total feed cost (L.E)

15.47

13.94

14.61

Weight gain (kg/chick)

2.15

2.14

2.34

Price/kg (L.E)

16.25

16.25

16.25

Total revenue (L.E)

34.94

34.78

38.03

19.47

20.84

23.42

125.86

149.50

160.30

100

118.78

127.36

Conclusions It was concluded that the supplementation of Spirulina platensis Algae (SPA) powder to diet can improved growth performance, lipid profile, calcium-phosphorus metabolism in blood and tibia bone of broilers. However, the range for optimum inclusion of Spirulina was observed to have a positive effect on the growth and feed conversion ratio of broilers. Inclusion of Spirulina (SPA) up to 6% of total diet is recommended considering the vast improvement in growth performance and economical efficiency.

The price of Spirulina platensis algae is about 2.8 LE, but Soybean is 4.65 LE

References are available on request From the proceedings of th the 6 Mediterranean Poultry Summit

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- march 2021 -

43

NUTRITION

Effect of graded levels of supplementary phytase in diets with and without rapeseed meal Results on energy utilisation, nutrient availability and phytate degradation in young turkeys

Application of dietary enzymes, including phytase, protease, and carbohydrases, alone or in combination, to facilitate phosphorus, protein, and energy utilization is a common approach to quality improvements of rapeseed meal (RSM) in poultry diets. parent metabolisable energy (AMEn), dry matter (DMR), nitrogen (NR), phosphorus (PR), calcium (CaR) and phytate degradation of RSM rich diets when fed to turkeys.

Therefore, the objective of this experiment was to examine the effect of graded levels of exogenous phytase on the energy utilisation, nutrient availability and phytate degradation when feeding diets with and without RSM to young turkeys.

Animals and experimental design

V. Pirgozliev1, S.C. Mansbridge1, S.P. Rose1, C.A. Brearley2, M.R. Bedford3 1National

Institute of Poultry Husbandry, Harper Adams University, Newport, Shropshire, UK 2School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk NR4 7TJ, UK 3AB Vista, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK

44

Most studies to date have been conducted in broilers. Thus there is a scarcity of information as to the use of enzymes on RSM in turkey rations. In particular, little is known about the effect of phytase on phytate degradation in RSM rich diets when fed to turkeys, an observation which is particularly pertinent given supplementary phytase seems to produce different results in chickens and turkeys. In addition, there is a lack of information on the effect of graded levels of exogenous phytase on N-corrected ap-

- nutrition -

A basal diet, with low AvP (AvP in the diet was calculated to be 0.53%) and low Ca (Ca in diet was calculated to be 1.12%) was produced (Table 1). Another diet was produced by mixing 80% of the basal diet and 20% of industry produced RSM. The two basal diets were then split in four parts each and phytase enzyme was added at 0, 500, 2,500 and 12,500 FTU per kg diet respectively.

Nutrient availability was examined in the experiment from 27 to 35 d age using 96 female BUT Premium turkey poults (Faccenda Foods Ltd., Dalton, UK). Each diet was fed to 6 pens (two birds each) following randomisation. Excreta were collected for the last 3 days of the study. All laboratory analysis and calculations were performed following standard procedures. Data were analysed by 2 x 4 factorial design ANOVA.

NUTRITION

Table 1 – Experimental diet.

Results and discussion

Ingredients %

There were no (P>0.05) phytase by RSM interactions for any of the variables presented in Table 2. Results in this study show an improvement of most of the studied variables by phytase supplementation. There was a positive quadratic relationship (P<0.05) between dietary phytase activity and daily feed intake (FI=, as dosage of 2,500 FTU was the optimum for FI (Table 2). There was a similar tendency between phytase activity and daily weight gain (WG) (P=0.053), but no response for feed conversion ratio (FCR - P>0.05) was observed. The AMEn of the basal diet and the RSM containing diet (with no phytase) were close to the calculated values. There was a positive linear relationship between phytase activity and dietary AMEn (P<0.05) (Table 2). There was a positive linear relationship between phytase activity and dietary DMR (P<0.05), NR (P<0.05), CaR (P<0.001) and PR (P<0.001) (Table 2). The data with INS and inositol phosphate isomers are presented in Table 2 with all parameters responding quadratically to phytase addition.

Despite the relatively short feeding period, daily FI and WG of turkeys improved in agreement with previous reports. The linear improvement in dietary AMEn with dietary phytase increase is in agreement with Pirgozliev et al.

(2007). In the reported study, the retention coefficients of DM, N, Ca and P responded in a linear dose dependent manner to phytase supplementation. This increase in available energy and nutrient retention was negatively correlated to the reduction of the concentration of IP6 and the rest of the studied IP isomers in this experiment.

The theory of enzymatic breakdown of phytate compounds distinguishes between the liberation of phytate molecules

Basal diet

RSM diet

Wheat

52.98

42.01

Prairie meal

2.50

2.00

Rye

2.00

1.60

Rape seed meal

5.00

24.00

Soya bean meal (dehulled)

29.50

23.60

L-lysine HCI

0.35

0.28

DL-methionine

0.35

0.28

L-threonine

0.09

0.072

Soya oil

3.00

2.40

Limestone

1.00

0.80

Dicalcium phosphate

2.63

2.40

Salt

0.30

0.24

Turkey vitamin-mineral premix

0.40

0.32

Oil

4.56

4.10

CP

24.12

26.22

ME (MJ/Kg)

12.16

11.43

Lysine

1.39

1.31

Methionine + Cysteine

1.08

1.32

Ca

1.12

1.07

P (available)

0.53

0.56

DM

88.5

88.3

GE (MJ/Kg)

16.81

16.96

Oil

4.06

3.69

CP

21.5

23.4

Ca

1.28

1.18

Total P

0.79

0.84

Calculated provisions %

Determined values %

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- march 2021 -

45

NUTRITION

Table 2 – Daily feed intake (FI), weight gain (WG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), dietary N-corrected apparent metabolisable energy (AMEn), dry matter (DMR), nitrogen (NR), calcium (CaR), phosphorus (PR) retention coefficients and inositol phosphate isomers (IP) and Inositol (Ins) concentration in excreta.

FI (g/b/d)

WG (g/b/d)

0

109

66

500

113

69

2,500

114

69

12,500

111

SEM

1.4

QB

RSM

FCR (g:g)

AMEn (MJ/kg)

DMR

NR

1.672

11.73

0.633

0.562

1.648

11.77

0.637

0.563

1.662

11.91

0.646

0.584

0.480

68

1.630

12.04

0.658

0.596

0.520

0.530

1344

942

93

1035

5808

1.1

0.0208

0.103

0.0071

0.0092

0.0097

0.0094

163.7

314.5

252.9

1297.8

619.6 4851

CaR

PR

IP3

IP4

IP5

IP6

Ins

0.471

0.482

3068

2924

5806

33789

4615

0.480

0.483

3503

4246

3010

14491

5459

0.492

2871

4112

657

4105

5243

No

111

70

1.595

12.31

0.670

0.600

0.480

0.516

2662

2963

2144

12344

Yes

113

66

1.711

11.41

0.617

0.553

0.496

0.472

2731

3149

2636

14365

5711

0.97

0.8

0.0147

0.073

0.0050

0.0065

0.0068

0.0066

115.7

222.4

178.8

917.7

438.4

SEM 0

No

109

68

1.603

12.27

0.666

0.590

0.464

0.508

2813

2586

4996

30983

4875

500

No

112

69

1.620

12.29

0.667

0.592

0.469

0.504

3633

4445

2861

13701

5738 4698

2,500

No

114

72

1.597

12.30

0.670

0.601

0.477

0.511

2824

3919

618

3619

12,500

No

109

70

1.559

12.38

0.678

0.616

0.508

0.540

1379

900

100

1075

4095

0

Yes

109

63

1.742

11.20

0.600

0.534

0.477

0.456

3323

3262

6617

36594

4355

500

Yes

115

69

1.675

11.24

0.607

0.535

0.490

0.462

3373

4047

3159

15282

5181

2,500

Yes

114

66

1.727

11.52

0.622

0.566

0.483

0.473

2917

4305

696

4590

5789

12,500

Yes

113

67

1.701

11.69

0.638

0.577

0.533

0.520

1310

983

86

995

7521

1.9

1.9

0.0294

0.145

0.0100

0.0130

0.0137

0.0133

231.5

444.7

357.6

1835.4

876.7

SEM Probabilities

0.071

NS

NS

NS

0.078

<0.05

<0.05

<0.05

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

NS

L*

FTU

NS

NS

NS

<0.05

<0.05

<0.05

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

NS

Q*

0.011

0.053

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

0.001

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

NS

Deviations*

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

0.114

NS

0.058

NS

NS

0.077

NS

RSM

NS

<0.05

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

<0.001

0.103

<0.001

NS

NS

0.058

NS

NS

FTU x RSM

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

*Levels of exogenous phytase were expressed as their square roots

from complexes with other tissue components and enzymatic cleavage of phosphate residues on the myo-inositol ring. The stepwise manner of dephosphorylation of IP6 could lead to a release of different myo-inositol isomers and phosphates.

The results in this study suggest that super levels of phytase are capable of reducing the IP6 concentration in the excreta by 97%. Similarly, IP5 concentration in the excreta was decreased by almost 99% of the NC value. Both, IP6 and IP5, are highly potent chelaters of minerals and may interfere with digestion of protein. This may explain the positive linear improvement in AMEn with increasing level of supplementary phytase, in keeping with the theory that a high IP6 concentration can inhibit pepsin secretion and therefore protein digestion.

standard 500 FTU/kg phytase, however, superdosing phytase at 12,500 FTU/kg phytase resulted in a reduction of 32% and 44%, respectively, from the negative control.

Conclusion In conclusion, the reported results confirm that super dosing of phytase in turkeys is an effective strategy for improving the nutritional value of diets through the reduction of the anti-nutritional factors IP6 and IP5. Results indicate improvements in metabolisable energy, dry matter, nitrogen, Ca and P retention coefficients.

In agreement with Bedford and Walk (2016) IP4 and IP3 initially increased by 45% and 14%, respectively with a

46

- nutrition -

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 13th Turkey Science and Production Conference

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NUTRITION

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VETERINARY SCIENCE

Key global health issues in cage-free and organic laying hens In USA and Europe there has been a growth in cage-free, free range, and organic production over the last 10 years.

The percentage of all cage-free production has been growing steadily. In the USA as of October 2017, there was 84.2% conventional, enrichable, and enriched, 11.1% cage-free (barn) and 4.7% organic out of approximately 7 million laying hens. Additionally, cage-free pledges by multinational corporations have the potential to spread this style of production to countries where there may be little to no local demand outside of the brands offering this product.

Ian Rubinoff, DVM, MPH, DACPV

48

The cost of cage-free production can be up to 30-40% higher than conventional cage systems. While this economic impact can change the demand for eggs on the free market, a potential bigger disrupter is the variability of production inherent in cage-free systems.

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

Health issues in cage-free flocks Cage-free hens are subject to the same diseases as any other chicken. A well-managed cage-free flock can have the same or better mortality than a conventional style flock; however, hens that have access to litter or pasture have a greater chance of coming in contact with a number of diseases and management challenges that are either unique or accentuated by the cage-free environment.

Mortality of Conventional and Cage Free Hens Conventional

Cage Free

60 weeks Mortality Conventional 3.64 Cage Free 3.75 Best conventional 2.59 Best cage free 2.09

18

16 14

Standard 2.80 4.30 2.80 4.30

St. Dev 2.34 2.62

Count 249 122

Mortality %

12 10 8 6

pathogen. Due to the prevalence in the environment, it is often the cause of mortality for birds that are immunosuppressed from another disease including Infectious bronchitis, Mycoplasma, and others. Common presentations of E. coli infection in chickens include colisepticemia, peritonitis, salpingitis, and air sacculitis. Cage-free houses have been shown to have significantly higher levels of particulate matter and ammonia which can enhance conditions for colibacillosis. While not all peritonitis is caused

by E. coli (Salmonella, Pasteurella, and Gallibacterium can also cause similar clinical signs), E. coli is often involved. Vaccination is an effective method to control colibacillosis using either an autogenous bacterin or live vaccine administered during rearing. Vaccination during an outbreak of E. coli has been demonstrated be occasionally effective in the absence of other options. Treatment for E. coli using antibiotics is an option for non-organic flocks although many of the available antibiotics with a zero-day egg withdrawal have limited efficacy.

4

Fowl cholera

2 0 2009

2010

2011

2012 2013 Hatch date

2014

2015

2016

Figure 1

Bacterial Avian intestinal spirochetosis Brachyspira are gram-negative bacteria that affect the intestines of chickens. There are three main pathogenic species: B. intermedia, B. pilosicoli, B. alvinipulli. Clinical signs include foul-smelling, caramel-colored, foamy droppings and dark brown sticky residue on eggs that is very difficult clean. Brachyspira can cause drops in production or difficulty in persistency. Brachyspira are found in all production systems but can be worse in cage-free flocks, especially flocks that have access to outdoor areas that are difficult to clean and disinfect. There are no vaccines for Brachyspira so treatment with antibiotics is the only option for non-organic flocks.

Colibacillosis Avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) are gram-negative bacteria that can affect almost all systems of the chicken. E. coli can be both a primary and secondary

Pasteurella multocida is a gram-negative bacterium that can affect most types of birds and is typically a primary pathogen. While many animals could potentially be hosts for fowl cholera, this disease is often introduced to flocks as a result of biosecurity breakdowns and introduction from another flock of chickens. Clinical signs usually start in the respiratory tract in chickens, although with acute disease some birds may die without any sign of disease.

For more chronic infections, the presentation of the disease can be similar to colibacillosis with wide spread septicemia and peritonitis. Swollen wattles are another common presentation of cholera. Fowl cholera vaccination is a good way to control the disease but is not used in all flocks on a routine basis. Flocks with a history of cholera or which are in an endemic area should vaccinate.

Both live and killed Pasteurella vaccines are available.

Vaccination against Pasteurella must be done with a homologous serotype; the most common serotypes affecting chickens in the USA are A: 1, 3, and 4. For bacterins, commercial vaccines or autogenous vaccines can be utilized and must be administered twice during the rearing period. There are two live attenuated strains given by wing web inoculation that can be used for lower challenge areas. Treatment for P. multocida works with sulfonamides, tetracyclines, and some other antibiotics;

- march 2021 -

49

VETERINARY SCIENCE

©treehugger.com

coplasma species are small bacteria that lack a cell wall and do not survive well outside of the bird. Under normal conditions, Mycoplasma can survive for 2-3 days outside of the host bird and this is the basis for downtime for many farms. Breeding flocks around the world are kept free from Mycoplasma spp. because of vertical transmission to the chicks. The many flocks infected with Mycoplasma are infected from multi-age farms or surrounding birds.

Clinical signs include drops in production, unthrifty birds, and respiratory signs. Co-infection with other pathogens such as infectious bronchitis and E. coli can make Mycoplasma infections much worse. Mg usually causes more production issues than Ms, but Ms can create a variety of issues including weak shells with some strains.

however, mortality will often resume after the course of treatment ends.

Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT)

Infectious coryza Avibacterium paragallinarum is a gram-negative bacterium with clinical signs characterized by facial swelling and a sticky nasal discharge. Infectious coryza is frequently a secondary pathogen for farms affected by other respiratory pathogens, but once in a flock it can cause production drops of 10-40% and create biosecurity issues for other flocks on the same farm and the surrounding area.

Similar to Fowl cholera, coryza can be difficult to clean from a farm, especially a multiage farm where chickens are continuous reservoirs of disease even after treatment. Control of coryza using a bacterin vaccine is common for affected farms using a homologous vaccine for serotype A, B, or C. Treatment for coryza can be accomplished with sulfonamides, tetracyclines, and some other antibiotics; however mortality will often resume after the course of treatment ends.

Mycoplasmosis Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg) and M. synoviae (Ms) are the common mycoplasmas that affect chickens. My-

50

Vaccination is common in many parts of the world, especially on multi-age farms where the disease is endemic.

There are 3 main strains of live Mg vaccine (TS11, 6/85, and F-strain) and one strain of Ms live vaccine (Ms-H). The vaccines are best administered by eye drop to ensure every bird gets a sufficient titer. An Mg bacterin is also available on the market but may have uneven efficacy. Treatment of Mycoplasma is effective with a variety of antibiotics, although re-treatment is common because the infection is sustained on the farm throughout the treatment period.

ORT is a gram-negative bacterial disease of chickens and turkeys that has started to affect more cage-free flocks in Europe. ORT typically causes respiratory signs and drops in production. There is no commercial vaccine although some farms with endemic issues use an autogenous vaccine. Treatment with antibiotics can be effective although a culture and sensitivity is essential as strains can vary widely. Disinfecting the waterlines and fogging the house with disinfectant in the face of infection can also help reduce the impact of disease.

Parasitic Nematodes Nematodes include many internal parasites of chickens, one of the most prevalent and damaging of which is roundworm or Ascaridia galli are a big challenge for cage-free production. A study in Europe found that the incidence of Ascaridia infections in cage-free hens was between 2877% compared with less than 5% for caged hens. There

- veterinary science -

VETERINARY SCIENCE

is not a significant difference between infections in flocks with outdoor access and indoor only flocks once the worms have been brought onto the premise. Clinical signs include slow growth, anemia, and drops in production or changes in behavior for heavy infestations. Cleaning and disinfection between flocks is helpful although Ascaridia eggs are not affected by typical detergents and disinfectants. Treatment using fenbendazole may be necessary when parasite loads get too heavy.

very effective if the cycling of the vaccine over the first three of weeks on the farm is handled correctly.

Histomoniasis

Coccidiosis Coccidia are protozoal parasites of the intestinal tract of chickens that are prevalent in most cage-free systems.

There are seven main species of coccidia that effect chickens: Eimeria acervulina, Eimeria praecox, Eimeria maxima, Eimeria necatrix, Eimeria mitis, Eimeria brunetti, and Eimeria tenella. Each species of coccidia has a different affinity for portion of the intestinal tract and can cause differing levels of damage. Coccidia will cause mortality in young chicks and in pullets just moved into the layer house. Failure to thrive and gain weight is a common sign as well for young chicks leading to poor uniformity in flocks.

There are three main approaches to controlling coccidia: cleaning, medicinal treatment, vaccination. Even though oocysts are resistant to most detergents and disinfectants, cleaning is essential to help reduce the load in the environment by removing as much organic material as possible. Medicinal treatment must be used on a rotation between products to help prevent buildup of resistance.

Histomonas meleagridis (blackhead) is a protozoal disease of chickens that is linked to the cecal worm Heterakis gallinarum. Histomonas primarily causes lesions in the ceca and liver of chickens, including typical circular “target” lesions in the liver. The disease will cause a decrease in production and can result in high mortality. There are currently no drugs on the market that are effective against Histomonas so the only options are controlling the Heterakis worm burden by rotating pastures and cleaning barns well in between flocks.

Management of cage-free flocks Diseases are not the only health issues facing cage-free birds. Cannibalism, feather pecking, and piling can all be significant contributors to flock mortality and may also be an indicator that an unnoticed disease has starting moving through the flock. With all cage-free birds, there is a smaller margin of error and a higher focus on management that is essential to have a successful flock. Training and acclimating birds to various environments and stimuli starting from day of age chicks is the best way help reduce management issues on the layer farm.

References are available on request From the Proceedings of the Midwest Poultry Federation Convention

Vaccination is used on most cage-free flocks and can be

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UPCOMING EVENTS 2021

International Poultry Fair

May, 19 to 21

Rimini Expo Center, Via Emilia, 155 – 47921, Rimini, Italy

2021 MPF Convention + Virtual Event

For information contact: Tel.: +39 0547 1877115

Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA For information contact: Tel.: 763-284-6763 Email: info@midwestpoultry.com Website: midwestpoultry.com

May, 25 to 27 Meat and Poultry Industry Russia Industry Russia & VIV 2021 IEC Crocus Expo, Pavilion 2, Halls 7 and 8 Moscow, Russia For information contact: Asti Group Tel.: +7 (495) 797-69-14 Email: info@meatindustry.ru Website: meatindustry.ru

June, 10 to 12 VIV TURKEY International trade fair for poultry technologies Istanbul Expo Center, Istanbul, Turkey For information contact: Mrs Hande Çakıcı Tel.: +90 212 216 4010 Fax: +90 212 216 3360 Email: hande@hkf-fairs.com Website: www.viv.net/events/viv-turkey2021-istanbul

July, 21 to 23 ILDEX Vietnam Saigon Exhibition and Convention Center (SECC) Ho Chi Min City, Vietnam For information contact: Saengtip Techapatiphandee Tel.: +662 111 6611 ext. 330 Email: saengtip@vnuasiapacific.com

September, 7 to 9 FIERAVICOLA

September, 14 to 17 SPACE 2021 Rennes Cedex, France For information contact: Tel.: +33 (0) 2 23 48 28 80 Fax: +33 (0) 2 23 48 28 81 Email: info@space.fr Website: uk.space.fr

Abu Dhabi,United Arab Emirates Tel.: 800 23632 and international

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November, 24 to 26 ILDEX Indonesia 2021 5th International livestock, dairy, meat processing and aquaculture exposition ICE Jakarta, Indonesia For information contact: Web: www.ildex-indonesia.com/contactus

2022

September, 22 to 24 VIV-ASIA 2021 International trade show from feed to food for Asia New venue: Muang Thong Thani, Bangkok, Thailand For information contact: Worldwide VNU Exhibitions Europe Tel.: +31 (0) 30 295 2700 Fax: +31 (0) 30 295 2809 South East Asia VNU Exhibitions Asia Pacific Co., Ltd. 88 The PARQ, 4th Fl., West Wing Ratchadaphisek Rd., Khlong Toei, Khlong Toei, Bangkok 10110 Thailand Tel.: +662 111 6611 Email: info@vnuasiapacific.com Website: vivasia.nl

November, 23 to 25

VIV-MEA International trade show from feed to food for the Middle East and Africa ADNEC- Abu Dhabi National Exhibition Centre Khaleej Al Arabi Street, Abu Dhabi, UAE For information contact: VIV worldwide VNU Exhibitions Europe Tel.: +31 (0) 30 295 2999 Email: viv.mea@vnuexhibitions.com Website: www.vivmea.nl Abu Dhabi National Exhibitions Company Khaleej Al Arabi Street – P.O. Box 5546

January, 18 to 20 VICTAM and VIV Health & Nutrition Asia 2022 Trade show & forum focusing on feed, pharma & genetics in the animal protein production Bitec, Bangkok, Thailand For information contact: Panadda KongmaHead of competence center livestock Tel.: +662 670-0900 Ext. 204 Email: panadda@vnuexhibitionsap.com Zhenja Antochin, Event Manager Tel.: +31 (0) 6 8379 9693 Email: zhenja.antochin@vnuexhibitions.com Tel.: +66 (0) 2 726 1999

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January, 25 to 27 IPPE International Production & Processing Expo Georgia World Congress Center 285 Andrew Young International Blvd NW Atlanta, Georgia USA For information contact: U.S. Poultry & Egg Association 1530 Cooledge Road Tucker, GA USA Tel.: +1 770 4939401 Fax: +1 770 4939257 Email: pstates@ippexpo.org Website: www.ippexpo.org

INTERNET GUIDE ABVista emea@abvista.com www.abvista.com Agritech agritech@agritech.it www.agritech.it Arion Fasoli francesca@arionfasoli.com www.arionfasoli.com Aviagen info@aviagen.com www.aviagen.com Aviagen Turkeys Ltd turkeysltd@aviagen.com www.aviagenturkeys.com Aza International info@azainternational.it www.azainternational.it Barbieri Belts info@barbieri-belts.com www.barbieri-belts.com Big Dutchman big@bigdutchman.com www.bigdutchman.de Biochem info@biochem.net www.biochem.net Carfed Headquarters info@carfed.ch www.carfed.ch Carfed Italian Branch info@carfed.it www.carfed.it Cobb Europe info@cobb-europe.com www.cobb-vantress.com Codaf info@codaf.net www.codaf.net Corti Zootecnici S.r.l. info@cortizootecnici.com www.cortizootecnici.com Elanco www.elanco.com Eurosilos SIRP contatti@eurosilos.it www.eurosilos.it EuroTier eurotier@dlg.org www.eurotier.com Facco Poultry Equipment facco@facco.net www.facco.net Farmer Automatic info@farmerautomatic.de www.farmerautomatic.de FIEM fiem@fiem.it www.fiem.it FierAvicola info@fieravicola.com www.fieravicola.com FierAgricola Verona info@veronafiere.it www.veronafiere.it Gasolec sales@gasolec.com www.gasolec.com Giordano Poultry Plast info@poultryplast.com www.poultryplast.com GI-OVO B.V. sales@gi-ovo.com www.gi-ovo.com Hendrix Genetics info@hendrix-genetics.com www.hendrix-genetics.com Hubbard contact.emea@hubbardbreeders.com www.hubbardbreeders.com Hy-Line International info@hyline.com www.hyline.com Impex Barneveld BV info@impex.nl www.impex.nl Intracare info@intracare.nl www.intracare.nl Jamesway USA-sales@jamesway.com www.jamesway.com Jansen Poultry Equipment info@jpe.org www.jpe.org Marel Poultry info.poultry@marel.com www.marel.com/poultry-processing Mbe Breeding Equipment info@mbefabriano.it www.mbefabriano.it Menci commerciale@menci.it www.menci.it Meyn sales@meyn.com www.meyn.com MOBA sales@moba.net www.moba.net MS Technologies sales@MSTegg.com www.MSTegg.com Newpharm info@newpharm.it www.newpharm.it Officine Meccaniche Vettorello luciano@officinevettorello.it www.officinevettorello.com Omaz srl omaz@omaz.com www.omaz.com Pas Reform info@pasreform.com www.pasreform.com Petersime N.V. info@petersime.com www.petersime.com Prinzen B.V. info@prinzen.com www.prinzen.com Reventa info@reventa.de www.reventa.de Roxell info@roxell.com www.roxell.com Ska ska@ska.it www.ska.it Socorex socorex@socorex.com www.socorex.com Space info@space.fr www.space.fr Specht Ten Elsen GmbH & Co. KG info@specht-tenelsen.de www.specht-tenelsen.de Tecnoclima tecnoclima@tecnoclimaspa.com www. tecnoclimaspa.com TPI-Polytechniek info@tpi-polytechniek.com www.tpi-polytechniek.com U.S. Poultry & Egg Association info@uspoultry.org www.uspoultry.org Val-co intl.sales@val-co.com www.val-co.com Valli info@valli-italy.com www.valli-italy.com VDL Agrotech info@vdlagrotech.nl www.vdlagrotech.com Vencomatic Group B.V. info@vencomaticgroup.com www.vencomaticgroup.com Victoria victoria@victoria-srl.com www.incubatricivictoria.com VIV Europe viv@vnuexhibitions.com www.viv.net Vostermans ventilation@vostermans.com www.vostermans.com

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English Edition Year XLIII March 2021

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