Advanced Fire Safety of Historical Wooden Buildings Being a Part of Cultural Heritage

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN ZVOLEN Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology

Qiang

Advanced Fire Safety of Historical Wooden Buildings Being a Part of Cultural Heritage

Andrea MAJLINGOVA

Dominik SPILAK

XU

This publication was elaborated thanks to the support of following research projects: APVV SK-CN-21-0002 "Advanced Fire Safety of Buildings Being a Part of Cultural Heritage" and project APVV-22-0030 "Development of Smart Solutions Based on Linking Fire Testing with Computer-aided Modelling to Improve the Quality of Safety Research Outputs".

Authors:

prof. Andrea Majlingova

Dominik Spilak, PhD.

prof. Qiang Xu

Reviewers:

assoc. prof. Martin Lieskovsky

assoc. prof. Petr Kucera

Publication: I. – 2025

Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia

Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia

Nanjing University of Science and Technology, China

Technical University in Zvolen, Slovakia

VSB-TU Ostrava, Czechia

Publisher: Technical University in Zvolen

Edition: PDF (electronic), 141 p. (9.55 AS)

Approved by the Rector of the Technical University in Zvolen under number EP 37/2025 as a scientific monograph.

 Technical University in Zvolen

 prof. Andrea Majlingova

Dominik Spilak, PhD.

prof. Qiang Xu

For the scientific and language content of this publication are responsible the authors. The manuscript did not undergo language proof-reading.

ISBN 978-80-228-3499-5

All rights reserved. No part of the text or illustration may be used for further distribution in any form without the prior consent of the authors or the publisher.

TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY IN ZVOLEN

Faculty of Wood Sciences and Technology

Advanced Fire Safety of Historical Wooden Buildings Being a Part of Cultural Heritage

Scientific monograph

Andrea MAJLINGOVA

Dominik SPILAK

Qiang XU

FOREWORD

Wooden/timber heritage buildings are among the most precious and vulnerable components of our built environment. With their enduring craftsmanship, irreplaceable material fabric, and historical symbolism, these structures embody the ingenuity of earlier generations and contribute profoundly to regional and national identities. Yet they face an escalating threat: fire. As evidenced by recent losses in Europe and globally, timber architecture, though durable and resilient in many ways, remains acutely susceptible to thermal destruction when exposed to uncontrolled fire.

This monograph arises from the recognition that traditional approaches to fire safety are insufficient when applied to heritage timber buildings. Strategies that focus solely on regulatory compliance or material substitutions often overlook the deeper conservation imperatives: authenticity, reversibility, and minimal intervention. Against this backdrop, the work assembled in these pages makes a vital contribution to safeguarding architectural heritage. It bridges technical innovation with cultural sensitivity, providing new tools and methodologies to support fire safety assessments without compromising historical value.

One of the distinctive features of this monograph is its commitment to realism and contextual accuracy. Rather than relying solely on theoretical models or modern material proxies, the research centres on aged European larch beams removed from a 100-year-old Slovak building. These naturally aged specimens allow the authors to capture real-world material responses under fire exposure, offering insights that are directly translatable to conservation practice. Through rigorous experimentation and high-resolution analysis, both visual and thermal, the project lays bare the influence of moisture content on charring, pyrolysis, and structural degradation.

In addition to its empirical strengths, this work embraces computational modelling not as an abstract exercise, but as a practical forecasting tool. The use of validated finite element models, linked with thermal imaging and digital image analysis, enables highly precise simulation of fire-induced behaviour in historical timber elements. These capabilities are essential for developing proactive fire strategies, including digital twins for heritage buildings, passive protection plans, and conservationcompatible emergency response measures.

Importantly, the monograph does not stop at analysis. It turns its attention to implementation, calling for revised regulatory frameworks, advocating interdisciplinary collaboration, and promoting a paradigm shift from reactive to anticipatory fire management. It challenges readers, whether engineers, architects,

conservators, or public officials, to rethink fire safety not just as a technical problem, but as a cultural responsibility.

In conclusion, this monograph stands as a reference work for anyone engaged in the stewardship of timber heritage buildings. It exemplifies how modern engineering tools and conservation principles can work in harmony, delivering both technical rigor and preservation integrity. It is our hope that the methodologies and insights presented here will inspire further innovation and greater protection for the timber legacies we are entrusted to preserve.

INTRODUCTION

Wood has long stood as one of the most ubiquitous and adaptable construction materials throughout human civilization. From ancient times, when early humans first fashioned rudimentary shelters from tree trunks and branches, to the refined architectural masterpieces of later eras, wood has not only provided physical shelter but also contributed to the symbolic and cultural identity of societies. Its ease of use, renewability, and aesthetic qualities made it indispensable in the development of architectural traditions across diverse climates and cultures.

Among the regions where timber architecture achieved remarkable depth and variety, Slovakia and China stand out as two nations with longstanding yet contrasting traditions. Slovakia’s timber heritage is rooted in vernacular rural settlements, churches, and cottages that integrate harmoniously with the natural environment.Thesebuildings,constructedwithhand-hewnlogsand steeproofs,often reflect the social structure and cultural values of mountainous and forested communities. By contrast, China’s timber architecture spans monumental imperial palaces, religious temples, and vast timber pagodas, built with precise engineering principles such as Dougong brackets and axial symmetry. These structures not only convey grandeur and cosmic symbolism but also represent advancements in seismic and structural resilience [1].

Despite their cultural differences, both nations have relied on wood for its availability and performance. In Slovakia, the widespread forested landscape provided a reliable source of high-quality timber, which was used for centuries in both housing and sacred architecture. The timber churches of the Slovak Carpathians, recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, exemplify the regional craft traditions and are notable for their use of horizontal log construction, timber shingles, andpaintedinteriors[2].Similarly,inChina,dynasticcodes regulatedtheconstruction of timber palaces and temples, emphasizing modularity and harmony with nature. Structures like the Fogong Temple Pagoda (1056 AD) and the Hall of Supreme Harmony in Beijing demonstrate not only technical mastery but also spiritual depth [3].

However, wood's inherent flammability posed a serious threat to human settlements, particularly in dense urban areas or sacred precincts. Historically, fires have resulted in the loss of entire timber districts, religious complexes, and archives. In response, societies developed fire management practices from the use of stone firewalls and open courtyards in Chinese architecture to strict municipal ordinances and fire watch services in Slovak towns. These practices reflected not only local technological capabilities but also social organization and administrative priorities.

In the modern era, the global trend toward sustainable building materials has brought wood back to the forefront. Engineered wood products like cross-laminated timber (CLT) and glulam beams are enabling taller, more durable, and more fireresistant timber buildings. Yet with these advancements comes renewed concern about fire safety, particularly in balancing regulatory compliance, material behaviour, and architectural freedom. Both Slovakia and China have developed national fire safety codes and are increasingly aligned with international standards, including Eurocodes and performance-based design methodologies [4,5].

This monograph aims to address these critical intersections by offering a comparative analysis of timber architectural heritage and fire safety engineering in Slovakia and China. Through six comprehensive chapters, the study will explore:

• The historical development of timber buildings in each country, including materials, techniques, and cultural influences.

• The evolution of fire safety regulations, from pre-modern traditions to current legislative frameworks.

• Advances in fire testing, including full-scale fire testing, small-scale testing protocols, and fire retardancy assessments.

• The use of modelling and simulation, including computational tools like CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) and finite element analysis, to predict fire behaviour in complex timber assemblies.

• The integration of information and sensor technologies, smart materials, and digital twins in fire safety planning and monitoring.

• The practical perspectives based on the analyses of recent fire incidents, nationwide audits, emergency exercises, and legislative measures in Slovakia. By synthesizing architectural history, material science, and safety engineering, this work contributes to the global discourse on timber construction, not only as ahistoricalartifact but asa contemporary andforward-looking building strategy.With climate change demanding more sustainable practices, and cultural institutions calling for preservation of historical assets, the study of timber structures in relation to fire safety is more relevant than ever.

The following table lists the main technical terms used in this monograph for which alternative or related expressions appear in the text or literature. The glossary aims to support consistent interpretation of terminology across different chapters and authors.

Terminology Table

Primary Term

Timber structure

Fire modelling

Fire resistance

Computational Fluid

Dynamics (CFD)

Finite Element Model (FEM)

Fire safety engineering

Cultural heritage

Fire risk assessment

Wooden structure

Digital twin

Moisture content

Charring rate

Alternative / Related Terms (Used in Text)

Wooden structure, log construction, timber architecture

Fire simulation, fire dynamics modelling, computational modelling

Fire stability, fire endurance

CFD simulation, fire dynamics simulation, FDS model

Finite element analysis, numerical model, FEA tools

Fire protection engineering, fire safety design, performancebased fire design

Heritage building, historical building, cultural asset

Fire hazard analysis, fire risk evaluation, fire safety assessment

Timber building, wood structure

BIM-integrated model, virtual model, data-driven monitoring system

Water content, humidity level, moisture ratio

Carbonization rate, burn depth

1. HISTORY OF WOODEN/TIMBER STRUCTURES AND

CONSTRUCTIONS IN SLOVAKIA

The use of wood as a primary construction material in the territory of present-day Slovakia spans several millennia and reflects a dynamic interplay of geography, climate, cultural identity, and technological evolution. Wood’s abundance, workability, and thermal properties made it the dominant building material for most of the Slovak population from prehistoric times until the early 20th century. This chapter outlines the historical development of timber/wooden construction in Slovakia, with emphasis on technological innovations, socio-political influences, and regional specificities.

Archaeological evidence from Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements reveals posthole traces of early timber dwellings. Sites such as Nitriansky Hrádok and Zlaté Klasy contain remnants of post-in-ground constructions, roofed with organic materials such as bark and straw. By the Iron Age, rectangular timber-frame structures with wattleand-daub walls were common in hillfort communities [6].

Slavic migration into the Carpathian Basin in the 6th–7th centuries introduced log building techniques, utilizing horizontal stacking (“zrubová konštrukcia”) and notched corners. These forms evolved into the basic typologies seen in later vernacular architecture

During the Great Moravian Empire (9th century), timber construction flourished, both in secular and religious contexts. Excavations in Nitra, Ducové, and Mikulčice have uncovered timber palisades, clapboard-roofed longhouses, and even timber churches, some of which were later rebuilt in stone [7].

In the medieval era (11th–15th centuries), log construction remained dominant in rural areas. Villages under the jurisdiction of monasteries and nobles were often granted forest access rights, enabling them to build homes, mills, barns, and churches from local timber. Town records indicate that timber framing and shingle production were key crafts, with roofers (“šindliari”) and carpenters organized into guilds [8].

Timber defensive structures, such as watchtowers, fortified mills, and timber fortresses, were also common, although few remain today due to natural decay and fire.

The early modern era marks the culmination of timber craftsmanship in Slovakia. Economic prosperity in some regions, coupled with political upheaval and religious restrictions, contributed to a proliferation of timber sacred and domestic architecture. Particularly important was the 1681 Edict of Sopron, which allowed Protestant communities to construct churches under severe limitations. These “Articular churches” had to be built exclusively of wood, without nails or towers, and within a short time frame. The result was a series of technically sophisticated and aesthetically

refined timber-framed religious buildings, such as those in Kežmarok, Hronsek, and Leštiny, featuring intricate trusses, double galleries, and acoustic optimization [9].

During the same period, timber homes diversified into regionally specific types, influenced by climate, forest species, and local traditions. The widespread use of timber shingles, carved bargeboards, and decorative corner joints dates from this era.

In the 19th century, timber construction coexisted with growing use of masonry and industrial materials. Nonetheless, wood remained prevalent in highland regions, and the period saw the emergence of “national romantic” interest in folk architecture, especially among Slovak intellectuals and artists.

The ethnographic movement led by figures like Ján Kollár and Ľudovít Štúr celebrated timber houses as symbols of Slovak identity. This inspired early documentation efforts, with architects and artists producing drawings and surveys of traditional houses, churches, and mills, many of which would later be lost.

This period also saw improvements in joinery and the introduction of iron tools, enabling finer carving, more complex roof systems, and standardization of construction details [10].

After 1918, with the formation of Czechoslovakia, national modernization projects promoted concrete and brick construction. By the 1950s, the socialist government implemented widespread panel construction to address housing shortages, effectively ending wood’s dominance in urban housing [11].

However, this shift also triggered a heritage preservation movement. State-funded ethnographic museums (e.g., Martin, Pribylina, Zuberec) began to relocate, reconstruct, and conserve endangered timber buildings. UNESCO’s 1993 inscription of Vlkolínec, and later of eight timber churches in 2008, solidified the cultural and historical value of Slovakia’s timber architecture

Today, timber construction is undergoing a revival, with engineered wood products, fire-resistant design, and sustainable architecture principles sparking renewed academic and practical interest in traditional building knowledge.

The history of timber construction in Slovakia reveals not merely a material tradition, but a cultural continuum, from prehistoric settlements and medieval fortifications, through sacred Protestant and Orthodox churches, to modern heritage preservation and revival. The structures left behind are not just remnants of the past but a living testament to the Slovak relationship with forest, faith, and form.

1.2 Typologies and Regional Distribution of Timber Buildings

Slovakia's ethnographic and topographic diversity resulted in a wide variety of timber building forms, techniques, and layouts. Scholars divide the country into six primary regional types, each with distinct stylistic, climatic, and constructional traits [11].

1.1.1 Orava and Kysuce

The regions of Orava and Kysuce, located in northwestern and northern Slovakia, represent some of the most authentic and well-preserved examples of traditional log architecture in CentralEurope. Their relatively harsh mountainous climate, high forest density, and historical economic marginalization fostered a deeply pragmatic yet symbolically rich approach to timber construction. These dwellings reflect the adaptability of local populations to environmental constraints while showcasing advanced timber craftsmanship passed down over generations.

Orava and Kysuce are defined by rugged terrain, long winters, and abundant coniferous forests, particularly spruce and fir, which served as the primary building materials. Villages in these areas historically developed along river valleys or on terraced hillsides, with clustered or ribbon-like settlement patterns, ensuring efficient land use and defensive orientation [12].

Due to the difficulty of transporting heavy materials through mountainous terrain, stone and brick were sparingly used, mainly for foundations or fireplaces, while wood dominatedinallotherstructuralcomponents. Timber buildingswereconstructedwith great structural logic, often without architectural drawings, relying on apprenticed knowledge and localized building lore [13].

Houses in Orava and Kysuce typically followed the one-aisle rectangular plan, a highly efficient configuration combining living quarters, animal shelter, and storage in a single linear structure under one extended roof. The house was divided into:

1. “Pitvor” (entrance and kitchen).

2. “Izba” (main heated living space)

3. “Komora” or “maštaľ” (storage room or animal stable

The arrangement facilitated heat conservation, especially during winters, and allowed easy monitoring of animals.

The hallmark of Orava construction is the precisely executed dovetail joint (“rybinový spoj”) (Figure 1.1), which ensured structural integrity without the use of metal fasteners. Logs were carefully hewn and notched at ends to form tight, interlocking angles that channelled rainwater outward, reducing rot and wind penetration.

Figure 1.1 Diagram of dovetail joint (“rybinový spoj”) typical in Orava region [14]

Wall logs were stacked horizontally with insulation inserted between layers, typically dry moss, which expanded and sealed naturally. The use of timber pegs reinforced the corners, while interior surfaces were often left unfinished or treated with wood smoke from central stoves for natural preservation.

Table 1.1 Timber Joinery Comparison

Region Joint Type Tools Used

Orava Dovetail Axe, chisel, plane

Liptov Saddle notch Axe, knife

Šariš Lap + infill Basic hand tools

Excellent

Moderate

Variable

High

Moderate

Lower

Roofs in Orava and Kysuce were steeply pitched (55°–65°) to withstand heavy snowfall and were covered with hand-split timber shingles fixed with timber pins (Figure 1.2). The gable ends often featured decorative carved crossbeams, finials, and symbolic motifs, including sun disks, protective rosettes, and spirals, believed to guard against misfortune.

Attic spaces served as haylofts, accessible via external ladders or trapdoors from within the “pitvor”. Windows were small, deeply set, and frequently framed with carved timber casings. Doors were also decorated, with horizontal plank construction and wrought iron hinges.

Interior elements such as ceiling beams and corner benches were often engraved with patriarchal cross patterns, calendrical carvings, or the initials of the master builder and date of construction.

Homes were not purely functional; they were imbued with cosmic order and spiritual protection. The main living room (“izba”) typically housed a "holy corner", where a timber cross or icon was placed, surrounded by embroidered textiles or ritual bread during holidays.

Many houses bore inscriptions on the gable or main beam, often religious phrases, moral aphorisms, or astronomical symbols, aligning the home with both Christian piety and natural cycles [10].

Significant examples of Orava architecture are preserved in the Orava Village Museum in Zuberec – Brestová [16], where entire buildings were relocated and reconstructed. Many original homes still stand in villages like Podbiel, Habovka, and Zázrivá, where restoration efforts are governed by municipal bylaws protecting timber heritage.

Figure 1.2 Orava Open-Air Museum in Zuberec, Slovakia [15]

Since 1977, Slovak authorities have supported state-led inventories and restoration projects, recognizing the Orava-Kysuce region as a core zone of national timber heritage

1.1.2 Liptov and Horehronie

The Liptov and Horehronie regions, situated in the northern and central parts of Slovakia respectively, form one of the most architecturally significant zones in the development of Slovak timber architecture. These regions are characterized by fertile valleys, well-forested hillsides, and access to strategic trade routes, which historically fostered a mix of agrarian prosperity and artisanal specialization. The timber dwellings here represent an advanced stage of vernacular evolution, reflecting not only functional ingenuity but also a strong aesthetic and symbolic language [17].

Houses in Liptov and Horehronie typically conform to a three-part linear layout, consisting of a “pitvor” (entrance/kitchen area), a main living room (“izba”), anda storageor sleepingroom.Inwealthier households,a fourthroom,suchasa guest chamber or asecond “izba”, wasaddedinanL-shaped configuration,forming thebasis for more complex farmsteads.

These homes were almost universally constructed using the saddle notch technique (“sedlový spoj”), which was favoured for its speed and moderate stability. The timber, usually spruce or fir, was hand-hewn and carefully seasoned, with log diameters ranging from 20–35 cm. Walls were stacked horizontally and interlocked at corners, then whitewashed or plastered for weather protection.

Roofs in the Liptov region were typically steeply pitched (50–55°) to manage snow accumulation and were covered with timber shingles or, from the 19th century onward, ceramic tiles (Figure 1.3). The eaves extended well beyond the wall lines to protect the timber facade from rain.

A distinguishing feature of Liptov timber architecture is its high degree of ornamentation. Window frames, door lintels, and gable trims were often intricately carved with floral, geometric, or solar motifs, reflecting pre-Christian and Christian symbolic systems. Paint was also used, most frequently blue, red, or green natural pigments, to decorate frames and facades.

The practice of wood carving reached high sophistication in Horehronie, where even interior beams, wardrobes, and beds were engraved with symbolic markings. These ornaments carried both aesthetic and apotropaic (protective) meanings, warding off evil or celebrating fertility and harvests.

The interiors of Liptov and Horehronie homes were functional yet richly decorated. The central stove served both heating and cooking purposes and was often tiled with glazed ceramic in green or brown. Walls were adorned with embroidered cloths, painted cupboards, and icon corners featuring saints, crucifixes, or protective symbols.

Specialized buildings such as granaries and smokehouses were commonly constructed separately, using lighter timber framing or mixed stone-log methods. These auxiliary buildings helped maintain fire safety, food preservation, and functional segregation within the homestead.

The relatively prosperous peasant and smallholder class in Liptov was able to maintain and adapt their timber houses well into the early 20th century. Even during the socialist period, many families preserved traditional homes for seasonal

Figure 1.3 Elevation of a typical Liptov house with steep shingle roof and plastered façade [18]

use, while building modern dwellings nearby. As a result, Liptov houses are overrepresented in museum collections, notably in the Museum of Liptov Village in Pribylina, which contains relocated and restored structures from Liptovská Mara and other flooded zones [19].

Today, several villages including Vlkolínec, Partizánska Ľupča, and Liptovská Teplička are actively engaged in architectural heritage preservation, with zoning laws that mandate the use of traditional materials and forms in restoration projects.

Table 1.2 Summary of Liptov and Horehronie Timber House Features

Feature Liptov Horehronie

Primary Joinery Saddle notch Saddle notch

Roof Pitch

50–55°

45–50°

Facade Treatment Lime plaster, painted trim Natural logs, carved elements

Ornamentation Style Floral, solar symbols Deep wood carving

Auxiliary Buildings Granary, smokehouse, stable Similar, plus outdoor oven

In summary, the timber architectural legacy of Liptov and Horehronie is marked by elevated craftsmanship, iconographic decoration, and an enduring ritual-symbolic dimension. These buildings stand not only as vernacular solutions to environmental challenges, but also as testimonies to the cultural refinement and artisanal heritage of the Slovak highlands.

1.1.3 Eastern Slovakia: Šariš and Zemplín

The regions of Šariš and Zemplín, located in the eastern lowlands and foothills of the Carpathian arc, are home to a distinct timber architectural tradition shaped by cultural, religious, and geopolitical influences. Unlike the compact farmsteads of Orava or the ornate facades of Čičmany, the timber dwellings of eastern Slovakia reflect a Carpatho-Ruthenian identity, rooted in the Byzantine-Slavic tradition, combined with Hungarian rural forms and local innovations adapted to the plains and hills of the region.

Šariš and Zemplín are regions characterized by rolling hills, fertile plains, and diverse populations, historically including Slovaks, Rusyns, Ukrainians, Jews, and Hungarians. Their strategic position at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe fostered architectural pluralism, especially in sacred and domestic architecture.

Historically, the majority of the rural population lived in timber-framed log houses (zrubové domy), though construction was strongly influenced by available local

materials: beech, oak, and acacia were common in Zemplín, while spruce and fir dominated in Šariš’s higher elevations [1].

Typical homes in these regions followed a longitudinal plan, often exceeding 20 meters in length, combining living spaces, utility zones, and livestock quarters under a single gabled roof. Unlike the Liptov tradition of separating outbuildings, Šariš and Zemplín farmsteads integrated functions within a single linear structure.

Interior layouts were segmented into:

• “Pitvor” (entrance hall with stove and oven)

• “Izba” (heated living room with icon corner)

• “Komora” (storage room).

• “Maštaľ” (animal stable).

Some homes included additional chambers, such as a piggery or smokehouse, joined seamlessly into the log structure.

One of the most distinctive traits in eastern Slovak timber buildings is the frequent use of hybrid stone-and-log construction. Lower courses of walls were often built of fieldstone or river stone, serving both to level sloped terrain and protect against capillary moisture and rodent intrusion. The upper structure was then completed with horizontally laid logs, joined using lap joints or basic dovetailing, and sealed with clay-chaff mortar.

Figure 1.4 Section of composite wall construction – stone base with timber upper wall (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the field documentation of SNM Prešov, 2020)

Interior finishes were utilitarian: walls were smoke-darkened by stoves without chimneys or whitewashed with lime-based paint, often renewed annually before Easter.

A defining interior element was the “božia izba” or “sacred room”, a front chamber reserved for religious observance, guests, or ceremonial events. This space contained an icon corner, with Eastern Christian imagery such as:

• The Christ Pantocrator

• The Theotokos (Mother of God)

• Patron saints (e.g., Saint Nicholas, Saint Paraskeva)

Icons were traditionally placed on the eastern wall, in line with Orthodox liturgical orientation. The iconostasis was often constructed as a simple timber shelf or framed altar structure. Textile hangings embroidered with liturgical motifs, wheat symbols, or tree-of-life designs adorned the space, and the area was typically closed off with a low threshold or curtain [21].

1.5 Interior view of “božia izba” with Orthodox icon corner and ritual textiles (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the documentation of the Ethnographic Museum, Humenné)

Roofs in this region were moderately pitched (35°–45°) and gabled, constructed from split oak or beech shingles, later replaced by clay tiles. Rafter systems varied, but often employed simple collar-beam trusses, relying on triangular stabilization and purlin supports.

Gable ends were modestly adorned, occasionally carved with sun crosses, birds, or triple lines symbolizing the “Holy Trinity”. Chimneys were rare in older homes; smoke exited through timber louvers or attic vents, leading to naturally smoke -treated roof beams that resisted pests and moisture.

Unlike western Slovak dwellings, where the facade often expressed prosperity or rank, homes in Šariš and Zemplín emphasized the interior ritual zone

Figure

and functional clarity. Symbolism was turned inward: icons, ritual bread, herbs, and embroidery marked seasonal rites, household thresholds, and spiritual transitions [22]

These traditions continue in ethnographic reconstructions at the Museum of Ukrainian-Rusyn Culture in Svidník and the Open-Air Museum in Humenne, which preserve log homes, Greek Catholic chapels, and Orthodox timber churches from surrounding villages.

Table 1.3 Architectural Features of Šariš vs. Zemplín Timber Homes

Feature Šariš

Wall construction Log with stone base

Sacred room present Yes (icon corner)

Roofing material Shingle (fir, spruce)

Zemplín

Mixed log and clay infill

Yes (often full “božia izba”)

Shingle or tile (oak, beech)

Religious influence Greek Catholic, Orthodox Orthodox, Rusyn traditions

Ornamentation Modest, symbolic interior

Focus on textile and icon

Due to depopulation and modernization, many original structures have been lost or severely altered. Nonetheless, cultural heritage efforts have led to the documentation, relocation, and conservation of representative homes and sacred buildings. Key villages include Bodružal, Ladomirová, and Habura, where some structures remain in situ, serving as examples of living heritage.

Recent ethnographic studies and digital reconstructions have begun to map the transformation of these vernacular forms in light of political shifts, migration, and cultural assimilation, ensuring that the unique architectural dialect of Šariš and Zemplín is preserved for future scholarship and identity.

1.2 Construction Methods and Structural Systems

The construction of traditional timber buildings in Slovakia is based on centuries of empirical knowledge and adaptation to regional climate, terrain, and material availability. Slovak vernacular architecture presents a rich typology of load-bearing systems, roofing geometries, and material combinations, all rooted in practicality, craftsmanship, and socio-cultural context. Despite regional variability, Slovak timber structures share a common structural logic cantered around horizontal log construction, high-pitched roofs, and protective detailing, all of which contributed to the longevity and resilience of these buildings. This section provides an in-depth exploration of the principal construction methods and structural elements employed in Slovak timber architecture from the early modern period through the 20th century.

The most prominent and widely used wall-building technique was horizontal log stacking, known in Slovak as “zrubová konštrukcia”. This system involved stacking round or squared timber logs horizontally, with interlocking corner joints providing both stability and weatherproofing. The structural integrity of the building depended heavily on the quality of the joinery, which varied by region and skill level. In northern Slovakia, especially in Orava and Kysuce, the dovetail joint (“rybinový spoj”) was prevalent. This joint, shaped like a trapezoid, allowed logs to interlock under gravity and load pressure, creating a self-tightening effect. It was particularly well suited for the steep, snowy climate, as the joint’s design shed water and resisted lateral wind loads effectively [13].

1.4 Zrubova konstrukcia (Image drawn by the ChatGPT)

In contrast, the saddle notch (“sedlový spoj”), a simpler rounded cutout, was common in central and southern regions such as Liptov and Horehronie. Although easier to execute, the saddle notch provided less weather resistance and required more frequent maintenance. In the eastern lowlands of Šariš and Zemplín, builders often employed basic lap joints, sometimes reinforced with clay infill and timber pegs. These simpler methods were typically paired with hybrid wall systems, where the lower portion of the wall was made of fieldstone, providing stability and moisture protection, while the upper part utilized horizontal timber [20].

Figure

Figure 1.5 Common Corner Joinery Types in Slovak Log Structures

(a) Dovetail Notch typical in Orava, tight interlock, trapezoidal shape.

(b) Saddle Notch rounded, simple to cut, moderate fit.

(c) Lap Joint logs rest atop one another, used with clay infill in Šariš/Zemplín.)

(Image drawn by the ChatGPT)

Insulation was critical for both thermal comfort and structural preservation. Builders inserted natural insulation materials, such as dried moss, straw, or flax tow, between the logs. These fillers acted as breathable seals, expanding when moist and contracting when dry, thereby adapting to environmental changes. In some cases, the inner and outer surfaces were coated with clay-straw daub and finished with limewash, which served as a protectivelayer against insects, fungi, and moisture while providing fire resistance and antibacterial properties [23].

The structural system of Slovak timber houses was completed by carefully designed roof trusses. The standard configuration involved paired rafters connected at the ridge and supported at their base by tie beams, forming a triangular frame known as “krokvová väzba”. These roof trusses were spaced between 1.0 and 1.2 meters apart and supported either directly on the log walls or on a wall plate. In houses with more elaborate layouts or extended wings, additional king posts or queen posts were introduced to stabilize long spans and allow for attic storage. Roofs were steeply pitched,usually between45°and65°, to prevent snowaccumulation andicedamming, an essential design consideration in the mountainous zones of central and northern Slovakia [10].

The choice of tree species species was another decisive factor in the structural performance of traditional buildings. Softwoods such as spruce (Picea abies) and fir (Abies alba) were favoured for walls and roof framing due to their straight grain and low density. Oak and beech, being denser and more rot-resistant, were used for floor joists, sills, and heavily loaded members. Structural joints were made without metal fasteners, relying instead on timber pegs and carefully fitted mortise-and-tenon connections. This approach allowed the structures to remain flexible under stress, an advantage in both seismic resilience and material movement due to humidity and temperature shifts [24].

Foundations varied depending on terrain and economic status. In most regions, dry-laid or lime-mortared stone foundations were employed, raising the log walls above ground level and reducing the risk of capillary water damage. In flood-prone areas or sloped terrain, the foundation was often composed of stacked fieldstone blocks or rubble masonry, sometimes incorporating ventilated crawlspaces or log sleepers. The ground floor of the house was usually made of wide timber planks laid over joists, occasionally insulated with straw or sawdust [25].

Despite their simplicity, Slovak timber houses demonstrated advanced knowledge of material behaviour and environmental integration. The orientation of buildings played a key role in thermal performance and moisture management. Homes were often oriented to maximize solar gain on the southern façade, while minimizing exposure to prevailing winds. Extended eaves, typically ranging from 50 to 80 centimetres, protected the walls from driving rain, while ventilated attics prevented condensation. Many houses also featured external gutters made from split logs or bark sheaths, guiding runoff away from the foundation [26].

Figure 1.6 Roof Truss Systems (Image drawn by the ChatGPT)

Durability was further enhanced by construction practices such as smoke-curing. In early houses without chimneys, the smoke from the central stove was allowed to escape through vents in the gable or ceiling. This smoke coated the interior logs with creosote and other preservative compounds, reducing insect infestation and fungal growth. Though unpleasant for daily life, thismethod effectively extended the lifespan of roof timbers and ceiling beams [27].

Several regional innovations contributed to the refinement of construction techniques. In the Hronsek Articular Church, builders introduced a triple-span timber roofing system, supported by intricately carved trusses and column arrays, demonstrating knowledge of advanced carpentry and spatial acoustics. In Liptov, carved anchor beams were used to lock the building’s geometry, preventing wall spread due to roof thrust. In eastern Slovakia, particularly in Rusyn and Greek Catholic communities, builders frequently combined log and frame construction with clay infill, resulting in highly adaptable mixed wall systems. The strength of these traditional methods lies in their ecological sustainability, cultural symbolism, and adaptive performance. While modern construction has largely supplanted these practices, contemporary timber architecture increasingly draws upon their principles, emphasizing breathable walls, renewable materials, and structural resilience without reliance on chemical treatments or synthetic insulators.

1.3 Timber Religious Architecture in Slovakia

Slovakia’s timber religious architecture constitutes a vital expression of the country’s spiritual, ethnic, and architectural heritage. These churches are not only places of worship but also embody centuries of community craftsmanship, liturgical tradition, and adaptation to local environmental conditions. Spanning from the late 15th to the 19th century, they include Roman Catholic, Protestant (Articular), Greek Catholic, and Orthodox denominations. Despite their distinct theological frameworks, these buildings share a consistent vernacular strategy: they are constructed almost entirely from timber, frequently without nails, and display rich interior decorations and symbolic spatial divisions.

1.3.1 Roman Catholic Timber Churches

The earliest surviving timber churches in Slovakia belong to the Roman Catholic tradition, particularly in regions such as Šariš, Spiš, and Orava. The Church of St. Francis of Assisi in Hervartov (ca. 1500) represents a rare example of late Gothic timber sacred architecture. Built of spruce logs on a low fieldstone foundation, the church has a single-nave plan with a polygonal sanctuary, covered by a high gabled roof and a small open bell turret [28].

Figure 1.7 Floor plan of the Hervartov church, showing rectangular nave and polygonal chancel [29]

The log walls are assembled using saddle notches and sealed with moss and clay. The interior is noted for its Renaissance and Baroque wall paintings, including depictions of St. Catherine and scenes from the Passion. A timber choir gallery, intricately carved and painted, is suspended above the entrance. Despite its small scale, the church exhibits a complete liturgical program and impressive acoustics.

Another key example is the Church of All Saints in Tvrdošín, which underwent significant Renaissance alterations in the 17th century. Its distinctive features include a projecting entrance vestibule, a low square bell tower, and hand-painted coffered ceilings. The church’s structural system uses rafter and collar-beam trusses, and its roof is sheathed in timber shingles fastened with hardwood pegs.

1.3.2 Evangelical Lutheran (Articular) Churches

The so-called Articular churches represent a particularly significant chapter in Slovak religious architecture. They were built under the Articles of Sopron (1681), which imposed strict conditions on Protestant construction in the Kingdom of Hungary: churches had to be built outside city walls, exclusively from wood, without nails or towers, and completed within a single year [9].

The Articular Church in Hronsek (1726) is a masterpiece of engineering under constraint. It has a cross-shaped floor plan, with arms extending to form galleries supported by octagonal columns. The roof spans over 23 meters without internal supports, accomplished through Scandinavian-style king-post trusses with secondary braces.

Figure 1.8 Interior of the Hronsek church, showing double galleries, column structure, and flat coffered ceiling

The building's design suggests Scandinavian and German influences, likely due to the involvement of foreign craftsmen. Its exterior walls are composed of horizontally stacked fir logs, joined with dovetail notches and weather-sealed with clay-lime mortar.

In contrast, the Kežmarok Articular Church (1717), see Figure 1.9, is more monumental, seating over 1,500 people. Its rectangular plan contains curving galleries, a richly painted barrel-vaulted ceiling, and a baroque altar with Solomonic columns. The organ, constructed by artisan Martin Korabinský, remains one of the bestpreserved timber instruments in Central Europe [9].

Figure 1.9 Kežmarok Articular Church interior [30]

1.3.3 Greek Catholic and Orthodox Churches

Eastern Slovakia’s timber churches are among the most distinctive vernacular interpretations of Byzantine liturgical space. Common among Carpatho-Rusyn, Ukrainian, and Slovak Greek Catholic communities, these churches are typically tripartite in layout: consisting of a narthex (vestibule), nave (central worship space), and sanctuary (altar area) [31].

The Church of St. Nicholas in Bodružal (1658) is a prime example. Built of fir logs, it features tiered roofs above each compartment, forming a stepped silhouette. Thetimber shinglesare cutin fish-scalepatterns,and thecentraldomeis crownedwith a timber onion dome, symbolizing heavenly ascent.

Internally, the nave is dominated by a four-tiered iconostasis, with icons of Christ Pantocrator, the Virgin Hodegetria, and various saints. The sanctuary is separated by a carved screen and accessed only by clergy, reflecting the Orthodox principle of sacred hierarchy.

Figure 1.9 Exterior of the Greek Catholic Church of St. Nicholas in Bodružal, showing three ascending roof tiers [32]

The Church of Archangel Michael in Ladomirová (1742) follows a similar form but with a more pronounced vertical emphasis, achieved through its narrow proportions and high gabled roofs. These churches exhibit deep connections to Eastern liturgy, expressed spatially and iconographically.

1.3.4 Ritual Symbolism and Decorative Elements

Across all denominations, timber religious buildings in Slovakia are deeply symbolic in layout and decor. In Catholic and Lutheran churches, the altar is typically locatedat theeasternend,alignedwithsunriseandresurrectionsymbolism.Protestant churches emphasize auditory clarity and visibility of the pulpit, while Orthodox spaces prioritize visual theology through icon screens.

Interior wood surfaces were often painted with floral, geometric, or liturgical motifs, using natural pigments. Carved timber elements, such as choir screens, balustrades, and chandeliers, reveal the high level of artisanal skill, as well as a consistent use of Christian symbols (grapes, vines, stars, and crosses) interwoven into local folklore [33].

1.3.5 UNESCO Recognition and Typological Legacy

In 2008, UNESCO inscribed eight timber churches from Slovakia on its World Heritage List, recognizing their architectural ingenuity, preservation state, and cultural diversity.The churches span three traditions, Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Greek Catholic, and collectively represent the apex of Slovak timber sacred architecture.

Figure 1.10 Schematic of Eastern church tripartite plan: narthex – nave – sanctuary (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the field documentation)

Name

St. Francis of Assisi, Hervartov

All Saints, Tvrdošín

Articular Church, Hronsek

Articular Church, Kežmarok

St. Nicholas, Bodružal

Archangel Michael, Ladomirová

St. Nicholas, Ruská Bystrá

Church of St. Michael, Žehra

Roman Catholic ~1500 Prešov

Roman Catholic 15th c. Orava

Protestant 1726 Banská Bystrica

Protestant 1717 Spiš

Greek Catholic 1658 Svidník

Greek Catholic 1742 Svidník

Greek Catholic 1730 Sobrance

Roman Catholic 13th c. Spiš

UNESCO’s designation has led to intensified preservation efforts, including digital documentation, structural consolidation, and public education campaigns. Timber churches are now recognized as not only architectural landmarks but also ritual and artistic archives, representing centuries of faith, identity, and craftsmanship.

1.4 Bell Towers and Functional Timber Structures

While churches and homes constitute the most iconic examples of timber architecture in Slovakia, a wide variety of functional timber structures have also played a crucial role in shaping the traditional rural landscape. These include freestanding bell towers, granaries, barns, smokehouses, and water-powered mills. Built predominantly from locally sourced timber, these utilitarian buildings reflect a deep knowledge of material performance, climate response, and social ritual. Their construction methods, formal typologies, and symbolic value are essential components of Slovak vernacular heritage.

1.4.1

Timber Bell Towers

Freestanding timber bell towers are among the most architecturally significant and symbolically charged rural structures in Slovakia. Typically found adjacent to churches, especially those constructed without integrated towers due to architectural or legal constraints, these bell towers served both liturgical and communal functions. They were used to call the faithful to worship, signal village events or emergencies, and mark temporal rhythms of daily and seasonal life [10].

Bell towers were often constructed using a timber frame stabilized with crossbracing and corner posts. The framework was typically square or octagonal in plan and anchored on stone footings to prevent contact with ground moisture. The towers were capped with hipped or pyramidal roofs, covered with timber shingles.

Table 1.4 UNESCO Timber Churches of Slovakia [34]

Figure 1.11 Cross-section schematic of a typical timber bell tower showing post-and-beam framework, bracing, and bell chamber enclosure (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the field drawing)

The upper part of the tower, the bell chamber, was partially open to allow sound projection. Bells were often cast locally and inscribed with dedications or protective symbols. Some towers, particularly in Orava and Spiš, featured decorative roof finials, weather vanes, or lightning rods, reflecting both protective beliefs and artisanal pride.

1.4.2

Granaries

Granaries were standalone timber structures used to store grain, legumes, and valuable foodstuffs. Because of the high risk of fire, theft, and rodent infestation, granaries were often constructed separately from the main house, elevated on stone piers or timber posts to deter pests.

These buildings were rectangular in plan, usually 2-3 meters wide and 3-6 meters long. Wall construction consisted of either horizontally laid logs (in mountain regions) or timber-framed panels filled with wattle-and-daub (in lowland areas). Roofs were gabled, often extended for additional storage space under the eaves.

Figure 1.12 Floor plan and elevation of a Liptov granary raised on stone footings with ventilation slits and external ladder access

(Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the documentation from the fieldwork)

Granaries often bore religious or protective symbols, such as crosses carved into the lintel or painted sacred texts. In certain communities, the granary was ritually "blessed" during harvest festivals to ensure protection of the food supply [35].

1.4.3 Barns, Stables, and Agricultural Storage

Barns and animal stables were central to the household economy, particularly in regions where animal husbandry and grain cultivation were dominant. These structures varied in size and complexity but typically featured simple log or frame walls, large sliding doors, and ventilated lofts for hay and straw storage.

Barns in Orava and Kysuce often incorporated split-log walls for ventilation and used steeply pitched roofs to shed snow. In contrast, Liptov and Gemer barns had wider plans and were sometimes constructed as multi-functional structures, combining toolshed, stable, and hayloft under a single roof.

Table 1.5 Comparison of Regional Timber Farm Structures

Region Structure Type Roof Form Foundation Material

Orava Barn + stable Gabled, 55° Stone + timber Spruce logs

Liptov Granary Hipped, 45° Stone piers Fir logs + clay

Šariš Smokehouse Gabled Ground-level Frame + daub

Zemplín Shed-barn combo Gabled, low Stone strip Oak frame

1.4.4 Smokehouses and Storage Sheds

The smokehouse was used to cure meat, fish, and sausages. In colder, upland regions, it was often a separate log hut with a small chimney or smoke outlet.

The internal walls were coated with soot and creosote, which acted as natural preservatives.

Storage structures shed housed tools, carts, seeds, and seasonal equipment. These structures were typically unheated and designed for cross-ventilation. In larger farms, the shed was attached to the barn complex; in smaller holdings, it was a detached leanto made with simpler joinery and low-grade timber [36].

1.4.5 Water Mills and Technical Installations

The water-powered mill was one of the most technically advanced timber structures in rural Slovakia. Located along rivers and streams, these mills used timber overshot or undershot wheels connected to vertical or horizontal shafts driving grindstones.

Mill houses were often multi-storied, combining processing chambers, grain storage, and a miller’s dwelling. Roofing typically consisted of shingles or timber shakes, while mill mechanisms gears, axles, hoppers were crafted entirely of oak or ash [37].

Among the preserved water mills in Slovakia belongs also Oblazy Water Mill (Liptov, Kvacianska Valley), see Figure 1.13.

The water mills installations reflect both technical ingenuity and ecological sustainability, relying solely on renewable hydropower and timber.

Beyond their practical use, functional timber structures carried deep symbolic meaning. Granaries represented fertility and providence, bell towers the voice of God, and smokehouses the transformation of the mundane into the sacred. Their positioning, decoration, and construction followed ritual protocols, often aligned with feast days, lunar cycles, or inherited family customs.

Figure 1.13 Oblazy Water Mill [38]

Today, many of these structures survive in open-air museums such as Zuberec, Martin, and Pribylina. Some remain in situ, carefully restored by local communities or reimagined in adaptive reuse projects (e.g., barns turned into galleries, granaries as guesthouses).

2. HISTORY OF WOODEN/TIMBER STRUCTURES

AND CONSTRUCTIONS IN CHINA

China’s timber architectural tradition is among the oldest, most extensive, and most influential in the world. With documented origins in the Neolithic period and consistent development across successive dynasties, Chinese timber architecture evolved into a highly codified system distinguished by its unique bracketing systems (dougong), modular construction, and symbolic spatial logic. Unlike in Western architecture, where masonry eventually supplanted wood, Chinese builders maintained timber as the dominant building material for millennia, adapting it for imperial palaces, religious temples, vernacular housing, and defensive structures [1].

2.1 Early Origins and the Evolution of Timber Architecture in China

Archaeological evidence from Yangshao and Longshan cultures suggests that early Chinese settlements employed wattle-and-daub huts built on timber frames. Excavations at sites such as Banpo near Xi’an reveal post-in-ground structures with circular or rectangular footprints, indicating early understanding of structural grids [39].

By the time of the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1600–1046 BC) and Zhou Dynasty (1046–256 BC), timber framed halls had become prevalent, constructed using column-and-beam systems (liangzhu) resting on stone or rammed earth platforms. Bronze vessels from this period often depict buildings with hipped roofs, projecting eaves, and tiered platforms, offering iconographic proof of an established timber aesthetic [40].

Under the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), imperial unification led to standardization of architectural modules and construction techniques. Timber construction was organized along grid-based layouts, with major buildings aligned to the cardinal directions, following cosmological and administrative order.

The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AC) saw a flourishing of timber palatial and religious buildings. Although no major timber structures from this period survive intact due to fire and decay, literature such as the Kaogong Ji, section of the Rites of Zhou, details dimensional rules for timber columns, beam spans, and bracketing modules [41].

Timber tomb architecture from this era, such as the Mawangdui tombs, reveals advanced joinery and interior timber chambers, emphasizing the symbolic continuity between architecture of the living and the dead.

The Tang Dynasty (618–907) marked a high point in imperial timber architecture, as reflected in surviving structures such as the Nanchan Temple and Foguang Temple (Figure 2.1) in Shanxi province. These buildings exhibit hallmark features such as:

• Massive timber columns resting on stone bases.

• Early examples of dougong bracketing systems.

• Symmetrical axial layouts and tiered roof structures

The Song Dynasty (960–1279) systematized timber architecture through architectural treatises like the Yingzao Fashi by Li Jie, published in 1103 CE. This manual laid out detailed prescriptions for:

• Structural modules (cai~ and beam spans).

• Standardized dougong bracket types.

• Roof pitch ratios and elevation hierarchies.

• Color-coded building ranks (red = imperial, green = noble, black = merchant).

Table 2.1 Key Elements from the Yingzao Fashi (1103 AC)

Feature

Beam to column span

Number of dougong tiers

Roof pitch angle

Column height : width ratio

Standard Ratio or Rule

1:3

3–7 based on building rank

27°–35° for standard halls

7:1–10:1

This codification enabled timber buildings to be mass-produced as prefabricated kits, assembled on-site with high precision. The Song approach influenced both Chinese cities and regions beyond, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, where dougong derivatives remain central in traditional architecture [43].

Figure 2.1 Foguang Temple Main Hall (Tang Dynasty) [42]

2.2 Dynastic High Points – Yuan, Ming, and Qing Architectural Innovations

Chinese timber architecture achieved its fullest technical and artistic expression during the Yuan (1271–1368), Ming (1368–1644), and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties. This era saw the construction of monumental palaces, elaborate temples, multi-tiered pagodas, and extensive urban plans, all executed primarily with timber frame structures. Despite the increasing use of brick and stone for defensive and base elements, timber remained the dominant structural and aesthetic material, particularly for upper tiers and roofs.

2.2.1

Yuan Dynasty: Integration and Synthesis

Although the Yuan Dynasty was short-lived and much of its architectural legacy was absorbed into Ming-era structures, it played a crucial role in the integration of northern nomadic and Han construction systems. Timber construction under the Mongols maintained traditional axial planning and the use of modular beamcolumn systems but introduced tent-derived spatial forms, including round halls and multi-directional axes.

The Yuan capital, Dadu (present-day Beijing), initiated what would become the foundational layout of the Ming-Qing Forbidden City, using timber halls surrounded by earthen and brick fortifications, oriented by geomantic (Feng Shui) principles [43].

2.2.2 Ming Dynasty: Monumentality and Imperial Codification

Under the Ming Dynasty, timber architecture flourished, especially in imperial projects. The construction of the Forbidden City in Beijing (1406–1420 CE) represents the zenith of modular timber construction on a monumental scale. Buildings such as the Hall of Supreme Harmony (Figure 2.2) demonstrate:

• Use of dougong brackets extending five to seven tiers

• Timber spans exceeding 30 meters without internal supports

• Double-eaved roofs, yellow glazed tiles, and elaborate ceiling caissons

Figure 2.2 Hall of Supreme Harmony showing post-beam frame, multiple dougong, and ridge pole bracing [44]

Timber selection was ritualized: nanmu, phoebe zhennan, and Chinese cedar were used for imperial halls due to their durability and resistance to pests. The entire city was built using mortise-and-tenon joinery, with no nails or glue, enabling components to flex and absorb seismic movement [45].

2.2.3 Qing Dynasty: Regional Diversification and Vernacular Flourishing

During the Qing Dynasty, while imperial building techniques remained anchored in Ming precedent, there was an unprecedented flourishing of regional vernacular timber traditions, including:

• Tujia hanging houses along cliffs and rivers

• Hui-style timber houses in Anhui with intricate screen walls and carved beams

• Tibetan-Lamaist temple complexes, combining Chinese bracketing with Buddhist mandala spatial organization.

Table 2.2 Regional Timber Styles under the Qing Dynasty

Region Structural Feature

Sichuan Cantilevered balconies

Decorative Motif Typical Wood Used

Phoenix and dragons Fir, Chinese cedar

Anhui Enclosed courtyards, carved beams Lotus, bats (fortune) Elm, pine

Tibet Post-platform temples

Mandala paintings Pine, juniper

Qing palaces, such as those in Chengde Mountain Resort, further extended modular framing to multi-building complexes, with elevated timber walkways and repetitive beam-bay systems.

Timber buildings were also constructed in diaspora communities and minority regions, each adapting standard principles to local environments, steep pitched roofs in rainy Fujian, stilted dwellings in Hunan, or fire-resistant tile-and-wood hybrids in Sichuan’s bamboo forests [46].

Traditional Chinese timber architecture represents one of the most refined and resilient building systems in the history of human construction. Developed through millennia of cultural continuity, ecological adaptation, and empirical craftsmanship, it is distinguished by its modularity, joinery precision, symbolic spatial articulation, and exceptional durability. At the core of this tradition lies a timber-based framework that is as much an expression of cosmological and philosophical ideals as it is a feat of engineering. This chapter offers an in-depth study of the construction methods and structural logics that underpin classical Chinese timber architecture, focusing on the post-and-beam system, bracketing mechanisms (dougong), joinery techniques, roofing geometries, and their ritualized implementation in both imperial and vernacular contexts.

The foundational structural logic of traditional Chinese buildings is the post-and -beam system (Figure 2.3), a modular and load-distributing framework that defines the character of nearly all major timber structures from the Han dynasty onward. In this system, vertical columns (“zhu”) are mounted atop stone plinths and support horizontal beams (“liang”) that span the building’s bays. The bays themselves, known as “jian”, serve as the fundamental modular unit of the building's plan. These typically range from three to six meters wide and can be repeated to scale a building along asymmetricalaxis [1]. Unlike theload-bearing walls inWesternmasonry construction, Chinese timber walls are non-structural partitions, often made from lattice panels, brick infill, or movable screens. This feature imparts enormous flexibility to the building’s interior layout and allows for expansion or reconfiguration over time.

Figure 2.3 Basic post-and-beam module, with labelled elements (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the documentation)

Chinese builders developed a precise understanding of load transfer, vertical articulation, and lateral bracing through accumulated generational knowledge. Timber was not simply used for its abundance, but because of its dynamic qualities, its ability to breathe, flex, and resonate with the environment. Columns and beams were dimensioned according to strict modular ratios, some of which were codified in texts like the Yingzao Fashi during the Song dynasty, which prescribed formulas for determining beam length, column spacing, and structural hierarchy based on the building’s ritual or political importance [41]. According to this manual, even the pitch of a roof and the height of a column carried cosmological significance, reflecting ideas of harmony between heaven and earth.

At the heart of Chinese timber construction lies the dougong, an intricate bracketing system that distributes weight from the roof to the columns while enabling wide eaves and dramatic overhangs. Composed of interlocking timber arms (“gong”), blocks (“dou”), and cross-elements (“timu, ang”), the dougong system functions both structurally and symbolically. Its layered configuration not only allows vertical loads to cascade efficiently down to the columns, but also buffers the lateral movement caused bywind andearthquakes.Depending onthe building's significance,a dougong set may have three, five, or seven tiers (Figure 2.4), with each additional tier indicating greater ritual prestige or imperial status [43].

Figure 2.4 Sectional elevation of five-tier dougong set from the Hall of Supreme Harmony, showing cantilever extension and interlock points (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the documentation)

The dougong system achieved its architectural zenith during the Ming and Qing dynasties, particularly in imperial projects such as the Forbidden City, where bracket complexity and quantity were used to differentiate status among buildings. Unlike Western cantilever systems, which rely on mass and compression, Chinese brackets exploit balanced tension and modular interlocking, meaning no nails or adhesives are necessary. This joinery is so precise that many dougong elements can be removed and reassembled without structural compromise, a feature especially useful for maintenance and restoration.

Roofing structures in Chinese timber buildings are equally emblematic of their engineering intelligence. Roofs, which account for a large percentage of the visual mass of a building, are typically constructed using a series of transverse beams and longitudinal purlins, layered to carry rafters and tile battens. The weight is distributed across dougong sets and columns rather than pressing down onto walls. Roofs were designed in several canonical forms gable (xuan shan), hipped (wu dian), and hip-and-gable (xie shan) each suited to climatic needs and social coding [46].

Imperial roofs were frequently double-eaved and covered in glazed ceramic tiles, with colours denoting the building’s function (yellow for imperial, green for temples, blue for astronomical observatories). Vernacular buildings often used timber shingles or clay tiles.Thedeepeavesoftheseroofsprotect the timber structure fromweathering

and extend far beyond the wall line, sometimes by more than one-third of the total building width, helping to stabilize the microclimate around the structure.

One of the most impressive aspects of Chinese timber architecture is its reliance on joinery instead of fasteners. Traditional joinery techniques included straight and shouldered mortise-and-tenon, dovetail, half-lap, and scarf joints (Figure 2.5). These joints allowed for expansion and contraction with humidity changes and for the buildings to sway during earthquakes without collapsing. In cases of severe seismic events, the joints act as energy dissipaters, sliding slightly to relieve stress and then re-engaging as equilibrium is restored [47].

Figure 2.5 Comparative schematic of timber joints: (a) mortise and tenon, (b) scarf joint, (c) dovetail in corner assembly (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the documentation)

The tools used to createthese joints (chisels, saws, layout squares, and planes) were developed into a highly specialized kit by the Tang dynasty. Carpenters worked from oral tradition and from guides like the Yingzao Fashi, but they also followed local and guild-specific rituals. For instance, no beam was raised without a blessing ceremony, often involving incense, red cloth, and offerings to the carpentry god Lu Ban, a semi-mythical figure regarded as the patron of builders and joiners [3].

Beyond their technical performance, Chinese timber structures reveal a ritual and cosmological depth. The axial layout of columns and bays mimics Confucian ideals of order and hierarchy, while the upward curvature of roofs and the decorative finials at their tips symbolize the aspiration toward heaven. The placement of dougong, the articulation of ceiling coffers (“zao jing”), and the modulation of light all contribute to an environment of spiritual resonance, not just spatial logic. Building was not merely functional, it was an act of world-making, inscribing cosmological principles into wood and space [45].

Chinese carpentry guilds functioned as custodians of this knowledge, with generations of artisans training under master builders. Large-scale projects like temples, bridges, and palaces were overseen by a chief architect (“du mu jiang”) who coordinated dozens of sub-specialists, bracket carvers, beam hewers, tile layers, and decorative painters. The worksite was a semi-sacred space, governed by taboos and rituals, including restrictions on working during eclipses or unlucky zodiac days. Tools were named and blessed, and completed buildings were "opened" through ceremonial occupancy, rather than simply being inhabited.

While these practices began with elite constructions, they eventually filtered into vernacular forms. In rural Anhui or Sichuan, simplified versions of the same post-and -beam logic were used to construct courtyard homes, ancestral shrines, and village watchtowers. Here, the timber was often locally sourced pine or fir, and joinery was cruder, but the modular logic remained intact. Even in diaspora communities in Southeast Asia, Chinese timber joinery persisted, adapted to tropical climates through raised foundations and ventilated eaves.

In recent years, research on Chinese timber architecture has expanded significantly. Structural engineers and conservationists now appreciate not only the artistic and historical value of dougong and joinery, but their ecological relevance. Timber, used judiciously, offers a renewable, low-carbon construction solution. The inherent flexibility of Chinese joinery may also inform seismic retrofitting and prefabricated housing systems globally. Thus, what began as an imperial craft has grown into an international design paradigm, one still rooted in the wood, water, and winds of its origin.

2.4 Philosophical, Cosmological,

and Ritual Principles in Chinese Timber Architecture

Chinese timber architecture, though celebrated for its technical brilliance and aesthetic refinement, derives its deepest meaning from a complex interplay of philosophical systems, cosmological worldviews, and ritual traditions. Rooted in Confucian ethics, Daoist naturalism, Buddhist metaphysics, and traditional geomancy (Feng Shui), the design, orientation, scale, and ornamentation of timber buildings in China were not simply aesthetic choices, but embodiments of a cosmic order. From the placement of a pillar to the curvature of a roof beam, Chinese architecture materialized a vision of the universe in which heaven, earth, and humanity were dynamically aligned [45].

2.4.1 Confucian Hierarchy and Spatial Organization

Confucianism, as formalized during the Han Dynasty and institutionalized under imperial governance, heavily influenced architectural design through its emphasis on social hierarchy, ritual propriety (li), and filial order. This worldview is embedded most directly in the spatial organization of palaces, ancestral halls, and courtyard

compounds, where architectural symmetry and axiality mirror the ritual order of society [46].

In a typical “siheyuan” courtyard house, the main hall is located on the northern axis, facing south, reserved for the eldest male or patriarch. Lesser buildings are positioned on east and west wings, while servants or less favoured family members reside to the south, forming a hierarchy in space that mirrors family structure. The more central and elevated a space, the higher its ritual and moral importance.

In state architecture, such as the Forbidden City, this principle is amplified. The central axis, running from the Meridian Gate to the Hall of Supreme Harmony, represents the emperor’s privileged position as the Son of Heaven. The number of steps, tiers of the dougong, or elevation of platforms all correspond to one’s place in the Confucian hierarchy [1].

2.4.2 Daoist Naturalism and Architectural Harmony

Whereas Confucianism prescribed social structure, Daoism encouraged a more fluid, responsive relationship between built form and the natural world. Daoist principles are evident in the asymmetrical pavilions, wandering paths, and organic roof lines of Chinese garden architecture and mountain temples (Figure 2.6). The Daoist goal was not to dominate nature but to follow its rhythms, expressed in the saying “Build in accordance with the Dao, hide it within mountains and waters” [48].

Timber, as a living material, resonated with Daoist metaphysics. The subtle variations in wood grain, the movement of eaves in the wind, and the play of shadow across latticed screens reflected the impermanence and interconnectedness of all things. Buildings were meant to breathe, to open and close like lungs or valves in response to weather and time.

Figure 2.6 – Plan of a Daoist temple complex, showing non-linear progression and integration with mountain topography (Image drawn by the ChatGPT adapted from Mt. Wudang complex)

Daoist temples often include open courtyards, sky wells, and raised walkways, promoting circulation of qi, the life force that flows through land, body, and structure. Unlike Confucian spaces of moral discipline, Daoist architecture invites experiential wandering, contemplation, and transcendence.

2.4.3 Buddhist Influence and Sacred Geometry

Introduced into China during the Han Dynasty, Buddhism brought new symbolic forms and spatial typologies into Chinese architecture (Figure 2.7). Timber pagodas, monastery complexes, and meditation halls reflect cosmological diagrams of the Buddhist universe, including the Mount Meru Cosmo gram, mandala layouts, and directional guardianship.

For instance, the layout of a Buddhist temple follows a north-south axis, but its sequence, entrance gate, drum and bell towers, Mahavira Hall, sutra library, reflects the eightfold path and stages of enlightenment. Timber architecture served not merely to house monks but to materialize doctrinal progression [49].

The dougong itself was interpreted as a ladder of ascent, linking the mundane columns of earth to the celestial beams of heaven. In tantric Buddhism, certain temples featured roof finials and eave beasts arranged in patterns associated with protective mantras

or the five elements. These details underscore how structural members doubled as spiritual signifiers.

Figure 2.7 – Symbolic alignment of Buddhist temple halls with doctrinal cosmology (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the documentation)

2.4.4 Feng Shui, Orientation, and Ritual Placement

Feng Shui, literally “wind and water,” is the practice of situating architecture in harmony with the landscape's geomantic forces. Drawing on Daoist cosmology and early Chinese astronomy, Feng Shui evaluates topography, hydrology, and cardinal orientation to determine the most auspicious location and orientation for a building.

In timber architecture, Feng Shui principles determine [50]:

• Site alignment with south-facing light and warmth.

• Location relative to mountains (support) and rivers (flow).

• Placement of main gate and inner courtyard.

• Avoidance of sha qi (negative energy), from T-junctions, sharp corners, or shadowed valleys

Buildings are aligned to the Luopan compass, which includes 24 directional divisions and cosmic relationships (earthly branches, heavenly stems, trigrams). Ritual measurements, often derived from the Lu Ban ruler, are used to define thresholds, altars, beam heights, and window spacing.

Table 2.4 Ritual Measurements Based on the Lu Ban Ruler [50]

Segment (Cun= inch) Range

1–4 cun

5–8 cun

9–12 cun

Symbolic Meaning Application

Wealth and peace

Main door frame height

Illness or misfortune Avoided in thresholds

Harmony and prosperity Central beams and altars

These principles were encoded not only in religious structures but even in the construction of houses, granaries, and bridges, suggesting that every act of building was also a ritual action, oriented toward balance with the cosmos.

2.4.5

Ritual Practice in the Construction Process

The building of a timber structure itself was accompanied by ritual from inception to completion. Groundbreaking ceremonies included offerings to earth spirits; timber was blessed before cutting; columns were erected during an auspicious zodiac hour. The placement of the main beam involved communal feasting, red silk wrapping, and chanting. It was believed that improperly timed or constructed buildings would invite calamity, not just structurally, but spiritually [51].

Artisans, especially carpenters, were initiates in a ritual craft lineage, tracing their origins to the legendary master Lu Ban. In some regions, carpenters performed protective incantations before carving dougong, and applied ink talismans inside roof cavities. The building thus became a repository of invisible protections as much as visible craft.

2.4.6

Architectural Symbolism in Decorative Programmes

Symbolism extended into every visual detail. Roof curvature was said to channel heavenly qi, and its upward sweep symbolized joy and transcendence. The number of eaves or the type of finial (flames, dragons, bats), signalled the building’s function. In imperial architecture, even the number of animal figures on roof ridges indicated rank: nine for the emperor, seven for a prince, five for a temple.

Door lintels,ceiling coffers(zaojing),andpaintedbracketsoftencontainedencoded moral messages, referencing Confucian aphorisms, Daoist balance, or Buddhist sutras. The architectural space thus became a textualenvironment, where the very walls could teach, protect, and inspire.

Chinese timber architecture, far from being a mere sheltering form, constitutes a ritual embodiment of cosmological thought. Through axial alignment, bracket formation, symbolic ornament, and geomantic orientation, timber structures became instruments of ethical order, spiritual aspiration, and metaphysical harmony. Confucian hierarchy, Daoist flow, Buddhist transcendence, and geomantic balance all

converge within the beams and columns of these structures. To understand them is to read not just engineering, but the architecture of belief.

2.5 Preservation, Transformation, and Global Influence of Chinese Timber Architecture

The legacy of traditional Chinese timber architecture is not confined to the past. Though the core construction systems were developed over two millennia ago, their cultural, technical, and symbolic resonance continues to shape architectural practices in China and far beyond. This chapter explores the challenges and strategies of preserving ancient timber buildings, the reinterpretation of traditional construction logic in modern design, and the global diffusion of Chinese timber architecture across East Asia and into contemporary international discourse.

2.5.1 Heritage and Conservation

Efforts to preserve Chinese timber architecture began in earnest during the late Qing dynasty and were systematized during the Republican era and after the establishment of the People's Republic. Institutions like the State Administration of Cultural Heritage (SACH) and provincial heritage bureaus have registered thousands of timber buildings, including temples, halls, and residences. Particularly notable are the conservation campaigns targeting Tang and Song dynasty structures, such as the Nanchan Temple and the Foguang Temple in Shanxi, which are now protected as national treasures [51].

Despite their historical value, timber structures remain vulnerable to fire, humidity, pests, and human intervention. Fires at cultural sites like the Shuri Castle in Okinawa (though Japanese, it used Chinese bracketing) and Lingguan Tower inSichuan have raised alarmsabouttheinadequacy ofmodernfireprevention systems for timber heritage [52].

Table 2.5 Common Threats to Timber Architecture and Preservation Responses

Threat Impact

Fire

Termites/Wood rot

Urban development

Complete loss of structure

Structural weakening

Demolition, fragmentation

Tourism Wear and structural overload

Preservation Strategy

Fireproof coatings, sprinklers

Chemical treatments, controlled humidity

Buffer zones, zoning controls

Visitor limits, raised walkways

Since 1987, several sites featuring traditional timber architecture have been added to the UNESCO World Heritage List, including the Lijiang Old Town, Mount Wudang complex, and Ancient Building Complex in the Wudang Mountains. These recognitions have reinforced both public interest and international responsibility in conserving China’s timber heritage

2.5.2 Contemporary Reinterpretation and Adaptation

A number of 21st century Chinese architects have engaged deeply with traditional timber construction logics while adapting them to modern materials and spatial needs. Li Xiaodong, Wang Shu, and Zhang Lei have all designed buildings that reinterpret the post-and-beam structure, dougong geometry, and courtyard layouts using steel, engineered wood, and concrete.

In Li Xiaodong’s Liyuan Library (Figure 2.8),local timber was used not structurally but as cladding and screening, referencing traditional joinery in a modular steel frame.

Wang Shu’s Ningbo History Museum (2008) references timber construction by using recycled materials and layered textures that evoke the memory of courtyard walls and rooflines [54].

These reinterpretations have not merely aesthetic goals they embody an ethical return to regionalism, sustainability, and cultural continuity. As timber construction regains global interest for its ecological benefits, Chinese timber architecture is increasingly seen as a source of environmental wisdom, not merely historical style.

Figure 2.8 Section from the Liyuan Library showing interplay of timber lattice and modular structure [55]

2.5.3 Global Diffusion and Influence

The spread of Chinese timber architecture can be traced across East Asia, where its principles influenced the development of Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese architectural traditions. Japanese temples such as Tōdai-ji and Korean timber pavilions share the dougong-derived bracketing, modular post-and-beam grids, and symbolic orientation with their Chinese counterparts [56].

In Southeast Asia, Chinese diaspora communities constructed ancestral halls, clan temples, and shop houses using adapted versions of timber frameworks. These buildings often combine Chinese joinery with local materials and tropical ventilation systems, reflecting hybrid regional identities.

In the West, since the 19th century, Chinese timber techniques have influenced ornamental styles in Victorian architecture, garden pavilions, and more recently, sustainable design movements. The emergence of parametric timber structures has led designers to revisit the dougong system using digital modelling and CNC milling, opening new frontiers in both academic research and commercial design.

2.5.4 Toward a Living Tradition

While many traditional techniques are endangered, others have been revived through artisan apprenticeships, academic research, and international exhibitions. Programs like the China Intangible Cultural Heritage Initiative have recognized master carpenters and restored hundreds of timber sites using historically accurate methods.

Universities, including Tsinghua University and Southeast University, have launched timber-focused architectural programs and research labs that study the structural performance, seismic behaviour, and material science of ancient buildings using contemporary analytical tools [57]. Results of such a research are introduced in Figure 2.9.

2.9

comparing seismic behaviour of timber dougong vs. steel-braced frame (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the Tsinghua Lab study, 2020)

Figure

Diagram

The revival is not nostalgic. It reflects a broader global shift toward low-carbon construction, renewable materials, and cultural grounding in architecture. Chinese timber architecture, rooted in ritual, geometry, and ecological sensitivity, offers a model for future architecture that is technically sound, symbolically rich, and environmentally attuned.

3. REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE FIRE SAFETY AND FIRE SAFETY OF BUILDINGS IN SLOVAKIA

In the Slovak Republic, fire safety regulations for buildings, including those of historical significance, are governed by a comprehensive legal framework designed to prevent fire incidents and ensure the protection of life, property, and cultural heritage. This framework encompasses general fire protection laws, specific decrees addressing fire safety in construction and usage, and regulations tailored to the unique challenges presented by historical structures.

At the core of Slovakia's fire safety legal framework is Act No. 314/2001 Coll. on Fire Protection [58]. This act delineates the fundamental responsibilities of individuals and organizations concerning fire prevention and response. It mandates the implementation of preventive measures, the establishment of fire safety documentation, and the conduct of regular training and inspections. Specifically, the act requires that all entities develop comprehensive fire protection documentation, which includes fire alarm guidelines, evacuation plans, and records of equipment inspections. Additionally, it stipulates that employees, including contractors and temporary workers, undergo fire safety training to ensure preparedness. The act also outlines the roles and duties of fire protection services and sets the framework for state fire supervision.

Complementing the general provisions of Act No. 314/2001 Coll. is Decree No. 94/2004 Coll. on Fire Safety in Construction and Use of Buildings [59]. This decree specifies the technical requirements necessary to ensure fire safety during the design, construction, and utilization phases of buildings. It emphasizes the need for structures to be designed in a manner that maintains their load-bearing capacity during fires, limits the spread of fire and smoke, and facilitates the safe evacuation of occupants. The decree also introduces the concept of fire compartments sections of a building designed to contain fire within a limited area to prevent its spread to other parts of the structure. These compartments are essential in safeguarding both the occupants and the integrity of the building.

Further elaborating on preventive strategies is Decree No. 121/2002 Coll. on Fire Prevention [60]. This decree outlines specific measures aimed at reducing the risk of fire occurrences. It mandates regular inspections of fire protection systems and equipment to ensure their functionality and readiness in case of an emergency. Additionally, it requires the maintenance and periodic testing of fire extinguishers, alarms, and other fire safety devices. The decree also emphasizes the importance of educating building occupants about fire risks and the procedures to follow in the event of a fire, thereby fostering a culture of safety and awareness.

Historical buildings present unique challenges in the realm of fire safety due to their architectural significance, the materials used in their construction, and their cultural value. In Slovakia, the preservation and protection of these structures are addressed through specialized legislative requirements that consider their distinct characteristics. Restorations and renovations of historical buildings must adhere to fire safety standards that respect and preserve their architectural and material integrity. Comprehensive risk assessments are mandated to identify potential fire hazards specific to historical constructions, enabling the implementation of tailored mitigation strategies. Given that many historical buildings incorporate combustible materials such as wood, specialized fire protection measures, including the application of fireretardant treatments and the installation of advanced detection systems, are often necessary to enhance their resilience against fire. The integration of modern fire safety solutions must be balanced with the imperative to maintain the historical authenticity of these structures [61]

Implementing fire safety measures in historical buildings is fraught with challenges. One significant obstacle is the financial constraint associated with retrofitting ancient structures with modern fire protection systems. Additionally, there is often a need to balance the stringent requirements of contemporary fire safety regulations with the preservation of the building's historical and architectural integrity. This necessitates a collaborative approach involving fire safety experts, conservationists, architects, and regulatory authorities to develop solutions that are both effective in fire prevention and sensitive to the building's heritage value.

In conclusion, Slovakia's legislative framework for fire safety is comprehensive, encompassing general fire protection laws, technical decrees, and specialized regulations for historical buildings. This multifaceted approach ensures that fire safety measures are effectively implemented across all building types, safeguarding lives, property, and the nation's cultural heritage. The successful application of these regulations requires ongoing collaboration among various stakeholders, continuous education and training, and a commitment to balancing safety with preservation.

3.1 Historical Fire Safety Practices in Slovak Timber Architecture

Fire has long posed a critical threat to timber buildings in Slovakia, especially in vernacular villages, sacral architecture, and timber-based urban settlements. From the Middle Ages through the early 20th century, Slovak communities developed a variety of customary and practical fire safety strategies, shaped by environmental conditions, construction materials, and local governance. Although lacking formal fire codes until the modern period, these communities practiced fire prevention and containment as integral parts of everyday architecture and social order.

Traditional timber houses in regions like Orava, Liptov, and Šariš were typically constructed from horizontally stacked logs sealed with moss or clay-lime mixtures. These materials, especially untreated resinous softwoods, were highly flammable, and fire outbreaks could rapidly destroy entire settlements due to the density of buildings, shared roofing systems, and the use of thatch or timber shingles. To reduce ignition risk, builders implemented site-level and architectural strategies. For example, separate smokehouses and freestanding kitchens wereoften placed away from living quarters to isolate fire-prone activities. Similarly, freestanding timber bell towers served not only liturgical roles but also functioned as fire alarms, with bells rung during fire outbreaks [62].

Open courtyards and non-continuous rooflines were used in some regions (notably Spiš and Zemplín) to limit fire spread between buildings (Figure 3.1). In areas where compact village typologies were unavoidable, such as mountainous terrain, households maintained “fire walls” or used stone-built lateral extensions as buffers between timber volumes. Community practices included fire watches, often assigned to youth or apprentices, and village fire brigades were gradually formed in the 19th century,oftenledbytrainedvolunteers.Thesebrigadesemployedbasictools (buckets, leather hoses, and portable pumps) and stored equipment in “fire barns” built at the village periphery [63].

Fire prevention had a spiritual dimension as well. Many households painted protective symbols above doorways (crosses, Marian monograms, or star motifs) believed to shield the home from lightning or divine wrath. In sacral settings, timber churches frequently had low lightning rods installed by the late 18th century, often in response to imperial fire ordinances issued by the Habsburg crown.

Although these strategies helped mitigate fire risk, major conflagrations still occurred frequently, with documented village-scale fires in Čičmany (1921), Ždiar (1890s), and Hervartov (multiple episodes). These disasters prompted rebuilding with partial masonry, clay renderings, or the use of “impregnated shingles” treated with early fire retardants, such as lime wash, borax, or salt solutions.

Figure 3.1 Schema of fire isolation layout in traditional Slovak homestead – separate smokehouse, open courtyard, and fire wall (Image drawn by the ChatGPT based on the documentation)

Table 3.1 Traditional Fire Mitigation Features in Slovak Timber Villages

Element

Detached kitchen or smokehouse

Stone masonry foundation

Limewashed walls

Freestanding bell tower

Open yard or wall buffer

Fire Prevention Function

Separation of open flame from main dwelling

Reduced ignition from ground fires

Surface retardation, mold prevention

Fire alert and village signalling

Limits fire transmission between units

3.2 Contemporary Fire Safety Codes and Standards in Slovakia for Timber Buildings

The regulation of fire safety in timber buildings in Slovakia has evolved significantly, especially in the context of aligning national standards with the European Union’s comprehensive regulatory framework. Modern Slovak building codes address the inherent fire risks associated with timber as a combustible material, while also acknowledging its growing popularity in sustainable construction and its irreplaceable role in cultural heritage. As such, the contemporary legal and technical framework surrounding fire safety in timber architecture operates at the intersection of safety compliance, engineering science, and heritage preservation

The technical foundation of Slovak fire safety for timber structures is provided primarily by the Technical Standards of the Slovak Republic (STN), especially STN 92 0200 and STN 92 0201, which define terminology, general fire provisions, and technical requirements for building structures. These national standards are fully harmonized with the European regulatory framework, particularly with EN 1995-1-2 (Eurocode 5 – Design of Timber Structures: Structural Fire Design).

This harmonization ensures that building practices in Slovakia adhere to shared European safety benchmarks, while also accommodating national particularities, such as a higher proportion of timber structures in rural and heritage contexts [62].

In fire safety design, building materials are classified according to two primary performance categories: reaction to fire and fire resistance. The former evaluates how easily a material ignites and how it contributes to the spread of fire, while the latter measures the duration a structural element can maintain its mechanical integrity under fire conditions. According to EN 13501-1, untreated timber typically achieves a classification of D-s2, d0, indicating a medium contribution to fire growth but limited smoke production. When treated with fire retardant coatings or impregnated with chemical protectants, softwoods such as spruce or fir can be elevated to class B-s1, d0, making them suitable for exposed use in interior and exterior applications where higher fire performance is required [63].

The actual fire resistance of timber elements is calculated based on their charring rate and remaining load-bearing cross-section. Softwoods in structural use are generally assumed to char at a rate of 0.65 mm per minute, as defined in Eurocode 5. For instance, a glulam column of sufficient thickness, even if unprotected, can retain its structural load capacity for 30 to 60 minutes due to the protective insulating layer of charred wood that forms during fire exposure. Engineered timber products such as cross-laminated timber (CLT) or glued-laminated timber (glulam) are increasingly used in Slovak construction and have shown high fire resistance ratings when protected by layers of gypsum board or intumescent coatings. Structural elements designed in accordance with EN 1995-1-2 can thus meet fire resistance classifications of REI 30, 60, or even 90, depending on the application, size, and protection used [64].

In Slovakia, designers can choose between two principal approaches to fire protection in timber buildings: the prescriptive approach, which involves direct adherence to standard requirements for building height, fire compartment size, evacuation routes, and materials; and the performance-based approach, which requires detailed fire modelling to demonstrate equivalent or superior safety outcomes. The latter is particularly relevant in the case of innovative or large-scale timber buildings, where software simulations are used to predict structural behaviour under fire loads, validate evacuation strategies, and determine necessary protection measures. This includes the use of computational tools such as ANSYS, OZone or SAFIR for thermal analysis and structural performance validation.

While these design principles apply to contemporary timber structures, heritage timber buildings, especially Slovakia’s iconic timber churches and bell towers, require a different regulatory approach. Governed by Act No. 49/2002 Coll. on the Protection of Monuments and Historic Sites [65], heritage structures are exempt from certain

prescriptive fire safety codes, particularly those that would require invasive alteration of historical fabric. Instead, conservation practices focus on non-destructive fire prevention strategies, including surface treatment with traditional retardants such as limewashandborax,installationofearly detectionsystemslike infraredsmokealarms, andthecreationoffire buffer zones throughcarefulvegetationmanagement. Sprinkler systems, while technically effective, are rarely used due to the risk of water damage, aesthetic disruption, and potential interference with sacred interior decoration. Restoration and retrofitting work must be approved by the Monument Board of the Slovak Republic in consultation with fire safety engineers and heritage conservationists [66].

Recent innovations in Slovak timber construction have focused on enhancing fire safety while preserving the aesthetic and ecological advantages of wood. Modern projects involving public buildings, eco-lodges, and residential complexes now commonly use encapsulated CLT panels, thermally resistant insulations, and fireresistant gypsum boards to meet code requirements. Designers also incorporate compartmentalization techniques and specify EI-rated fire doors and partitions, especially in multi-storey applications. Many of these innovations have been informed by experimental testing conducted at facilities such as FIRES s.r.o. in Batizovce, one of Central Europe’s leading laboratories for timber fire performance testing. Their work has helped establish best practices in determining charring behaviour, evaluating flame spread, and assessing the combined effects of heat and mechanical stress on engineered timber elements.

In summary, fire safety regulation in Slovakia for timber buildings reflects a balance between stringent technical performance criteria and the cultural imperative to protect architectural heritage. The adaptation of European fire standards, the development of advanced modelling practices, and the integration of traditional protective strategies in heritage sites demonstrate that timber, when properly understood and managed, can remain a viable, safe, and culturally rich material in Slovak architecture. As sustainability and low-carbon design become national priorities, the role of timber in construction will likely grow, reinforcing the need for rigorous yet flexible fire safety approaches that respect both innovation and tradition.

3.3 Risk Assessment and Fire Protection Strategies in Slovak Timber Buildings

In contemporary Slovak architecture, particularly where timber is employed as the primary construction material, comprehensive fire risk assessment forms a critical aspect of both design and regulatory compliance. This process entails not only the evaluation of the building’s fire load and the flammability of its constituent materials but also a systematic identification of ignition sources, spatial vulnerabilities, and the potential for fire spread across structural elements and compartments. Fire

risk assessments are guided by Slovak national legislation and harmonized European standards, including STN EN 1991-1-2 [67] and STN EN 1995-1-2 [62], with further support from methodological guidelines issued by the Slovak Fire and Rescue Service (HaZZ) and Technická inšpekcia SR.

Risk assessment begins during the planning phase, wherein architects and fire safety engineers collaborate to analyse the fire behaviour characteristics of proposed construction materials, the configuration of structural members, and the arrangement of spaces. For timber buildings, key parameters include surface ignition resistance, charring rate, and load-bearing capacity retention under thermal exposure. Engineers perform thermal response modelling using established char rates, typically 0.65 mm/min for softwood species, accounting for loss of structural section and deformation under load. Such assessments are typically conducted using performance-based design methods, supported by fire dynamics simulation software such as PyroSim, FDS (Fire Dynamics Simulator), or ANSYS, which allows designers to model fire scenarios, evacuation flow (PATHFINDER), and smoke development in real time.

One of the primary strategies for fire protection in Slovak timber architecture is the passive design approach, which includes the specification of inherently fire-resistant timber sections, structural compartmentation, and the use of intumescent coatings or encapsulation systems. These methods ensure that, even in the event of fire, the structure retains its mechanical stability for a designated period, usually REI 30 to REI 90, depending on building function and occupancy classification. Encapsulation, involving the use of fire-rated gypsum boards or mineral wool insulation, provides thermal barriers that delay ignition and charring of the timber substrate. In new construction, especially multi-storey mass timber buildings, fire resistance is achieved by oversizing load-bearing elements or layering laminated timber to compensate for expected char depth.

In parallel to passive measures, active fire protection systems are increasingly implemented in modern Slovak timber buildings. These include automatic sprinkler installations, addressable smoke detection, and manual alarm systems, designed in accordance with STN 92 0203 (Fire Alarm Systems) [68] and STN EN 12845 (Sprinkler Systems) [69]. Sprinklers, while often controversial in heritage timber sites due to potential water damage, are highly effective in new wood-based structures, particularly in public buildings, educational facilities, and hospitality developments where human occupancy is high. The placement and response time of detectors, alongside the development of secure evacuation routes, are central to minimizing risk to life and enabling early suppression.

Spatial configuration plays a vital role in limiting fire spread. Slovak fire safety doctrine emphasizes the separation of fire compartments within a building, particularly between habitable zones, utility areas, and vertical circulation shafts. Where timber is exposed internally, either for aesthetic or structural reasons, it must comply withstrict fireexposure classifications,or beinstalledwithredundant systems, such as horizontal fire stops, smoke dampers, or non-combustible barrier layers. Where exposed timber is used externally, such as in ventilated facades or cladding, it is subject to additional regulations regarding flame spread along air gaps and exterior walls.

A key element of Slovak fire safety regulation in timber buildings is the integration of building use classification into the risk profile. Structures designated as lowoccupancy (e.g. single-family homes or rural chalets) are often permitted greater leniency in fire performance criteria, while buildings with public access, educational functions, or overnight accommodation are subject to more stringent fire engineering provisions. In such cases, fire protection strategies must consider evacuation time thresholds, fire brigade access, and redundant safety systems, as well as integration with municipal fire response protocols.

The implementation of fire safety strategies has been supported by empirical studies and fire testing, often conducted at Slovak institutions such as FIRES s.r.o. Batizovce and Technical University in Zvolen, which have contributed substantially to the development of timber fire resistance databases, case study analyses, and recommendations for hybrid systems combining timber with steel or concrete cores [70]. One significant case study involved a simulated compartment fire in a twostorey glulam building in central Slovakia, in which the building maintained full loadbearing capacity for over 60 minutes without structural collapse, affirming Eurocodebased modelling predictions [71].

Despite these advancements, challenges persist in the implementation of comprehensive fire protection strategies, particularly in retrofitting existing timber buildings where access to hidden cavities, inconsistent materials, or aging electrical systems pose elevated risks. The Slovak fire code mandates regular inspection and maintenance schedules for all certified fire protection systems, including detector testing, pressure verification of sprinkler systems, and removal of combustible storage from fire corridors and equipment zones [72].

Ultimately, the contemporary Slovak approach to fire protection in timber buildings is founded upon a multi-layered strategy, combining material science, engineering design, spatial planning, detection technologies, and institutional regulation. This reflects a broader trend in Central Europe toward risk-informed design, in which performance-based solutions are calibrated to actual building

conditions and uses, rather than adhering strictly to prescriptive code. As wood becomes increasingly central to Slovak construction, both in sustainable architecture and heritage preservation, the integration of advanced fire protection strategies will remain essential for balancing innovation with safety.

3.4 Toward an Integrated Fire Safety Framework for Slovak Timber Buildings

The regulation and protection of timber structures in Slovakia, particularly against fire hazards, represents a dynamic intersection of technical evolution, cultural preservation, and sustainability-oriented design. From vernacular practices rooted in preventive separation and community vigilance, to modern applications of Eurocodebased design, the Slovak framework has matured into a comprehensive system that embraces both historical sensitivity and future-facing innovation.

As detailed in the preceding sections, contemporary Slovak standards, including STN EN 1995-1-2 [62], provide clear criteria for the design, material classification, and fire resistance performance of timber buildings. These are supported by performancebased risk assessment models, national fire codes, and the ongoing development of testing data from research institutes like FIRES s.r.o. and Technical University in Zvolen. In parallel, passive and active fire protection strategies, from thermal encapsulation to advanced detection systems, are being widely adopted in both public and private construction.

Crucially, the Slovak model recognizes the unique regulatory needs of heritage timber architecture, offering flexible exemptions and conservation-oriented strategies that ensure fire protection without compromising authenticity. This reflects a broader European and global trend toward context-sensitive fire safety policy, especially in regions rich with timber sacral and vernacular buildings.

As Slovak construction continues to embrace engineered timber, mass timber, and hybrid systems, the challenge will be to deepen the integration of fire safety within a holistic sustainability framework, where energy efficiency, environmental impact, and structural safety are addressed in tandem. The evolution of national policy, training of fire engineers, and cross-sector collaboration will be essential in safeguarding Slovakia’s architectural heritage while enabling its timber future.

4. REGULATIONS CONCERNING THE FIRE SAFETY AND FIRE SAFETY OF BUILDINGS IN CHINA

4.1 Historical Fire Safety Practices in Chinese Timber Architecture

The threat of fire has always loomed over the tradition of timber construction in China, a country whose classical architecture relies almost exclusively on timber framing, bracketing, and roof structures. From the earliest dynasties through the late Qing period, fire safety was a central concern in the planning, construction, and maintenance of timber buildings, especially those of religious, political, or commercial significance. In imperial, religious, and vernacular contexts alike, premodern Chinese builders and administrators developed a multi-layered fire prevention culture, involving material practices, urban planning, ritual regulation, and even celestial symbolism to minimize fire risk and control its spread.

Chinese fire safety history begins with the recognition of timber’s dual nature: it was abundant, versatile, and aesthetically resonant with cosmological ideals, yet it was also combustible. This contradiction prompted early imperial authorities to institutionalize state-level fire regulation, particularly during the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties. Urban centres like Chang’an and Kaifeng were designed with wide boulevards, fire alleys, and modular walled wards (fang), which could act as firebreaks during outbreaks. These design strategies were not merely architectural but also bureaucratic: local ward leaders were held responsible for fire safety within their blocks, and curfews and fire bans were enforced to regulate the use of lanterns and open flames at night [1].

In timber palace and temple construction, material choices and layout orientation were guided by both practical knowledge and cosmological rules. The use of thick earthen platforms (taiji) under major halls helped separate timber elements from ground-level heat or sparks. Roof tiles made of unglazed or glazed ceramic replaced earlier thatch or wood shingles to reduce ignition risk. Furthermore, buildings were spaced along axial plans with intervening courtyards that functioned as natural fire compartments. The courtyards allowed for the dissipation of smoke and provided assembly space for fire suppression efforts, typically involving buckets, soil, and, later, primitive pumps.

Ritual practice also played a crucial role in fire prevention. Temples and elite homes regularly invoked spiritual protection against fire, employing engraved charms, incantations, and temple-specific rituals. For example, the placement of dragon-headed ridge beasts along eaves was not only decorative but was also believed to ward off fire spirits. In Buddhist and Daoist temples, special rites such as “offering water to the fire gods” were conducted to invoke divine protection. Texts from the

Daozang (Taoist Canon) describe ritual diagrams to be buried under thresholds or inscribed within ceiling coffers (zao jing) for fire suppression [48].

The organization of fire brigades also appeared early in Chinese cities. Historical sources from the Ming period refer to neighbourhood fire patrols, often comprising labourers or monks trained to respond quickly to smoke or flames. These groups were equipped with rudimentary tools such as ladder carts, leather buckets, and water chains, and later, manual piston pumps, introduced during the late Ming and early Qing periods. In large temple complexes, hidden water cisterns, sometimes decorated as lotus ponds, were integrated into courtyards for fire access, subtly blending utility with symbolism.

Historical fire prevention in China was not uniform across the empire. In regions like Tibet and Yunnan, where remote monasteries were surrounded by dry grasslands and strong seasonal winds, timber temples developed specialized forms of stone or earthenouter walls,fire-separationtowers,andflat roof terracesthatcouldbeaccessed by monks for rapid extinguishing. In contrast, Fujian's tulou dwellings, while primarily earthen, used timber internally and featured communal fire basins in central courtyards as both cooking sites and emergency water sources [73].

Despite these precautions, historical records document numerous catastrophic fires, some of which destroyed entire palace complexes or sacred temples. The Destruction of Daming Palace in the Tang Dynasty, the burning of the main hall of Hōryū-ji in Japan (originally built by Chinese craftsmen), and the multiple fires in the Forbidden City throughout the Ming and Qing periods, underscore the limitations of traditional fire prevention and the enduring vulnerability of timber construction. These events often triggered waves of reconstruction using more fire-resistant materials, such as bricks for base platforms, and stricter codes regarding roof spacing, lantern use, and incense burning.

Fire prevention in imperial capitals became increasingly institutionalized in the Qing Dynasty,culminating intheestablishment oftheImperialFirePreventionBureau within the Forbidden City. This specialized unit, known as the Huoshao Fang, maintained water carts, dragon-headed hoses, and round-the-clock patrols. It also enforced restrictions on candle use and was tasked with fire drills involving eunuchs and court servants. Although primitive by modern standards, these efforts reflect a remarkably systematic approach to fire risk in a civilization dependent on wood for its most sacred and official structures [74].

In summary, historical Chinese fire safety practices demonstrate a holistic integration of urban planning, material science, spiritual ritual, and bureaucratic oversight. From the regulation of flame use to the positioning of fire ponds and the cosmological alignment of buildings, the approach was at once pragmatic and deeply

symbolic. The legacy of these practices continues to influence fire-conscious design in heritage sites and informs the development of modern codes for timber construction in China today.

4.2 Contemporary Fire Safety Codes and Standards in China

The fire safety regulation of timber structures in contemporary China is governed by a rigorous, evolving framework of national codes, driven by rapid urbanization, the rise of mass timber technologies, and the pressing need to safeguard both new and historic timber architecture. Unlike the informal fire prevention methods of earlier dynasties, today’s regulatory environment is shaped by standardized, enforceable provisions established by the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MOHURD), and codified in a tiered system of GB (Guobiao) standards. These norms address material combustibility, structural fire resistance, spatial planning, and fire suppression technologies, forming the backbone of China's fire safety infrastructure.

The most authoritative document governing fire safety in buildings is GB50016–2014 (Code for Fire Protection Design of Buildings), revised in 2018 to incorporate international developments and lessons learned from recent fire incidents. This code outlines the classification of buildings by function and risk, and stipulates fire compartmentation, evacuation provisions, and restrictions on combustible materials. For timber structures, especially those exceeding two storeys or intended for public assembly, the code imposes strict limitations on exposed timber elements, requiring non-combustible linings, encapsulation, or active fire suppression systems to offset the material's inherent combustibility [75].

Timber and timber-based materials in China are classified under the reaction-tofire standard GB 8624-2012, which is aligned with EN 13501-1, the European system. This classification evaluates materials based on flame spread, smoke production, and flaming droplets. Untreated timber typically achieves a Class D rating, while treated wood products, including fire-retardant plywood and laminated veneer lumber (LVL), can reach Class B or even A, provided they meet testing standards such as GB/T 20284-2006. Modern coatings, such as intumescent paints, pressure impregnation treatments, and mineral-based sealants, are increasingly employed in public and commercial timber buildings to achieve compliance with Class B-s1, d0 equivalence [76].

In the design of timber buildings, fire resistance is quantified by the REI system, evaluating the load-bearing capacity (R), integrity (E), and insulation (I) of structural elements over time. China has adopted testing protocols consistent with ISO 834 and GB/T 9978.1–2008, requiring structuraltimber assemblies to demonstrateperformance under standardized fire curve conditions. While small-scale residential timber

buildings can meet REI 30 with untreated structural members, commercial or institutional structures must meet REI 60 or 90, which typically necessitates encapsulation using fire-rated gypsum board, cementitious panels, or mineral wool composites [77].

China’s building classification system further influences fire design requirements. According to GB50016, buildings are divided into Categories I through IV, based on factors such as occupant load, usage, and height. Timber buildings used as schools, theatres, or healthcare facilities fall under Class I or II, and are thus subject to the most stringent fire requirements. This includes installation of automatic sprinkler systems, pressurized staircases, dual exit corridors, and centralized fire alarm integration, typically conforming to GB 50116-2013 (Code for Design of Automatic Fire Alarm Systems). In rural or heritage contexts, exemptions are occasionally granted for lowerrisk occupancies, especially when cultural value precludes material modification.

Contemporary fire regulation in China also emphasizes fire separation distance, dictating the minimum allowable distance between timber buildings to reduce the likelihood of fire spread. For structures over 600 m² in area or more than 7 meters in height, this separation must exceed 13 meters unless additional fire barriers or sprinkler zones are installed. Similarly, horizontal and vertical fire compartments are mandatory in all large-scale timber buildings, often incorporating noncombustible core walls, protected shafts, and sealed utility penetrations, consistent with GB standards.

Recent revisions to the GB50016 code reflect a growing interest in green building, including mass timber solutions like cross-laminated timber (CLT) and glulam. While Chinese code remains conservative in approving exposed timber in high-rise or assembly buildings, pilot projects particularly in Beijing, Hangzhou, and Chengdu have introduced engineered wood within fire-compliant hybrid systems, utilizing a combination of steel cores and encapsulated timber modules. These developments are supported by experimental fire testing, conducted at institutes like China Academy of Building Research (CABR), and regulatory trials under the guidance of MOHURD and the Ministry of Emergency Management [78].

Despite advances, several challenges remain. The decentralized enforcement of fire codes, the variability in local interpretations, and the limited availability of certified fire-resistant timber products continue to constrain wider adoption. Furthermore, the preservation of intangible heritage practices, particularly in minority regions like Tibet, Yunnan, and Inner Mongolia, often conflicts with formal code provisions, prompting debates over material authenticity versus occupant safety. Nevertheless, China is steadily incorporating global best practices

and investing in fire-safe wood innovation, particularly as part of its dual goals of decarbonization and cultural revitalization.

In conclusion, contemporary fire safety codes in China present a technically rigorous, centrally codified, yet locally flexible framework for regulating timber structures. While the use of wood remains tightly regulated in urban and high-risk typologies, new codes and testing protocols are gradually opening pathways for compliant, innovative, and culturally rooted timber design. As engineered wood technologies mature and sustainable architecture gains policy priority, Chinese fire regulation is poised to evolve in tandem, balancing fire safety with environmental, economic, and heritage imperatives.

4.3 Risk Management, Regulation Enforcement, and Heritage Protection in

Chinese Timber Architecture

The successful implementation of fire safety in Chinese timber buildings depends not only on robust codes and materials science but also on comprehensive risk management systems, effective enforcement mechanisms, and culturally sensitive strategies for heritage protection. As China negotiates the intersection of modernization, cultural preservation, and safety regulation, a nuanced approach has emerged, one that integrates technological risk analysis with regulatory flexibility in historic contexts, particularly in regard to its vast inventory of traditional timber architecture

Risk management in modern Chinese timber construction is increasingly governed by formal fire hazard assessment protocols, mandated during both the design and operational phases of a building. The GB50116-2013 (Code for Design of Automatic Fire Alarm Systems) and its companion documents require that all public timber buildings undergo fire scenario analysis, smoke movement modelling, and evacuation route validation. Engineers use digital tools like Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) and Pyrosim to simulate ignition scenarios and assess the effects of structural geometry, ventilation, and occupant behaviour on fire development. The outcomes of these simulations inform the installation of detection systems, alarm networks, and suppression mechanisms, which must be aligned with nationally certified products and designs [79].

In terms of regulatory enforcement, fire safety oversight in China is managed by a multi-tiered governance structure involving local fire bureaus, municipal construction and planning commissions, and the Ministry of Emergency Management at the national level. Site inspections are conducted at multiple phases of a project, during planning approvals, mid-construction audits, and final occupancy certification. Buildings with timber components are subject to heightened scrutiny, especially if they exceed two storeys or are intended for public assembly, education,

or accommodation. In these contexts, enforcement officers verify fire separation distances, structural encapsulation levels, sprinkler coverage, and access for firefighting equipment.

However, implementation remains uneven across regions, particularly in rural or mountainous areas where compliance infrastructure is limited, or where traditional practices remain deeply rooted. In some cases, local exemptions are granted for the preservation of intangible heritage, allowing the use of traditional joinery, exposed timber interiors, or incense-based rituals that might otherwise contravene formal fire codes. These exemptions are guided by heritage zoning regulations, such as those codified in the Cultural Relics Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China (revised 2017), which permits alternative safety protocols in officially recognized heritage sites [80].

The protection of historic timber buildings, including pagodas, ancestral halls, guild houses, and entire heritage towns, is one of the most complex challenges in Chinese fire safety today. Many of these structures, dating back to the Tang, Song, or Ming periods, were constructed with untreated softwood, feature open-plan halls, and are located in densely clustered historical environments where fire spread risk is high. A key example is the Ancient Town of Lijiang, a UNESCO World Heritage Site composed primarily of timber houses along narrow canals. In response to rising fire incidents, authorities introduced micro-zoning for fire suppression, including distributed cisterns, narrow-diameter water mains compatible with heritage aesthetics, and embedded IR smoke sensors installed discreetly within timber beams [81].

In major religious sites, such as the Shaolin Monastery or Wutai Mountain complex, a hybrid fire safety model is used. These sites employ non-invasive early warning systems, periodic patrols by temple staff trained in fire suppression, and dedicated fire watch towers replicating ancient practices but enhanced by thermal cameras and AI-assisted alert systems. Furthermore, the use of fire-retardant treatmentsthat meet ClassB-s1,d0 or higher hasbecome standardin restorativework, though these treatments must be non-acidic, vapor-permeable, and visually unobtrusive to meet conservation standards.

In high-profile sites such as the Forbidden City, fire protection is orchestrated through a comprehensive control centre that monitors the entire palace complex via real-time digital surveillance, environmental sensors, and automated dispatch protocols coordinated with the Beijing Municipal Fire Brigade. This integration of tradition and technology illustrates the apex of fire risk governance for timber heritageinChina,whereeventheinstallationoffiredoorsor alarmsrequiresapproval

from the Palace Museum Conservation Committee to ensure aesthetic and historical continuity [82].

Despite these achievements, there remain systemic challenges in harmonizing fire safety enforcement with cultural preservation. Overzealous retrofitting can damage architectural integrity, while insufficient regulation risks irreplaceable loss. The Chinese strategy increasingly favours a "dual compliance" model, requiring that both technical fire safety requirements and cultural conservation guidelines be met through interdisciplinary collaboration. Pilot programs, including those funded under the China-UNESCO Historic Urban Landscape Initiative, now train local planners and firefighters in heritage-sensitive response protocols, contributing to a growing body of best practices.

In sum, fire risk management in Chinese timber architecture operates across multiple dimensions, technical, regulatory, cultural, and historical. The effectiveness of fire protection lies not only in strict adherence to codes, but in the adaptive capacity of those codes to engage with living traditions, local knowledge, and architectural authenticity. As China’s commitment to both modernization and heritage deepens, its fire governance models offer valuable lessons in the protection of timber buildings worldwide.

5. FIRE TESTING, MODELLING AND SIMULATION IN

FIRE SAFETY OF WOODEN/TIMBER STRUCTURES

The preservation of historical timber buildings poses a dual challenge: safeguarding irreplaceable cultural assets while ensuring compliance with modern fire safety standards. Timber, despite its historical and architectural significance, is an inherently combustible material. Structures composed of wood are especially vulnerable to fire due to their flammability, age-related material degradation, and the absence of compartmentalisation or active fire protection systems. In countries like Slovakia and China, where timber architectural heritage is deeply embedded in the cultural landscape, this challenge is of urgent importance.

Slovakia's timber churches, often constructed between the 16th and 18th centuries, represent masterpieces of Central European carpentry. These include both Roman Catholic and Greek Catholic churches, as well as Protestant “articular churches,” built entirely of wood without nails, in line with strict historical limitations. Many of these are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Similarly, in China, elaborate timberframe palaces, temples, and pagodas, often constructed using complex dougong bracket systems, have survived for centuries. Buildings such as the Fogong Temple Pagoda (1056 CE) or the Yingxian Timber Pagoda are among the oldest standing timber structures in the world.

The loss of such structures to fire not only represents an architectural tragedy but a cultural one. Notable incidents such as the 2008 fire at the Baoguo Temple in Ningbo or the 2010 fire at the Protestant timber church in Tvrdošín, underscore the vulnerabilities of these buildings. Their historical construction methods, which favoured open floor plans, untreated materials, and hidden cavities, create rapid fire pathways and complicate emergency interventions.

To address these vulnerabilities, fire safety in heritage buildings has evolved from prescriptive standards to performance-based fire engineering approaches. These require in-depth understanding of fire behaviour, material properties, and structural resilience under thermal stress. Unlike modern buildings, interventions in heritage architecture must meet minimum intervention and reversibility principles under charters such as the Venice Charter (1964) [83] and ICOMOS Fire Risk Management guidelines (2020) [84]

This chapter explores the essential tools of fire safety science thermal analysis, fire resistance testing, and advanced simulation, as applied to historical timber buildings. Techniques such as Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and Differential Thermogravimetry (DTG) are used to characterise aged wood and assess fire performance at the material level. Standardised and full-scale fire resistance testing provide empirical data on structural assemblies. Computational tools such as Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) and SAFIR

enable modelling of fire growth, smoke propagation, and structural failure in complex geometries.

A particular emphasis is placed on the integration of real experimental data with modelling approaches, a necessity given the unique and non-repeatable nature of most heritage buildings. The chapter draws upon recent research from the Technical University in Zvolen, among others, and presents comparative insights from Slovak and Chinese contexts. By doing so, it outlines an interdisciplinary framework that supports both conservation ethics and technical rigour in protecting these irreplaceable structures.

The goal of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive overview of current methodologies used in the fire safety engineering of historic timber structures. Special attention is paid to buildings in Slovakia and China, where research, testing, and simulation have been actively conducted. The chapter will examine the role of experimental thermal analysis, fire resistance testing, fire dynamics and structural modelling, and the integration of these methods in decision-making for heritage protection.

5.1 Thermal Decomposition and Material Characterisation

The fire behaviour of timber is governed by its thermal decomposition properties. In historical structures, this behaviour is modified by long-term ageing, environmental exposure, and traditional treatments. Understanding these effects is essential to support both fire resistance assessments and accurate modelling of fire scenarios in heritage buildings. Thermal analysis techniques, particularly Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Thermogravimetry (DTG), and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), are widely used to assess the pyrolysis characteristics of wood and wood-based materials.

5.1.1

Fundamentals of Thermal Decomposition

Wood is composed primarily of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Each of these polymers decomposes at distinct temperature ranges: hemicellulose between 200–280 °C, cellulose from 280–370 °C, and lignin over a broader range between 300–500 °C due to its aromatic complexity. When exposed to increasing temperatures in a non-oxidative environment (e.g. N₂), these components release volatiles, leaving behind a carbon-rich char. In an oxidative atmosphere (air), these volatiles ignite, contributing to fire growth and flame spread.

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) records the mass loss of a sample over a controlled heating program. The first stage of mass loss (up to 120 °C) corresponds to moisture evaporation. Subsequent stages indicate decomposition of the major polymers, with clear mass loss peaks observable via Differential Thermogravimetry (DTG). Studies have confirmed that the main DTG peak around 350 °C corresponds to cellulose decomposition, with a preceding shoulder representing hemicellulose [85].

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measures heat flow associated with decomposition. Endothermic transitions are observed for moisture loss, while exothermicpeaksindicatecombustionofvolatilesandoxidationofchar. Theseprofiles help evaluate a material’s ignition potential, heat release capacity, and thermal inertia [86].

5.1.2 Behaviour of Aged and Historical Wood

Timber in historical structures undergoes slow physicochemical ageing due to long-term exposure to moisture, oxygen, fungal activity, and thermal cycles. These ageing effects cause polymer chain cleavage, crystallinity changes, and oxidation, which in turn influence fire behaviour. Aged wood generally shows:

• Lower decomposition onset temperatures, especially for hemicellulose.

• Reduced volatile yields, potentially affecting ignition delay.

• Altered DSC profiles, often with broader or shifted exothermic peaks.

In Slovakia, investigations of historical oak and fir timbers from 18th century churches revealed significant reduction in hemicellulose content and oxidation -induced discoloration. This ageing was associated with increased char formation and reduced flame propagation in some cases, suggesting a potential self-limiting combustion characteristic in deeply aged timber [87].

In China, heritage structures such as Qing dynasty temples built with Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata L.) or Nanmu (Phoebe zhennan L.) have been studied using TGA/DTG. Results from Zhang et al. [88] indicate that aged fir specimens exhibit thermal degradation onset at ca. 210 °C (compared to 235 °C in fresh samples), with lower heat release in DSC curves, likely due to oxidative preconditioning and resin migration.

5.1.3 Influence of Thermal Modification and Surface Treatments

In some cases, historical wood may have undergone deliberate or incidental thermal modification. Researchers at the Technical University in Zvolen have examinedthermally modifiedspruceand fir subjectedto fireresistance testing.Studies show that heat treatment improves dimensional stability but may either increase or decrease combustibility depending on treatment temperature and atmosphere [89].

Kačík et al. [90] investigated the chemical transformation in oak wood subjected to various thermal regimes, finding that high-temperature treatments (>200 °C) significantly reduce hemicellulose content, increase the relative lignin fraction, and shift decomposition peaks to higher temperatures improving charring resistance but also sometimes increasing cracking.

Traditional surface coatings, such as plant oils, shellac, and tung oil, widely used in both Slovak and Chinese architecture, may act as temporary fire retardants or, conversely, contribute to flame spread. The fire behaviour of such coatings is not uniform and requires case-specific TGA/DSC analysis.

5.1.4 Integration with Modelling and Fire Testing

The thermal decomposition data obtained through TGA/DTG/DSC serve as critical input parameters for numerical fire simulations (e.g. FDS, SAFIR). These include:

• Pyrolysis kinetics (activation energy, reaction order).

• Heat of reaction (from DSC).

• Char yield fraction

• Ignition and ignition delay temperatures

The integration of such parameters ensures that models reflect the true thermal and combustion behaviour of aged heritage wood, rather than relying on generalised or new-material values.

Where destructive sampling is restricted, micro-samples from damaged or exposed sections can be analysed. FTIR or Py-GC/MS are often used in tandem with TGA/DSC to confirm chemical changes, as demonstrated in post-fire studies on historic structures in both Europe and Asia [91].

5.2 Fire Resistance Testing of Timber Elements and Assemblies

The assessment of fire resistance in timber structures is a cornerstone of fire safety engineering, particularly in heritage contexts where traditional construction methods and aged materials dominate. Historical timber buildings rarely conform to modern building codes and must therefore be evaluated using tailored experimental approaches. Fire resistance testing provides essential information on the structural, thermal, and integrity performance of timber components and assemblies when exposed to fire.

5.2.1

Fire Testing Standards and Principles

Standardised fire testing methodologies such as ISO 834, EN 1363-1, EN 1365-1, and ASTM E119 are globally recognised frameworks for determining fire resistance These standards use the cellulosic time–temperature curve, where temperature rises to 945 °C in 60 minutes, to simulate severe building fire conditions. Test specimens are evaluated for:

• R (Resistance) – Load-bearing capacity under fire exposure

• E (Integrity) – Ability to prevent flame or gas penetration.

• I (Insulation) – Limiting temperature rise on the unexposed side.

While widely applied, these standards are optimised for modern materials and uniform geometry. When testing heritage timber elements, adaptations are often required to accommodate non-standard jointing, massive cross-sections, and multi -century ageing effects [92].

5.2.2

Testing of Timber Components and Historical Joinery

Historical buildings employ traditional joints such as mortise-and-tenon, dovetail, and interlocking log walls, often assembled without metallic fasteners. These joints exhibit different thermal and mechanical behaviour than contemporary connectors.

Full-scale fire tests on mortise-and-tenon frames, conducted by SP Wood Technology in Sweden, showed that joint charring did not directly correlate with loadbearing failure, as long as structural interlocking was preserved [87]. In Slovakia, experimental work at the Technical University in Zvolen demonstrated that the massive dimensions and tight-fit geometry of log walls delay structural failure due to slower heat penetration and efficient char layer formation [93].

In particular, Čekovská et al. found that thermally modified spruce beams exhibited extended fire resistance due to increased char stability, even under mechanical load, compared to untreated counterparts [91].

5.2.3

Charring Rate and Structural Degradation

The charring rate is a critical parameter in assessing fire resistance. Eurocode 5 (EN 1995-1-2) provides nominal charring rates (β₀) of 0.65 mm/min for softwoods under standard fire exposure. However, studies have shown considerable variability based on:

• Wood species and density.

• Moisture content and grain orientation.

• Thermal ageing or chemical treatment.

Research by Frangi and Fontana indicates that laminated timber beams can maintain integrity beyond 60 minutes of fire exposure with calculated charring depths deviating by up to 20% from Eurocode predictions [94].

In Canada, the National Research Council's full-scale burn tests on glulam and solid sawn beams revealed that real charring rates under natural fire conditions are often nonlinear, particularly during the early heating phase [95]. This underscores the importance of experimental calibration for modelling historic constructions.

5.2.4 Assemblies and Large-Scale Testing

Timber assemblies, such as floor systems, roofs, and partition walls, are rarely homogeneous. Large-scale fire tests account for joint performance, load redistribution, and multi-component interaction under elevated temperatures.

In China, full-scale fire testing of dougong bracket systems has revealed that mechanical interlocking between tiers allows redistribution of stress during charring, resulting in delayed collapse relative to simpler beam–column systems [96]. These observations align with experimental and numerical analyses conducted at Tsinghua University, where structural redundancy was shown to improve survivability during prolonged fire exposure.

In contrast, North American research on heritage log houses shows that gaps between logs can act as chimney channels, accelerating fire spread unless filled or compartmentalised [97]. Therefore, fire resistance testing must be contextualised to specific assembly practices and building typologies.

5.3 Fire Dynamics Modelling (FDS and CFD)

Computational modelling of fire dynamics plays a central role in modern fire safety engineering. In the context of timber heritage buildings, where full-scale destructive testing is rarely permitted, simulation tools are indispensable for predicting fire growth, flame spread, smoke movement, and ventilation effects. Among these, Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), a CFD-based model developed by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), is widely used in both research and performance-based fire design.

5.3.1 Fundamentals of CFD in Fire Safety

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models the movement of gases and heat during combustion through numerical solutions to the Navier–Stokes equations, coupled with combustion, heat transfer, and radiation models. In fire safety engineering, CFD allows prediction of:

• Flame spread and heat release rates.

• Smoke and toxic gas layer formation.

• Flashover timing and location.

• Temperature and velocity fields.

• Visibility and tenability thresholds.

FDS simplifiestheCFD domainusing lowMachnumber approximations,allowing efficient simulation of fires in large spaces, such as churches, temples, and historical halls.

5.3.2 Geometry and Material Inputs for Heritage Buildings

One of the challenges in applying CFD to heritage buildings is accurate geometry reconstruction. Many timber heritage buildings include vaulted ceilings, lofts, open galleries, and exposed beams, all of which affect fire and smoke dynamics.

Recent advancements in laser scanning and photogrammetry allow the creation of detailed 3D models, which can be imported into FDS using PyroSim or BIM -integrated workflows [98].

Material properties are equally critical. Wood requires the specification of:

• Density, specific heat, and thermal conductivity

• Ignition temperature and heat of combustion.

• Charring behaviour and surface emissivity.

These values vary widely based on species, age, and treatment. For example, aged fir used in Chinese temples has a lower ignition temperature and reduced heat release rate compared to fresh samples, which must be reflected in the model input [99].

5.3.3

Fire Scenarios and Ventilation Conditions

Heritage fire modelling typically explores worst-case scenarios, such as:

• Delayed fire detection in unmonitored buildings

• Fires ignited near structural or artistic elements (altars, iconostases)

• Wind-driven exterior flames (e.g., eaves or timber balconies)

CFD enables evaluation of how smoke and heat travel through open attics, stairwells, or air gaps. In Slovak timber churches, for example, fire simulations have shown that vertical galleries and exposed trusses allow rapid upward smoke spread, causing flashover in less than 8 minutes under moderate fuel loads [93].

In Chinese temples, courtyard configurations and overhanging roofs create external plume entrainment, pulling flames toward windows or wall openings. FDS modelling of dougong-style buildings at Tsinghua University revealed that open interstitial spaces in bracket sets contribute to both airflow restriction and localised heat trapping, which can damage structural joints before full room involvement [100].

5.3.4 Integration with Fire Safety Design and Heritage Constraints

CFD models are increasingly used to assess interventions that balance fire safety and heritage integrity. FDS can simulate:

• Smoke extraction through discreet roof vents.

• Impact of concealed mist or sprinkler systems.

• Efficacy of fire barriers or interior partitioning.

• Time available for evacuation based on tenability thresholds (visibility, CO, temperature).

Such simulations support decisions about non-invasive retrofitting, particularly in buildings where traditional aesthetics or material authenticity limit active protection options.

For example, studies in Italy have shown that natural ventilation strategies in old timber theatres can maintain tenability for up to 10 minutes during small fires, outperforming poorly designed sprinkler systems that activate too late or too aggressively [101].

5.4 Structural Fire Modelling (FEA Tools)

Structural fire modelling enables engineers to predict the mechanical performance of timber structures subjected to elevated temperatures. This is particularly important in historical timber buildings, where the ability to simulate collapse mechanisms, joint performance, and material degradation under fire is crucial for risk assessment and heritage preservation

Modern Finite Element Analysis (FEA) software, including SAFIR, ANSYS, and ABAQUS, are widely used to simulate thermal–mechanical coupling, integrating heat transfer, charring, and stress-strain evolution over time.

5.4.1

Modelling Framework and Input Parameters

Timber structures under fire exhibit complex behaviour, including:

• Reduction in stiffness and strength with temperature

• Time-dependent creep and softening

• Thermal expansion and cracking.

• Cross-sectional loss due to charring.

FEA tools calculate temperature distributions within structural elements using 1D, 2D, or 3D heat conduction models. These temperature profiles are then coupled with mechanical models that account for reduced modulus of elasticity (E), compressive

and tensile strength (fc, ft), and shear capacity. According to Eurocode 5, wood at 300 °C retains approximately 50% of its room temperature strength [102].

In heritage contexts, these models must be calibrated with real test data from aged or treated timber, which may behave differently than new materials due to oxidation, insect damage, or resin depletion.

5.4.2 Modelling Traditional Connections and Joint Behaviour

One of the main challenges in simulating historical timber structures is accurately modelling traditional joints, including:

• Mortise-and-tenon and lap joints

• Timber pegs (treenails).

• Interlocking log walls.

• Dougong bracket systems in East Asia.

Unlike standard modern steel connectors, these joints exhibit nonlinear stiffness, gap opening, frictional slip, and rotation under fire-induced load changes.

Contact modelling and surface-based interaction definitions (in ANSYS or ABAQUS) allow simulation of relative movement and failure modes such as withdrawal or slippage. Studies in Sweden and the Czech Republic have shown that traditional joints redistribute load and delay collapse even after partial charring, depending on their orientation and embedment depth [103].

In Slovakia, numerical simulations of log walls and vaulted timber ceilings have revealed that large cross-sections and mechanical redundancy provide significant residual load-bearing capacity during and after charring [93].

In China, modelling of dougong brackets using shell and solid elements has demonstrated that the vertical stacking and interlocking geometry enable sustained capacity even when lower brackets degrade [104].

5.4.3 Full-Structure Modelling and Collapse Prediction

Recent research efforts have expanded from isolated element analysis to whole-building simulation, integrating geometry from laser scanning and materials data from thermal testing.

In Canada, SAFIR was used to simulate a two-storey heavy timber structure exposed to a compartment fire, predicting collapse initiation after 65 minutes at the roof truss joints, closely matching experimental results [105].

Such validation is essential for applying simulation in heritage conservation, where the consequences of structural failure are irreversible. Combined with smoke

and temperature data from CFD (e.g., FDS), these models can predict sequential failure, residual capacity, and safe escape time.

5.4.4

Applications in Conservation and Retrofitting

Structural fire models inform retrofitting decisions, especially where invasive reinforcement is restricted. Modelling can be used to evaluate:

• Addition of fire retardant claddings

• Hidden steel or FRP reinforcements.

• Load path redundancy in case of member loss.

• Partial collapse scenarios under prolonged burning.

In Italian restoration projects, FEA has been used to assess invisible fire protection strategies, such as integrating insulation into cavity spaces, while maintaining original timber visibility [106].

Models also help heritage authorities justify non-intervention when data shows that residual capacity is sufficient supporting decisions in line with ICOMOS principles.

5.5 Model Validation and Integration

Whilecomputationalmodelshave becomeindispensableinfiresafety engineering, their reliability depends heavily on empirical validation. In the context of heritage timber buildings, where real-world testing is constrained by conservation ethics, validating fire and structural simulations against experimental and post-incident data is essential for credible results. Furthermore, integration of modelling tools into Building Information Modelling (BIM) platforms offers powerful opportunities for planning, visualisation, and multidisciplinary coordination in conservation efforts.

5.5.1

The Necessity of Empirical Validation

Numerical simulations of fire behaviour and structural response are built on assumptions regarding:

• Heat release rate (HRR) and fire load.

• Pyrolysis and ignition kinetics.

• Charring depth and material degradation

• Structural geometry and joint behaviour

These assumptions must be validated through controlled fire resistance tests, small- and large-scale combustion experiments, and post-fire inspections. Unvalidated models risk producing inaccurate or overly conservative results that may misguide heritage interventions.

Frangi and Fontana [94] emphasised the importance of calibrating timber fire models using real fire data, showing that uncalibrated simulations could underestimate collapse time by over 30% in large assemblies. Similarly, CFD-based models for smoke and heat movement must be benchmarked against laboratory measurements to ensure tenability criteria are accurate [107].

5.5.2 Experimental and Post-Fire Data for Calibration

Model validation typically relies on:

• Standardised furnace tests (e.g., ISO 834, EN 1363).

• Natural fire experiments simulating real ignition scenarios.

• Post-incident fire reconstructions using thermographic or structural analysis

At the Technical University in Zvolen, fire resistance tests on thermally modified spruce beams were used to validate SAFIR-based simulations of temperature distribution and moment resistance [91].

In China, post-fire investigation of a historic timber temple in Shanxi Province provided rare full-scale burn data. By mapping charring depths, collapsed elements, and surviving joints, researchers could back-validate FEA models of dougong bracket failure mechanisms [108].

In Canada, the National Research Council conducted full-scale natural fire tests on timber buildings. Measured temperature-time profiles, HRR curves, and collapse sequences were used to refine the input parameters of SAFIR and FDS models, improving prediction accuracy [109].

5.5.3 Model Integration into Fire Safety and Conservation Planning

Validated models are not standalone tools, they are increasingly being integrated into fire safety management, digital conservation, and restoration design via BIM and GIS platforms.

BIM-FDS integration allows conservation teams to visualise smoke spread, fire growth, and structural threats in real-time scenarios. With plugins such as Dynamo or PyroSim, fire simulations can be embedded in heritage BIM databases, supporting design of non-invasive fire protection systems and safe evacuation strategies [110].

Case studies from Italy and the UK have shown how integrated digital twins help stakeholders assess trade-offs between aesthetic preservation and life safety, such as whether to use concealed sprinklers or air-gap fire barriers in heritage attics [111].

5.5.4 Challenges in Validation for Heritage Structures

Despite progress, several validation challenges remain:

• Lack of fire test data on aged, degraded, or historically treated wood

• Limited access to full-scale fire experiments in real heritage buildings

• Variability of joints and construction types across cultures and regions

• Ethical limits on destructive testing in protected sites.

To overcome these barriers, fire safety engineers increasingly rely on hybrid validation, combining small-scale testing, documented fire incidents, and sensitivity analysis of input parameters.

Collaborative projects like Fire Safe Europe and Interreg Central Europe are creating shared datasets from controlled fire testing on reconstructed heritage assemblies, allowing wider access to reliable validation benchmarks [112].

5.6 Challenges and Recommendations

The integration of fire testing, simulation, and conservation strategies in historical timber buildings is fraught with scientific, practical, and ethical challenges. These complexities stem from the inherent variability of heritage materials, limitations in destructive testing, lack of normative data, and the tension between safety and authenticity. As the demand for performance-based fire protection grows, the need for interdisciplinary solutions that align technical rigor with cultural sensitivity becomes increasingly urgent.

5.6.1 Challenges

Material Variability and Ageing Effects

Unlike new timber products, historical wood varies significantly in density, moisture content, surface condition, and chemical composition due to long-term ageing, microbial degradation, and exposure to environmental cycles. This variability makes it difficult to apply standard material properties in fire models or structural calculations. Studies show that pyrolysis onset temperatures and charring rates in aged wood differ by up to 20–30% from those of new samples [113].

Inadequate Test Data for Heritage Conditions

Standardised fire testing procedures (e.g., ISO 834, EN 1363) are primarily designed for contemporary, homogenous materials. There is a lack of full-scale experimental data for historic timber joinery, treated surfaces, or complex assemblies such as log walls, vaulted ceilings, or dougong brackets. This limits the calibration of fire dynamics and structural response models for heritage contexts.

Ethical and Regulatory Barriers to Destructive Testing

In many jurisdictions, heritage legislation prohibits or restricts destructive sampling, full-scale burning, or structural intrusion. This constraint hinders both experimental research and the ability to validate simulations. As a result, engineers often rely on synthetic or reconstructed test specimens, which may not fully replicate historical properties.

Modelling Limitations in Complex Architectures

Fire modelling tools such as FDS or SAFIR require highly detailed geometries and accurate input parameters. Yet many heritage buildings feature non-standard geometries, such as hidden cavities, interstitial joints, or layered bracket systems, that are difficult to represent in computational meshes. Additionally, most tools cannot easily account for moisture migration, delamination, or dynamic joint behaviour under fire conditions [102].

Conflict Between Safety Requirements and Preservation Principles

Modern fire codes often prescribe interventions (e.g., fire doors, sprinklers, or fireproof cladding) that conflict with conservation principles of minimal intervention, reversibility, and material authenticity. Navigating these conflicts requires custom performance-based strategies supported by simulation and expert consensus, yet these are often resource-intensive and underfunded, particularly in smaller heritage sites [111].

5.6.2

Recommendations

Developing heritage-specific fire testing protocols is crucial for the protection of historic timber structures. International research agencies and heritage institutions should invest in adapted testing methodologies that reflect the unique properties of aged timber. These methodologies could include sub-scale testing of naturally aged materials, full-scale reconstruction-based fire tests, and in situ testing using portable thermal rigs. Furthermore, creating shared, open-access fire data repositories would enable researchers to calibrate models and cross-verify results, promoting consistency and innovation across the field.

Parallel to this, there is a pressing need to expand material databases specifically for aged timber. A coordinated multinational effort is required to build comprehensive, accessible repositories of timber properties, such as pyrolysis parameters, strength degradation curves, and charring profiles. These databases should be carefully stratified by factors such as wood species, age range, climate exposure, and historical treatments to ensure their applicability to diverse heritage contexts [114].

Strengthening the linkage between simulation and validation is another vital step in enhancing heritage fire safety. Simulations used in planning and risk assessments

must be benchmarked against available empirical test data or detailed post-fire reconstructions. In cases where data are lacking, rigorous sensitivity analyses should be conducted to transparently quantify uncertainties. Making this a standard requirement for performance-based fire safety evaluations in heritage structures would ensure more reliable and defensible planning outcomes.

Promoting interdisciplinary fire safety teams is also essential. Projects involving heritage buildings should engage a range of experts, including fire engineers, conservation architects, historians, and local community stakeholders. This collaborative approach ensures that technical solutions do not come at the cost of cultural significance. Funding mechanisms and project frameworks should actively encourage and support such interdisciplinary engagement.

Finally, adopting digital heritagetools can significantly improve both fire planning and response. Technologies such as digital twins, BIM-based fire risk modelling, and GIS-enabled fire zoning can be powerful assets not only in the design phase but also during emergency response, evacuation planning, and post-disaster assessments. Pilot initiatives in China and Europe demonstrate that these tools can reduce risks to human life and help achieve better conservation outcomes when effectively integrated into emergency management systems [115].

6. INFORMATION AND TECHNOLOGY IN FIRE SAFETY OF WOODEN/TIMBER

BUILDINGS

Fire safety in timber buildings, especially those of historical and cultural significance, has advanced significantly in recent decades with the integration of modern information technologies. Timber structures, while architecturally and historically valuable, are inherently vulnerable to fire due to their combustibility and structural sensitivity to heat. This vulnerability is further complicated by the irregular geometry, varied construction materials, and limitations on intrusive interventions often found in heritage buildings. Traditional fire protection methods, although important, are increasingly being supplemented by advanced information and communication technologies (ICT), digital engineering tools, sensor networks, and artificial intelligence. These innovations facilitate proactive fire prevention, real-time monitoring, predictive modelling, and integrated emergency response planning.

In addition to preserving historical structures, modern engineered timber buildings present similar challenges due to their combustible components, concealed cavities, and hybrid materials. Therefore, the role of digital technology is equally relevant for both heritage conservation and contemporary construction. A shift from prescriptive codes toward performance-based fire safety design, supported by modelling and intelligent systems, is reshaping how timber structures are protected.

6.1 Building Information Modelling and Digital Twins

6.1.1

BIM in Fire Safety Engineering

Building Information Modelling (BIM) has emerged as a cornerstone technology in the digital management of fire safety in timber buildings. BIM enables the creation of detailed, data-rich digital representations of structures that can include material properties, spatial configurations, fire safety system layouts, and historical data. In the context of timber buildings, BIM allows for precise modelling of timber elements, joints, and protective layers, offering a platform for integrating fire simulations and safety assessments. The capacity to simulate fire growth and smoke movement within BIM environments, using tools such as PyroSim and Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), enhances performance-based fire engineering [116].

6.1.2

Digital Twins for Fire Risk and Response

The concept of digital twins, which extends BIM by linking real-time data from sensors installed in buildings, is particularly relevant for fire safety. Digital twins enable continuous monitoring of environmental conditions, structural behaviour,

and system performance. For heritage timber structures, this means early detection of thermal anomalies, moisture ingress that could lead to fungal decay (which increases combustibility), or signs of structural weakening. Projects in cities such as Venice, Florence, and Shanghai have piloted digital twin systems in historic districts to support real-time fire risk assessment and maintenance planning [117].

Digital twins can also support predictive maintenance and lifecycle assessment. For instance, combining long-term environmental exposure data with timber aging models allows facility managers to anticipate degradation in fire protection performance. In high-risk environments, the twin can simulate emergency scenarios, including fire brigade access, evacuation timing, and structural collapse sequences.

6.2 Computational Modelling and Fire Dynamics Simulation

6.2.1

Fire Dynamics Simulation (FDS)

Computational tools have revolutionised the ability to predict fire behaviour in complex timber structures. Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS), developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), allows detailed simulation of heat transfer, combustion, and smoke movement. When combined with BIM and structural modelling tools such as SAFIR or ANSYS, FDS enables comprehensive analysis of fire scenarios including flashover potential, tenability thresholds, and structural failure progression. In heritage contexts, this integration is critical due to the unique architectural features and limitations on physical interventions [118].

6.2.2

Multi-Tool Integration

Studies have shown that accurate fire modelling requires high-resolution input data, including material-specific thermal properties, real geometric configurations (captured via laser scanning or photogrammetry), and validated heat release rate (HRR) profiles. This approach has been successfully implemented in historic timber churches in Slovakia and Poland, as well as ancient temples in China and Japan [119]

Modern performance-based fire design frequently relies on coupling FDS with evacuation models (e.g., PATHFINDER) and structural thermal response analysis. This allows holistic assessment of life safety, property protection, and fire spread prevention. Researchers are also integrating dynamic meteorological inputs into simulations to study wildfire risks to timber buildings in rural and forest-adjacent zones.

6.3 Sensor Networks and Smart Detection Systems

6.3.1

Early Fire Detection

Sensor technology has become a critical component in fire detection and early warning systems for timber buildings. Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and fibre

-optic systems offer non-invasive installation and continuous monitoring capabilities. These systems detect temperature rises, smoke particles, gas concentrations (CO, CO2), and humidity changes, enabling early intervention before fire escalation [93]

6.3.2 IoT and Smart Integration

Advanced systems integrate Internet of Things (IoT) frameworks, allowing devices to communicate with each other and with central monitoring stations. Case studies in Japan, Finland, and Slovakia have demonstrated that such systems significantly reduce response time and property damage in both modern and heritage timber buildings [120].

Long-term pilot programs have tested integrated systems where sensors embedded in beams and joints provide structural health metrics under elevated temperatures. In some smart city frameworks, this data is directly linked to local fire brigades, allowing dispatchers to assess the exact source and severity of a fire in real-time, before crews arrive on site.

6.4

Artificial Intelligence and Predictive Analytics

Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly applied in fire safety for predictive maintenance, anomaly detection, and decision support. In China and Korea, AI-enhanced fire risk prediction platforms are being tested in timber heritage districts. These platforms combine satellite imagery, real-time environmental monitoring, and urban GIS data to forecast fire-prone zones.

Machine learning algorithms can also analyse historical incident reports, local weather trends, and building use patterns to estimate fire likelihood at different times of year. This is particularly useful in timber tourist destinations with fluctuating occupancy. AI can also be employed in post-event diagnostics, learning from recorded sensor data during a fire to improve future response strategies.

6.5 Geographic Information Systems and Risk Mapping

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provide spatial analysis capabilities for mapping fire risk across urban and rural areas. GIS-based fire risk mapping has been effectively used in the Austrian Wachau Valley, the Slovak Spiš region, and historic towns in China. In these cases, GIS integration with BIM and sensor networks created comprehensive fire risk platforms [121]

GIS is also used for fire brigade logistics, identifying fastest response routes, hydrant locations, and potential bottlenecks in access. Combined with terrain models and land use maps, GIS tools help mitigate risks posed by nearby vegetation, flammable roofs, or narrow historic streets. National heritage registers can be layered over fire risk zones to prioritise inspections and resource allocation.

6.6 Infrared Thermography

Non-destructive testing (NDT) using infrared thermography offers valuable insights into the hidden vulnerabilities of timber buildings. Thermography is used to detect insulation defects, moisture accumulation, and heat signatures that may indicate electrical faults or incipient combustion [122].

Field studies using thermographic scans before and after fire events have provided valuable calibration for thermal models of charring and pyrolysis in wood. Museums and archives have adopted periodic thermal imaging as part of preventive conservation strategies.

6.7 Challenges and Interoperability

Despite the promise of digital tools in fire safety, several challenges remain. Technical barriers include the lack of interoperability between software platforms, inconsistent data standards, and limited availability of high-resolution material properties for heritage timbers. Financial and institutional constraints also hinder adoption, particularly for small municipalities or private owners.

Training gaps exist among fire safety professionals and heritage conservators in using advanced digital tools. Interdisciplinary education programs and credentialing systems could help standardise expertise. Collaborative data platforms should adopt open standards (e.g., IFC, GeoTIFF) to improve tool compatibility.

To address these challenges, international collaborations such as FireRisk Europe and Interreg Central Europe have promoted open data platforms, harmonised standards, and shared training programs [115].

The integration of information and technology into fire safety for timber buildings represents a major advancement in protecting both modern engineered timber structures and historical timber heritage. Technologies such as BIM, digital twins, smart sensors, computational modelling, and GIS offer unprecedented capabilities for monitoring, simulating, and managing fire risk. Their implementation must, however, be accompanied by standardisation, interdisciplinary collaboration, and continuous validation.

Emerging technologies including AI-driven diagnostics, adaptive smart sensors, and immersive training environments (e.g., AR/VR simulations for fire response) promise to further enhance the resilience of timber architecture. As climate change intensifies wildfire risks and urban pressures increase, digital transformation will play a decisive role in the sustainable protection of timber buildings.

7. PRACTICAL FIRE SAFETY OF HISTORICAL BUILDINGS IN

SLOVAKIA

Fire safety in historical buildings poses specific challenges due to non-standard materials and outdated systems.

The aim of this chapter is therefore to present a practical perspective on fire safety of historical buildings. It brings together lessons learned from real incidents, findings from national audits of fire protection, insights from emergency exercises, current legislative developments and possible technical solutions. The intention is to show how scientific knowledge about wood behaviour and fire resistance can be combined with operational experience in order to form a comprehensive and applicable framework for safeguarding cultural heritage.

7.1 History of Fires in Slovak Cultural Monuments

The vulnerability of Slovak cultural monuments to fire is not only a matter of theoretical concern but was demonstrated repeatedly through destructive incidents in recent decades. Several prominent monuments were seriously damaged or entirely destroyed,withcausesranging fromelectricalfaultsto humannegligenceand,insome cases, deliberate acts of arson.

One of the most tragic cases was the repeated burning of the manor house in Kunerad. In 2010, a fire broke out during roof reconstruction works, likely connected with hot processes or faulty electrical equipment, and caused damage estimated at more than 1.5 million euros. Although restoration efforts began, the building was again consumed by flames in 2018, this time under circumstances strongly suggesting arson. The double loss underscored both the fragility of monuments during reconstruction and the insufficiency of preventive measures in securing such sites.

The fire at Krásna Hôrka Castle in 2012 attracted international attention. Flames engulfed the roof and destroyed much of the timber truss after local boys accidentally ignited dry grass at the foot of the hill on which the castle stands. The fire rapidly climbed the slope, spread to the castle structure, and resulted in damages estimated at eight million euros. The event highlighted the importance of external risks, such as vegetation management around monuments, in addition to the internal vulnerabilities of old buildings.

Other sacral and educational buildings have also suffered from fire. In the Franciscan convent in Pruské, an electrical short circuit in the kitchen wiring triggered a blaze in 2012. A similar cause was identified in the Piarist College in Prievidza, where fire erupted from an electrical furnace in the gymnasium. In both cases,

the combination of outdated electrical installations and combustible construction materials created conditions for rapid fire spread. In 2016, the Evangelical church in Hybe was damaged by fire that began near the organ and extended to the sound equipment, with losses estimated at one hundred thousand euros. Although firefighters managed to save the main structure, the event demonstrated how vulnerable sacral interiors are, especially when ignition occurs in elevated spaces close to the roof

Two years later, in 2018, the Chapel of Saint Helena in Považská Bystrica was affected by a night fire that spread to the roof, causing damages of approximately one hundred and fifty thousand euros. In 2019, the manor house in Ožďany lost its entire shingle roof within thirty minutes of ignition, a dramatic example of how combustible traditional roofing materials accelerate fire development. The damage in this case was estimated at three hundred thousand euros, and the complete destruction of the roof eliminated the possibility of simple restoration.

The most devastating incident in recent memory occurred in March 2023 in Banská Štiavnica, where a fire swept through the historic centre and affected seven buildings inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The ignition, likely of electrical origin, began in the attic of the “Dom Maríny” building and spread rapidly to neighbouring structures, overwhelming even the large-scale intervention of the Fire and Rescue Service. Losses in this case reached tens of millions of euros and represented not only a financial burden but also an irreparable cultural loss.

Taken together, these incidents illustrate several recurring patterns. The most frequent causes of fires in Slovak monuments are electrical faults, negligence during works, and deliberate ignition. Fires spread rapidly because of combustible roofs, interconnected attics, and insufficient compartmentation. Intervention is often hamperedbyinadequatewater supply andlimitedaccessibility.According to analyses by the Fire and Rescue Service, irresponsible human behaviour, whether in the form of negligence, carelessness, or intentional action, remains the leading cause of fires in cultural monuments.

7.2 Case Studies of Fire Incident and Emergency Exercise

The most instructive insights into the practical protection of heritage buildings against firearisefromrealincident andemergency exercise.Theyear 2023was marked by two events of particular importance in Slovakia: the catastrophic fire in Banská Štiavnica on 18 March, and the verification exercise at the timber articled church in Hronsek in September. Both illustrate, in different ways, the vulnerability of cultural heritage and the need for systemic improvements.

7.2.1 The Fire in Banská Štiavnica, 18 March 2023

Banská Štiavnica, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, has long been regarded as one of the jewels of Slovak history. Its compact historical core, composed of medieval and baroque houses built on steep terrain, represents both a cultural treasure and a significant fire risk. On the morning of 18 March 2023, this risk materialised with devastating consequences. The fire originated in the attic of the “Dom Maríny” (Figure 7.1), a building with sixteenth-century origins that had been reconstructed and adapted multiple times over the centuries. Most recently it had been converted into a private museum known as the “Banka lásky“ (Bank of Love).

The structure of the “Dom Maríny” building (Figure 7.1) illustrates the typical vulnerability of historical houses in urban heritage centres. The vertical load-bearing elements consisted of mixed masonry of stone and brick, while the horizontal ceilings combined vaulted stone and timber beams. The roof was formed by a timber truss system with a sheet-metal covering. Such a combination of non-combustible walls and highly combustible roof structures is typical for the period and presents a deceptive sense of safety: although the masonry walls resist fire, the roof trusses provide abundant fuel and facilitate rapid fire spread once ignition occurs.

The interior was only partially equipped with fire safety systems. Fire alarm equipment, hose reels, extinguishers and emergency lighting were present, but documentation of their inspection and maintenance was incomplete. Fire compartmentation was insufficient: the museum exhibition on the first and second floors formed a single fire section, and the attic was divided into three parts, but these divisions were inadequate to slow fire propagation. According to the fire safety project

Figure 7.1 Dom Maríny before the fire [123]

prepared in 2017, only two above-ground floors were considered (Figure 7.2), and the attic was not properly included in fire safety planning.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7.2 Fire safety plan of Dom Maríny – first (a) and second (b) floors [124]

The ignition most likely originated in the attic. Technical analysis after the incident confirmed that electrical wiring in this area had not been inspected since 2005. Combined with dust deposits, dried timber trusses and stored materials, the attic was a textbook example of a high-risk fire environment. Once ignition occurred, the flames spread quickly along the timber trusses (Figure 7.3). Wind conditions and the direct physical connection between roofs facilitated horizontal fire spread to neighbouring objects.

The immediate neighbour to the “Dom Maríny” building was the Pizzeria Black M, itself a heritage building with stone and timber construction. From there, the fire advanced to the Elementary Art School located in the “Szitnyay House”, a sixteenthcentury structure owned by the municipality. Finally, the flames reached the “Berggericht” (Court for mining-related issues) building, part of the Slovak Mining Museum, which according to the Ministry of Environment suffered the highest material losses. Thermal imaging during the fire (Figure 7.4) documented the intensity of radiant heat and the almost uncontrollable nature of horizontal fire transfer in a dense historical square.

Figure 7.3 Sequence of fire spread across roofs from Dom Maríny to adjacent buildings [124]

Operational response was rapid but faced severe obstacles. The fire was reported shortly after 10.00 AM, but access for firefighting equipment was restricted by the narrow, steep streets typical of Banská Štiavnica. Aerial platforms could not be positioned close to the burning roofs (Figure 7.5). Water supply from the city hydrant system was quickly exhausted, forcing the fire brigades to organise supplementary water transport. The intervention involved units from across the region, yet despite these efforts, roofs and attics of several heritage buildings were destroyed before the fire was stabilised (Figure 7.6).

Figure 7.4 Thermal imaging during intervention showing radiant heat propagation [124]

Figure 7.5 Photograph of incident site during intervention, showing limited access for firefighting equipment [124]

Post-fire investigationsrevealed systemic failures. The “Dom Maríny” building had not been subject to a state fire inspection before the fire. Records of electrical inspections were outdated, and there was no evidence of regular testing of the fire alarm or emergency lighting. Preventive fire patrols were limited to the museum floors, while the attic was neglected, even though it was partly used as a residential and office space. The reconstruction works carried out after 2015 did not include a comprehensive fire safety review by the Fire and Rescue Service. [124]

The conclusions are sobering. Attic spaces in heritage buildings should never be occupied or repurposed without fire retrofitting. Fire inspections must be mandatory for all monuments, whether in public or private ownership. Every reconstruction must include a fire safety project, subject to approval not only by conservation authorities but also by fire authorities. The event demonstrated that in dense heritage environments, the lack of fire separation between roofs poses an almost insurmountable challenge once a fire starts. The only effective strategy is therefore prevention and early detection.

7.2.2 The Emergency Exercise in Hronsek, September 2023

The second major practical insight into heritage fire safety in 2023 was provided not by a destructive fire but by a pre-emergency exercise. On 25 September 2023, the Fire and Rescue Service carried out an pre-emergency exercise at the timber articled church in Hronsek (Figure 7.7), situated in the Banská Bystrica region. The church, built between 1725 and 1726, is one of only five surviving Protestant timber articled churches in Slovakia and was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2008. Its cultural significance is matched only by its extreme vulnerability, since the entire structure is composed of timber, including roof, walls,

Figure 7.6 Aerial photo showing the fire consequences [124]

ceilings, galleries, and the bell tower. In such buildings, even a small fire can develop into a catastrophe within minutes.

Figure 7.7 Scheme of Hronsek church emergency exercise with marked access roads, staging areas, and hydrant locations [125]

The aim of the exercise was to test and evaluate multiple aspects of preparedness. These included the efficiency of notification systems and fire alarms, the accuracy of the fire brigade’s response to an emergency call, the suitability of access roads and arrival zones, the availability of firefighting water supplies, and the tactical deployment of equipment and personnel. The exercise involved the Banská Bystrica district fire brigade unit, supported by several vehicles including an AHZS 1B MB Atego, a CAS 30 Iveco Trakker, and an AR 30 MB Atego, with a total of seven firefighters. The simulation assumed a fire outbreak inside the church structure, with rapid spread to the roof space. [125]

One of the key objectives was to verify whether the existing access roads (Figure 7.8) and staging areas around the church were suitable for intervention. From a formal point of view, the access routes and staging areas complied with the technical requirements of Slovak fire safety legislation, particularly Decree no. 94/2004 on Fire Safety of Buildings, which sets standards for road width, load capacity and turning radii. In practice, however, the exercise revealed serious limitations. Although two parallel reinforced access roads existed,the possibility of positioning aerial firefighting equipment was compromised by the presence of monumental linden trees, over 300 years old, which line the church grounds. These trees, themselves protected heritage, effectively prevented aerial ladders or platforms from approaching close enough to reach the roof or higher galleries of the building. [125]

Water supply was another critical element of the exercise. A functional underground hydrant was available within twenty-nine metres of the church, but its reliability depended on the municipal water company, which operates the network as part of its ventilation and drainage infrastructure. A surface hydrant located within 24 metres was found to be non-functional. The river Hron, lying at a distance of 63 metres, presented a potential natural water source, yet the ground was too soft and uneven to allow fire trucks to approach safely. Portable pumps could in theory be used to relay water from the river, but only with prior preparation of reinforced access paths. The exercise thus confirmed that while hydrant coverage formally existed, practical redundancy was limited, and water supply might prove inadequate during a real fire (Figure 7.9).

Thetimelineofresponse wasalso closely evaluated.Thefirewassimulatedat 09 00 AM, with the alarm received by the local fire station at 09.01 AM. The first unit

Figure 7.8 Photographic documentation of access roads obstructed by historic linden trees [125]

Figure 7.9 Firefighters testing hydrant functionality during the exercise [125]

departed immediately, covering a distance of sixteen kilometres. Arrival on site was logged at 09 20 AM, 19 minutes after the call. For a standard masonry building, such a response time might be considered adequate, but for an entirely timber structure, this interval is dangerously long. Based on empirical fire growth curves for timber construction, a delay of nineteen minutes can allow flames to fully engulf a roof structure and compromise the load-bearing system, making external intervention ineffective.

Once on site, the fire brigade tested the deployment of hoses, ladders, and protective measures (Figure 7.10). The exercise confirmed that the fire reporting station (“ohlasovňa požiarov”) functioned correctly in raising the alarm. The positioning of vehicles was carried out successfully, though limited by the tree cover. Hydrant water was connected within minutes, and test jets of water were directed at the church façade. Firefighters were also observed for compliance with occupational safety procedures. All safety measures were respected, but the exercise reinforced the need for specialist tactics in timber monuments, such as rapid interior penetration with multiple small-diameter hoses and the possible pre-installation of dry risers to speed water delivery into attics and galleries.

The evaluation report concluded that the exercise was successful in testing preparedness, but it also revealed several systemic weaknesses. Most importantly,

Figure 7.10 Deployment of fire brigade units and hose lines around the church [125]

access limitations due to monumental linden trees (Figure 7.11) and inadequate redundancy of water sources could significantly delay or even prevent effective firefighting in a real emergency. The report recommended the introduction of supplementary measures, including the preparation of tactical water supply plans, the identification of alternative staging areas outside the tree line, and the reinforcement of paths to the river bank for portable pump operations. It also emphasised the need for modern preventive measures, such as automatic fire detection in the roof space, lightning protection systems, and regular inspection of all electrical installations. [125]

The Hronsek exercise thus provided valuable insight into the operational reality of heritage fire safety. It showed that compliance with legal standards does not necessarily guarantee real-world readiness. Only through site-specific drills can hidden weaknesses, such as blocked access routes or unreliable hydrants, be identified and addressed. Compared to the tragedy in Banská Štiavnica, the Hronsek case demonstrates the preventive value of exercises and the necessity of developing detailed tactical plans tailored to each heritage site.

Figure 7.11 Interior of Hronsek church, illustrating the extensive use of timber and the vulnerability to fire [125]

Together, the case of Banská Štiavnica and the Hronsek pre-emergency exercise offer complementary lessons. One shows the devastating impact of fire in an urban heritage context, where interconnected roofs and outdated installations can overwhelm even a large-scale response. The other demonstrates the preventive value of exercises, where weaknesses in access and water supply can be identified and addressed before an incident occurs. Both point to the same conclusion: the protection of heritage buildings cannot rely solely on theoretical knowledge of fire resistance, but must be grounded in practical planning, preventive auditing and operational readiness.

7.3 Nationwide Audit of Cultural Monuments

Between 2013 and 2017, the Fire and Rescue Service of the Slovak Republic undertook the first systematic national audit of fire safety in cultural monuments. A total of 2,450 objects of cultural, historical, or architectural significance were inspected. The audit covered castles and manor houses, sacral architecture, urban heritage houses, museums, and technical monuments, providing the most comprehensive dataset to date on the state of fire protection in the national heritage fund. [126]

The audit revealed that the majority of Slovak monuments remain poorly protected against fire. Only 25 % were equipped with any form of fire detection or suppression system, and fewer than ten percent had automatic extinguishing systems such as sprinklers or water mist. Nineteen percent of the audited buildings had no access to firefighting water whatsoever, neither in the form of hydrants nor reservoirs. Even where hydrants were present, their maintenance and functionality varied greatly, with some being formally listed in documentation but practically unusable. [126]

The constructional composition of the heritage fund further amplified these risks. More than half of the audited monuments were built predominantly from combustible materials, most often timber roof structures combined with timber interior elements. Attic spaces were usually open and interconnected, lacking fire walls or compartmentation, which made horizontal fire spread between adjoining roofs inevitable. In urban contexts, the risk of domino fires was therefore particularly high. [126]

The organisational side of fire safety was equally troubling. Many monuments had incomplete or outdated fire safety documentation, with some objects lacking it entirely. Owners andcustodians were rarely trained in fire protection, and staff often had little awareness of evacuation or emergency procedures. Reconstruction works frequently proceeded without proper fire safety planning, and hot works were carried out without sufficient preventive measures. Electrical installations were identified as

one of the most critical weak points. In many cases, wiring dated from the midtwentieth century, often aluminium, showing signs of degradation and representing a high probability of ignition. [126]

Taken together, the audit painted a picture of systemic vulnerability. The Banská Štiavnica fire of 2023 was therefore not an isolated accident but an event consistent with the weaknesses documented years earlier. Without systemic change, similar incidents in other towns and villages are not only possible but likely.

7.4 Legislative and Institutional Measures

The Slovak legal framework for cultural heritage and fire protectionhas developed along two separate trajectories. Act no. 49/2002 Coll. [127] governs the protection of the cultural heritage fund, with emphasis on authenticity, reversibility, and conservation principles. Act no. 314/2001 Coll. regulates fire protection, focusing on prevention, preparedness, and operational response. While both frameworks are important, their parallel existence has often resulted in fragmentation. Fire protection authorities may lack the competence to intervene in certain conservation decisions, while heritage authorities may approve works without sufficient attention to fire risk [128]

The tragedy in Banská Štiavnica reignited debate on the adequacy of this framework. Analyses by the Presidium of the Fire and Rescue Service and several expert groups have highlighted that fire protection authorities must be more directly involved in heritage projects. At present, maintenance works on monuments often escape scrutiny because they are categorised as routine or minor. In practice, however, such works can involve replacement of roof coverings, rewiring, or structural alterations in attics, all of which directly affect fire safety. Legislative reform should therefore require fire authority approval for all maintenance or reconstruction works on national cultural monuments, irrespective of scale. [128]

Another identified gap concerns the role of owners and custodians. Many monuments are privately owned, yet there is no legal requirement for owners to undergo training in fire safety. This absence of basic competence is problematic, as owners are the first line of defence in ensuring that preventive measures, documentation, and inspections are carried out. Proposed reforms include mandatory training programmes for owners and operators of heritage buildings, designed to raise awareness and establish clear responsibilities. [128]

Equally urgent is the need for periodic inspections of technical systems. Electrical installations, gas systems, and lightning protection devices must be subject to regular checks, since outdated or malfunctioning systems have been repeatedly identified as causes of fires. The law should mandate such inspections for monuments, with enforcement mechanisms that ensure compliance. [128]

Finally, legislative reforms should establish minimum technical standards for heritage fire safety. These would not impose uniform solutions but rather define baseline requirements such as the presence of a hydrant within a defined distance, access routes suitable for fire vehicles, and fire detection systems in attics. Such standards would allow conservation authorities to retain flexibility in prescribing reversible solutions while ensuring that monuments are not left unprotected. [128]

7.5 Technical Fire Protection Solutions

The challenge of applying modern fire protection technologies in heritage buildings lies in balancing safety with authenticity. Conservationists are rightly concerned about intrusive systems that may alter historic interiors, while fire protection specialists stress the need for effective intervention. The way forward is therefore to adopt technologies that are both effective and minimally invasive.

Water mist systemshave emergedasparticularly suitablefor heritageapplications. They require only small amounts of water, thus limiting damage to timber structures, plaster surfaces, and collections. Their nozzles can be installed discretely, often hidden within architectural features, making them nearly invisible to visitors (Figure 7.12) In trials conducted in Central Europe, water mist has been shown to suppress fire effectively in roof spaces, preventing flashover and buying crucial time for firefighters. [129]

Detection is equally important. Aspirating smoke detectors (Figure 7.13), which draw air samples through a network of pipes into a central detection unit, offer

Figure 7.12 Discreet water mist nozzle installation in a historic

extremely high sensitivity. They are particularly suitable for dusty environments such as attics, where conventional smoke detectors often fail due to false alarms or clogging. [129]

By detecting smouldering combustion long before open flames develop, aspirating systems allow for rapid intervention that can prevent catastrophic losses.

Figure 7.13 Aspirating smoke detection system adapted for attic spaces in heritage buildings [129]

Reversible compartmentation represents another important innovation. Fire curtains that descend automatically, or partitions that can be installed without permanently altering structures, can significantly limit the spread of fire. In historical districts, thesesolutionscanbeinstalledinroof spacesor corridors,creating temporary fire breaks. [129]

The principle underlying these solutions is flexibility. No single technology is suitable for all monuments, but by combining detection, suppression, and compartmentation in tailored strategies, heritage can be safeguarded without compromising authenticity.

7.6 Heritage in Broader Crisis Situations

While fire is a constant risk, cultural heritage is also vulnerable to other crises, including floods, earthquakes, wars, and deliberate acts of destruction. The destruction of Palmyra in Syria, the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan, and numerous churches and museums in Ukraine (Figure 7.14) illustrate how quickly heritage can be erased. In this context, fire protection must be understood as part of a broader framework of risk management. [130]

In Slovakia, this means integrating heritage fire safety into national crisis management strategies. Fire brigades, municipalities, conservation authorities, and owners must collaborate not only on fire prevention but also on wider emergency planning. Cultural heritage should be recognised as a priority asset in disaster preparedness, alongside infrastructure and human safety. This integration ensures that monuments receive adequate protection during crises of all types.

7.7 Recommendations

The lessons drawn from real incidents, national audits, legislative analyses, and available technological solutions converge in a series of recommendations that must form the backbone of future heritage fire safety policy in Slovakia. These recommendations are not abstract suggestions but practical imperatives, grounded in the evidence of repeated monument losses and in the systemic deficiencies identified by the Fire and Rescue Service.

The first and most urgent recommendation is the systematic installation of fire detection systems in the most vulnerable spaces of monuments, particularly in attics and roof truss structures. Analyses of past fires, from Krásna Hôrka in 2012 to Banská Štiavnica in 2023, confirm that ignition most often begins in concealed attic areas, where electrical installations, accumulated dust, and dry timber create highly

Figure 7.14 Comparative illustration of cultural heritage loss: (a) Palmira (Sýria) and wartime destruction in Ukraine (b) [130]

combustible conditions. The audit of monuments carried out between 2013 and 2017 [126] showed that more than half of Slovak monuments lacked any detection at all, a deficiency that effectively ensures delayed alarm and rapid fire spread. Detection must therefore be regarded as the cornerstone of preventive protection. Modern aspirating systems, highlighted in [129], offer a minimally invasive solution capable of identifying smouldering combustion long before open flames develop. Their discreet installation makes them suitable even for sensitive heritage interiors.

The second recommendation concerns the redundancy of water supplies for firefighting. Case studies repeatedly demonstrate that the absence of reliable and immediately available water has catastrophic consequences. During the Banská Štiavnica fire, hydrant capacity was quickly exhausted, and brigades were forced to improvise alternative supplies, losing precious time. The Hronsek exercise revealed that while one hydrant was functional, a second was out of service and access to the river was blocked by unsuitable terrain. These experiences confirm the audit’s finding that nearly one-fifth of Slovak monuments have no firefighting water at all. Redundancy must therefore be institutionalised. Every monument of national significance should have at least two independent sources of water within operational range, whether hydrants, reservoirs, or reinforced access paths to natural sources.

Thethirdrecommendationrelatesto the necessity of regular emergency exercises The exercise at Hronsek in 2023 revealed weaknesses in access and hydrant functionality that were invisible in formal documentation. It showed that compliance with regulations does not equal real preparedness, and that only drills can expose operational limitations in staging, access, and deployment. The lesson is clear: monuments must be subject to periodic verification exercises, not as symbolic gestures but as systematic tools for preparedness. Such exercises should involve not only fire brigades but also owners, municipal authorities, and conservation staff, ensuring that all stakeholders are familiar with procedures and responsibilities.

The fourth recommendation addresses the responsibility of owners and custodians In Bebej [128], there is emphasised that owners of monuments cannot remain passive actors but must take on defined obligations in fire protection. Compulsory training programmes should be instituted, tailored to the specific risks of heritage buildings, covering preventive inspections, evacuation procedures, and basic firefighting measures. Training would not only raise awareness but also build a culture of shared responsibility, reducing the current dependence on under-resourced state inspections.

A fifth recommendation is the targeted adoption of modern technologies that balance effectiveness with conservation values. Water mist systems, as documented in international examples presented in Siemiątkowski [129], demonstrate that

heritage-compatible solutions exist. Their ability to suppress fire with minimal water damage makes them suitable for monuments where collections, timber interiors, or fragile plasterwork must be preserved. In combination with aspirating detection, such systems offer a credible technological path forward. Reversible compartmentation, although not yet widely applied in Slovakia, deserves pilot projects in attics and roof spaces. Fire curtains or demountable barriers, hidden until activation, could significantly slow fire spread without permanent intervention into historical structures. These technologies must be evaluated not as optional extras but as central elements of twenty-first-century monument protection.

The sixth recommendation concerns legislative reform. The current fragmentation between Act no. 49/2002 Coll. on cultural heritage and Act no. 314/2001 Coll. on fire protectionleavescriticalgaps.The analysis providedinBebej [128]clearly showedthat fire authorities often lack a strong role in conservation decision-making. Reform must therefore integrate the two frameworks. Fire safety approval should be mandatory for all maintenance or reconstruction works on monuments. Minimum technical standards must be established, ensuring at least baseline safety in detection, water supply, and access. Owners must be legally bound to comply, and fireauthorities must be empowered to enforce. Only by treating fire protection and conservation as complementary rather than competing priorities can Slovakia close the gaps that contributed to recent tragedies.

Finally, the recommendations extend beyond fire to the broader domain of crisis management. Monuments are exposed not only to fire but also to floods, storms, and armed conflict. Integrating heritage into national crisis preparedness plans ensures that in times of disruption, cultural assets are recognised as priorities alongside human safety and critical infrastructure. Fire safety measures must therefore be embedded in a culture of resilience that addresses multiple risks.

Taken together, these recommendations outline a coherent path forward. They are not theoretical aspirations but responses directly drawn from incidents, audits, and international experience. Their implementation would significantly reduce the vulnerability of Slovak monuments, ensuring that cultural heritage is safeguarded not only by scientific knowledge but by practical systems of prevention, preparedness, and governance.

7.8 Conclusions

The practical dimension of heritage fire safety in Slovakia can no longer be regarded as a peripheral concern. The historical record of monument fires, the devastating losses in Banská Štiavnica in 2023, the operational lessons of the Hronsek exercise, and the findings of nationwide audits all point toward the same

conclusion: Slovak cultural heritage is systematically exposed to fire risks that exceed the existing capacity for prevention and response.

The historical survey of fires demonstrates that such incidents are neither rare nor exceptional. From Krásna Hôrka Castle and Kunerad manor to timber churches and urban chapels, the recurrence of destructive fires reveals structural weaknesses, outdated installations, and the absence of effective detection and compartmentation. Each event has left behind not only financial losses but also a diminished cultural landscape, as authenticity once destroyed cannot be recreated.

The Banská Štiavnica fire provided the most dramatic evidence in recent memory of the cumulative effect of these weaknesses. Electrical faults in neglected attic spaces, absent inspections, and inadequate compartmentation combined with operational difficulties in access and water supply to overwhelm even a large-scale intervention by the Fire and Rescue Service. Seven protected buildings were lost in a single morning, and with them, irreplaceable layers of urban heritage. The Hronsek exercise, in contrast, did not involve real flames, but it revealed another dimension of vulnerability: the gap between legal compliance and practical readiness. Formally adequate access routes were rendered useless by monumental linden trees, hydrants were either non-functional or unreliable, and natural water sources could not be accessed due to unsuitable terrain. In this case, the absence of fire did not conceal the reality that, had one occurred, the building could scarcely have been saved.

The nationwide audit confirmed that these vulnerabilities are not limited to individual cases. Its data show that hundreds of monuments lack basic detection, nearly one-fifth have no accessible water supply, and more than half are built predominantly from combustible materials without effective compartmentation. Organisational shortcomings are equally grave, with missing documentation, untrained owners, and unsupervised hot works adding layers of risk. These are not isolated anomalies but systemic patterns.

The legislative and institutional analysis further reveals the roots of these systemic risks. The separation of conservation law from fire safety law creates an imbalance in which heritage authorities dominate decision-making while fire protection authorities are often reduced to secondary roles. Maintenance works, which may involve highly risky interventions in attics and roofs, frequently proceed without fire safety review. Owners remain under no obligation to undergo training or maintain their technical systems at defined intervals. The result is a heritage protection framework that preserves authenticity in form but leaves monuments dangerously exposed in function.

Technological innovations offer a partial remedy. Water mist systems and aspirating smoke detection provide minimally invasive yet effective solutions,

suitable even for sensitive interiors. Reversible compartmentation can slow the spread of fire without permanent alteration. Yet these technologies remain underutilised in Slovakia, largely due to the absence of legislative requirements, financial incentives, and pilot projects demonstrating feasibility. Without policy integration, technology remains a latent rather than an active safeguard.

The recommendations presented in this chapter propose a path toward change. Detection in attics, redundant water supplies, regular emergency exercises, compulsory training for owners, adoption of heritage-compatible technologies, and integrated legislative reform together form a coherent system. Implemented in isolation, none of these measures would suffice; taken together, they constitute the basis for a resilient fire safety framework for monuments. The evidence of recent decades shows that without such a framework, destructive fires will recur, each time erasing another irreplaceable piece of the national heritage.

Effective protection of Slovak monuments requires an integrated model uniting research, governance, and practice. The protection of historical buildings in Slovakia cannot rely solely on the scientific knowledge of material behaviour, nor can it rest on the conservationist principle of non-intervention. It must be built on an integrated model that unites research, practice, governance, and technology. Scientific studies of charring, pyrolysis, and resistance inform the technical potential of materials, but these insights must be translated into preventive audits, enforceable standards, and operational readiness. Conservation values must be preserved, but not at the cost of leaving monuments undefended against fire.

Cultural monuments are more than architectural artefacts; they embody the collective identity, memory, and continuity of society. Their destruction by fire represents an irretrievable loss that weakens cultural heritage for future generations. The events of Banská Štiavnica, the lessons of Hronsek, and the evidence of national audits leave no doubt: action is not optional but essential. If Slovakia is to safeguard its heritage, fire safety must become a central, integrated component of conservation policy, treated not as an obstacle but as a condition of authenticity itself.

8. EXPERIMENT

The preservation of historical timber buildings represents both a cultural imperative and a technical challenge, particularly when it comes to ensuring fire safety. Timber architecture, although widespread and revered for its ecological and aesthetic values, remains vulnerable to combustion. Over centuries, nations such as Slovakia and China developed unique timber construction traditions that remain standing today as part of our shared global heritage. However, these structures, often composed of naturally aged wood, are increasingly exposed to fire risks due to climate changes, urban encroachment, and increased tourist activity.

A central consideration in understanding and predicting the fire performance of wood is its moisture content. Moisture significantly influences the thermal decomposition of wood by affecting ignition delay, pyrolysis rate, and the insulation characteristics of the resulting charred layer. Moisture acts as a heat sink during the initial stages of fire exposure, absorbing thermal energy through vaporization and thereby delaying the onset of pyrolysis. This delay reduces the availability of combustible volatiles, moderating the intensity and progression of the fire.

Furthermore, higher moisture content is correlated with the formation of a more continuous and stable char layer. The char layer functions as a thermal barrier that insulates the underlying wood from further degradation. In aged timber, such as that found in historical buildings, the interaction between wood moisture content and charring is even more complex due to long-term changes in wood density, resin composition, and porosity. These factors modulate the moisture retention capacity and heat transfer properties of the wood, potentially enhancing or diminishing its fire resistance depending on its condition.

With the growing emphasis on sustainability and the revival of timber as a modern building material, there is a pressing need to reconcile its use with contemporary fire protection principles. While engineered timber products like CLT have made strides in improving fire performance, traditional solid timber elements, especially those within heritage buildings, have not been extensively studied under modern scientific conditions. One crucial but underexplored variable in this context is moisture content, which significantly affects pyrolysis onset, char development, and the thermal insulating performance of wood under fire.

This chapter investigates the charring behaviour of aged European larch (Larix decidua L.) subjected to thermal loading compared to fresh European larch. What distinguishes this study is its experimental use of beams sourced from a more than 100-year-old historical Slovak dwelling. Such naturally aged material carries the complex legacies of time, chemical degradation, resin migration, microstructural

densification, and moisture buffering characteristics, all of which influence its response to fire. This investigation contributes not only to fire material science but also offers direct implications for fire risk management in historical buildings

The chapter is structured to provide a comprehensive understanding of the experimental process and analytical methodologies, including fire test design, temperature monitoring and finite element modelling. Ultimately, this work aims to enhance the empirical and predictive foundations for assessing and mitigating fire hazards in timber cultural heritage structures.

8.1 Objectives and Scope

The fire safety of historical timber structures has presented a complex challenge, requiring integration of insights from material science, conservation principles, fire protection engineering, and digital innovation. This experimental research aimed to investigate the fire-induced transformation of aged European larch wood under controlled thermal stress, focusing on the formation and growth of charred and pyrolysis layers and the factors influencing their development, particularly moisture content and exposure conditions. The intention was not only to deepen the understanding of thermal degradation mechanisms in heritage wood but also to proposeareliable,evidence-basedframeworkfor implementing performance-based fire safety interventions in culturally significant timber buildings.

The research produced a high-resolution dataset that documented temporal temperature gradients, and spatial evolution of charring in larch beams. Temperature gradients were analysed to understand the thermal conductivity and insulation behaviour of wood as pyrolysis progressed. These analyses were then compared with historical data and fresh timber to assess the unique fire behaviour of naturally aged wood. Age-induced factors such as changes in cell wall porosity, extractive crystallization, lignin degradation, and density shifts were considered in interpreting the results.

In addition, the study sought to empirically determine charring rates for aged and fresh European larch under different moisture conditions. This effort contributed to validating assumptions made in Eurocode 5 and informed broader performancebased design methods. Moisture content was identified as a critical determinant in fire behaviour. Increased wood moisture delayed ignition and reduced flame spread, resulting in reduced char formation and increased structural preservation during fire exposure. The progression of pyrolysis and charring was found to be significantly slower in beams with higher moisture content, which retained integrity longer and produced shallower char depths. These findings offered new perspectives on the passive fire resistance properties of historical timber conditioned by natural humidity and age.

To investigate the charring rates for aged and fresh European larch under different moisture conditions a finite element model (FEM) was created and validated to simulate thermal degradation in larch beams under radiant heat. The model was based on input parameters drawn directly from the physical testing and calibrated with real-time thermocouple data, achieving over 93% accuracy. The validated model enabled extrapolation to other environmental and structural conditions, providing a versatile tool for conservation fire planning.

Moreover, the study’s findings supported the development of digital heritage tools, including the potential integration of FEM output into digital twins, BIM-based fire risk models, and GIS zoning tools. These tools could assist fire prevention strategies, emergency evacuation planning, and post-fire damage assessments. Ultimately, the objective was to establish a scalable experimental protocol and methodological framework that could inform boththe restoration and the fire-safe retrofitting of timber heritage structures globally.

In essence, this chapter provided a detailed experimental approach while also building a foundational strategy for integrating laboratory results into practical, conservation-driven fire safety planning. It combined physical experimentation, digital diagnostics, and simulation validation to propose an advanced, multidisciplinary method for protecting timber heritage in the context of modern fire risks.

8.2 Fire Testing: Setup and Instrumentation

As mentioned above, to investigate the fire behaviour of aged and “fresh” larch beams under controlled heat exposure, a series of medium-scale radiant panel tests were conducted. The setup was designed to mimic real-world fire scenarios encountered in heritage buildings, particularly slow-developing fires with extended heating durations localized to single structural surfaces. The “fresh” larch timber was harvested and logged in the Technical University in Zvolen Forest Enterprise territory, Central Slovakia during the winter 2020.

The radiant heat source was a propane-butane-fuelled ceramic panel capable of delivering stable, reproducible thermal radiation across a rectangular exposure area measuring 480 mm × 280 mm (Figure 8.1). The emitted energy was produced by the burning propane–butane gas with a constant flow of 15 m3∙h−1 throughout the 60-minute exposure period. Prior to each test, the panel output was verified using a calibration thermocouple array to ensure uniformity across the radiating surface.

Figure 8.1 Detail of the radiation panel during the fire test

Timber beam specimens were mounted horizontally on a pair of aerated concrete supports inside a test chamber with thermally reflective surfaces to minimize heat loss. The front face of each beam was positioned at a distance of 130 mm from the panel, ensuring a consistent heat flux and maximizing repeatability. Only one face was exposed to radiation, enforcing a unidirectional heat flow condition consistent with surface ignition in enclosed rooms. The laboratory environment was maintained at 21 ± 1 °C with relative humidity stabilized below 55%, minimizing ambient moisture influence.

The dimensions of the timber beam’s samples were as follows: length of 1000 mm along with a height and width of 190 mm ± 5 mm for fresh larch and 190 ± 15 mm for aged larch. The aged larch was left in its original cross section as it was dismantled from the historical Slovak dwelling. The surface of the samples was untreated. Each test beam was instrumented with 10 Type K (NiCr-Ni) thermocouples inserted orthogonally into predrilled holes at depths of 10 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm, 60 mm, and 80 mm from the exposed surface (Figure 8.2). These thermocouples recorded internal temperatures every 10seconds, using an AHLBORN ALMEMO 2290-8710 data logger. All boreholes were sealed with fire-resistant putty to prevent convective interference and lateral heat loss.

Figure 8.2 Distance of the test sample from the radiation panel and position of thermocouples

Simultaneously, external monitoring was conducted via a FLUKE RSE600 thermal imaging camera equipped with a 640 × 480-pixel sensor and thermal sensitivity below 0.05 °C. The camera was positioned to continuously record the exposed surface of the beam, capturing both visible and infrared spectra at 10-minute intervals. Thermal images were georeferenced using in-frame calibration targets to enable later image analysis (Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3 The output from the thermal imaging camera

Following thermal exposure, each beam was allowed to cool under ambient laboratory conditions for a minimum of 12 hours to prevent post-combustion oxidation.

8.3 Results: Temperature and Charring Comparison

The results of the medium-scale radiant panel tests were processed into graphs and compared with each other. First, the records from the fresh larch were processed and graphs of the temperature course at individual depths were created. Six measurements were processed with, for which a curve showing the average values was created. Graphs showing the standard deviation of individual measurements were also created. Subsequently, the results for the aged larch were processed in the same way.

The comparison of temperature curves was based on the comparison of average temperatures of fresh and aged larch at individual depths. The curves of average values were compared with each other using the coefficient of determination R2 The charring rate, density and initial moisture content of the wood at the beginning of the test were also compared with each other.

8.3.1 Results: “Fresh” Larch Wood under Thermal Loading

The results of medium-scale radiant panel tests on fresh larch beams are present on Figure 8.4. The charring temperature defined by Eurocode 5 (300 °C) was reached during the entire test period only at depths of 1 and 2 cm at times 780 and 1940 s. Times when the phase change of water and its evaporation from the wood begins (100 °C) were reached at depths of 1, 2 and 4 cm at 220, 660 and 2260 s.

1b)2cm 2a)2cm 2b)2cm

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Figure 8.4 Temperature curves from medium-scale radiant panel tests of fresh larch: a) 1cm depth; b) 2cm depth; c) 4cm depth; d) 6cm depth; e) 8cm depth; f) Comparison of average temperature curves

The standard deviation graphs (Figure 8.5) showed a relatively low dispersion of the measured data. The maximum standard deviation from all measurements and depths was found at a depth of 1 cm and had a value of 53.3 °C, which represented 11.3 % of the average value. The average values of the standard deviations decreased with increasing depth for 1 cm – 5.3 %, 2 cm – 3.9 %, 4 cm – 0.8 %, 6 cm – 0.6 % and for 8 cm – 0.7 %.

Figure 8.5 Standard deviation of average temperature curves from medium-scale radiant panel tests of fresh larch

From the temperature course it is possible to determine the average charring rate of “fresh” larch wood. At a depth of 0 to 1 cm the rate reached 0.79 mm·min-1

and at a depth of 1 to 2 cm 0.52 mm·min-1 which is a decrease of 34.5 %. It is also possible to derive the average phase change line movement rate at 100 °C. At a depth of 0 to 1 cm the rate reached 3.00 mm·min-1, at a depth of 1 to 2 cm 1.36 mm·min-1 and at a depth of 2 to 4 cm 0.76 mm·min-1. The rate thus decreases from the initial maximum value by 54.5 % and subsequently by another 44.3 %.

8.3.2 Results: Aged Larch Wood under Thermal Loading

The results of medium-scale radiant panel tests on aged larch are present on Figure 8.6. The charring temperature defined by Eurocode 5 (300 °C) was reached during the entire test period only at depths of 1 and 2 cm at times 870 and 1930 s. Times when the phase change of water and its evaporation from the wood begins (100 °C) were reached at depths of 1, 2 and 4 cm at times 350, 1030 and 2460 s.

1a)2cm 1b)2cm 2a)2cm 2b)2cm 3a)2cm 3b)2cm 2cm avg

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1a)6cm 1b)6cm 2a)6cm 2b)6cm 3a)6cm 3b)6cm 6cm avg

e) f)

Figure 8 6 Temperature curves from medium-scale radiant panel tests of aged larch: a) 1cm depth; b) 2cm depth; c) 4cm depth; d) 6cm depth; e) 8cm depth; f) Comparison of average temperature curves.

The standard deviation graphs (Figure 8.7) showed an increased dispersion of the measured data with increasing time. The maximum standard deviation from all measurements and depths was found at a depth of 4 cm and had a value of 145.0 °C, which represented 28.9 % of the average value. The average values of the standard deviations were for 1 cm – 6.2 %, 2 cm – 10.4 %, 4 cm – 7.5 %, 6 cm – 1.9 % and for 8 cm – 0.3 %.

Figure 8.7 Standard deviation of average temperature curves from medium-scale radiant panel tests of aged larch

From the temperature course it is possible to determine the average charring rate of larch. At a depth of 0 to 1 cm the rate reached 0.69 mm min-1 and at a depth of 1 to

2 cm 0.57 mm·min-1 which is a decrease of 17.9 %. It is also possible to derive the average phase change line movement rate at 100 °C. At a depth of 0 to 1 cm the rate reached 1.71 mm·min-1, at a depth of 1 to 2 cm 0.89 mm·min-1 and at a depth of 2 to 4 cm 0.84 mm·min-1. The rate thus decreases from the initial maximum value by 48.5 % and subsequently by another 4.9 %.

8.3.3 Results: Comparison of Aged and “Fresh” Larch Beams from Medium-scale Radiant Panel Tests

The initial density of fresh larch samples at 20 °C with 0% moisture content were determined to be 489.9 kg·m−3 by gravimetric method. The moisture content was measured at 10 % with a deviation of 0.1%. The initial density of aged larch samples at 20 °C with 0 % moisture content were determined to be 494.7 kg·m−3 by gravimetric method. The moisture content was set and measured at 9.7 % with a deviation of 0.3%.

A comparison of the temperature curves of fresh and aged wood showed the similarity of the average temperature curves (Figure 8.8), with aged wood reaching lower temperatures in the depth during the test, except at a depth of 4 cm, where one sample of old wood cracked during the test due to the action of radiant heat, which caused a faster increase in temperature.

Figure 8.8 Comparison of average temperature curves from medium-scale radiant panel tests of fresh and aged larch: a) Temperature; b) Deviation.

The degree of similarity of individual temperature curves between fresh and aged larch was expressed using the coefficient of determination R2, which was 0.94 at a depth of 1 cm, 0.96 at 2 cm, 0.76 at 4 cm, 0.94 at 6 cm and 0.84 at 8 cm (Figure 8.9). The corresponding values are best fit by a 4th order polynomial curve with R2 of 0.99:

Figure 8.9 R2 curves as the result of temperature curves comparison from medium-scale radiant panel tests of fresh and aged larch

A comparison of the charring rate and the phase change line movement rate showed the following. The charring rate and the phase change line movement rate decrease in both cases (Figure 8.10). It is possible to construct regression curves for the indicated rates, but due to the small number of data, R2 is relatively low. The decreasing curves do not confirm the fact stated in Eurocode 5, which states that the charring rate is constant.

8.10 Charring rate and phase change line movement rate comparison of fresh and aged larch

The results showed that aged wood does not show any signs of inferior properties in terms of its ability to withstand the effects of a radiant heat source. Although old wood had a higher density and lower moisture content during thetests, the differences are very small and do not have a significant impact on the results of the comparison of wood species. The condition of individual wood

did not cause significant

Figure

differences either. While fresh wood was compact without cracks, aged wood had several significant cracks due to its use in construction (Figure 8.11). However, they did not have a significant impact on the results of the experiments.

Figure 8.11 Aged larch afther medium-scale radiant panel tests, the samples had several cracs before tests.

8.4 Finite Element Modelling

To study the effect of moisture content on the temperature profile and the charring rate in larch wood, the Ansys Mechanical 2024 R2 software (ANSYS, Inc., Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.) was used. Transient Thermal Analysis was used because it allows monitoring the temperature profile at any point in the studied model loaded with a heat source. The model scenario was identical to medium-scale radiant panel tests of fresh and aged larch.

The 3D model was created in the “SpaceClaim” environment (ANSYS, Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA Pennsylvania, U.S.) and was simplify to simple cube with dimension of 100 mm and holes for thermocouples without supporting structures and the environmental condition. Usually, the timber beam is heated evenly to almost one side of it and heat transfer perpendicular to the fibres is dominant, the difference in results when using isotropic thermal conductivity or orthotropic thermal conductivity is negligible. Using isotropic thermal conductivity simplifies and speeds up the calculations.

“Patch Conforming Method” was applied to create a timber beams and radiation panel mesh. The tetrahedral mesh with element size 2.5 mm was created for timber beams, while the hexahedral mesh with element size 2.5 mm was created for the radiation panel (Figure 8.12). In the holes areas “Inflation” function was used to create smoother mesh. The total number of elements and nodes for finite element model (FEM) were generated approximately to 584,000 respectively 876,000.

The connection region in the model was created manually, representing the thermal connection between the radiation panel and the thermally loaded surface of the timber beam. The initial temperature was set to 24.0 °C based on the results of the medium-scale radiant panel tests provided. The simulation duration was set to 3600 s. The duration of a sub-step was set to 30 s and the maximum number of iterations was 1000. Boundary conditions included a fixed surface heat flux corresponding to the radiant panel output (derived from empirical surface temperature profiles) and natural convection on the non-heated faces. The surface exposed to radiant heat was assigned an initial boundary flux consistent with an average radiant exposure of approximately 25 kW·m−2, corroborated by experimental IR data.

The temperatures form the simulations were recorded by “Average Temperature” function in predefined positions in holes as used in the real medium-scale radiant panel tests (Figure 8.13). Temperature outputs were processed into the tabular form.

Figure 8.12 Finite element model

Figure 8.13 Measuring of the temperature in the test sample

The key criterion for defining the charred region was the 300 °C isotherm, widely accepted in fire safety engineering as the demarcation point between pyrolysis and intact material. The model tracked the evolution of this isotherm over the 60minute exposure period and allowed for direct comparison with experimental char depths measured. The validation of the prepared FEM was provided based on medium-scale radiant panel tests of fresh larch because of better availability of input data in the field of physical characteristics of wood. The starting point for FEM validation was a comparison of results from medium-scale radiant panel tests and simulations. The temperature profiles recorded in different depths were compared when validating the FEM. The key task was to achieve the highest possible accuracy of the simulation.

8.4.1. The Effect of Moisture Content of Wood on the Formation of a Charred Layer of Wood

For investigating the effect of moisture content of wood on the wood charred layer parameters, the ANSYS software and validated FEM were used. A total of 6 transient thermal analysis of heat transfer in wood thermally loaded were provided. They were used to determine the area of the charred layer (temperature reached minimum 300 °C during the fire test) and the area of wood degradation, i.e., pyrolysis zone, (temperature was in the range of 100–300 °C during the fire test). In each analysis, the moisture content of the wood varied (10, 13, 15, 20, 25, 30%). The wood moisture content parameter was implemented in the ANSYS simulation by changing the wood density and enthalpy corresponding with applied wood moisture content (Figure 8.14). The initial density of the wood at the specified moisture content was as follows:

Figure 8.14 The properties for different moisture content in wood: (a) Density; (b) Enthalpy.

In the calculation of wood enthalpy, the values of wood specific heat capacity according to Eurocode 5 were involved, see Figure 8.15

(a) (b)

Figure 8.15 The properties of European larch: (a) Enthalpy and specific heat capacity, and (b) Thermal conductivity and density.

The enthalpy plot was created using equations (Eqs. 8.2 through 8.4).

where HT0 represents the starting point of the volume enthalpy curve and is equal to 0, cdw is thermal capacity of a dry wood according to Eurocode 5, ρdw is density of the dry wood, cw is thermal capacity of water (4.22 kJ·kg-1·K-1), ρw is density of water and w is moisture content of the wet wood. Equation 2 represents the calculation of the enthalpy of dry wood and the water content of the wood at temperature T1. Equation 3 represents the calculation of enthalpy, when the state of water changes up to the temperature T2. In this equation, Hevap is enthalpy of evaporation (2257 kJ·kg1). Equation 4 represents the calculation of the enthalpy of dry wood at temperature T3.

8.4.2

Validation Results

After the end of the simulations with different moisture of wood, the resulting values obtained from the simulations with 10 % moisture content were compared with medium-scale radiant panel tests of fresh larch (Figure 8.16). The accuracy of the simulations was determined using the coefficient of determination.

S1-3(4cm)

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Figure 8.16 A comparison of temperature profiles real test and simulation: (a) 1 cm depth; (b) 2 cm depth; (c) 4 cm depth; (d) 6 cm depth; (e) 8 cm depth; (f) Comparison of average temperature profiles.

Based on the comparison of the average temperature from medium-scale radiant panel tests of fresh larch and the simulation coefficient of determination R2 of FEM is 93.4% with an average deviation of 1.7%. After verifying the correctness of the prepared FEM at a moisture content of 10%, simulations were performed for other moisture contents. From the results of the simulations (Figure 8.17) we can determine the temperature profiles, charring rate and the phase change line movement rate for each wood moisture content.

a)

b)

Figure 8.17 Results from the simulations: (a) Temperature profile; (b) Wood without charr layer

The results of simulations with different moisture contents of larch wood showed an overall decrease of temperatures at individual depths (Figure 8.18), which is caused by the fact that the heat absorbed by the wood is consumed for heating and phase change of the water contained in the wood. However, with increasing amount of water, the thermal conductivity of the wood also changes up to 100°C. This affects the rate of increase in the temperature of the wood until the phase change temperature of water is reached. Therefore, it can be seen on the temperature curve at a depth of 1 cm that up to a temperature of 100°C, the temperature of the wood increases faster with increasing moisture content.

Despite the slower temperature increase in wood with time, the charring rate and phase change line movement rate do not decrease but rather oscillate (Figure 8.19). The reason is that the water contained in wood affects several factors, such as thermal conductivity, specific heat, enthalpy and density. A better view of the influence of water contained in wood is through the charring area of wood using FEM.

Figure 8.18 The results of simulations with different moisture contents of larch wood

Fresh wood charring rate real test

Fresh wood phase change line movement rate real test

Fresh wood charring rate 10% moist.cont,

Fresh wood phase change line movement rate 10% moist.cont,

Fresh wood charring rate 13% moist.cont,

Fresh wood phase change line movement rate 13% moist.cont,

Fresh wood charring rate 15% moist.cont,

Fresh wood phase change line movement rate 15% moist.cont,

Fresh wood charring rate 20% moist.cont,

Fresh wood phase change line movement rate 20% moist.cont,

Fresh wood charring rate 25% moist.cont,

Fresh wood phase change line movement rate 25% moist.cont,

Fresh wood charring rate 30% moist.cont,

Fresh wood phase change line movement rate 30% moist.cont,

Figure 8.19 Charring rate and phase change line movement rate at dimfferent moisture content obtained from simulations

For timber beams with a moisture content of 10 %, the area of the charred layer was of 5846 mm2 and the area of degraded wood was 3172 mm2. At a moisture content of 13 %, the area of the charred layer was 5629 mm2 and the area of degraded wood was 2997 mm2. At a moisture content of 15 %, the area of the charred layer was of 5472 mm2 and the area of degraded wood was of 2935 mm2. At a moisture content of 20 %, the area of the charred layer was of 5329 mm2 and the area of degraded wood was 2789 mm2. At a moisture content of 25 %, the area of the charred layer was 5094 mm2 and the area of degraded wood was of 2670 mm2. At a moisture content of 30 %, the area of the charred layer was 4715 mm2 and the area of degraded wood was of 2295 mm2. It is clear from the results that the area of the charred layer of wood and degraded wood decreases exponentially with increasing moisture content (Figure 8.20). The shape of the charred layer and the layer of degraded woodare the same even when changing moisture content.

Figure 8.20 The degradation of wood vs. moisture content.

The results show that with an increase in wood moisture content from 10% to 30%, the area of the charred layer decreased by 19.34%. The area of degraded wood decreased by 27.64%.

8.5 Discussion: Mechanisms and Implications

The comprehensive results of this study offer valuable insights into the fundamental mechanisms governing the fire response of aged timber structures, particularly those constructed from European larch. The central role of moisture content as both a thermal moderator and a structural protector is confirmed across experimental, imaging, and simulation data. These mechanisms have broader implications for the assessment, retrofitting, and long-term conservation of heritage buildings.

Moisture content in wood directly affects its thermal inertia. In high-moisture samples, much of the initial heat input is diverted toward vaporizing bound water within the cell walls and lumens, thereby delaying the onset of pyrolysis and charring. This vaporization process serves as a thermal buffer, stabilizing surface temperatures and mitigating rapid mass loss. The experimental findings clearly support this mechanism: thermocouples embedded near the exposed surfaces of high-moisture specimens recorded significantly delayed temperature rises compared to their lowmoisture counterparts. This trend aligns with the simulated isotherm progression in the FEM analysis, further validating the physical basis of this buffering effect.

Additionally, moisture reduces the permeability of wood to oxygen due to water vapor saturation, which in turn suppresses oxidative reactions that accelerate combustion. This dual effect, thermal delay and oxygen inhibition, explains why char

layers in high-moisture samples were not only thinner but also more uniform and less fragmented The continuous nature of these char layers enhances their thermal insulation properties, providing better protection for the underlying wood.

In contrast, low-moisture samples displayed irregular and deeper char zones with pronounced asymmetry and internal cracking. This phenomenon can be attributed to rapid temperature escalation leading to localized overstressing, especially around knots and resin pockets.

The study also highlights the anisotropic nature of charring in wood. Longitudinal heat conduction along the grain, particularly in dry samples, allowed thermal degradation to propagate unevenly. While this anisotropy is intrinsic to wood anatomy, it is exacerbated by dehydration. This reinforces the need for conservationoriented fire modelling to incorporate anisotropic thermal parameters and spatially variable moisture distributions.

From a conservation and risk management standpoint, the implications are substantial. Historical timber buildings often experience fluctuating moisture levels due to environmental exposure, lack of active humidity control, or prior damage. The findings suggest that even modest increases in wood moisture content, achievable through passive humidification or preservation of environmental sealing, can materially enhance fire resilience. This passive mitigation strategy is particularly valuable in protected heritage sites where invasive fire-retardant treatments or structural modifications are prohibited.

Moreover, the validated FEM enables scenario modelling that can simulate fire progression under different ambient and material conditions. Such predictive tools are critical for emergency planning, as they allow stakeholders to visualize vulnerabilities and prioritize interventions. They also provide architects and engineers with reliable datasets to inform restoration designs that maintain historical integrity while improving safety.

Finally, the integration of empirical testing, imaging, and simulation exemplifies a multidisciplinary methodology that can be generalized beyond larch or Central European contexts. Applying similar approaches to other species, environmental conditions, and architectural typologies would enable the development of broader fire safety standards for timber heritage globally.

8.6

Conclusions

The comprehensive findings of this chapter underscore the critical and multifaceted role of moisture content in shaping the fire behaviour of aged timber structural elements, particularly within the context of heritage preservation. This study represents a synthesis of laboratory experimentation, advanced thermal

monitoring, digital image analytics, and finite element simulation, creating a multidimensional framework for understanding the thermal decomposition dynamics of century-old larch timber under radiant heat exposure.

Among the most significant conclusions is the establishment of a robust inverse relationship between initial moisture content and both the intensity and depth of charring. The presence of water within the wood structure fundamentally alters the thermal response, delaying the onset of pyrolysis through endothermic vaporization processes and reducing the formation of combustible volatiles. This thermal buffering effect was consistently reflected in thermocouple readings, surface temperature imaging, and post-test image segmentation. For instance, highmoisture specimens exhibited a marked delay in reaching critical ignition temperatures and developed shallower, more uniform charred layers. Such findings suggest that water content does not merely affect ignition timing but reshapes the entire degradation profile of fire-exposed timber.

Furthermore, charr layer analysis revealed a clear reduction in cross-section in high-moisture specimens. The charr layer curves documented across the different moisture levels indicate that water retention significantly slows the conversion of biomass to char andash. The drier beams (10% moisture) experienced an accelerated andmorelinear lossofstructuralmaterial,whilethewetter beams(30%)demonstrated a more gradual and less extensive loss. These observations have important implications for both short-term fire resistance and long-term structural integrity in the aftermath of fire events.

Equally critical was the role of finite element modelling in interpreting and extending experimental observations. The FEM simulation, incorporating temperature- and moisture-dependent material properties, validated empirical results with high fidelity and permitted predictive extrapolation under varied exposure and moisture scenarios. The model’s sensitivity analysis confirmed moisture as the dominant parameter influencing thermal diffusion and char depth. The success of this modelling approach opens the door for broader implementation in conservation science, particularly for digital twin applications and virtual fire safety assessments of historical structures.

On a broader level, this study affirms that aged timber cannot be accurately represented by data derived from modern, kiln-dried specimens. The unique aging processes, chemical changes in lignin and cellulose, resin redistribution, microstructural densification, and environmental exposure, create a material profile that demands specific, context-sensitive evaluation. Heritage conservation strategies must integrate these factors to achieve both safety and authenticity.

From a practical standpoint, the research highlights the efficacy of passive fire protection strategies rooted in environmental control. Maintaining elevated and stable humidity levels within timber heritage buildings can measurably improve fire resilience without compromising historical integrity. This non-invasive approach is particularly valuable for protected structures where chemical treatments, claddings, or sprinkler systems may be inappropriate or prohibited.

The insights from this study should inform revisions to national and international fire safety codes, especially in sections addressing existing buildings, timber structures, and cultural heritage preservation. By prioritizing moisture as a key design anddiagnosticparameter,stakeholders,fromarchitectsandengineersto policymakers and conservators, can develop more effective, evidence-based strategies for risk reduction.

In conclusion, this investigation delivers an empirically grounded, methodologically rigorous exploration of fire resistance in aged timber. It demonstrates that moisture content is not simply a variable to be controlled, but a central determinant of fire behaviour in wood. The integrationof thermal testing, image analysis, and simulation modelling offers a blueprint for future studies and interventions. As climate change and urban densification increase the risk to historical structures, research of this nature becomes not only relevant but essential. Future work should pursue coupled thermomechanical simulations, explore additional wood species, and assess the cumulative effects of repeated fire exposures to deepen our understanding and fortify our cultural heritage against fire-related loss.

9. CONCLUSIONS

This monograph delivers a broad and interdisciplinary perspective on enhancing fire safety in historical timber buildings, addressing architectural vulnerability, material behaviour, analytical modelling, and conservation practice. Its conclusions reflect the synthesis of heritage preservation theory with empirical fire science, drawing from international case studies, diagnostic research, experimental fire exposure, and simulation modelling

A primary conclusion is that fire safety in heritage timber architecture must be understood as a multifactorial challenge. The vulnerability of timber buildings to fire is not only a function of the material’s combustibility but also a result of structural design, environmental conditions, and the aging of materials over time. Historical construction methods,such as timber framing, log construction, or larch beam ceilings, contribute to unique fire risk profiles that cannot be addressed through conventional fire engineering approaches alone.

The monograph highlights the critical role of integrating conservation principles with engineering practices. Risk assessment for heritage buildings must consider the building’s material authenticity, historical value, occupancy type, accessibility, and environmental context. The case studies and survey findings presented demonstrate the global prevalence of fire incidents in timber heritage and the often inadequate preparedness of current fire safety strategies in historically significant structures.

Methodologically, the work demonstrates the value of pairing traditional diagnostic tools with advanced technologies. Infrared thermography, embedded sensor arrays, digital image analysis, and finite element modelling are validated as essential tools for fire performance evaluation in wood. These methods not only support restoration design and emergency planning but also help create digital records for building conservation.

Moisture content emerged as a defining material parameter influencing charring behaviour and fire resistance, but this monograph places this insight within the broader context of passive protection strategies. Humidity control, building envelope maintenance, and environmental monitoring are presented as feasible interventions for reducing fire susceptibility without altering the visual or structural character of the building.

A significant contribution of this work lies in its emphasis on the predictive capacity of simulation modelling. FEM tools calibrated through empirical testing can simulate fire behaviour under different scenarios and moisture states. This allows

stakeholders (architects, conservationists, emergency planners) to anticipate damage progression and assess the effectiveness of proposed mitigation strategies.

From a policy perspective, the findings argue for revisions in fire safety codes and conservation regulations to accommodate the particularities of historical wood. The development of hybrid assessment protocols that combine fire performance testing, digital documentation, and material diagnostics is advocated. Moreover, institutional support is necessary to implement training, planning, and maintenance programs tailored to timber heritage.

In general, the monograph positions fire safety in historical timber buildings as an inherently interdisciplinary field requiring collaboration between engineers, architects, conservators, building owners, and public authorities. It promotes a shift from reactive to proactive fire management, through monitoring, planning, and design, while respecting the irreplaceable value of historical timber structures.

This monograph provides a comprehensive, interdisciplinary exploration of fire safety in historical timber buildings, focusing on both empirical findings and methodological innovation. Spanning architectural, material, conservation, and engineering domains, the work integrates historical context, fire risk assessment strategies, thermal degradation modelling, and practical preservation guidelines for timber structures, particularly those of significant cultural value.

The monograph begins by contextualizing the vulnerability of historic timber buildings, many of which are over a century old and possess high architectural and heritage value, to fire hazards. It reviews international examples of fire-related heritage losses and emphasizes the urgent need for evidence-based conservation practices. These foundational chapters establish the broader context of fire risk in timber architecture, particularly under conditions of increasing environmental stress and urban pressure.

A core focus of the monograph is the experimental investigation into the role of wood moisture content in thermal degradation. Medium-scale radiant panel tests were conducted on aged larch timber beams removed from a 100-year-old Slovak dwelling. The resulting data on mass loss, temperature distribution, and char layer formation were meticulously analysed using embedded thermocouples, infrared imaging, and digital image processing.

Complementing the empirical work, a finite element model (FEM) was developed to simulate the thermal response of wood under varying moisture conditions. This model achieved a validation accuracy exceeding 93% and was used to explore hypothetical scenarios relevant to heritage conservation. The results confirmed that moisture acts as a stabilizing agent, delaying ignition and mitigating structural loss. The modelling insights have implications for passive fire protection, such

as maintaining optimal indoor humidity in museums, churches, and other heritage buildings.

The monograph culminates in a discussion of policy, conservation, and technical implications. It argues for updated fire resistance assessment methodologies that incorporate material aging, anisotropy, and environmental factors. It also advocates for the integration of digital diagnostics into building management and emergency planning for heritage sites.

The practical insights of Chapter 7 reinforce these conclusions. Real fire incidents, such as the Banská Štiavnica disaster, and the Hronsek exercise reveal how material behaviour and structural vulnerabilities translate into real losses. The nationwide audit demonstrates systemic shortcomings, while legislative proposals and technical innovations outline feasible solutions. Taken together, the practical findings confirm that scientific knowledge must be operationalised through preventive audits, legislation, training, and emergency planning.

At the end, this monograph contributes new knowledge and tools to the domain of fire safety for historical buildings. Its findings emphasize the necessity of contextspecific fire assessments, the utility of moisture as a passive protective factor, and the value of computational tools in modern heritage conservation. The interdisciplinary approach bridges the gap between historical authenticity and modern safety requirements, offering a template for similar studies and conservation strategies globally.

GLOSSARY

Active fire protection

Architectural heritage

Char Layer

Combustibility

Conservation planning

DIA (Digital Image Analysis)

FEM (Finite Element Modelling)

Fire resistance

Fire scenario modelling

Heritage buildings

Infrared thermography

Fire safety systems that require some action or motion to work, such as fire alarms, sprinkler systems, and extinguishers [131].

Buildings or structures of historical and cultural importance that are preserved due to their value in reflecting human history and identity [132].

The carbonized layer that forms on the surface of wood as it decomposes during fire exposure, providing thermal insulation to the inner material [105].

The capability of a material to ignite and sustain combustion [105].

A strategic approach to maintaining and safeguarding cultural heritage assets, including risk assessment and intervention protocols [132].

A technique that uses photographic and digital tools to measure physical properties and transitions, such as burn depth and pyrolysis zones, in fire-exposed materials [133].

A numerical simulation technique used to predict physical phenomena such as temperature distribution, mechanical stress, or deformation in complex geometries [131].

The ability of a material or assembly to withstand fire or give protection from it for a specified period [134].

Simulation of potential fire events to assess behaviour, progression, and damage in specific contexts [131].

Structures of architectural, historical, or cultural significance often protected by law or conservation status [132].

A diagnostic imaging method that detects thermal energy emitted by surfaces, used to identify heat patterns and material behaviour [133].

Moisture Content

The percentage of water present in wood by weight, influencing its physical and thermal properties [105].

Passive fire protection

Pyrolysis

Radiant Panel

Resin pocket

Risk assessment

Structural integrity

Thermal degradation

Thermal inertia

Thermocouple

Vernacular architecture

Systems and design features that do not require activation to enhance fire resistance, including fire-rated walls, insulation, and humidity control [14].

A thermal decomposition process that occurs in organic material (e.g., wood) in the absence of oxygen, resulting in volatile gases and char formation [105].

A heat source used in experimental fire testing to simulate radiant heat exposure on material surfaces [131].

A natural accumulation of resin within timber, which can influence combustion and fire spread behaviour [133].

The systematic process of evaluating potential hazards and determining appropriate mitigation strategies [132].

The ability of a building or component to maintain its load-bearing capacity under stress, including fire [135].

The breakdown of material properties under prolonged heat exposure [105].

The ability of a material to resist changes in temperature, influenced by properties such as density, heat capacity, and moisture [105].

A sensor used to measure temperature, composed of two dissimilar metal wires joined at one end [1131].

Traditional architecture that reflects local needs, materials, and construction practices, often passed through generations [132].

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANSYS Analysis System (Finite Element Simulation Software)

°C Degrees Celsius

CAD Computer-Aided Design

EMC Equilibrium Moisture Content

FEM Finite Element Method

FEA Finite Element Analysis

HRR Heat Release Rate

IR Infrared

MC Moisture Content

NDT Non-Destructive Testing

RSE600

Fluke RSE600 Infrared Thermal Imaging Camera

RMSE Root Mean Square Error

t Time (commonly used in transient thermal equations)

T1–T5

VTT

W/m·K

J/kg·K

1D / 2D / 3D

Thermocouple Positions 1 to 5 (measuring internal temperatures at defined depths)

Technical Research Centre of Finland (if referenced in literature)

Watts per meter-Kelvin (unit of thermal conductivity)

Joules per kilogram-Kelvin (unit of specific heat capacity)

One / Two / Three-Dimensional (used in FEM model descriptions)

INDEX

Architecture, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 17, 21, 22, 25, 31, 32, 33, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 49, 53, 54, 56, 57, 61, 63, 64, 67, 94, 103, 126, 130, 131, 136

Beam, 11, 16, 22, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46, 69, 106, 107, 114, 115, 126

BIM, 71, 74, 75, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 105, 137

Bracketing System, 36

CFD, 5, 69, 71, 72, 74, 75, 136

Dougong, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 46, 64, 69, 71, 73, 75, 76, 136, 137

Finite Element Analysis, 5

Fire Behaviour, 5, 54, 64, 65, 66, 67, 74, 80, 104, 105, 123, 125, 126

Fire Dynamics, 54, 65, 69, 76, 137

Fire Prevention, 44, 48, 49, 53, 57, 58, 59, 79, 98, 105

Fire Resistance, 19, 52, 54, 55, 56, 59, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 74, 75, 83, 94, 103, 104, 124, 125, 126, 128, 130, 136

Fire Risk, 50, 53, 57, 58, 62, 63, 78, 80, 81, 82, 85, 95, 104, 105, 126, 127, 137

Fire Safety, 4, 5, 13, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 72, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 85, 89, 90, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 116, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 131, 137

Fire Testing, 5, 55, 60, 67, 69, 76, 77, 130, 137

China, 2, 4, 5, 31, 39, 41, 44, 46, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 69, 73, 75, 78, 80, 81, 103, 131, 133, 134, 135

Church, 21, 22, 23, 25, 64, 84, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 131, 132, 138

Interior, 10, 13, 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 31, 35, 52, 53, 72, 85, 92, 94, 96

Modelling, 4, 5, 46, 52, 53, 54, 55, 61, 65, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 104, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 136, 137 Preservation, 5, 8, 10, 13, 14, 19, 25, 26, 49, 51, 56, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 72, 75, 103, 104, 123, 125, 126, 127, 138

Roof, 8, 9, 13, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28, 32, 36, 39, 40, 41, 43, 57, 58, 72, 73, 83, 84, 85, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 131, 138

Slovakia, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 17, 18, 19, 21, 24, 25, 26, 29, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 64, 65, 66, 68, 73, 80, 81, 84, 89, 98, 100, 102, 103, 105, 131, 132

Thermal Decomposition, 65, 67, 103, 124, 130

Traditional Chinese Buildings, 35

Wall Logs, 10

Wood, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 22, 25, 31, 35, 38, 39, 40, 45, 49, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 66, 67, 73, 76, 77, 82, 83, 103, 104, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 135, 136,137

Wooden Architecture, 4, 8, 12, 13, 17, 26, 32, 33, 35, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 51, 59, 82, 127

Wooden Buildings, 5, 8, 15, 17, 37, 49, 51, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 61, 64, 72, 74, 76, 79, 80, 82, 103, 123, 126, 127

Wooden Heritage, 5, 4, 11, 12, 44, 69, 71, 81, 82, 105, 125, 127

Wooden Houses, 8, 13, 19, 20, 34, 50, 62

Wooden Structures, 5, 17, 35, 51, 56, 59, 79, 80, 96, 122

ISBN 978-80-228-3499-5