List of formulas you need to learn for GATE Biotechnology
A. Probability:
i). P(AUB) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A
B ), where A and B are two events.
If A and B are mutually exclusive events (i.e, A and B are disjoint sets), then P(AB) = 0 If there are two mutually exclusive events A and B, then P(AUB) = P(A) P(B)
ii). If A and B are two independent events , then P(A B ) = P(A) - P(B) iii) Probability of an event= P(E) = n(E) / n(S) Where: n(E)= total probability event n(S)= total sample space B. Measures of Central Tendency (i) Arithmetic Mean (A.M) (`bar(x)`): Given x1,x2,----------,xn (n individual items) A.M = x̄= `x1 + x2+........+xn/ n OR Mean (x̄) = Sum of all observations / Number of observations
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(ii) Geometric Mean The Geometric Mean (G.M) of a data set containing n observations is the nth root of the product of the values. if x₁, x₂, ..., xn are the observations GM = √x₁ · x₂ · ... · xn or GM = (x₁ · x₂ · ... · xn)1/n
(iii)
Harmonic Mean
The total number of observations is divided by the sum of reciprocals of all observations. Given x1,x2,............,xn (n individual observations such that none of them is equal to 0), HM = n / [1/x1 + 1/x2 + 1/x3 + ... + 1/xn]
(iv) Median (middle-most)
Median (odd numbers) The values are arranged in ascending or descending order, and the middle most value is the median Median = [(n + 1)/2]th term Median (even numbers) The average of the two numbers at the middle when the values are arranged in ascending or in descending order is the median. Median = [(n/2)th term + ((n/2) + 1)th term]/2
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v) Mode= Most frequent values
vi) Empirical Formula for calculating Mean, Median and Mode: Mode = 3 Median - 2 Mean
C. Measures of dispersion: (i) Range: Given x1,x2,..........., xn (n individual observations) Range = Maximum value - Minimum value
(ii) Quartile Deviation (Q.D) or Semi InterQuartile Range Q.D = (Q3-Q1)/2 For calculation : Q1 = size of (n+1/4)th item Q3 = size of 3 (n+1/4)th item
(iii) Standard Deviation (S.D)
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D. Important Numerical formula: (i) Regression Equation: Formula for Correlation Coefficient
Where: x’ and y’ are the mean values of x and y in the above expression S represents the Standard Deviation (ii) Linear Equation formula written in a simple slope-intercept form y = mx + b where, x and y are two variables b is the y-intercept m is the slope of the line (iii) Simple Non-linear equation is of the form: ax2 + by2 = c Where: x & y = variables a, b & c = constants
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E) Probability distributions Shourya Batch For
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(i)Poisson Distribution:
(ii) Binomial
Where n=Number of trials (or number being sampled) x= number of successes desired p=probability of getting a success in one trial q=1-p= probability of getting a failure in one trial (iii) Normal distribution For a normal distribution of a random variable X with the mean = μ and the variance = σ2, the probability density f(x) is given by
(F) Error function
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(F) Error function
(G) Permutation rule
(H) Combination rule
(I) Linear correlation coefficient
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J) Calculation for number of unrooted trees: (2n-5!)/2^n-3* (n-3 !)
K) Calculation for number of rooted trees: (2n-3!)/2^n-2* (n-2 !) (L) Calculation of Alignment score of a given sequence= score-
identity
Penalty score
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Section 2: General Biology Biochemistry Michaelis-Menten equation : Vo = Vmax [S] / (Km + [S]) Where: Vo = reaction velocity (the reaction rate) Km = Michaelis–Menten constant Vmax = maximum reaction velocity [S] = substrate concentration
Kcat=Vmax/[Et] Kcat: turnover number, or reactions per unit time Et = Total enzyme concentration
Catalytic Efficiency = Kcat/Km Where, Km: the Michaelis constant
Km = (k2 + k-1 )/k1 Where : k1 = Forward rate constant k-1 = Reverse rate constant k2 = rate constant of rate limiting step
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Lineweaver–Burk equation: 1/Vo = (Km/Vmax)1/[S] + 1/Vmax Lineweaver–Burk equation for competitive inhibition: 1/Vo = (
km/Vmax)1/[S] + 1/Vmax
Lineweaver–Burk equation for uncompetitive inhibition: 1/Vo = (Km/ Vmax)1/[S] +
’/Vmax
Lineweaver–Burk equation for non-competitive inhibition: 1/Vo = (Km/Vmax)1/[S] + ’/Vmax where: = 1 + [I]/KI where [I] is the concentration of inhibition and KI is the inhibi-tor constant = 1 + [I]/KI’
Henderson-Hasselbach equation: pH = pKa + log [A-] / [HA] Where: pH : Negative log of [H+] pka : Negative log of acid dissociation constant [A–] : Molar concentration of conjugate base/salt [HA] : Molar concentration of weak acid
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Ion-product constant of water: Kw = [H+][OH-]
Relationship between the acid and base ionization constants of a conjugate acid-base pair: Ka*Kb = Kw Where: Ka : Acid Dissociation Constant Kb : Base Dissociation Constant
Ka = [A-] [H+] / [HA] where: Ka : Acid dissociation constant [A-] : Concentration of the conjugate base of the acid [H+] : Concentration of hydrogen ions [HA] : Concentration of chemical species HA
Definition of pH of a solution: pH = -log [H+]
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Free energy of ion movement across membrane : ΔG = (R)(T) x ln([X]in/[X]out) + (z)(F)(Δ
)
Where: R : universal gas constant (8.314 J.K-1.mol-1). T : temperature in Kelvin (°K = °C + 273.15). z : ionic charge for an ion. F : Faraday’s constant (96485 C.mol-1). [X]out : concentration of the ion outside of the species.[X]in : concentration of the ion inside of the species.
Δ
m embrane potential (also known as Vm)
Entropy change : ΔS = (Δq) / T Where: ΔS : Change in entropy Δq : Heat transfer /enthalpy T : Temperature in Kelvin
16) Free energy change of oxidation/reduction ΔG = -nFE Where:
n : No. of electrons transferred in the reaction F Faraday’s constant (96500 C/mol) E : Potential difference 17) Definition of pOH of a solution: pOH = -log [OH-] Shourya Batch For CSIR NET & GATE
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18) Another form of ion-product constant of water: pH + pOH = 14.00
19) Percent ionization = (ionized acid concentration at equilibrium/ initial concentration of acid) x 100%
20) ΔG = ΔGo + RTln[Products]/[Reactants] Where: ΔG : Free energy change of reaction ΔG° : Standard free energy change of a reaction R : Gas Constant T : Temperature in Kelvin Keq : Equilibrium constant
21) ΔGo = -RTlnKeq
22) ΔGo = ΔHo - TΔSo Where: ΔH° : Standard Enthalpy change ΔS° : Standard Entropy change
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23) Calculation of Work done= P∆V Where, P= Pressure ∆V= Change in Volume
24) Change in Internal Energy (∆E) ∆E= q+W
Where: Q= heat absorbed by the body W= Work done
25) Gibb’s free Energy ∆G=∆H- T∆S Where: H= Enthalpy/ Heat change T= Temperature (in Kelvin), If given in Centigrade, so convert it in kelvin by adding 273 to the given value S= Change in Entropy
Rule for Gibb’s free energy= May be positive= system is non-spontaneous May be negative, system is spontaneous If zero= system is in equilibrium
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26) Gibb’s free energy calculation using given Standard energy value ∆G= ∆G’°+ nRTlnK’eq Where ∆G= Change in Gibb’s free Energy n= no. of mole R= Gas constant (in Kelvin= 8.314 and in Calories= 1.987 Calories) T= Temperature (in Kelvin//Centigrade, convert into Kelvin by adding 273 to the given value) OR ∆G= -2.303RTlogK
27) Calculating ∆G in terms of electrode potential ∆G= -nFE Where: n= no. of moles of a molecule used in the reaction F= Faraday Constant (which is equal to 96500 C) E= electrode potential
28) Yield coefficient (Yx/s)= gm.of cell produced/ gm of substrate consumed
29) Degree of reduction ( Ys) = number of equivalents of available electrons per gram atom C.
30) Calculation of Isoelectric point (pI)= pKa1+pKa2/2
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31) Activity of an enzyme number of moles of substrate converted into product/ sec OR Number of micromoles of substrate converted into product/min (expressed in Katal, SI unit of enzyme activity)
32) Concentration of DNA molecule (in pm) in a given reaction mixture: picomole of DNA= (weight in ng)*1000/ base pairs* 660 Da Molecular weight of one base pair= 660 Da/650 Da/ or a value given in the question
33) Calculation of Km (apparent) value= Km [1+I/Ki] Where: km= actual km value I= concentration of Inhibitor inhibiting the reaction Ki= Rate Dissociation constant of Enzyme-Inhibitor complex
34) No. of molecules of DNA = Concentration of DNA molecule in moles (given in a question) * total no. of molecules present in one mole (6.023*10^23)
35) Percentage of dry weight of any atom in a given molecule: Suppose, for glucose (C6H12O6), finding the carbon percentage C% in glucose= C% * 100/ Total % of atoms in a given molecule
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36) Acid Base equilibrium
(i) Acid with dilution/base with dilution M1V1=M2V2 V2= Final volume V2-V1= added volume
(ii) Acid+ Base (Neutralization)
M1V1-M2V2 =M3(V1+V2)
(iii) Acid+ Base/ Base + Base Mixture
M1V1+M2V2= M3 (V1+V2)
37) Buffer pH= pka+ log (conjugate base /acid) pH= pka+ log (salt /acid) pka= -log ka Ka = concentration of product/concentration of reactant (at equilibrium) pH+pOH =14 pKa+pKb =14 pOH= Pkb log (conjugate acid /base)
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Microbiology
Colony Forming Unit CFU/ml = (Number of colonies*dilution factor) / volume of culture plate
2 ) Transformation Efficiency Number of transformants per microgram (μg)= Number of transformants/ μg of DNA*final volume at recovery (ml)/ Volume of sample plated (ml)
3) Growth kinetics of microbe Nt= N0 X 2^n. Where: N0 the initial population number Nt the population at time t n the number of generations in time t
4) Number of generation (n) (n) = 3.3 log b/B Where, b= Final value of the data (final cell number) B= initial value (initial cell number)
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5) Generation Time (G)= t/n Where: G= Generation time t=time per generation n=number of generations
6) Doubling time dt= ln 2 /μ Where: dt = Doubling time ln (2) = is equal to 0.693 µ = Specific growth rate
7) Degree of multiplication (N) (N)= No*2n Where, n= number of multiplication
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n= log N- log No/0.3010 N= No.(½) ^ X- Decay
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8) Death Kinetics (Kd) = 1/t ln (Xo/Xf) Where t= time X0= initial substrate Xf= final substrate ln= 2.303 log
9) Growth rate Constant/ Specific growth rate= Growth of bacteria per unit time g=1/k so, k=1/g Equation changed to g=t/n k=n/t g=0.693/k
10) Calculation of population doubling time (K)= 1/t *ln (Nt/No) Where; t= time in minute/ hour Nt= Number of cells at time t N0= Number of cells at initial time, t=0
11) Specific death rate (per min): ln (N0/Nt)= K.t Where, N0= initial cell population Nt= final cell population K= death constant t=time
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Immunology
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Section 3: Genetics, Cellular and Molecular Biology Genetics and Evolutionary Biology 1) Meiosis Number of possible chromosomal combinations in independent assort-ment = 2^n Where: n = number of homologous pairs
2) Extensions and Modifications of Mendel’s Principles: Penetrance (in percentage) = Number of people that express the expected phenotype *100 Number of people have the particular genotype
3) Multiple alleles Number of possible genotypes = Where: n = number of alleles at a locus in the population
4) Continuous characteristics and gene interaction Total number of genotypes when there is interaction between genes at different loci = 3^n
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Where: n = no. of loci involved in the interaction and each loci has 2 alleles
5) Linkage and Recombination –
1 map unit (m.u. or cM) = 1% recombination
6) Recombination frequency in phage gene mapping –
7) The Hardy-Weinberg Equation for 2 alleles A and a:
Where: • p = frequency of the “A” allele in the population • q = frequency of the “a” allele in the population • p2 = frequency of AA genotype • 2pq = frequency of Aa • q2 = frequency of aa genotype
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8) The Hardy-Weinberg Equation for 3 alleles:
If there are 3 alleles at a locus e.g. A, B and O, then • p = frequency of the “A” allele in the population • q = frequency of the “B” allele in the population • r = frequency of the “O” allele in the population • p2 = frequency of AA genotype • q2 = frequency of BB genotype • r2 = frequency of OO genotype • 2pq = frequency of AB genotype • 2qr = frequency of BO genotype • 2pr = frequency of AO genotype
9) Population genetics - Allele frequencies:
p as the frequency of allele A, and q as the frequency of allele a. p and q are allele frequencies.
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10) Allele frequencies can be calculated from the genotype frequencies:
Where P = genotype frequency of AA Q = genotype frequency of Aa R = genotype frequency of aa
11) Microbial Genetics
Burst Size of virus = number of virions produced by one infected cell over its life-time
Basic reproductive number of virus = number of newly infected cells resulting from one infected cell during its life-time
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Molecular Biology Calculation of percentage of nitrogenous bases in a double-stranded DNA: Using Chargaff’s rule
1. Number of Adenine is equal to number of Thymine & Number of Guanine is equal to number of Cytosine 2. Total number of purines (A+G) in a dsDNA is equal to the number of total number of pyrimidines (T+C) 3. A/T=1; G/C=1 (A+T)/(G+C) ratio (typically denoted %GC) varies DNA composition varies from one species to another
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Section 4: Fundamentals of Biological Engineering 1. Heat capacity q/ΔT Where: • q= heat energy • ΔT=Change in Temperature
2.Molarity M = No of moles of solute/ 1000 mL of solution M=n/V Where,, • M is the molality of the solution that is to be calculated • n is the number of moles of the solute • V is the volume of solution given in terms of litres
3.Specific heat Capacity
Where: • Q= Heat energy • m = mass • c= specific heat capacity
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4. Entropy( Degree of randomness)
Where: •
Q= Heat
•
T=Tempearture
•
ΔS=Entropy change
•
S1=State 1
•
S2=State 2
5.Enthalpy (Heat at constant pressure) H= E+PV
Where: • H= Enthalpy • E=Internal energy of system • P=Pressure of the system • V=Volume of the system
6) Change in enthalpy ∆H = qP Where, ∆H =Change in enthalpy qP= heat absorbed by the system at constant pressure.
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8) Calculation of Pressure or Volume using Ideal gas Equation: PV=nRT Where, P= Pressure V= Volume n= no. of moles R= gas constant T= Temperature (in Kelvin / Centigrade)
9) Heat Capacity - Relationship Between Cp and Cv for Ideal Gas Cp-Cv= R Where: R = ideal gas constant Cp= Heat capacity at constant pressure Cv=Heat capacity at constant volume
10) Respiratory quotient RQ= Moles of CO2 Produced/ Moles of oxygen consumed
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11) Stoichiometric coefficient calculated by balancing each component and solving equation
(i) Yield coefficient (Yx/s)= gm of cell produced/ gm of substrate consumed
(ii) Degree of reduction Y= number of equivalents of available electrons per gram atom C
(iii)Product Stoichiometry Product Yield Coefficicent (Yp/s) = gram of product produced/ gram of substrate consumed
(iv) Energy Balance (
H ) Rxn+ w-Q (m.
H vap) = 0
w= work done q= heat change ( cooling requirement) m= mass Hvap= Heat of vaporization
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12) Oxygen transfer
Where: • Co - is the oxygen concentration dissolved in the bulk liquid • KL- mass transfer coefficient • a- interfacial area per unit volume • Co*- Concentration of oxygen in bubble boundary layer
13) Factors affecting oxygen transfer
• No
Solubility
• No
pH
• No
Temperature
• No
Viscosity
• No
Foam formation
• No
Bubble size
• No
Impellar speed
• No
aeration speed
• No
gaseous hold uptime
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14) Heat transferred in a tube: Q= h.A (T2-T1) Where: • h= overall heat transfer coefficient • A= length and breadth of heating coil • T2= Final temperature • T1= Initial temperature Unit of Q= Kcal/hour
15) Mass Transfer Q=qo (X) Where: qo = Specific oxygen uptake rate Q= Uptake rate
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Section 5: Bioprocess Engineering and Process Biotechnology 1) Reactor Engineering
Ns.Ds= Ns2-Ds2
Where: • N= Speed of the impeller • D= Diameter of the impeller • t2/t1= (D2/D ) ^11/18 • D2 - Diameter of the vessel • D1- Diameter of the vessel before • t1-time before scale up • t2-time after scaleup
2) For non gaseous system
(N1/N2)^3=( D2/D1)^2
3) For gaseous system
N1/N2=(D2/D1) (Q2/Q1)^1/14
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4) CSTR with immobilized cell D= μ (1+ n X im/Xs) μ= μm. s/Ks+s μ= Growth rate constant D = Dilution rate n=effectiveness factor X im+ Biomass of immobilized cells
5) Reynold’s no
Where: •
is the density of the fluid (SI units: kg/m3)
• u is the flow speed (m/s) • L is a characteristic linear dimension (m) (see the below sections of this article for examples) • μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m2 or kg/(m·s)) •
is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).
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4) CSTR with immobilized cell D= μ (1+ n X im/Xs) μ= μm. s/Ks+s μ= Growth rate constant D = Dilution rate n=effectiveness factor X im+ Biomass of immobilized cells
5) Reynold’s no
Where: •
is the density of the fluid (SI units: kg/m3)
• u is the flow speed (m/s) • L is a characteristic linear dimension (m) (see the below sections of this article for examples) • μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m2 or kg/(m·s)) •
is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).
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6) Peclet No Pe=uadL/D
Where: ua = average velocity of the flow dL= characteristic length of the system perpendicular to the direction of the flow D =diffusion coefficient of the particle or molecule of interest
7) Calculation of Extraction factor (Ef): Kd* Volume of solvent/ Volume of water
8) Volumetric mass transfer coefficient (KLa)= Specific rate of oxygen uptake* maximum cell concentration/ Oxygen solubility* Concentration
9) Dilution rate= μ=D=F/V= Flow rate/ Volume
10) To find the culture volume in a reaction: V= V0+ F*t Where: • V= final culture volume • V0= initial culture volume • F= flow rate (ml/h) •
t= time (in hours)
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11) Arrhenius equation:
K
T
lnK= ln A-(Ea /R)1/T lnK2/K1= - (Ea/R) [(1/T2)-(1/T1)]
Ea-Activation energy 12) Rate of reaction R=
S/ t= P/ t
Or Rate = u(x)
13) Cutoff energy= Activation energy+ Average energy of substrate
14) Growth rate μ= 1/t ln (Xf/Xo) t=1/μ ln (Xf/Xo)
15) Specific substrate consumption rate in a culture: Substrate concentration (in grams)/ Volume of a culture (in litres)* time (in hours) Unit: g/l*h 16) Biomass concentration at steady state X= Yx/s (So-S)
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Where: • x=biomass concentration (g/l) • Yx/s= yield coefficient (g biomass/g substrate utilized) • So= initial substrate concentration (g/L) • Sr=residual substrate concentration (g/L)
17) Death Kinetics
Where: • No= number of viable organisms present at the start of the sterilization treatment, • Nt = number of viable organisms present after a treatment period, t. 18) Total sterilization time (T)= Heating time+ Holding time+ Cooling time
19) Retention factor (Rf)= distance traveled by solute/ distance traveled by solvent
20) Enzyme Purification • (i) Specific activity = Total activity/ total protein concentration • (ii)Purification factor= Specific activity/ initial specific activity • (iii) % yield= Total enzyme/ initial total activity x 100 • (iv)Total activity= Activity x Volume
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21) Growth Kinetics Rate of Reaction (R) = ∆S/∆t= ∆P/∆t Calculation of cutoff energy= Activation energy+ Average energy of substrate Growth rate (μ)= 1/t ln (Xf/X0), where, t= time, Xf= final value of the substrate and X0= initial value of the substrate Enzyme Kinetics (μ)= μmax*S/Km+S Where, S= substrate concentration Km= Michaelis constant 22) Half-life of a reaction = 0.693/k, where k= rate constant
23) Material and energy balance (i)
Mass Balance
Min- Mout+ Mgenerated-Mass consumed = Mass accumulated
(ii) Oxygen Balance a= ¼ (w.Ys- c.p.Yx- f.k.Yp) a= Oxygen demand per mole substrate
(iii) Maximum biomass Cmax= w. Ys/p.Yx
(iv) Maximum Product Fmax=w.Ys/K.Yp
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24) Bioreactor calculation formulas (i) Batch Reactor
For substrate tb=1/ μ max ln(1+ So-Sf/rs. Xo) rs= (1/Yxs+ qp/Yps+ ms/ μ max)
For Biomass t= 1/ μ ln Xf/Xo
(ii) Fed-batch reactor For Biomass t= 1/ μ-D ln Xf/Xo
For Product dp/dt=qp. X-D Pf
For substrate
ds/dt= D (So-S)-rs. Xo rs= (1/Yxs+ qp/Yps+ ms/ μ max)
(iii) Continuous bioreactor For Biomass
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dx/dt = D (Xo-X) + μX
For substrate S= Ks.D/ μm-D At steady state, μ=D
26) D optimum:
For Product P= q.pX/D
27) Degree of sterilization ▽= A.t. e^-Ea/RT ▽= ln ( No/Nt) lnt= ln(▽/A)+ E/R(1/T)
28) Depth filter Ln N/No =-k (x)
(29) Operation Batch
- LTLT
Continuous
-HTLT
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30) Loss of nutrient quality Q= A.t. e^-Ea/RT
31) DamKohler No
Da=Kd. L/U
32) Efficiency ▽= Da.Pe.Dz.t/L^2
U- Velocity L-Length (Holding section) D2- Axial dispersion coefficient t-holding time Kd- Death coefficient μ-Growth rate constant
33) Calculating EMF of a cell( Ecell) = Ecathode- Eanode
34) Relationship between Electrostatic force and Permittivity: E1P1=E2P2 Where, E1= Electrostatic force exerted on a medium 1 E2= Electrostatic force exerted on a medium 2 P= Permittivity of a medium 1 P= Permittivity of another medium 2
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Section 6: Plant, Animal and Microbial Biotechnology Multiplicity of Infection (MOI) MOI= No of infective particles/ no of host cells High MOI- Lysogenic cycle Low MOI- Lytic cycle
Recombinant DNA technology 1. Probability (P) of Restriction site in non-ambiguous sequence
P=1/4n Where: n=Number of base pairs in restriction site
2.Probability (P) of Restriction site in Ambiguous sequence
P=1/4n x 1/r Where: n = number of non-ambiguous bases in the restriction sites r = probability at ambiguous base (For Py/Pu value of r = 2) & (For n value of r = 1)
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3.Formula for finding a site in given DNA genome or vector)
Number of possible sites= Size of the genome or vector or given DNA x P (in fractions)
Where: P=Probability of restriction site Alternatively, number of possible sites in a given DNA (X)
X= Size of the given DNA/ 4^n x r
4.Average length of a fragment using base pairs= possibility of a base pair^total number of bases given in a sequence Ex: GAATTC sequence Possibility is four sequence, ATGC and the total nucleotide base pairs are 6 So, the final answer is 4^6= 4096 base pairs
5.Calculation of number of recombinants (N)= ln (1-P)/ln (1-f) P= desired probability f= fraction of a genome in one insert
Shourya Batch For CSIR NET & GATE
1800-1200-1818 / 080-5099-7000
6. Calculating Insert: Vector ratio in a ligation reaction
7.Clones needed for genomic library:
Where: • N = number of clones that are required, • p = probability that any given gene will be present • a= average size of the DNA fragments inserted into the vector • b= total size of the genome
Shourya Batch For CSIR NET & GATE
1800-1200-1818 / 080-5099-7000
Molecular tools 1) Polymerase chain reaction Calculation of annealing temperature depends on Tm of the primer-DNA hybrid. Tm = (4 × [G + C]) + (2 × [A + T])°C Where: [G + C] = number of G & C nucleotides in the primer sequence, and [A + T] = number of A & T nucleotides Annealing temperature will be 1-2 ℃ below the Tm.
2) Polymerase chain reaction: Amplified Product Calculation Final number of copies of the target sequence amplified by PCR, is expressed by the following equation (2n- 2n)x Where: n: the number of cycles, 2n: the first product obtained after the first cycle and second products obtained after the second cycle with undefined length (long products), x: the number of copies of the original template.
3) Total number of PCR products in a reaction: N= N0*2^n Where: N= final number of PCR products
Shourya Batch For CSIR NET & GATE
1800-1200-1818 / 080-5099-7000
N0= initial number of PCR products n= number of PCR cycles OR
N= N0* (1+% efficiency)^n, % efficiency if 100%, the value will be equal to 1 Similarly, if 60%, the value will be 0.6
Shourya Batch For CSIR NET & GATE
1800-1200-1818 / 080-5099-7000
Analytical tools 1. Beer-Lambert’s Law A= - log( It /I0) Or A=
*c*l
Where, A= Absorbance •
: Molar Absorption/Extinction coefficient
•
c: Concentration of medium
•
l: Path length of medium
•
Io: Intensity of Incident radiation
•
It: Intensity of Transmitted light
2. Calculating the concentration of DNA based on absorbance value:
Concentration (µg/ml) = (A260 reading – A320 reading) × dilution factor × 50µg/ml
3. Calculating total yield
DNA yield (µg) = DNA concentration × total sample volume (ml)
Shourya Batch For CSIR NET & GATE
1800-1200-1818 / 080-5099-7000
4. Calculation of DNA Purity (A260/A280)
DNA purity (A260/A280) = (A260 reading – A320 reading) ÷ (A280 reading – A320 reading)
5. Limit of Resolution d= 0.5
/n sin
Where, d = minimum distance between two objects that reveals them as separate entities = the wavelength of illumination n = refractive index of the medium = angle of illumination 6. Numerical Aperture (N.A.) N.A.= n*sinϴ Where: n= refractive index sin
= angle formed by lens
Shourya Batch For CSIR NET & GATE
1800-1200-1818 / 080-5099-7000
HA L ( C TIIU SING
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I would owe my s uccess to my teachers at B1otecnika I a a a t he . �m ubject s which used to scare me tudy p�, t � !1 :�t ��� a ga e v �� .I e brnaches. The t ' s given me access t 0 c by _ teach:;;';��; 0 ! :; :• v �: i-:; t�, , e m an ag e m e at d urmg exams worked l I re a cherry �: teache , s ' s which helped me to qualify the exam. t op of my prnparnt ion s
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, mY exam o, tal t o ne S tudy p , t used to watch nli O e h t n choosing am de cisi o sed abou t oved to be the ,igh t ve O/ useful as they is as c onfu w l p, t ta e , , ly s o a t a p h i,s ns F uni t in the bu t now i t pr nsen tatio p,epam tion, eos and pp ts, Th• al p,ovided wi th each a to, you, help ia d nik d ,eco,ded vi deos and s tudy mate . Thank you Bi otec k. e ful d , Vi n s , a e u fi d / pli O sim h a goo nd v• ccessible a R NET exam wi th suc easily a qualifying t
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www.biotecnika.org
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