I N D I A / S R I L A N KA / B A N G L A D E S H / N E PA L
R ASA
ORIGIN FORAGING
VOL 01
/
SUMMER 2022
91
RASA M A G A Z I N E
EDITORIAL TEAM founder / Stephen Satterfield editor in chief / Vidya Balachander art director / Alexandra Bowman photo director / Lyric Lewin copy editor / Emily Vizzo consulting copy editor / Layla Schlack business development / Nidhi Verma
CONTACT @whetstonemagazine whetstonemagazine@gmail.com whetstonemedia.co vidya@whetstonemagazine.com
SUBSCRIP TION For subscription information visit whetstonemagazine.com/shop
Rasa is a
Media Publication Printed in Canada
PHOTOGRAPHY
Vikas Munipalle
WELCOME TO RASA VOL. 1
It wouldn’t be an exaggeration to say that I have been moulded by the world of magazines. Many years ago, deeply dissatisfied with a television job, I ran into the warm embrace of the written word. It was my first job at a city magazine based in Mumbai, India. If television had drained me, print had the opposite effect. The thrill of seeking a story, travelling across the city to research it and seeing it come to life on a page— fuelled by long nights of reading proofs and mishmash ‘Mexican’ food à la Mumbai—replenished me deeply. Since that early dalliance, I have worked in other mediums, but magazines remain close to my heart. The deliberate permanence of the printed page flies in the face of the fleeting nature of words on a screen. It is an act of remembering. It was nearly one year ago that we began to dream this magazine into existence. At its heart, we wanted to be true to the ethos of food in South Asia – in all its bewildering beauty and fractured complexity. Personally, I was driven by a desire to tell stories from our part of the world, without having to translate from our multiple vernaculars or justifying why one story is representative of a whole region. Guided by Whetstone, which has paved the way, Rasa is driven by our passion for authenticity, and the desire to honour all origins – even though I am acutely aware that it will entail recognising (and hopefully, overcoming) the gatekeeping that controls access to how our civilisations are ordered and perceived. Rasa means many things, but we were drawn to the word because it signifies something deeper than essence. As our piece on rasam describes with precision and expansiveness, rasa means ‘quintessence’— the fundamental quality that makes a food—or an emotion—what it is. Even though our stories in this inaugural issue span a whole spectrum, from the importance of milk tea in Sri Lanka to pitha in Bangladesh, and from the sombre heft of funeral foods to the sunny promise of ripe palm fruit, I’d like to think that we have captured this quintessence with as much honesty as possible. Rasa wouldn’t have been possible without a globally dispersed team with an aligned vision of excellence. I am deeply grateful for every member of this small yet power-packed cohort, and I am exceedingly proud of what we have created. I hope you enjoy these pages, and I look forward to your feedback! — Vidya Balachander
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CONTENTS
28 41
83
07 The Essential Taste of Rasam 1 7 How Did Anchovies Become Beloved to the Gurkhas? 23 Pride, Place and Pitha 31 In Life And Death, A Fervour For Fish 37 A Hankering For Tal 4 5 The Unassuming Heft of Murmura 5 5 Kaanji, Chirota and Other Memories 67 In Search of Sargassum 75 Mourning Milk Powder 8 3 Momos Beyond Borders 87 Meher Varma’s Bad Table Manners 3
CONTRIBUTORS FRON T COVER ARTIST
D ina B egum
Na zly Ahmed Emli Bendixen Emli is a South Korean/Danish photographer based in the southwest of England. An adoptee, she grew up in the Danish countryside and works primarily with people in natural environments. Emli is particularly interested in working on projects that support the liberation of marginalised people. —page 37—
Nazly is a photo-hobbyist with a keen interest in street photography who loves to capture everyday life in Sri Lanka. Caught in between daily commutes and chasing sunsets in Colombo, Nazly is forever fascinated by the colour and vibrance the city has to offer and never fails to document them on camera. —page 75—
BACK COVER ARTIST
Rebecca D'costa Rebecca D'Costa is a photographer based out of India. Goa is home most of the year, but she loves being on the move. Her specialty lies in storytelling for brands and documentary photography. Becky says that she draws power from photographing people. Music is her superpower and dogs are her kryptonite. —page 67—
Dina Begum is a cookbook author and writer who is passionate about championing the recipes and food culture of Bangladesh. She is a member of the Guild of Food Writers and her debut cookbook The Brick Lane Cookbook celebrates the diverse food culture of London’s iconic Brick Lane. Her recipes/ writing have been featured in The Telegraph, The Independent, Culture Trip, Huffington Post, Metro and Daily Star (Bangladesh), among others. Dina has hosted popular Bangladeshi pop ups to showcase home cooking favourites, and been mentioned on Eater London and Eventbrite as one of their hottest supper clubs in London. She has also presented a programme at The Museum of Food and Drink (MOFAD) on immigrant foodways and hosted a supperclub at Archestratus in New York. You can read more of her work on dinabegum.co.uk. She is on Twitter and Instagram @dinasfoodstory —page 23—
Suhail Bhat
Priyadarshini Chatterjee
Suhail Bhat is a Srinagar-based journalist who has covered Kashmir for the past six years. He has written about politics, human rights, and the environment, attempting to highlight different nuances of the region’s ongoing political crisis. His work has appeared in a number of notable Indian news outlets, including First Post and News Click. —page 83—
Priyadarshini Chatterjee is an independent food and culture writer based in Kolkata, India. Her work has appeared in a number of leading print and digital publications like Conde Nast Traveller, Mint Lounge, Scroll.in, The Hindu Business Line, The Lonely Planet India, and others. When she is not writing about food, she is cooking up a storm. —page 31—
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CONTRIBUTORS
Z ilka Joseph Zahara Dawoodbhoy Ishita Dasgupta Ishita Dasgupta is based in Bristol. She writes about food and culture, migration & identity. —page 37—
Zahara Dawoodbhoy is a freelance writer and journalist, who enjoys writing about a diverse range of topics, from environmental science to reproductive justice. She worked as a writer for Roar Media, a Sri Lankan digital media platform, and has been published on Scroll.in. She also enjoys doing academic research with a focus on the social sciences, and has worked with many NGOs in Sri Lanka, including the Family Planning Association and the Asia Foundation. —page 75—
Vikas Munipalle Vikas Munipalle is a professional photographer and cinematographer based in Mumbai. After graduating with a Bachelors degree in Mass Media, he joined Time Out magazine as photographer. A few years later he decided to venture out on his own and started freelancing. Since then, his photographs have appeared in publications such as Lonely Planet, BBC Good Food, The New York Times, Rolling Stone and Vogue and he has also worked for clients like Moët & Chandon, Marks and Spencer and Godrej Properties. He has covered several genres of photography, which includes food and beverage, interiors, portraits, travel and products. —page 45—
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Sameer Mushtaq Sameer Mushtaq is a freelance photo and video journalist based in Kashmir, Besides covering stories from various parts of India, he has covered the Kashmir conflict for many national and international publications. His work has been published in Al Jazeera English, DW Global, South China Morning Post, Mongabay India, Independent Urdu, BBC, TRT World etc. —page 83—
Zilka Joseph was born in Mumbai, and lived in Kolkata. Her work is influenced by Indian and Western cultures, and her Bene Israel roots. She has been nominated for PEN, Pushcart, and Best of the Net awards, has participated in literary festivals and readings, and been featured on NPR/Michigan Radio, and podcasts like Rattlecast and Culturico. Her work has appeared in journals like Poetry, Poetry Daily, Kenyon Review Online, Michigan Quarterly Review, Rattle, Asia Literary Review, and in anthologies such as 101 Jewish Poems for the Third Millennium, The Kali Project, RESPECT: An Anthology of Detroit Music Poetry. Sharp Blue Search of Flame, her book of poems, was a Foreword Indies Book Award finalist. Her third chapbook Sparrows and Dust won a Best Indie Book Award and was a Notable Asian American Poetry Book (Lantern Review). In Our Beautiful Bones, her new book, has been nominated for a PEN and Pushcart prize. She was awarded a Zell Fellowship, the Michael R. Gutterman award, and the Elsie Choy Lee Scholarship from the University of Michigan. She teaches creative writing workshops in Ann Arbor, Michigan, is a manuscript coach, and a mentor to her students. Read more on her website zilkajoseph.com —page 55—
CONTRIBUTORS
Joanna L obo
Prashanta K hanal Prashanta Khanal is the author of the cookbook Timmur: Stories and Flavours from Nepal, which explores the diversity of Nepali food cultures and its history. He runs the Nepali food blog Gundruk, and writes occasionally in The Kathmandu Post and The Record. Besides his passions for food, he also works on sustainable cities, urban mobility and climate change. Khanal’s blog can be found at thegundruk.com —page 17—
Joanna Lobo is an independent journalist based in Mumbai, India. She enjoys writing about food, her Goan heritage, and things that make her happy. When not contributing to leading Indian and international newspapers and magazines, she coowns a food publication But First, Food. —page 67—
Shirin Mehrotra Shirin Mehrotra is a food writeranthropologist currently based in New Delhi. Her writing intersects between food, culture and anthropology with a special focus on cities and their foodscapes. —page 45—
Deepa S. Reddy
Priyanka Pandit Priyanka is an illustrator and artist based in Stockholm, Sweden. While she's not drawing, she loves to travel in search of beautiful color palettes. You can find her work at priyankadraws.com or follow her on Instagram at @pdrawstoo —page 31—
Deepa S. Reddy is a cultural anthropologist with the University of HoustonClear Lake. She has researched and/ or published on topics ranging from women's activism and political Hinduism to caste-race-ethnicity and bioethics, blood donation, and air quality and environmental governance. Her book, Religious Identity and Political Destiny, was published in 2006. She has also consulted for a user-experience research and design company, Human Factors International, and led the “Discovery” vertical for Caterpillar's Construction Industries CX team. In 2019, she convened Shalikuta: an ethnobotanical project dedicated to the documentation of the nutraceutical properties of Indian heritage rice varieties. She blogs about food, local ingredients and culinarycultural practices on Paticheri. You can read her blog at paticheri.com —page 7—
Meghdeep Sarkar Meghdeep Sarkar is a digital illustrator and designer, crafting and conceptualizing visuals that convey a story. He has worked on multiple global projects for tech companies/startups, fintech corporations, editorials, and small businesses. Meghdeep is a trained artist and is passionate about improving emotional connections through art. When not working, he enjoys coffee, conversations, and watching food shows. —page 55—
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An Essential Taste of Rasam At once a humble dish that can be conjured out of pantr y basics and a sophisticated creation that showca ses the ra sa— or quintessence —of its star ingredients, rasam effortlessly straddles the ever yday and the exalted.
TEXT & PHOTOGRAPHY
Deepa S. Reddy
Dedicated to all those who shared recipes, insights, tips,
Such a preparation is both familiar in principle and
elaborations, stories, enthusiasms, fathers and mothers,
unusual for its use of tender mango leaves, which are both
grandmothers and grandfathers with me in all our endless
seasonal and rarely used in cookery except perhaps as a
conversations about this most beloved dish called rasam.
cleansing tea. For me, however, tender mango leaves were a way to make a familiar dish unusual enough to push the question: what is a rasam anyway? What makes it so beloved, so special?
It all started with maavilai rasam—an infusion of tender mango leaves melded with the stock from cooking toor dal, only so lightly soured and spiced that the delicate vegetal scent of mango leaves remained distinct, turning a familiar olfactory experience into a gustatory one. A sizzling tempering laid on top of the froth that inevitably rises on a good rasam, everything perfectly timed lest a rolling boil destroy the effect.
The word “rasam” refers to a category of light, soupy preparations served either with a soft, mashable rice as rasam-saadam (the Tamil term of endearment is “rasanjaam”) or as a stand-alone hot drink. In the classic south Indian meal, rasam is the penultimate course. It comes after the thicker, heavier sambars, meat or other gravies and vegetables, and before the concluding, cooling curd rice and pickle. It is a fiery, intense interlude and a
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R ASA wholly contextual response to what that stage of eating is
unusual, and all between); technique (do you use your
thought to require: an awakening of senses from inevitable
hands or a knife to prep tomatoes? A stone or mixie jar
first-course-induced stupor and an all-important aid to
for ground pastes that some rasams need?); preferences
digestion, which must now proceed apace.
(what’s all this “debris” floating in a rasam—shouldn’t it be clear?); the use of spices (a pre-made rasam powder, the
And yet, rasam is not just one thing but a vast array of
mel podi or spices freshly ground to finish, or any spice mix
preparations typically associated with southern Indian
at all beyond the customary black pepper and jeera/cumin);
cuisine. Variants in the form of Karnataka-Konkan saar, the
cooking vessels (clayware or the classic eeya chombu or
Andhra/Telangana chaaru, Gujarati osaman, Maharashtrian
tin vessel for its unique flavour?) and some fairly staunch
amti, Bangla tok/tauk and Axomiya tenga take us much
views about methods, flavour combinations, and in short,
further into other regional interpretations by turning the
what makes a rasam a rasam. Everyone had a perspective,
dish thicker, eliminating or specifically highlighting sour
a bank of recipes, and a set of family practices.
tastes and so on. The Sanskrit “rasa,” after all, which means “juice” but refers at once to taste, effect and aesthetics, is
Rasam was community, rasam was identity, rasam was
a wide idea hardly limited to South India. It’s familiar, if not
home, rasam was “emotion.” The #rasamseries, therefore,
always deeply understood, a bit like the dish itself.
delivered me into a hundred kitchens I had never known, and all the (mostly feminine) tutelage I’d never had. It was
Intent on exploring the category further, I began gingerly
both joyous and overwhelming. I needed a way to assemble
documenting my rasams during endless Covid lockdowns
the gush of little details and find the story that connected
via my blog’s Instagram handle @paticheri using the
them all.
hashtag #rasamseries. I say gingerly, because I have learned to make and love rasams not via watchful maternal
Rasam at the Confluence
tutelage in some bustling, smoky Indian kitchen, having lost
of Great and Little
both my grandmothers by the time of my birth and having
Scholars speak of the “great” and the “little” traditions as a
grown up with a mother who cared more about her books
heuristic of sorts to understand the development of cultural
than anything in the kitchen. I simply hadn’t the pedigree of
ideas and practices. The great traditions are generally the
those doyennes of Tamil cuisine: Chandra Padmanabhan,
cross-regional or pan-national ones; in the Indian context,
Chitra Viswanathan (ChitVish), or Usha Prabhakaran, whose
they are classical, Vedic, conceptual. The little traditions
Rasam Digest has been much anticipated in all the papers
are their regional counterparts: folk, Puranic, material.
for some time now.
The two streams feed into one another, and from their confluence emerge well-near all our cultural traditions. So
I came to rasams as a novice, having spent many of my
the epic Mahabharata exists as grand narrative but gathers
college and graduate school years befuddled by how tricky
much by way of folk insight and is re-told in local idioms
it was to nail a dish everyone claimed was so simple. My path
or re-interpreted in vernacular performances. Likewise, the
to rasam was via conversations over innumerable meals at
iconography of tertiary village goddesses often associates
which excellent rasams were served, my husband’s frequent
them with Shiva or Vishnu, inserting local belief systems
remarks about his grandmother’s signature chaarus, a
into wider ideologies. Muharram rituals have similarly
million failed rasams, some cookbook instruction, scholarly
found “fractal” expression among the multitude of Shi'a
curiosity and a whole lot of determination.
communities in Mumbai, as Reza Masoudi Nejad writes in New Diversities. And as Robert J. Miller writes in his paper
As it happened, my documentation of this very ordinary,
Button, Button…Great Tradition, Little Tradition, Whose
everyday
interest,
Tradition?, “elements of great traditions and reactions
reflection and recipe-sharing, particularly with Archana
to them” [emphasis added] both appear in Mahar and
(@thethiruvarurgirl) whose grandmother, mother, aunts
Chamar (Dalit) practices." Examples spanning region and
and others suddenly became like my own missing
community are countless, but in each, whether from
extended kin. It wasn’t long before we, along with Ranjini of
consonance or contestation, the local and the pan-regional
@leftofwrite, opened #rasamseries to contributions, which
meld and are mutually constituting.
preparation
sparked
considerable
came flooding in. Suddenly, we were in the midst of an
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enthusiastic conversation about any number of elements
Rasam, it struck me, was another instance of the conjoining
of rasam-making. These included ingredients (typical,
of “great” and “little.” Conceptually, it is a refined theory
R ASA
"The Sanskrit 'rasa,' after all, which means 'juice' but refers at once to taste, effect and aesthetics, is a wide idea hardly limited to South India. It’s familiar, if not always deeply understood, a bit like the dish itself."
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R ASA a mirror to what the linguist and folklorist A.K. Ramanujan once called an “Indian way of thinking.” The Rasavada, or the Path of Rasa Our most common contemporary translation of “rasam” to mean “juice” derives first from Rg Vedic literature, where rasa is just that: a sap, specifically that of the plant which produces soma, elixir of the Gods. The word “ras” is also closely associated with that other Sanskrit word, “saar,” which denotes both essence and value, the strength of a thing, its inner constituent nature—not just essence, but quintessence. Quintessence, however, can be of anything. So, says G.B. Mohan Thampi in “Rasa” as Aesthetic Experience, interpretations
of
rasa
range
bewilderingly
“from
the alcoholic soma-juice to the Metaphysical Absolute—the Brahman,” and can include "sap, juice, water, liquor, milk, nectar, poison, mercury, taste, savor, prime or finest part of anything, flavor, relish, love, desire, beauty.” The idea is so large that it lacks specificity. The particular notion of rasa as taste or relishing enters via Bharatamuni’s seminal text on dramaturgy, the Natyashastra (200BCE-200CE). Bharatamuni postulates that there are eight fundamental emotional states (sthāyibhāva) contained in each of us as latent impressions (vacana), which we will have gathered over multiple births. We become conscious of these in the right life situations (vibhava), and as a consequence of physical effects (anubhava) and other transitory mental states (vyabhichari bhava). In other words, the union of these three conditions—life situations, physical effects, and mental states—evokes the corresponding sthāyibhāva and expresses it as rasa: aesthetic experience, relish, delight. Bharatamuni’s
explication
is
tellingly
grounded
in
gustation: just as the cook combines various herbs and condiments to evoke inherent tastes and produce rasa, so of aesthetics and taste that is translated, interpreted, and materialised into a familiar, everyday dish. Through it, formal Ayurvedic insight becomes everyday Ayurveda. No other category of Indian cuisine exemplifies this convergence quite so remarkably. While sambars and biryanis, chutneys and khichdis are each specific ingredient assemblages or simply creative mélanges, rasams, saarus and chaarus explicitly promise distillations of taste in the quest for aesthetic experience and bodily well-being. In this, the common, everyday rasam holds up something of
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also do performers evoke emotions in their audiences and produce enjoyment. The rasas of the performing arts are thus quite literally the ‘tastes of theatre’ (or nātyarasa). In this interpretation, the idea of rasa becomes not just “juice” or “extract” but also the savouring of these things. Still other layers of meaning accrue via what scholars will know as the “rasa debate” of CE 9-10, and several further conceptual refinements. In these commentaries, synthesised and summarised by the Kashmiri aesthetician, Abhinavagupta, rasa is intensification, mimicry of an
R ASA inward state, or its dramatic revelation. No longer is there the explicit analogy of performance to cookery, but the two remain tied. Culinary offerings, like theatrical performances, concentrate our perception of the many latent impressions acquired over multiple births. Think of the way we can experience fear intimately in drama, or the fundamental quality of a tomato in a saar. It is almost a kind of remembering or process of coming-into-consciousness of something already known. Rasa therefore does not occur in ordinary life any more than taste exists in the natural world. It needs to be invoked and drawn out so that it can be recognised. The intimacy of fear in a drama, or the rawness of green tamarind in a chaaru are each “ahaa!” moments of recognition, remembrance and comprehension. In this sense, rasa is also knowledge. The Caraka Samhita, a 100CE compendium on Ayurveda, is in fact precise on this point: rasa is that specific “knowledge perceived through rasanā indriya [roughly: gustatory senses] located at jihvā (the tongue).” In this reckoning, rasa is the knowledge, taste is the resulting experience. The Caraka Samhita itself adds an elaborate classification of the various rasas that can be received on the human tongue or produced during stages of digestion. Madhura, amla, lavana, katu, titka, kashaya: sweet, sour, salt, pungent, bitter, astringent. These six essential tastes, called shadrasas or arusuvai in Tamil, are correlated to the doshas or “energies” dominating physiological function. Rasa in the Caraka Samhita thus explicitly guides nutrition and therapy. Likewise, says Suśruta—the main author of the sixth century
BCE
medical
and
surgical
treatise
Suśruta
Samhita—the ideal diet is comprised of six rasas, which are the definitive guide to the nourishment of the body. These six rasas work through diets to determine the strength, immunity, complexion and the physical health of a living system. And although rasam as a dish promises a distilled, singular essence, all six tastes are present and essential to the expression of this essence. Put it all together, and the task of the person preparing a common rasam for an everyday meal, then, is nothing short of momentous. The cook must be something of a polymath—aesthetician, performer, and experiencescripter with the task of ensuring that a certain essential knowledge is clearly stated, perhaps intensified, certainly concentrated, or as it takes to land precisely on the tongue
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R ASA
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R ASA such that the eater’s memories of lost lives are awakened
lighter and thinner like many Konkan saarus or thelivu/
into consciousness of rasa. The uniqueness of rasam is not
clear rasams of Tamil cuisine. Richer rasams are common
just that it is tasty, but that it is in this manner precise.
at festivals. At catered wedding meals, guests are more
Any other accompanying perceptions would be anurasa, or
prone to see the more typically watery rasams as signs
sequels. Were there ever a dish that seamlessly united both
of cost-cutting. Cooking time is variable but long. For the
grand theory and humble practice in the Indian repertoire,
famous Andhra ulava chaaru, horsegram can be cooked on
it would have to be the rasam.
hot coals overnight. Bone broths take hours, while dals can be simmered for a half hour or more on a stovetop.
In the Theatre of the Rasam Yet, for all its conceptual complexity, the rasam can be
Next, there must be some specifically selected vegetable,
among the simplest and quickest of Indian dishes to
leafy green, fruit, spice or even flower which becomes the
prepare. Stories are told of sudden guests arriving late
eponymous hero of the resulting rasam. You could have
in the evening, needing food, and brilliant rasams being
tomato, thoothuvalai keerai (purple fruited pea eggplant
conjured out of a bare minimum of ingredients: tamarind
or Solanum trilobatum leaves], lemon, pepper or murungai
water, spices, tempering. Kottu rasam, made with barely
poo (Moringa oleifera flower) rasam. Vedic “rasa” is a juice,
anything but tamarind and tempering, is a foil for an empty
after all, whose distinctive taste, enjoyment, and nourishing
larder. Leftover puli kuzhambu (a richer, spicy tamarind
properties this dish must deliver. Rasams will thus always
gravy) or coconut chutney can be magically transformed
have a protagonist.
into a suddenly plentiful rasam. In examples such as these, the art of the rasam is not only aesthetics and taste, but
Each has a taste that becomes the aesthetic centrepiece
managing the household economy. The art of the rasam is
and a value: pepper’s heat for a cold, wood apple (Limonia
fluid, and literally so.
acidissima) sourness for liver detoxing. Often, this star enters with the slow-cooked stock, but it can also steal the
Rasam typically requires five basic elements: a stock, a star
show as a final entrant as citrus invariably does, adding a
ingredient, a souring agent, a powdered spice mix, and a
vitamin C boost. Or as watermelon juice does in Chennai’s
whole spice tempering. From these five arise a beguiling
celebrity wedding chef Mountbatten Mani Iyer’s novelty
array of possible variations. Let’s consider each in turn and
watermelon rasam.
the gathering pace with which they are each assembled, finishing with a tempering flourish (in Tamil, thalippu). You prepare a stock first, unhurriedly. This is the foundational taste onto which other flavours are layered. It is usually dal or lentil-based and must be done slowly. Meat-based stocks are less common, likely owing to cost and the time required for preparation. But they are used to make Chettinadu chicken and crab rasams, the Telangana bokkala rasam or bone broth that holds Ayurvedic authority as an immunity booster, or the famous Mulligatawny that was for so long the signature “Indian soup” of restaurants abroad, derived from the Tamil milagu-thani or pepper water. Starchy stocks prepared from water used to wash rice or with potato add flavour but are also end-ofpay-period rasams, resorted to when dal and lentil rations run low. Many will say that the stock is the prime nutrient source of rasam. Leave it out, and you get a sattu illaada rasam: rasam without strength. Depending on the constitution of the stock, rasams can be thicker like the Andhra chaarus,
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R ASA
" The spices splutter and pop vigorously. The dried flowers brown, releasing fragrance. Smoke alarms are liable to go into paroxysms; kitchen windows are best left ajar. B ut flavours are at their peak."
Souring agents introduce another wide range of variations,
sometimes using the vegetable, fruit, or leafy green to
and can play double roles as protagonists themselves (or be
double as a souring agent or combine with another. For
left out entirely as with some saars). Tamarind is favoured
instance, pineapple rasams use a little tamarind, tomato
in the south, kokum distinguishes the Konkan coast and
rasams are made both with tamarind and without, but
beyond, and curd and citrus use feature throughout. Many
tender green tamarind or citrus tastes stand entirely on
have a perception of rasam as being a sour preparation,
their own.
but really sourness is only one of the six tastes that any
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rasam must effectively combine. Rasam is one of those
By the time a souring agent like tamarind is added, too, the
rare dishes that sets itself an objective: highlight one taste
clock is on, the time for slowness past. As soon as the raw
in relation to five others. You’ll pick the appropriate one,
tastes of tamarind or tomato dissipate, things must happen
R ASA in quick succession. Turmeric is already in the stock or is
The spices splutter and pop vigorously. The dried flowers
added now. Some jaggery goes in for a touch of sweetness.
brown, releasing fragrance. Smoke alarms are liable to go
If a premade rasa podi or spice mix is to be used, it’s added
into paroxysms; kitchen windows are best left ajar. But
now. Rasam powders will typically introduce anywhere
flavours are at their peak. Before the rasam’s characteristic
from five to 15 or more spices, depending on regional and
froth can break from its initial simmer, you pour this
household preferences, each in quotidian quantity but
perfectly crafted finishing oil over in a sizzling flourish
specific proportion.
as distinctive and anticipated as the dish itself. “Srrrrr” is the sound of that moment, say some; Gujaratis go cham!
Complex podis can be substituted for more minimalist
It lasts but a second but extends in redolence. Enjoyment
combinations of freshly roasted-crushed spices. Together,
truly begins from this moment of private climax. It is the
these spices are the rasam protagonist’s comrades and
first taste of rasam, as it were. Switch off the flame. Throw
confidantes; they draw out its true qualities and hold
a garnish in (usually fresh coriander stems and leaves) or
these in store. They usually also introduce digestive or
squeeze in some lemon juice, maybe add some reserved
therapeutic properties of their own. A rasam with a specific
fresh ground spices (the “mel podi” or “powder on top”).
combination of garlic, cumin, and black pepper serves as
Rasam is ready for the table.
treatment for common colds, a marunthu “medicine rasam” or thippili (long pepper) rasam perks taste buds that have
Time resumes its normal pace as the kitchen fills with
been numbed by fevers, and jeera (cumin) rasams help
invitations to a meal that must, for all that smoke and
in convalescence. The spices in a rasam podi, ingested in
aroma, be close to ready. The rest happens at the table,
miniscule quantities over years, act as lifelong therapies.
and although eating is the culmination, tempering is the
Rasams are thus both nutritive and curative by nature.
dramatic climax.
If you can forget about the rasam when the stock is
Dregs: The Final Delight
being prepared, all your attention must be at the stove
At the bottom of the eeya chombu or other cooking pot,
once the powders are going in. Things happen fast from
after the meal is eaten and done, lies the settled dal mixed
here. Controlling the boil "or rather preventing it" is
with tempering spices, bits of tomato or other ingredient,
key to capturing the right flavours, sufficiently cooked,
often some of the whole pulses that did not soften and
appropriately fresh. So also it is only certain vessels that
dissolve into the water that became the stock for rasam.
are used to make rasams: the eeya chombu or tin vessel,
These are “dregs”, but they are their own delight. Rasavandi
for instance, is a Tamil favourite as it is reputed to give
becomes a delicious accompaniment to curd-rice or even
rasams a refined je ne sais quoi excellence. Stone vessels
dosas and idlis at a later meal. It is one last relish.
or others that hold heat too intensely after leaving the fire are unsuited to rasam preparation. The choice of cooking
“Indian doctrines are of one mind about the fact that…
pot is thus not incidental and can be an element of taste.
the path to sensual refinement passes through an
At this point, the dal content in the rasam has produced a
Intercultural Approach to a World Aesthetics.
intensification of feeling,” writes Grazia Marchianò in An froth and the rasam is starting to rise as though it might spill over, an effect enhanced by the generally smaller-mouthed
Rasam is that point of intensification on that path to
vessels that are typically used. Now the appointed time for
sensual refinement, but it also opens others: the precision
the tempering to get layered on is fast approaching. There
and pleasure of tempering, the lingering scents on fingers
must be fat as a conveyor of taste. The use of coconut oil
used to mash soft rice to absorb and slurp rasam, the
distinguishes many Kerala rasams. Tamil Nadu uses more
rasavandi.
sesame oil, and ghee is common everywhere, to those who can afford it. You choose, bring the fat almost to
Like that, these closing words settled at the bottom of a
smoking point, and drop in, in swift succession, whole or
tall container of (hopefully thelivu/clear) words about
only roughly crushed spices—a broken dry red chilli, cumin
rasam are equally dregs—but with any luck, also their own
and mustard seeds, maybe some crushed black pepper
special delight.
and garlic, asafoetida/hing and curry leaves. Dried flowers like neem or night-blooming jasmine can add distinctive floral tones.
16
17
How Did Anchovies Become Beloved to the Gurkhas? The popularity of the saltwater fish in landlocked Nepal tells an important stor y about the innovation of the Gurkha kitchen—and the untold human cost of British imperialism.
TEXT
Prashanta Khanal
PHOTOGRAPHY
Getty Images
"My mother adds dried anchovies to many
Singaporean Gurkha soldier. In the cantonment,
Nepali recipes, from achaars and curries to
her mother would often make Nepali dishes
soups. We adore anchovies,” Trisha Rai said. I
cooked with dried anchovies.
met Trisha and her mother Yamini Rai in their restaurant, Yellow Pomelo (which has now been
The first taste of anchovy that Trisha remembers
sold), located in the southern part of the capital
is a bitter gourd achaar that her mother made,
Kathmandu. Every time I craved Southeast Asian
topped with crisp, deep-fried anchovies. Bitter
flavours, I used to visit the restaurant.
gourd achaar is a piquant relish made of bitter gourds using roasted sesame seed or philinge
Trisha Rai, now in her mid-30s, was born
(Niger
and brought up in Singapore, in the Gurkha
fenugreek seeds and mustard oil. It is a popular
Cantonment
dish from the foothills of the Himalayas, the
called
Mount
Vernon
Camp,
where her father Kamal Prasad Rai served as a
seed
powder),
chillies,
lemon
juice,
home of the Gurkhas.
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R ASA
Trisha’s family has a generational history of joining the
In 2005, Trisha and her family returned to Nepal. Like
Gurkhas. In the late 1930s, Trisha’s grandfather was
many other Gurkha families, they brought anchovies back
recruited by the British, and deployed in World War II in
with them.
Malaya. In 1980, her father—who was born in Malaysia
19
(then Malaya) in 1959—joined the Singapore Gurkha
In a landlocked country where the nearest sea, the Bay
regiment. Trisha’s mother was also born to a British Gurkha
of Bengal, lies several hundred kilometres away across
soldier in the late ‘60s, in Hong Kong. Thus, the family has
the border, the curious presence of anchovies in Nepal’s
held a culture of eating anchovies for generations.
cuisine owes a debt of gratitude to the Gurkhas.
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*** Even though the British Empire never colonised Nepal, it left a heavy imprint of exploitation on the country. The recruitment of young Nepali men in the British Armed
guerrilla war in the dense tropical jungles of the Malay peninsula. Between 1963 and 1966, they fought along the Malaysian-Indonesian borders on Borneo Island against pro-independence fighters, in what is known as the
Forces has a history that goes back 200 years.
“Indonesian Confrontation.”
During the 1814–1816 Anglo-Nepalese war, Nepali soldiers
In 1971, after the wave of independence in the Malay
fought bravely against the British East India Company’s army. The war ended with the Sugauli Treaty of 1815, through which Nepal lost one-third of its land and was coerced to allow British residency in Kathmandu. Although not mentioned in the treaty, the company also negotiated to recruit Nepali young men into its armed forces. Thus began the use of Nepali men as mercenaries by
peninsula, the British moved Gurkha regiments to Hong Kong—Britain’s last colony in Asia—where they helped to contain the immigrants thronging from mainland China. In 1997, after China annexed Hong Kong, they moved the Gurkhas back to the U.K. Even to this day, Singapore and Brunei recruit Gurkhas into
British imperialists.
their armed forces. Selected by the British Army with the
These young men mainly came from four hill-based
annually through recruiting centres in Nepal.
purview of the respective governments, they are chosen
communities, whom the British considered martial races: Magar and Gurung from western Nepal, and Rai and
***
Limbu from the east. Even today, many men from these
“Anchovies have always been part of our diet, and their
communities continue to join the British Army and the
absence in our kitchen is stranger than their presence,”
Singapore Police Force, following their forefathers’ legacy
says writer and translator Muna Gurung. She runs a
and aspiring for a better future.
homemade pickle business called ĀMĀKO with her mother, Bhimi Gurung. Like Trisha, Muna was born in Singapore
Gurkhas have served in every war the British Empire has
to a Gurkha father. The family returned to Nepal after
fought all over the world, from Europe, Africa and South
her father retired in 1994, as Gurkhas are not entitled to
America to Central Asia. From late 1914 until 1918, the
Singaporean citizenship or residency.
British colonial empire deployed Gurkhas in Europe during World War I. During World War II, Gurkhas waged heavy
While deployed in Southeast Asia, the Gurkhas and their
battles against the imperial Japanese Army in former
families were introduced to inexpensive and abundantly
Burma, a main theatre of the war in Asia. They also fought
available anchovies. In the region, salt-cured, dried
outside Asia.
anchovies, which are locally called ikan bilis, are an integral part of the local cuisine.
In Southeast Asia, Gurkha deployment dates back as early as 1828, when the British East India Company recruited men
Gurkha families call dried anchovies bhure machha—
from Nepal’s hills to serve as soldiers, guards, miners and
bhure means small, and machha is fish in Nepali. They
farmers in its Burmese colony. In 1876, Gurkhas came to
are also called Bruneiko or Singaporeko macha, indicating
Malaya as a part of a British-Indian contingent to respond
the places they came from. It was customary for Gurkhas
to the murder of a British resident.
recruited in the Malay peninsula, colloquially called Malaya lahure in Nepal, to bring back gifts of dried anchovies to
The Gurkha connection to Malaya was cemented in 1947.
their families and friends while visiting the country on
After British colonial rule in India ended, Gurkha regiments
holiday.
were split between the British and Indian armies. The British moved the regiments under their employ to colonies in the
(Lahure is a term used for men employed in a foreign army.
Malay peninsula to protect their interests in the region.
The word comes from Lahore, in modern-day Pakistan, where Nepali men used to serve in the army of the Sikh
From 1948 to 1960, during the Cold War, Gurkhas
Empire ruled by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, before the kingdom
engaged in the “Malayan Emergency,” a long and costly
was annexed by the British East India Company.)
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R ASA In Gurkha homes, anchovies became a customary part of the hospitality extended to visitors. For instance, my
"Unlike other seafood, dried anchovies easily made their way into Gurkha kitchens, including those in Nepal, because they were easy to transport across the seas."
neighbour would give me a packet of dried anchovies every time her husband came to visit from Brunei. She would serve guests crisp fried anchovies or a spicy achaar made of anchovies cooked with tomatoes, along with a glass of alcohol. Alcohol is an indispensable part of culinary customs of many Indigenous hill communities in Nepal, including the Gurkhas. Not surprisingly, anchovies pair well with it. In both Trisha’s and Muna’s homes, the other common dish prepared with anchovies is aloo-dum—a spicy dish made of boiled potatoes in a spice-laden gravy, which is popular in eastern Nepal and in adjacent Darjeeling. When fiddlehead ferns are in season, they are also stir-fried with
For Gurkhas deployed in Southeast Asia and their families
anchovies and eaten with rice.
who accompanied them, dried anchovies were one of the few foods that seemed not as foreign. They looked familiar,
Thanks to their versatility, anchovies have gained popularity
and probably reminded them of small, dried river fish
among a larger section of Nepalis. Today, it is common for
called sidra that they ate back home.
grocery stores and supermarkets to stock anchovies on their shelves. Once a foreign ingredient, they have become
When not occupied in back-breaking farming or engaged
a prized delicacy.
in social ceremonies and duties, Nepal’s ethnic hill communities,
the
Magar,
Gurung,
Rai
and
Limbu,
occasionally climb down to rivers and streams for fishing. In the nutrient-deficient rivers cascading rapidly through rugged Himalayan valleys, river fish are not as abundant as anchovies in the open sea. They are an occasional treat in the Nepali hills. When the catch is more than they can consume fresh, they preserve the fish by smoke-drying them over firewood to make sidra. “Dried anchovies were very popular within the Gurkha community in Brunei,” remembered Tim I Gurung, a former Gurkha soldier in Brunei and author of Ayo Gorkhali: The True Story of the Gurkhas, published in 2021. “We used to bring dried anchovies back home to Nepal and gift them to friends and relatives.” Unlike other seafood, dried anchovies easily made their way into Gurkha kitchens, including those in Nepal, because they were easy to transport across the seas. Trisha also recounted her early memories of seeing her mother packing dried anchovies along with kerupuk udang (or prawn crackers) and lungis (or colourful sarongs) to send back home. While sukuti (smoke-dried meat) and gundruk (dried, fermented mustard greens) were taken overseas from Nepal, dried anchovies made their way back.
21
*** The popularity of anchovies in Nepali cuisine at large also allows us to reframe some popular narratives about the Gurkha community—or at least look at them through a different lens. I would wager that if there is one thing that the world knows about Nepal besides its mountains, it is probably the Gurkhas and their legendary fierceness. But this narrative overlooks and minimises the cost that the Gurkhas have had to bear for it. During World War I, approximately 200,000 Nepali men are believed to have served the British Indian Army. As Alaka Atreya Chudal notes in his paper "What Can a Song Do to You? A Life Story of a Gurkha Prisoner in World War I," one out of 10 Gurkhas from the Himalayan foothills recruited during the war never made it back home, although official British records maintain that 6,168 Gurkhas in total were killed—a much smaller number. Letters and diaries written by the Gurkhas who fought in World War I and were captured as prisoners of war by the Germans paint haunting pictures of hunger, pain and suffering in the wet, cold trenches of Europe. Many
R ASA
of the diaries and letters sent by Gurkhas were censored
From World War II until 1994, Gurkhas were on average paid
and never reached their families. They are displayed at
10 times less than their British counterparts. Even to this
the British Museum Library in London. They portray the
day, veteran Gurkhas don’t earn an equal pension for doing
soldiers yearning for home and to see their loved ones, and
the same job, a continuation of a discriminatory colonial
regretting joining the war.
legacy. It was only in 2009, after years of legal struggle, that the British allowed Gurkhas to settle in the UK.
Again, in World War II, over 250,000 Gurkhas fought alongside the British. More than 33,000 men never
As recently as in July 2021, British Gurkha veterans staged a
returned.
hunger strike in London demanding equal pensions.
The British government sent many Gurkhas who survived
It's important to acknowledge the history of the Gurkhas
these wars back home empty-handed, without pensions or
beyond the single story of their bravery and loyalty. Their
severance pay. Many of those who were sent back were
humane stories are often not told or recognised.
forced to live in poverty or engage in low-paying jobs as watchmen in India. The Gurkha families who lost their
As Muna Gurung says, anchovies offer us an unlikely
loved ones received no compensation.
glimpse of the community’s ability to adapt and persevere.
“The way the British treated the Gurkhas in the aftermath
“Anchovies tell stories of where we had been,” she says.
of the First and Second World War was not only cruel and
“They signify the creativity and resilience of Gurkha women
inhumane but also a disgrace,” writes Tim I Gurung in his
like my mother—how they embraced something that [was]
book, “[They] were always taken for granted and exploited.”
new to them and made it their own. In this process, they made their culinary culture so much richer.”
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P r i d e , P l ac e an d P i th a Fo r B a n g l a d e s h i s t h e w o r l d o v e r, t h e r i c e - b a s e d dishes called pitha offer a tangible and tactile c o n n e c t i o n t o t h e i r c u l i n a r y h e r i t a ge .
TEXT & PHOTOGRAPHY
Dina Begum
The gastronomic map of Bangladesh is laden with
importance throughout life, in places such as Sylhet, there
many delights. However, few are more treasured than the
is a tradition of distributing chaler ruti pitha or flatbreads
rice-based sweets and savouries collectively called pitha. A
made of rice, along with a coconut and banana halwa
practice that spans hundreds of years, pitha is made with
called Allah rohom shinni, to mark death anniversaries and
unique regional inflections across Bangladesh. While it is
request blessings both in times of grief and good fortune.
impossible to put a number to the varieties of pitha, my guess is that it could stretch into the hundreds. They range
Pitha making is a culinary tradition rooted in rural
from crêpes and fried and steamed cakes, to steamed
Bangladesh. It holds a special place in people’s lives and
dumplings and milk-based puddings.
livelihoods. Bangladesh is an agrarian country with rice at the heart of its production. The consumption of pitha
Woven into the social fabric of Bangladeshi culture,
organically derives from this.
pitha-making facilitates a way for generations to interact, socialise and honour time. The tradition justifies the
Nabanna, which is drawn from the Bangla words naba (or
popular Bengali adage, “baro mashe tero parbon” (or 13
new) and anna (grain or food), is the winter rice harvest,
festivals in 12 months), which not only describes the food
which takes place in late autumn. It heralds a season of
culture of Bangladesh but also the place of food in social
festivals, fairs and general pitha mania. The season typically
interactions and celebrations.
begins in late autumn, lasts throughout the winter months and then gently segues into Boishakh or the Bangladeshi
The best known varieties of pitha are patishapta pitha (sweet,
stuffed
crêpes),
puli
pitha
pastries with a sweet filling), chitoi pitha (savoury rice
While the core ingredient for pitha is rice, wheat flour,
crumpets), bhapa pitha (steamed coconut and jaggery
semolina, lentils and potatoes are also included in doughs
cakes) and handesh or teler pitha (fried cakes made of
and batters. Coconut is used widely in sweet pithas, and
molasses and rice flour). From staples on the everyday
date molasses is the sweetener of choice. Savoury pithas
meal table to snacks to socialise with; and from foods that
include noonta (salty) or jhal (hot) versions, where chillies
are shared during times of grief to elaborate delicacies
and other spices are used along with vegetables in the
proudly presented during wedding festivities, pithas play
dough or batter.
many roles in Bangladeshi society. As testament to their
23
summer in April.
(crescent-shaped
R ASA While Nabanna provided the perfect pretext to prepare
Some pitha are enjoyed in different ways over a period of
pitha, the cold winters—especially in the pre-refrigeration
time. For instance, choi pitha, also known as mera pitha,
era—offered an ideal solution for preserving rice-based
are small steamed dumplings made with toasted ground
dishes. In the winter, the usual rice-focused meals eaten
rice. Smooth on the outside and grainy inside, choi pitha
two to three times a day are replaced by pitha such as
makes for a delicious snack when dipped into ghee or gur
flatbreads and dumplings. Stored properly, certain pitha
(date molasses). In the days after they are made, they are
can keep for up to a week and are a great example of slow
often reheated on a griddle with a little char, and eaten for
food, made as a community using local produce.
lunch accompanied by a meat stew. When sliced and fried with turmeric, onions and chillies, choi pitha transforms into a hearty breakfast.
*** Roger Gwynn, a writer and teacher who volunteered and travelled extensively around the country pre- and postindependence in 1971, recalls seeing pitha being made both in homes and by the roadside. “It always fascinated me to see endless variations. Different areas had different traditions of pitha making,” he said. He went on to describe a particular variety that he enjoyed eating. “The most decorative ones I saw were ‘phul pitha’ from Dhaka district. [Fine] flower designs like filigree work were cut into the pastry, which was then deep fried and sprinkled with sugar.” With the onset of winter, the demand for pitha makes it a viable income stream for the poor. It is a common sight to see people stop on their way to or after work to indulge in a piping hot pitha. By the side of the roads, you will see makeshift stalls fashioned out of vegetable carts, tea tables and steel drums. Popular options include steamed or pan-cooked varieties such as chitoi pitha, served with accompaniments such as bhortas made of vegetables, chillies or spicy dried fish. Or jhal pitha, savoury fried cakes made with an egg-based batter. The more intricate varieties are usually reserved for the home kitchen. Making pitha is often a communal event. Growing up, my cousins and I used to help my mother and aunt ahead of special occasions. We would form an assembly line over tea, snacks and chat. While someone made the dough or batter, someone else prepared the filling, and others took turns to cook the pitha or to place them on trays for the next stage. In this way, pitha became the fulcrum of social interactions and community building. This method also facilitates the transmission of the technical finesse required to make them. When my mother, Sultana
25
R ASA Begum, and I last made pitha together, she recalled her
be fried until crisp, emerging from the hot oil, aromatic
experience of learning the techniques from her mother
and irresistible.
and grandmother. Her eyes misted over with emotion. There are no shortcuts for pithas such as these, which are “I had such fun making pitha with everyone—the moments
made in particular stages that require attention to detail
we spent together, socialising, laughing and chatting as
and antaaz or intuition, a skill that is gradually built upon
we made and ate them,” she said. “I’ll always treasure
with experience. The cook needs to know when to add
those family memories. My cousins, friends and I used to
more flour, and how to work fast with the hot dough while
have pitha-making contests to see who could make the
keeping an eagle eye to ensure that the dough is kneaded
best ones. It was a lovely way to spend time, especially
well before it has cooled too much.
in winter!” At its most basic, pitha can take the form of a simple rice When we prepare handesh or teler pitha at home, it is
flour flatbread for scooping up curries. Or rustic banana
always under my mother’s watchful eye. This seemingly
and molasses fritters, made by dropping spoonfuls of
simple fried cake is deceptively difficult to master. Made
thick batter into hot oil. Savoury jhal pitha are made in a
with rice flour and molasses, which is rested for several
similar fashion with a rice batter, but with added spices
hours, this pitha requires painstaking effort. The batter for
such as turmeric, onion and ginger. Then there’s bhapa
a single pitha is carefully poured to form concave rounds,
pitha, which epitomises the sweet variety of pitha. A dome-
which disappear in hot oil and rise with a frill around the
shaped confection made of granules of damp ground rice,
edges like macarons. Slightly crisp around the edges, a
layered with shredded coconut, bhapa pitha holds a dollop
little chewy and steeped in the flavour of date molasses,
of patali gur (or jaggery) in its heart.
occasionally with a whisper of spice such as fennel, handesh requires a practised hand. My mother often teaches her
However, no pitha is as mesmerising as a plate of intricately
technique to family and friends.
handcrafted nokshi pitha. The most ornate forms of nokshi pitha require years of practice to perfect and are
“Not everyone knows how to get the batter right,” she says.
seen as a form of edible art. Smooth pieces of cooked rice
“It needs to be demonstrated in person to get a feel for
dough are hand-decorated with raised cuts using date
the consistency and you can only become better through
palm thorns, although toothpicks or knives are more
practice. When I teach a person how to make handesh, I
common nowadays.
feel like I’m passing on something special. Now they can make these pitha for their family and friends to enjoy.”
It is said that women who make nokshi pitha imprint their thoughts and feelings into them, drawing from scenes
Every year, about a week or so before Eid, our family
of nature. Popular patterns include paisley shapes, betel
conversations turn to pitha making. This is when classic
leaves, peacocks, fish, birds and flowers such as lotuses.
varieties are made to perfection and new recipes are
Many patterns incorporate folklore and spiritual motifs
experimented with. The selection always includes nunor
such as mandalas. This art form mirrors nokshi kantha,
bora or nun gora—savoury fried pastries popular in the
where similar patterns and motifs are embroidered onto
Sylhet region of Bangladesh.
bedding, tablecloths and clothing.
I remember watching my mother’s hands work meticulously,
Once decorated, the pitha are fried and then dipped in
kneading large bowlfuls of sturdy dough made of rice flour,
sugar or date molasses syrup. A photo of my mother’s
occasionally stained yellow with turmeric or flecked green
syrup-soaked nokshi pitha is pinned on my Twitter page. It
with coriander. The zing of ginger would hang in the air.
has been widely shared and garners curiosity among those who see it.
Just moments earlier, she would have scraped off the steaming rice dough from the pot and gathered it together
Food editor and recipe developer Anikah Shaokat has
on the work surface. She would then sprinkle a thin layer of
grown up eating all kinds of pitha. However, she learned
rice flour, roll the dough into large rounds and cut shapes
how to make them only after moving to New York in her
with cookie cutters. The edges would be frilled, scalloped
late teens.
and shaped into stars and hearts. These shapes would then
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R ASA
"Pitha making is an expression of love, imbued with memories of cooking them on clay wood-fired stoves in the winter with loved ones, especially grandmothers, mothers and aunts."
“Since there isn’t a lot of written and recorded literature
Academy as they have a large open space. The Ministry of
on our Bangladeshi cooking, I mostly taught myself to
Cultural Affairs was slow to come on board but now they
make pitha from YouTube videos,” Shaokat said. “Pithas
are enthusiastic in supporting it. They see the value of the
are such an intrinsic part of our culture. I think it’s one of
festival as it helps to promote the culture of Bangladesh.
the few elements that separates us from the larger South
Now, it takes place in all eight [regions] of Bangladesh.
Asian culinary narrative. The world has a bad habit of
In the future, we hope to take the festival to all the
bucketing us all under one Indo-Pak umbrella, but I think
districts too.”
pithas are one of the few things we can distinctly claim as Bengali/Bangladeshi.”
The purpose of these festivals, according to Ferdous Akhter Lily, a coordinator of a pitha utsab in the Mohammadpur
Chef and food writer Amirah Islam reiterates this common
suburb in Dhaka, is to help people learn about pitha.
refrain among Bangladeshis.
Certain types of local rice are difficult or even impossible to find outside of Bangladesh. The Mohammadpur
“I’d say pitha making is very much a Bangali art,” Islam
festival showcases 14 stalls, named after 14 of the most
said. “I don’t know of any other South Asian culture that
popular local rice varieties. At these fairs, people indulge
[makes pithas]. Especially in the celebratory manner that
their curiosity about new and interesting flavours and try
we make them. The closest thing to pitha to my knowledge
sought-after regional specialities.
are mooncakes.” For instance, in Bikrampur, Dhaka, bibikhana is a treasured
***
pitha. Perhaps the closest in form and flavour to a cake,
The nationwide ardour for pitha is apparent from the fact
this is one of my favourite types of pitha. The batter is
that there are pitha festivals organised across the country.
made using eggs and fat, and then steamed or baked. Hate
Every year in January or February, the Jatiya Pitha Utsab
kata shemai pitha mimics vermicelli or shemai. Rice dough
Udjapan Parishad (Committee for National Pitha Festivals)
is painstakingly hand-turned into thin, squat noodles ready
hosts a 10 to 12-day national pitha festival called Jatiya
to be simmered in molasses and milk sauce.
Pitha Utsab in association with the Shilpakala Academy, the country’s preeminent cultural centre in Dhaka. Festivals
Chita or sprinkled pitha is made by using the fingers
such as these have grown over the years and present
to sprinkle batter on a hot pan to form lattice shapes.
the opportunity to taste various pitha, including regional
A particular version of this pitha from Noakhali in the
varieties that are difficult to access outside the home. They
Chittagong region uses coconut and molasses in the
attract people from around the country.
batter. Chunga pitha is an unusual pitha found in the Sylhet region, where glutinous rice known as binni chal is
I spoke to Khondoker Shah Alam, the General Secretary of
wrapped in banana leaves and stuffed into young bamboo
Jatiya Pitha Utsab Udjapan Parishad. He shared that the
sticks, before being cooked on a fire. The smoky rice can be
first festival in 2008 was a small affair, which he organised
both sweet or savoury.
in his coffee shop in Dhaka. The
27
public
response
to
pitha
festivals
has
been
“We did this without government support and it was a great
overwhelming. Khondoker Shah Alam has watched the
success,” said Alam. “Later, we partnered with Shilpakala
crowds grow, year upon year.
R ASA
“In Dhaka, we have over 10,000 people attending daily,
Nur-E Gulshan Rahman, co-founder of Korai Kitchen, a
from all over Bangladesh,” Alam said. “People are losing
Bangladeshi restaurant she runs with her daughter in New
touch with their food traditions, and these festivals help
Jersey, echoes this sentiment.
reintroduce people to pitha, especially those who live in cities and do not have access to them. Over 200 pitha are
“Eating the hot pitha was such a wonderful memory,” she
presented as part of Jatiya Pitha Utsab in Dhaka and families
said. “My mother, grandmother and the cooks would make
share these delicacies with the younger generations.”
all sorts of pitha together. Every day there would be a different variety, all winter long. Doodh pitha, patishapta
Pitha festivals are also extremely popular among the
pitha, bhapa pitha, thel pitha. I drew on those memories
Bangladeshi diaspora in the U.K., Europe and North
to make pitha for my own children. Because it is so time-
America, recreating the atmosphere of those in Bangladesh,
consuming, I think it represents an appreciation of the
with music, dance and dozens of pitha stalls.
artistic, of things done by hand, with careful attention to detail. It’s like poetry in food.”
Pitha also serves as an important aspect of social, religious and cultural customs, featuring in Eid celebrations, Pujo
My mother shares a similar nostalgia about pitha made in
festivals and weddings. Wedding dala selections (or
Bangladesh, with high-quality local ingredients.
platters) are incomplete without an array of the prettiest pitha. Pitha making is an expression of love, imbued with
“The rice outside of Bangladesh is not fresh, so you’ll never
memories of cooking them on clay wood-fired stoves in the
get the same results as you’d get when making them in the
winter with loved ones, especially grandmothers, mothers
village,” she said. “I prefer to grind rice at home instead
and aunts. There is a strong association between pitha and
of using ready-ground rice flour and use fresh coconut
the country itself, conjuring images of verdant green fields
instead of dessicated. I miss the fresh, hand-ground rice
and coconut trees.
from our paddy fields, the coconut from our trees and the
28
new date molasses when it was in season. The flavour and fragrance over there is like nothing you’ve imagined!” When I ask her what kind of pithas she loved to make in Bangladesh, she tells me about taaler pitha, made from the pulp of ripe palm fruits, which grow in abundance in Bangladesh. (Read all about tal fruit on page 38). “You can easily make 15 to 20 types of pitha from the pulplike juice of tal,” she said. “It’s a good natural sweetener and different [in flavour] from date molasses.”
*** In my own experience, the best pithas can indeed be found in rural areas, particularly where rice is grown. Families who own or work in paddy fields have ready access to fresh rice, which translates to pitha made the traditional way. However, industralisation has changed the processes— and sometimes, even the ingredients—involved in making pitha. With a decrease in the availability of skilled tappers, who often move to the cities to pursue other occupations, the traditional methods of tapping date tree sap for molasses are in danger of being forgotten. There’s also
29
R ASA a greater risk of products being adulterated in the wider
his voice. “Pitha are present everywhere, even at ministerial
market, with sugar being mixed with date molasses, and
events and high society weddings. And we are working
pesticides found in rice.
with pitha makers so that they can export unprocessed pithas with a one to two-month shelf life. This is not to
Among Bangladeshis, pitha is so beloved that it has been
promote business—I am not a businessman, I am a cultural
proposed for inclusion on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural
activist. This is so others can enjoy and appreciate one of
Heritage of Humanity (ICH) list, which honours “a practice,
our traditions.”
representation, expression, knowledge, or skill considered by UNESCO to be part of a place’s cultural heritage.”
Despite some accommodations made to suit modern convenience, people are keen to preserve what they see
Dr. Dilruba Sharmin from Dhaka University says that to
as part of their cultural identity. As Rahman says: “Pitha
safeguard this know-how, pitha festivals such as Nabanna
making requires collaboration, an attention to detail,
Utsab, and intricate varieties of pitha such as nokshi pitha
and patience, and I think these are important skills to
and jamai pitha must be protected. While the large regional
pass down.”
and national pitha festivals promote and celebrate the art of pitha, Dr. Sharmin suggests creating specialised
While it is not always practical to spend hours making
departments at educational and cultural institutions, with
pitha on a regular basis, I believe this tradition can be
support from UNESCO and other experts. In her opinion,
incorporated into holiday traditions and weekends as an
this would also improve Bangladesh’s tourism industry and
enjoyable and leisurely project. Just as we bring out cookie
contribute to its development.
cutters for Christmas and gather for family feasts, learning and practising pitha making in a communal setting could
Bangladeshi
families
have
traditionally
been
multi-
be a way to nurture skills and foster memories.
generational and extended families often lived together. This family structure has changed in recent years with the
Like everyone I have spoken with for this piece, the
rise of nuclear families and people choosing to live alone
knowledge of pitha making reinforces my Bangladeshi
for work and educational opportunities. As a result, pitha
identity. It offers an avenue to introduce others to my food
are being made at home and by hand less frequently,
heritage and celebrate it. It honours my bond with both
because they can be time-consuming. Many simply do not
my grandmothers who have passed, yet continue to live
know or have the opportunity to learn to make them, as
on in my memories as I think of making and eating pitha
this is an intergenerational skill passed down through oral
with them, while listening to stories of courageous queens,
instruction or observation.
tigers and magicians. Each variety of pitha I now make holds a special memory, linked to a particular person or moment
In recent years, the demand from busy Bangladeshis
in my life. For me, this tactile quality of preserving my
in Bangladesh and from the Bangladeshi diaspora has
childhood memories strengthens my cultural connections.
contributed to a rise in pre-prepared, frozen pitha popping up in grocery stores. Compared to a decade or so ago, where
As my mother makes pitha with my niece, I ask her how
I would spot two or three varieties of frozen pitha, I now
it feels to be able to pass down her skills and she beams.
see over a dozen types, made by different manufacturers, available in London. On the other hand, homemade pitha
“I take great pride in having taught my children to make
microbusinesses run by Bangladeshi women are reclaiming
pitha and my first grandchild is now getting involved,
this important part of their heritage. Handmade pitha can
which is a proud moment for me as I can leave a
now be ordered online or via social media.
legacy behind for them to share,” she says. “Hopefully the coming generations will stop pitha from disappearing.
In Bangladesh, this is a burgeoning business, with pitha
I’m looking forward to teaching my granddaughter more
companies and food delivery services delivering pitha for
as she grows older. It’s a great expression of love and I
special events or personal consumption.
hope this love spreads to more people who can learn and enjoy pitha.”
“There is a pitha revival going on and people are enjoying pitha even in fast food places now,” Alam said, with pride in
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31
In L i fe A n d D e a th , A Fe r vo u r Fo r Fi sh T h e B e n ga l i c u s t o m o f M a t s y a m u k h i — o r t h e symbolic re turn to fi sh- e at ing after b ere avemen t— is one among a complex web of cultural and religious customs in the Indian subcontinent that h e l p c o m m u n i t i e s n av i ga t e t h e l a n d s c a p e o f l o s s .
TEXT
Priyadarshini Chatterjee
ILLUSTRATIONS
Priyanka Pandit
It’s been years but it feels like yesterday,
Most of all, perhaps strangely so, I remember
even if the memories only flash by in
the food. There were trays heaped with
discordant spurts. The white shamiyana on
batter-fried topshe (mango fish) and stacks
the terrace, the sudden rush of guests at lunch
of paturi; thick paves of bhetki (barramundi)
time, stray bursts of laughter, a dramatic
slathered with a rich marinade of mustard,
spat in the cooks’ tent, my sister singing my
wrapped in banana leaves and cooked on a
grandmother’s favourite shyama sangeet (a
griddle; unctuous steaks of catla drenched in
genre of devotional songs) to a rapt audience
chilli-red gravy, ladled onto mounds of long-
of great aunts and uncles, in the living
grained rice; and doi parshe, whole mullets,
room downstairs…
fried and stewed in a yoghurt and poppy-seed sauce, of which everyone sang praises.
32
R ASA All afternoon, my aunt stood in one corner, swivelling her
The ceremony, I learnt, was the symbolic release from
eyes around the gathering, signalling the servers every
the strict rules of abstinence that circumscribe the period
now and then to bring out another round of this or that.
of asauch or pollution arising from death. The concept of asauch is premised in the notions of ritual purity and
“More rice here,” she hollered, every time she saw an almost
impurity that underpin the complex fractal of Hindu beliefs
empty sal leaf platter, while my father and uncle took turns
and caste dynamics. In Bengal, this means the end of
drifting from one table to another, imploring guests to eat
the period of strict vegetarianism when fish, the region’s
well. Any awkwardness around the eating, considering
cherished staple, is verboten. The return to “fish-eating”
the solemnity of the occasion, was quickly mitigated by
is, in fact, the highlight of the ceremony, also known as
the assurance that it was all for the satisfaction of my
Matsyamukhi, which loosely translates to “putting fish in
grandmother’s recently departed soul.
the mouth.”
At the far end of the terrace, propped up on a table lined
In his 1931 essay, The Cultural Significance of Fish in Bengal,
with a pristine white cloth, stood a framed photograph of
anthropologist Tarak Chandra Das writes,
my paternal grandmother, my Thamma, half-hidden by fat garlands of rajanigandha (or tuberose) and wraithlike
“On this day, which falls on the first ceremonially
tendrils of sandalwood-scented smoke from burning
suitable day after the Sraddha ceremony, all the
incense sticks. The afternoon's feast, flush with fishy
relatives especially the agnates, sit together at a feast
excess, was the culmination of her obsequial rites riddled
when fish is served, for the first time to the observers
with myriad rules, rituals and sacraments that followed her
of the taboos. The nearest agnate belonging to the
death 13 days prior.
superior grade of agnatic kinship, and preferably older in age, puts a piece of fish from his own plate on that of
That morning, the funeral priest had dropped by to anoint
the chief mourner and this ends the period of taboos
every member of the family with a dab of turmeric and
for all concerned. Thus, fish here serves as an emblem
mustard oil to mark Niyam Bhango, which literally means
of all the taboos taken together and the partaking of it
“breaking of rules” in Bengali. He too was sent home with
removes all other taboos automatically.”
what my uncle dubbed as a respectable dakshina (or honorarium) and a whole catla fish, massive in size. That
Das also points out that the practice is “dissociated from
was the custom.
Brahmanical rituals” (and the associated insistence on vegetarianism) and observed as a “social custom.” On the
“Now we can eat everything,” a cousin winked at me, making
day of the Shraddha, which is centred on sacred rites and
no effort to hide his rapacious enthusiasm for returning to
rituals, a strictly vegetarian meal cooked without alliums is
the pleasures of life.
the mandate. The fish-laden feast follows after. The custom, however, is not so much sanctioned by religion as it is predicated in the community’s cultural ethos. In
" The return to 'fish- eating' is, in fact, the highlight of the ceremony, also known as Matsyamukhi, which loosely translates to 'putting fish in the mouth.'"
Bengal, a region rich in fluvial resources, fish is not only a prime source of sustenance, but also a cultural touchstone of immense sentimental and symbolic significance. Fish is ubiquitous in the region’s cultural expressions. It is traced into ornate motifs of alpana, a form of folk art drawn on floors and thresholds in Bengali homes during auspicious ceremonies. It is also immortalised in verse and lore as a veritable metaphor for Bengaliness. During weddings, after it has been beautifully embellished to resemble a bride, fish is sent to the bride’s home as a symbol of impending prosperity. It is also offered to the
33
R ASA
"For communities across India and the subcontinent, the sharing of food—by way of opulent feasts or charitable feeding—has been central to the rituals of mourning and, all importantly, moving on."
gods and is even coveted by Bengal’s native ghosts. In the
The Parsis, a small community descended from Persian
Bengali imagination, fish represents plenty and fertility,
Zoroastrians who arrived on the subcontinent to escape
transformation and regeneration. It only seems apt that
religious persecution, abstain from meat during their three-
a morsel of fish should translate to the symbolic return
day mourning period, following a death in the family. On
to life.
the fourth day, the end of the mourning phase is marked by a meal shared between friends and family, comprising
As in Bengal, in the Mithila region of northern India,
dhansak—among the best known Parsi preparations
comprising fertile alluvial plains crisscrossed by numerous
outside the community.
rivers, fish is passionately cherished. Among some sections of Maithili people, serving fish and rice is mandatory at
Dhansak is a spirited, slow-cooked preparation made
the end of funeral rites. A similar post-funerary tradition
of assorted lentils, a medley of vegetables and mutton,
of commensal eating of fish also exists in riverine Assam.
flavoured with a complex blend of spices called dhansak no
Here, it is “called matsya sparsha (touching fish) and cooked
masalo. Always served with Parsi brown rice and mutton
soul [sole fish] is offered on that day to the departed soul,”
kavabs, dhansak may be served in restaurants and appear
writes scholar and folklorist, BK Barua, in his essay "Fish-
on Sunday lunch tables in Parsi homes, but it is never on
lore of Assam."
the menu at joyous occasions.
Such traditions are perhaps rooted in the bereaved
The Kodavas of Coorg, in southern India, observe Madha
person’s sense of identity as part of a community yoked by
on the 11th day after bereavement. This culminates in a
common beliefs and rituals, whether religious or cultural,
feast that celebrates the life of the deceased, where all
which often shape the experience of bereavement. Food
kinds of meat, especially pork—the mainstay of Coorgi
and shared culinary rituals, both literally and symbolically,
cuisine—and alcohol is served.
offer a sense of solidity, familiarity and structure in the face of the elusive tenor of grief. Food, as succour and
“A must on this day is the paruppu payasam, a sweet dish
nourishment for the grief-ravaged body, a tactile tether in
made with moong dal, jaggery and coconut milk,” said
the face of the abstract, or a connection to lost loved ones,
Radhica Muthappa, a culinary entrepreneur from the
is crucial to mourning itself.
region. Pudding, symbolic of joyous occasions, perhaps denotes renewal.
*** For communities across India and the subcontinent, the
Author Thressi John Kottukappally tells me about the
sharing of food—by way of opulent feasts or charitable
funeral traditions of the Syrian Christians native to the
feeding—has been central to the rituals of mourning and,
Kottayam region of Kerala. During the traditional post-
all importantly, moving on. The food served at these tables
funeral memorial service organised on the 30th or 41stday
often reflects cultural intricacies, regional affiliations and
of a death, Kottukappally tells me, platters of rice balls and
religious stipulations, which perhaps reinforce the sense
a bowl of cumin seeds are laid out.
of community within which the bereaved seek comfort and support.
“At the end of the service, it is mandatory that everyone in the congregation eats a few cumin seeds,” she said.
34
R ASA orthodox traditions of ritualistic food that seek validation in antiquity.
“Across the pond in Sri L anka, visitors dressed in white deliver food to the mourners and the monks. The Buddhist ceremony, Daane, involves eating parupu (dal), kiri bath (rice and coconut milk) and gotu kola sambol,” writes Shylashri Shankar, in her book Turmeric Nation: A Passage Through India’s Tastes."
“The typical menu at a Tamil Brahmin funeral comprises simply seasoned curries made with vegetables like raw bananas, banana stem, string beans, broad beans, bitter gourd, etc., a simple rasam made with tamarind, ginger, pepper and curry leaves, plump vadas, etc.,” Venkataraman says. Besides, there’s a tradition of offering a set of five sweets and
savouries
called
bakshanam.
Appalam
(papad),
perhaps because of its association with joyous feasts, is avoided. “But most importantly the menu features at least a few items that the deceased was particularly fond of,” Venkataraman said. “The same dishes are prepared on every death anniversary thereafter.”
*** The rice balls are served as part of a stridently non-
On the day of my grandmother’s shraddha ceremony, a
vegetarian Sadya—a traditional meal served on banana
plateful of food cooked by my mother and aunts in our family
leaves—that follows.
kitchen, was placed in front of her photograph. I helped them with the little things—fetching this and washing that.
“A binding feature of this meal is a dish made of a mix of
I performed every chore with earnest enthusiasm. After all,
curd, rice and bananas sweetened with syrup [made] of
it was the closest I was ever going to get to cooking for my
palm toddy sap—ingredients intrinsic to and representative
grandmother. However, this meal featured none of the rich
of the region’s culinary traditions—that is served at the
curries, deep-fried breads or luscious sweetmeats that the
end,” Kottukappally said.
guests were served.
“Across the pond in Sri Lanka, visitors dressed in white
Instead, there was bandha kopir chhechki—a light dish
deliver food to the mourners and the monks. The Buddhist
of cabbage and green peas stir-fried together, kanchkola
ceremony, Daane, involves eating parupu (dal), kiri bath
bhaja or sautéed raw bananas and borir jhaal or sun dried
(rice and coconut milk) and gotu kola sambol,” writes
lentil dumplings, deep-fried and cooked in a thin mustard
Shylashri Shankar, in her book Turmeric Nation: A Passage
gravy. The carefully planned menu was diabetic-friendly
Through India’s Tastes.
since my grandmother had been diabetic for years. When my cousin pointed out that the spirits weren’t likely to
Among Tamil Brahmins, the food served at funerals is
be diabetic, he was reprimanded for being “oversmart”
strictly vegetarian and panders to certain specificities.
and impudent.
“For instance, chilies are never used in the food served at
In retrospect, I wonder if the composition of this meal was
funerals. Pepper is used instead,” Chennai-based writer
intentional, or if it was a reflexive attempt at holding on
Janaki Venkataraman said. “Neither are vegetables like
to the familiar and the tangible. As Shankar writes in her
carrots, potatoes or cauliflower.”
book, “A ritual, whether it is a religious one or something you have made up, helps to restore a sense of control to
35
It isn't a mere coincidence that all these ingredients are
the mourner, control we have lost in the unexpectedness
not native to the subcontinent. They only arrived a few
and the suddenness of the tragedy. A ritual involving
centuries ago and are yet to be incorporated into the more
cooking returns that control to you…”
R ASA In some Adivasi cultures, the ritualised act of cooking for the deceased is woven into the formal expression of grief. For instance, in his essay, Barua writes about an old custom among the Garos, a community of hill tribes spread across parts of Northeast India. "On the morning after the cremation of a Garo man or woman, the widow, widower or a near relation of the deceased, goes to the place of cremation, with a cooking pot, some rice, freshwater prawns and an egg," he writes. "These are cooked if possible, on the embers of the funeral fire, and when the food is ready, the mourner breaks the vessel containing it and raises a loud lament.” This practice is embedded in Garo mythology where the ghost of Megam Airiipa, the first man to die, returned to his house to find his wife catching prawns. Rice represents the food of the living and the egg represents a fat pig eaten at a funeral. Hindu liturgy, on the other hand, decrees the offering of pinda—balls made of rice, sesame, jaggery and other ingredients—to the departed soul, not only as sustenance but also as a temporary body for its journey to the ancestral realm. Such cryptic rituals often explained in lofty philosophical and religious terms are, more often than not, grounded in the humble desire to connect with the deceased in the ways of the living. The practice of leaving food for the soul or making edible offerings to ancestors, or serving up the deceased’s favourite food at feasts thrown
in their honour, also underscore this sentiment. In many Bengali homes, on the day of Matsyamukhi too, a portion of the fishy spread is left out in the open for crows. This is done in the hope that the deceased soul would inhabit the body of a crow and eat the spread. I don’t remember though, if the platter of plump paturi, crisp topshe fry and the other fishy delights we savoured
"In many B engali homes, on the day of Matsyamukhi too, a portion of the fishy spread is left out in the open for crows. This is done in the hope that the deceased soul would inhabit the body of a crow and eat the spread."
that afternoon in my grandmother’s honour, had been left out for her soul on the terrace somewhere. I don’t know if my grandmother liked fish at all. I had never seen her eat fish. After her husband, my paternal grandfather, died, my grandmother, an inveterate conformist, insisted on a strictly vegetarian diet, as was the norm among upper caste Hindu widows. Our family took comfort in the fact that it was a choice she made. “What can we do? She won’t listen.” But for generations of widows in Bengal, giving up fish was not a matter of choice. While the rest of their husbands’ families purged themselves of impurity and grief with morsels of fish, for them there was no Matsyamukhi.
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37
A H an ke r i n g Fo r Ta l Most prized for its luscious ripe fruit called tal— intensely sweet with a bitter edge —the palmyra tree is beloved for its many culinar y uses across the subcontinent. TEXT
Ishita Dasgupta
PHOTOGRAPHY
Emli Bendixen
A sudden fit of nostalgia is all I can blame for paying such
in muslin drains away some of the bitter-tasting saponin
an eye-watering price for a pair of ripe tal fruit. It was the
compounds and may be tempered further by adding
first time I had seen tal, let alone ripe tal, available here
jaggery. Thickened over a low heat, the pulp is then ready
in the U.K. Despite my reservations, I placed an order
to use. The first thing I made was taler bora or fuluri, a
online. They arrived packed in corn starch, peanuts and
sweet fritter using the pulp to bind a mixture of wheat
newspaper. I unwrapped them carefully. Deep purple,
and rice flour, grated coconut and jaggery. Best eaten hot
almost black, the rounded fruit were heavy and had a sour
and crisp.
tang, their leathery skin split in places. I made kheer next, reducing whole milk over a low heat, “Eh ma! They saw you coming,” my mother said in disbelief,
checking it regularly so it did not catch and burn. To this,
when I FaceTimed her to ask how to prepare them.
I added grated coconut, jaggery and tal, then reduced the mixture further. Whilst the kitchen filled with the caramel
Extracting the pulp took patience and effort. The cap of
fug of cooked milk, I made a paste of sweetened rice flour,
sepals was easily removed with a twist and the kernels
tal, coconut and toasted semolina, which I parcelled up in
prized apart; the skin then stripped away, leaving the
banana leaves, tied with string and steamed to make pitha.
fibrous orange mesocarp exposed. Some fruits give up
In West Bengal and Bangladesh, these pitha are filled into
their contents easily. Others need coaxing. These were the
cones made from glossy jackfruit leaves. But sadly, I had
latter kind. But after soaking them in water, massaging the
none at hand. My biggest regret was not reducing the
kernels and using a grater, almost a litre of pulp sunnier
kheer further to a thick fudge to fill patishapta (or rice flour
than Sunny D filled the bowl.
pancakes) or to dip taler luchi (deep-fried flatbreads made with maida or refined flour and ripe pulp). Even so, with
Ripe tal has a flavour similar to overripe pumpkin, with
each bite, a fevered connection to stifling humidity and the
hints of melon. At times cloyingly sweet, it has a bitter
longing for rain broke across my tongue.
edge, which for some may be too much. Hanging the pulp
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R ASA
" The fruit are large, around 25 cm in diameter. They have a leather y skin that is deep purple, almost black, with an acid green ombré when unripe. It turns bright orange at each pole when ready to drop from the tree."
*** Found in coastal and semi-arid areas across South and Southeast Asia, Borassus flabellifer or the palmyra palm is a familiar sight. Shooting skywards with a burst of fanshaped leaves at its crown, it dominates the landscape. The palm is perhaps best known for its sap, used to make sugar or toddy, which gives it two of its many names. It has a multitude of uses: the leaves for thatching, basketry, and mats; the fibre from the leaf base for brushes and cordage; and the trunk wood for construction and furniture. The classical Tamil poem, Tala Vilasam, documents 801 ways in which the palm may be used,
scattered with cashew or chironji seeds and served chilled. Chef, food writer, author and broadcaster, Romy Gill, grew up in a Punjabi family within Jamshedpur, a steel township in West Bengal. She remembers seeing the avenue of palms on the edge of the town being scaled for sap and to cut down fruit. “I wasn’t keen on the texture of talsansh but liked it in sharbat or added to kheer. We would also eat it in a chutney made with raisins, fennel seeds and dried chilli. Sometimes it was sliced and flattened, dipped into a light batter made from besan, fried and eaten with rice.”
earning it the title Katpaha Tharu or Celestial Tree.
Talsansh (ice apple in Bengali) is sought after in West
It is the versatility of the fruit, however, which fascinates
jolbhora sandesh, a famous sweetmeat made from chhena
me. Each palm can bear as many as 6 to 12 bunches with up to 50 in each cluster. The fruit are large, around 25 cm in diameter. They have a leathery skin that is deep purple, almost black, with an acid green ombré when unripe. It
Bengal, and many a Bengali will tell you how it inspired the or sweetened curds produced from acidulated milk. Jolbhora sandesh is then pressed into distinctive, seed socket- shaped moulds and filled with liquid gur (jaggery) or rose water.
turns bright orange at each pole when ready to drop from the tree.
*** However, it is ripe tal that is very much prized. Harder to
Unripe tal fruit, known variously as nungu, nonku, tadgola,
find within the city and rarely exported, ripe tal does not
talsansh or ice apple, appear in summer just before the
travel well. Full of natural yeasts and with a high sugar
first mangoes of the season arrive. Street vendors are
content, it begins to ferment quickly in the heat. The skin,
found within cities and on roadsides across India, skilfully
prone to splitting at this stage also makes it liable to spoil.
cutting the woody exterior of the fruit with a billhook or
From the stories of my elders, the best ripe tal must be
machete to reveal the seed sockets inside. Translucent,
collected as soon as it falls from the tree.
with the texture of lychee, they contain a sweet cooling liquid at the centre, which has a light coconut flavour. A
For Hindus in the region, the ripening fruit coincides with
refreshing antidote to the heat.
some auspicious dates in the religious calendar. Sweets like taler bora, taler malpua and taler kheer sandesh—using
39
Chopped into pieces, ice apple is often added to sharbat,
thickened milk rather than chhena—are often made for
where it is usually combined with sarsaparilla and lime,
Janmashtami, the celebration of the birth of Lord Krishna.
or mixed with cold milk sweetened with pistachio or
This is followed by Tal Nabami, observed during the waxing
rose syrup. Another popular way to eat it is in payasam,
phase of the moon during the month of Bhadra, which
R ASA spans August and September on the Gregorian calendar.
Further south in Tamil Nadu, ripe toddy palm fruit or
Dedicated to the goddess Durga, this is the day when
panampazham, is often roasted over a flame. The scorched
preparations begin for Durga Puja, still a month away.
and blistered skin is pulled away and the bright orange
Traditionally, married women observe a fast and tal-based
pulp eaten straight from the fruit, like a particularly fibrous
confections are made as offerings to the goddess.
mango stone. Here and along the south coast, the pulp is also made into a fruit leather. When the weather allows,
Along the coast in Andhra Pradesh and neighbouring
the pulp is left to sun dry for a few days, spread out onto
Telangana, sweet fritters are made with ripe tal or thati
steel platters or on mats often woven with palmyra leaves.
munjalu, using rice flour. Grated coconut may or may not
Brushed with coconut oil and stored in rolls, they may be
be added along with a little cardamom powder and palm
eaten as is, or used to enhance other dishes. The pulp may
jaggery, depending on the sweetness of the pulp. Fried in
also be mixed with liquid jaggery and dried, resulting in
discs they are called thati burelu.
something sweeter, which is carefully folded into blocks resembling glycerine soap, and cut into lozenges to be
When flattened with a hole at the centre like a ring
eaten like candy.
doughnut, they become thati garelu. This batter may also be cooked in an oiled, lidded pan, over a low heat.
On her blog, Pâticheri (paticheri.com), anthropologist
The resulting cake, thati rotti, is thick and spongy with a
Deepa Reddy has chronicled the process of making
sweet, slightly charred crust. Sometimes, a batter is made
panaattu, as the fruit leather is known in Tamil. She uses
using rice rava or coarsely ground rice with the texture
the deep amber curls to make thambuli, and paani
of semolina. Mixed with scraped coconut and steamed, it
panaattu, a jammy preserve. Here, pieces of fruit leather
makes thati kudumulu or idli, imbued with the distinctive
are added to palm jaggery molasses with coconut and
flavour of the fruit, often eaten at breakfast.
parboiled rice suspended within it, flavoured with cumin
40
R ASA and dried red chillies. Spicy with concentrated flavours of
may also be buried in the ground and left to germinate. My
ripe pulp and a slightly bitter aftertaste, paani panaattu is
mother remembers this from her childhood: the kernels
often eaten as a sweet treat. Reddy also suggests using it
dug from the garden at her grandmother’s house in time
as an ice cream topper or as a base for chilled soda.
for Kojagari Lakshmi Puja, and the brilliant white sprouts offered as prashad.
The journey of the fruit does not end there. Split the hard kernels from the ripe fruit open and the jelly-like
Ripe tal that is damaged or split may be used for another
seed sockets are replaced by a sweet “meat” that has the
delicacy—sprouting tubers that are called gegulu or panam
crunchy texture of water chestnut and can be eaten in the
kizhangu. Buried half a metre deep in sandy soil, they are
same way as coconut. Spent kernels, their pulp extracted,
left for up to 100 days, after which they are dug up and the sprouting tubers cut away from the kernel. Steamed, boiled or roasted before eating, the fibrous outer layer is peeled away revealing a pale yellow edible part with a woody stem at its centre that must also be removed. Arranged in baskets, radiating like a sunburst, they are sold street side as a snack. In Tamil Nadu, where most of India’s palmyra grows, and where it has been recognised as the state tree since 1978, this tuber is popular. Chennai-based food writer, Apoorva Sripathi, has few fond memories of panam kizhangu, having been forced to eat them for their health-giving properties when unwell as a child. Her father Sripathi, however, loves them. But he says they are harder to find nowadays. “We’d have a seller come around on a cycle, with the roasted panam kizhangu in a cane basket on the back. It’s full of carbs, so it’s pure energy, but nourishing and filling,” Sripathi said. Having never eaten the tuber myself, the flavour seems quite difficult to describe. When pressed, he says: “It’s unique tasting really, but if I had to compare, it’s similar to the sweet potato here without its cloying sweetness. Taste can’t be described by mere words; it has to be understood by eating.” The sprouting tubers are versatile too. Ground with lentils, they are used to make thuvaiyul, a savoury chutney eaten with idli, dosa and rice. Coarsely grated, they work well in puttu, a dish usually made of steamed, ground rice and coconut. The puttu kudam—a tubular utensil—is filled with alternating layers of ground rice, coconut, and palmyra sprouts, eaten with a side of jaggery. Steamed or roasted tubers may also be dried and ground into flour called pulukodiyal and used in many ways, including sweet and savoury laddus, idli and vada. Raw tubers may also be split and left to sun dry until hard. Known as odiyal, they may be eaten as is, chipped, or
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R ASA ground into flour. Sri Lanka’s Jaffna peninsula is an arc of land that stretches out towards the Palk Strait and where most of the country’s palmyra grow. Historically, this is also where most of the country’s Tamil population has lived. Palmyra plays an important part in the food landscape, and whilst it is eaten in many forms, here, odiyal flour is widely used. The best-known dish featuring odiyal flour is odiyal kool. Usually a Sunday speciality, which is also eaten during social occasions, this hot and sour broth full of seafood is thickened with odiyal flour and bulked with brown rice. The cookbook Handmade, published by Palmera, a not-forprofit organization based in Australia, shares recipes and memories from women who experienced Sri Lanka’s civil war at close quarters. It contains this description of the process of making kool: “Traditionally, the kool pot would be placed in the centre of the group. Cleaned and polished half-coconut shells (kottaangachi or thengai chirattai) would be used as bowls to drink the chowder…It is difficult to beat the ecstasy of slurping kool from a kottaangachi.”
*** In recent years, the number of palmyra palms in India has been in decline. Areas such as Palakkad in Kerala, where the trees were once synonymous with the landscape, have slowly changed in character. Some blame the decline on the ban or restriction in certain states of toddy, the naturally fermented sap that has been enjoyed as a mildly alcoholic beverage and used in cooking for centuries. It used to be a familiar sight from March until June— avenues of palm trees scaled twice a day, cuts made at the base of the flowering inflorescence, covered with earthen pots or bamboo containers. Collected in the evenings, the sap that was left to ferment during the heat of the day, was
might contribute to drought conditions have also hastened
sold by street vendors or from toddy shops. The cultivators
their removal in some areas—after which they are often
of palms could once lease out their trees for sap harvesting
sold as fuel for brick kilns.
and fruit at a good price, but rents are now low and tree climbers difficult to find. Tree climbers are getting better
Palmyra, however, thrives in deep, sandy or well-drained
paid, less risky jobs elsewhere, and are often reluctant
soils, happily surviving in areas of low rainfall. Relatively
to return.
disease-free, the tree needs little looking after, and its roots, which grow vertically into the ground, help stabilise
The lower demand in palmyra products has in turn led
the soil and prevent erosion. The roots also raise the level
to changes in land use. More can be earned by growing
of groundwater, helping with irrigation. Planted alongside
coconut, rubber, cashew or oil seeds, and palms are often
aquifers and riverbeds, they can improve water circulation
cut down to make room. Disinformation that the trees
and reduce flooding. Palmyra palms also lend themselves
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to intercropping, growing well alongside cowpea, moringa,
The Palm Boards have also suggested promoting neera or
mung, Bengal gram, jujube, amla, pomegranate and guava.
pandaneera, or unfermented toddy palm sap. Collected before sunrise, it is a lightly sweet, cooling liquid with a
From the late ‘70s onward, Palm Boards were set up
trace of coconut flavour, which is said to have many health-
across several Indian states to protect the tree and spread
giving properties. Fermentation happens quickly, so pots
education about it. An area of focus for the boards has
are coated with slaked lime to prevent it. The product is
been the diversification of palm products, bringing them in
filtered or pasteurised to prolong shelf life.
line with modern tastes and appeal. For growers, however,
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it is the sap that earns the tree its keep. The average tree
In conjunction with the Palm Gur Cooperative Societies
produces 150 litres of sap during tapping season, with
(a collective of manufacturers of palm jaggery), the Palm
female trees producing up to 50 percent more.
Boards also recommended increasing the production of
development of Indian cane sugar, this industry, led by rural and Adivasi communities, was further impacted. In a piece for The Economic Times, “Why Gur is Not Glamorous for Indians,” journalist Reshmi R. Dasgupta wrote: “Perhaps it will get a cachet of exclusivity when western chefs ‘discover’ jaggery.” In the U.K., panela or sugarcane jaggery originating from Central and Latin America, certainly seems to be having its moment. As people learn more about the impact of refined white sugar on health, it has fallen from its former pedestal. Many across the globe are attempting to reduce their sugar intake and seeking less-refined alternatives. Once abundant and widely used, palmyra jaggery is now however harder to find, which is reflected in its price. Currently, white sugar averages Rs 40 ( approximately $0.50) per kilo, while palmyra jaggery costs around Rs 240 ($3) per kilo. Scarcity creates exclusivity and often drives demand, but only the fair remuneration of growers and producers will safeguard the future of palmyra and its products. Thankfully, there are many trying to reverse this decline, including farmers and cultivators refusing to cut down trees and reappraising their economic and environmental value. Chennai-based volunteer group Panaigal Kodi and Madurai-based Palmyra Nation have been planting saplings with support from the state government. The Tamil Nadu Toddy Movement, which represents farmers, toddy tappers and toddy shops, is challenging the ban imposed on the centuries-old drink and lobbying for review. Palmyra also remains a key crop in the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP), a pan-India agricultural research project, with centres across several palmyra-growing states undertaking a variety of research. jaggery or gur. This again uses unfermented sap, a litre typically yielding between 180 to 250g of jaggery. To make gur, the sap is thickened in wide pans over wood fire. The resulting mahogany-coloured syrup is poured into moulds and set into cakes.
Shaping the geography and culture of India for millennia, the palmyra palm has also left an indelible mark on me. I feel generations of hands in mine, laboriously preparing the vivid pulp and offering up its bittersweet splendour. Aptly named, the Celestial Tree will surely survive yet.
Since the 1950s however, white sugar, which was more expensive and seen as refined in both senses of the word, gained in popularity and use. With some notable exceptions, jaggery and gur made from palm sap began to fall from favour. Already struggling under British rule following the
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T h e Un a s s u m i n g H e f t o f Mu r m u ra Known a s laiya, muri, pori and by other regional names, puffed rice is a beloved ingredient across India. B elying its lightweight appearance, murmura holds its own in ever y context—from the sacred to the street
TEXT
Shirin Mehrotra
PHOTOGRAPHY
Vikas Munipalle
“Bhaiya, ek geela bhel banana….medium spicy aur
fresh coriander, boiled potato, and finely chopped pieces
extra puri.” (Brother, make a wet bhel…medium spicy and
of green mango in the summer. The ingredients are tied
add an extra puri). This used to be my standard order at
together with teekha-meetha (or spicy and sweet) chutneys.
the bhel puri stall near my workplace in Mumbai. Packed in a newspaper cone, bhel is an afterwork snack for many
The hero of bhel—and a rather humble one—is puffed rice,
Mumbaikars commuting by the local train network. It’s
which is known by a variety of names across India, including
easy to carry, non-messy if you opt for sukha or dry bhel (a
murmura or mamra in Maharashtra and Gujarat. The crisp,
version that is made without chutneys), and comes with its
extremely light, and mildly savoury snack is eaten across
own spoon in the form of a puri, a crisp, deep-fried disc of
India in various forms.
flour that doubles as a scoop of sorts. In Maharashtra, apart from the ubiquitous bhel, puffed rice Bhel is a Marathi word which loosely translates to mixture.
is also turned into bhadang. This spicy, garlicky snack is
It is the perfect moniker for a snack that is a riot of
popular in south-west Maharashtra, which is known for its
ingredients, textures and flavours. These include murmura
robust flavours and heavy use of chillies and other spices.
or puffed rice, peanuts, roasted gram, thin sev (or strings
Bhadang, the Marathi word for puffed rice, is also believed
of deep-fried gram flour), chopped onions, green chillies,
to be the root of the word bhel.
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"The first mention of puffed rice in South Asia occurs in post-Rig Vedic texts (written between 1200-1000 BCE). Laja, the Sanskrit name for puffed rice, was made by slow roasting soaked and unhusked paddy in hot sand."
“Bhadang is pretty much a staple in all parts of Maharashtra,
She also tells me about another dish cooked in southwest
and each family makes it their own way with differences
and central Maharashtra, and in North Karnataka. Sushla is
in masalas and with more or [fewer] ingredients,” says
named for the sound that puffed rice makes when soaked
culinary consultant and author Saee Koranne-Khandekar.
in water. In this iteration, murmura is tossed with mustard
“Some must have peanuts, some also add roasted chana
seeds, curry leaves, green chillies, onions and coarsely
dal and coconut slivers.”
ground chana dal. As opposed to bhadang, which is a dry snack with all its crunch intact, sushla is a bit soft. In
In her book Pangat, a Feast: Food and Lore from Marathi
all these versions, puffed rice takes on the flavour of the
Kitchens, which chronicles regional cuisines and stories
more robust ingredients such as curry leaves, garlic or
from Maharashtra, Koranne-Khandekar shares a recipe
coconut slivers.
of bhadang where murmura is tossed with green chillies,
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coriander, garlic, peanuts, coconut slivers and spices, and
Further down the western coast, which extends from
stored in airtight containers to be eaten for days.
Gujarat to Kerala along the Arabian Sea, the streets of
R ASA Mangalore are lined with carts selling churmuri. In this version of bhel, puffed rice is tossed with grated carrots, boiled potatoes, chopped onions, tomatoes, green chillies, boiled eggs, and lime juice. A dash of raw coconut oil adds a bit of sweetness and aroma to the snack. “Churmuri used to be my lunch during college days,” says journalist and food writer Ruth Dsouza Prabhu. But that’s not the only way puffed rice is eaten in the region. “On the beaches of Mangalore, you’ll [also] find vendors selling pachudi—puffed rice mixed with a spicy, tangy green mango pickle served in small paper cups,” she says. In North Karnataka, mandakki or girmit is sold on streets as well as made at home. This pungent dish is marked by the generous use of chillies, the sharpness of curry leaves and the sourness of tamarind. Unlike the raw coconut oil added in churmuri, the spices used in girmit are fried in coconut oil along with onions. They are then cooked with tamarind water and putani powder (a spice mix made of roasted gram, peanuts, garlic and chilli powder) to form the masala in which the puffed rice is tossed. And in the old markets of Chennai, small shops sell pori kadala or puffed rice mixed with any kind of gram or nut (such as roasted peanuts, fried gram and roasted chana), which is popular as an evening snack.
*** The first mention of puffed rice in South Asia occurs in postRig Vedic texts (written between 1200-1000 BCE). Laja, the Sanskrit name for puffed rice, was made by slow roasting soaked and unhusked paddy in hot sand. In Ayurveda, it is described as a light and easily digestible food that cures various ailments. There is mention of a saturated drink made with laja and honey, and a dish of powdered laja paired with sugarcane pieces fried in ghee, eaten with honey. The significance of puffed rice is evident by the fact that its uses extend beyond the culinary world. In the Grihya Sutras, a series of manuals detailing the ceremonies that mark each stage of an individual’s life, offering puffed rice to fire is noted as a significant ritual. The custom is based on the association of rice with prosperity and fertility. “In Tamil Nadu we offer pori urundai (laddoos made of puffed rice and jaggery) to Lord Murugan during Kartikeya
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R ASA strongly associated with the festival of Diwali. In Lucknow, where my family is based, the markets are flooded with mounds of puffed rice, which is a part of prasad or sacred offerings, along with kheel (or popped rice), batasha (small discs made of sugar) and khilaune (animal-shaped toys made with sugar). Since Diwali coincides with the paddy harvest, the new crop is offered to the deities in the form of puffed or popped rice. In my home, most of the laiya and kheel purchased during Diwali turns into phodni—a tea-time snack made with puffed rice, makhana or foxnuts, peanuts and roasted gram, with an addition of colourful fryums. My mother used to add some homemade garam masala to this otherwise bland snack. On some days we would pair it with green chilli pickle or add it to a sandwich with lots of butter and ketchup. During my undergrad days living in a hostel, phodni mixed with chopped onions and tomato ketchup fuelled my friends and I during long nights of writing assignments, while also saving us from the terrible mess food. Despite its association with festivals, laiya has inevitably made its way to the streets. In Allahabad, churmura is a street-side speciality, made with nearly the similar ingredients as the Mumbai bhel puri, but with the addition of tamarind water, which adds a tongue-curling sourness to it. Further towards the north east, the tamarind water is replaced with spicy, garlic-laden chutney on the ghats (or river banks) of Varanasi.
*** While puffed rice has takers across India in the form of street food and savoury as well as sweet snacks, no other region has taken to it with as much gusto as West Bengal and Odisha. Both these states in the country’s east have a deep cultural connection to rice, since the extremely fertile soil is conducive to paddy cultivation. Puja,” said Chennai-based chef and culinary researcher, [the
Rice in its various forms, including puffed rice, formed a
penultimate day of the nine-day festival called Navratri
major portion of the diet in pre-colonial Bengal. According
when people worship their equipment and vehicles], a
to a government report published in 1940, out of the 3,600
mixture of flattened rice (or aval in Tamil), puffed rice,
calories prescribed for a healthy diet, Bengalis received
roasted gram [and] powdered jaggery is placed over a
3,500 calories just from eating rice. As Ph.D. scholar Suvajit
banana leaf and distributed.”
Halder notes in Our Food Their Food: A Historical Overview of
Rakesh
Raghunathan.
“During
Ayudha
Pooja
the Bengali platter, when British biscuits and bread started
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My own memories of laiya or muri—the local name for
replacing local foods, there was opposition to the trend
puffed rice in North, East and North East India—are
from Bengal.
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In Bengal then, it was not uncommon for people to eat
On the streets of Kolkata, jhal muri attracts large crowds.
puffed rice for breakfast, snacks and even main meals.
A mashup of the words jhal, which loosely means hot in Bengali, and muri, which is the local word for puffed rice,
“My grandmother used to make muri by the tins at home.
this snack is distinguished by the addition of raw mustard
In the evening we would smash a samosa or aloo chop and
oil. Puffed rice is mixed with roasted gram, peanuts, onions
mix it with muri with some finely chopped onions and eat
and green chillies, with the mustard oil adding signature
it,” says Shweta Mohapatra who runs an Instagram account
pungency. A generous dose of lime juice is added to cut the
focused on food stories from Odisha.
sharpness of mustard oil.
Before breakfast cereals from the West became popular,
Food historian and author Pritha Sen pins down the
muri was a popular breakfast choice. Food researcher and
popularity of jhal muri on the streets of Kolkata to the
writer Shubhra Chatterjee tells me that in older times,
World Wars.
muri was often mixed with milk or yoghurt to be eaten for
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breakfast. A squashed banana, aam papad (thin strips of
“The street food in Calcutta started coming up when the
candied mango) or sandesh (a Bengali sweet made with
city was burgeoning into a metropolis especially during the
milk solids) contributed a spot of sweetness to this dish.
wars,” said Sen.
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Puffed rice has acquired a certain glamour quotient in the context of street food. However, in some contexts, there is also a social stigma associated with eating it.
As she explained, Bengalis working with the British
carrying muri with them and stalls selling all sorts of snacks
administration were roped in to deal with the fallout of
to be mixed with it.
the war, and daily wage labourers were brought in for construction work around north and central Calcutta.
Muri is deeply rooted in Bankura’s social and cultural
There was a demand for quick and cheap food to feed this
life. The region is economically poor and the land isn’t
growing population, and that’s what led to the creation of
very fertile. Muri makes for a cheaper alternative for the
street food (including jhal muri) in these parts of the city.
working class when compared to rice. It is also easier to carry for the adivasis who migrate to these parts to work
Once you move beyond Kolkata, muri or puffed rice holds
on the fields during sowing and harvesting seasons. The
a larger meaning, especially in the rural parts of the region.
landowners who engage daily wage labourers on their agriculture farms keep sacks of muri for their workers.
“In West Bengal there are various varieties made from different strains of rice, which also dictates taste,” said
“The locals here consume muri in large quantities,” says
Sen. “In the rural areas of West Bengal [and Odisha],
Mitra. “For a person from Bankura, jhal muri is an urban
people simply substitute muri for rice. In fact, many rural
person’s food. The small quantity of jhal muri sold on
folk, especially those hailing from Bankura, Birbhum,
the streets and its price wouldn’t be sustainable for a
Bardhaman (located in the north and northwestern part
rural person.”
of West Bengal), etc. prefer muri to rice when pairing with vegetables or meats.”
Puffed rice has acquired a certain glamour quotient in the context of street food. Take for instance Mumbai’s bhel
Bankura is famous for Kenjakura Muri Mela, an annual
puri, which has become a big draw thanks to Hindi films. Or
puffed rice festival, which takes place on the banks of the
a London-based food cart called Jhal Muri Express that has
Dwarkeshwar River. During the magh month of the Hindu
made the snack famous. However, in some contexts, there
calendar (mid-January to mid-February), people from
is also a social stigma associated with eating it. Krishnendu
nearby villages would travel to a local temple in Kenjakura
Ray, associate professor and chair of the Department
village in Bankura to offer prayers.
of Nutrition and Food Studies at New York University, remembers eating muri as a snack or as breakfast. But
“It was a long journey and so they would carry muri with
never as a meal.
them,” said Diptajyoti Mitra, a Pune-based management consultant and former restaurateur, who grew up in
“Muri was made at homes in Odisha, but never in a Bengali
Bankura in the 1970s and ‘80s. “They soaked [the mura]
household,” said Ray, whose mother is Odiya and father
in water taken from the river, mixed it with chhachi piyaj
was Bengali. “It was seen as a bazaar commodity among the
(shallots), green chillies, tele bhaja (or deep-fried fritters),
Bengali bhadrolok (upper caste and upper class Bengalis).”
aloo dum (a gravied potato dish), ghughni (boiled and mashed white peas) or chops sold at the local shops and
According to Ray, it was acceptable to eat muri on the
eat it sitting by the banks of the river.”
streets, but it had no place in the refined cuisine of the Bengali middle class, which was taking shape during the
Over time, this became a ritual of its own and eventually
colonial period.
turned into a fair of sorts, with people going in large groups
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“Muri itself is not shameful or [seen as] contaminating of
and co-founder of Kalinga Stories, an Odisha-based food
class," explained Ray. "As long as it is retained as a snack
pop-up. “Muri mansa is loved by the royals as well as the
and maybe as breakfast. But as a meal it’s clearly a sign
common people.”
of poverty and rurality for the upwardly mobile, aspiring middle class.”
According to Krishnendu Ray, the attraction of muri mansa lies in its juxtaposition of a poor man’s food with access
***
to expensive protein and the exclusivity of courtly cuisine.
Muri’s recent claim to fame was its inclusion in the "Make In India" programme launched by the Indian
“It brings together almost two different kinds of class
government in 2014. It was among 12 traditional foods
artefacts,” he said. To Ray, muri mansa is a means of
to be promoted in the global market. The project focused
creating a distinct Odiya identity by bringing together
on the standardisation, mass production and marketing
the foods of the high and the low. “Muri’s power is its
of these foods. Muri represented the state of Odisha,
portability.”
casting the spotlight on the state’s cuisine, which often gets overshadowed by West Bengal given the similarity in their
And suddenly it all makes sense to me—why my mother
food cultures.
would pack two kilos of phodni for me to carry back to the hostel when I was studying, or why it lends itself so
In Odisha, muri is vastly popular in the Mayurbhanj region,
naturally to street food across the country. Travellers and
located in the northeast corner of the state. Muri mansa,
soldiers carried puffed rice on long journeys because it
a combination of muri eaten with spicy mutton curry,
wouldn’t spoil. Its lightness is also an asset for street food
forms a unique identity for the people of Mayurbhanj. It’s
vendors, who often carry their portable stands along with
believed that the dish was invented in the military kitchens
the ingredients from place to place.
of King Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty who ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from 268 to 232 BCE.
Besides in the literal sense, as Ray points out, muri is portable because it can occupy many roles on our plates.
“Muri is light, hence the soldiers would carry it along. They
It can at once be a pocket-friendly meal, a snack when
would typically hunt a goat or a wild animal, cook it into a
entertaining guests or a delicacy worthy of piety and pomp.
curry and eat with muri,” said Madhulika Dash, food writer
Despite its simplicity—and perhaps because of it—it has a treasured place in the Indian kitchen.
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K a an ji , C hi ro t a an d O t h e r Me m o r i e s The B ene Israel Jews of India are a small community with a distinct cultural and culinar y identity. Through her poems, Zilka Joseph introduces us to the flavours of her heritage.
TEXT & POETRY
Zilka Joseph
ILLUSTRATIONS
Meghdeep Sarkar
Bene Israel (Beni-Israel) family in Mumbai, (Bombay) India, formerly known as Shanvar Telis (Saturday oil-pressers). The Bene Israel are native Jews of India, said to have descended form a group of Jews shipwrecked on the Indian coast, c. 500 A.D.. (Photo by Culture Club/Getty Images)
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There are many theories about the origin of the Bene Israel in India. The most popular one is that they were fleeing the rule of the Greek overlord Epiphanes, and that two ships were wrecked on the west coast of India in 175 B.C.E. The belief is that seven men or seven couples survived. Some scholars think they came after the destruction of the Temple in 70 C.E., and that they were descendants of the Lost Tribes who settled in India around the 10th century, perhaps around King Solomon’s reign. However, other scholars seem to think that they came from Yemen, Persia or South Arabia in the fifth or sixth century C.E. Survivors were allowed to peacefully settle in India and
"Rice (or some form of it) and fish were staples. Coconut wa s added to almost ever y dish. It was an essential ingredient that replaced dair y products when cooking meats, as one of the dietar y laws ( kashruth) forbids Jews to cook meat with dair y."
travel. They lived in villages along the Konkan coast and became mostly oil pressers. They were called “Shanwar telis,” or Saturday oil pressers, since that was the profession that many took up. (Tel is the Marathi word for oil; teli, one
soaked wheat, is a labour-intensive dish. The sticky extract
who presses oil.)
is boiled slowly with coconut milk, sugar and cardamom, and pink (or occasionally lemon yellow) food colouring is
Since they did not work on shanwar—Saturday, the
added. The liquid halwa is then poured into steel thalis to
Sabbath—they were called Shanwar telis. They learned
cool, and later cut into squares or diamond shapes.
to speak, read and write Marathi, the language of the region; wore Indian clothes, cooked local foods and kept
My family also made besan wadis and besan laddoos, which
the Sabbath.
are a dense, tasty and fragrant sweetmeat made from chickpea flour (or besan) roasted in ghee. A dish called
The food of the Hindu and Muslim population of the
malida, made from flattened rice mixed with chopped, dried
Konkan coast became the food of the Bene Israel. Rice
fruit and nuts, and freshly grated coconut, was significant
(or some form of it) and fish were staples. Coconut was
for breaking the Yom Kippur fast. It was also important
added to almost every dish. It was an essential ingredient
for the feast of Prophet Elijah and for thanksgiving rituals
that replaced dairy products when cooking meats, as one
dedicated to him, as he is revered by the Bene Israel.
of the dietary laws (kashruth) forbids Jews to cook meat with dairy.
In India, the Bene Israel were never persecuted, and integrated well into Indian society. As time went on, the
They did not eat pork or shellfish as those were forbidden
community moved into cities, received college educations
too. Herbs like coriander and kari leaves (curry leaves),
and have achieved success in every profession. They
seasonings like mustard, pepper and chillies, and spices
became
like clove, cardamom, cinnamon and nutmeg, were used in
and social workers, and made a name for themselves in
both savoury and sweet dishes.
Bollywood and Hollywood. Their descendants have thrived
educators,
artists,
writers,
doctors,
lawyers
in India and around the world. The estimated population of Curry, a word that came into use later, was more commonly
Bene Israel in India today is about 4,000 people, and their
called “kaanji.” (Not “kanji”, which is porridge or a thin rice
global population is about 95,000 people.
and water preparation). For festivals like Rosh Hashanah and Kippur, the Bene Israel make fried sweets like karanje (also called Jewish puri) and chironje. Chik-cha halwa, which is made from “chik,” or the thick juice extracted from
S o u r c e s The Jews of India by Benjamin J. Israel (Mosiac Books) The Bene Israel of India: Some Studies by Benjamin J. Israel (Orient Longman) Current population data provided by Eliaz Reuben-Dandekar, Kammodan Mocadem Publishing House
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A Chirota for My Thoughts
this fine flaky treat was often made from leftover chironji dough rolled out in flat circles ghee smeared with fingers piled folded and rolled folded and rolled again full of hidden “puthers”—feathers which fluffed miraculously as it rose up singing out of hot oil a crisp golden disc delicate as eggshells dusted with sugar or drizzled with a glaze then studded with pistas and charolee eaten so fast even the fine sprays of crumbs that settled everywhere like dust I pressed my little index finger into and sucked or licked off the old dining table with my tongue Some days paralyzed with lost-ness and weak limbs I pretend unhealed wounds and home fallen to ruin are made whole broken slivers I salvage from those strong stainless steel tins indestructible dabbas we once owned etched with our names
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N e v e r Fo r ge t t h e C h i r o n j e
not the usual savoury fried puris flat and round and large as the palm of your hand— the ones we might eat with rich mutton curry on birthdays or anniversaries but the special ones the High Holiday ones seven-layered ones if you followed the rules half-moon shaped confections filled to the tightly pinched or zig-zagged seam with ghee-roasted semolina coarse shredded coconut chopped raisins and nuts deep fried in our big karahi then laid out in steel thalis to cool sprinkled with powdered sugar and the brown globes of fat charoli nuts who knew heaven could be like this it was never enough to hang around my mother and grandmother while they worked sweat beading their brows and tempers sharp
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but it was my obsession to watch them like a hawk and wrap myself in the fragrance and to wait they knew great secrets I would never learn oh I remember the crunch when I bit into the first hot ones— the trial ones the crooked or the split-in-oil ones those that never made it to the table my face nearly plastered to the plate tasting what they asked me to taste telling them what was lacking more sweet or salt devouring every love-filled crumb they gave me and me thinking they were immortal that there would never be a time in our lives without them or sans our khus-khusi karanje.
(Notes: In Marathi, the chironji is also called karanji. The plural form is chironje and karanje. The same applies to chirota and chirote.)
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Green K aanji and Destiny
the house always smelled different lighter, somehow fresher fragrant in a way that it didn’t when red curries were cooked hunks of ginger garlic onion smashed and ground on the ridged stone scooped into a steel bowl then oil heated in a dekchi (peanut oil Postman Brand when I was young) till it smoked a handful of kari leaves with one or two green chillies seeds removed (we could not deal with much heat) thrown in (ah the crackling the fragrance) and the wet paste added soon after what a sizzle and splatter and noses and eyes watering briefly stirred on a medium flame a slow stir stir stir with a dash of cumin and turmeric and a half-palmful of coriander powder salt to taste mouth-watering the smell filling the rooms wafting out the windows attracting crows to sit on the sill and caw masala never browned just gently fried rawness cooked out the spices mellowed just till it passed the final sniff test
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and what could compliment this green deliciousness mild fish like paplet (pomfret was cheap back then) sometimes local chickens tough birds stewed into softness or a winter vegetable like kohlrabi or cauliflower peas with the ubiquitous potato what made this kaanji green as a tropical pond oh dhaniya, so dhanya— a blessing and the blessed herb mud-smeared coriander washed picked clean of grit and earthworms then ground on the same stone with a splash of water a cup of green shining liquid poured in right at the end finished with a quick boil and a lavish squeeze of lime (fingers still exuding the smell of the rind as you ate) emerald kaanji of the Konkan my ancestors learned to cook when they survived the storm that wrecked their ships on Indian shores and these west coast villages became home so comforting (sometimes with coconut milk for a richer curry) yet so feisty citrus bursting on the tongue the tang of cilantro
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a dish I loved so much that once as a young girl I could not stop eating it slurping the velvety goodness into my mouth gorging on tender cubes of kohlrabi and butter-soft potatoes until alarmed my mother swept the dish off to the kitchen (only I was left at the table still cleaning my plate with my fingers) and did we both learn the truth that day that this little girl mouth full of green curry skinny weak child a poor and picky eater (eyes bigger than her stomach) (who knew what or who I would turn into when I grew up and who knew what “foodie” meant did the word even exist then) had the makings of a glutton was destined to be obsessed with food
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P a n t o u m f o r C h i k- c h a H a l w a
whose hands worked hard to make this halwa whose hands soaked the mounds of wheat how we waited three days and nights how chik was extracted from grain whose hands soaked the mounds of wheat knew each step of the recipe how to squeeze the chik from grain to boil slowly the thick beads of juice did they learn each step of the recipe from a new culture from a new land to boil slowly the thick beads of juice did they miss loved ones left behind from a new culture from a new land did they taste their ancestors’ food did they miss loved ones left behind those lost in the deluge shipwrecked did their tongues taste their ancestors’ food this was so different from sweets of home those lost in the deluge and wreck would never come back to life so very different from sweets of home sugar coconut milk coloured pink thickening those lost in the deluge shipwrecked would their spirits whisper old recipes
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sugar rose-tinted coconut milk thickening tired arms bated breath silky cubes cooling do spirits whisper old recipes in a new land new life new history tired arms bated breath silky cubes cooling sprinkled with poppy seed slivered nuts new land new life new history food and ways you made your own sprinkled with poppy seed slivered nuts how we waited how we waited the food and ways you made your own your hands working hard to make this halwa
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67
I n S e arch o f S arga s s u m India ha s a rich biodiversity of seaweed, which is just beginning to find its way onto plates. Could it b e a f o o d o f t h e f u t u r e?
TEXT
Joanna Lobo
PHOTOGRAPHY
Rebecca D'Costa
It is a blanket of green. Thin green ribbons piled high
algae are an important source of nutrition. They are also
atop blushing pink slivers of salmon, lying in a fragrant
increasingly viewed as a sustainable and environmentally
truffle ponzu dressing. In another plate, the blanket pulls
conscious way of eating.
apart to reveal delicate king prawns glazed with yuzu chilli. Above my head, a solitary lamp throws the ribbons
India has high seaweed biodiversity. Over 800 species of
into sharp focus, their rich green reminiscent of a forest,
seaweed, 600 of which are native, grow abundantly along
contrasting against the pink of the creatures from that
the west coast of the country, including Goa, Mumbai,
same underwater forest.
Ratnagiri in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Seaweed can also be found on the eastern coast, in Odisha, Tamil Nadu and the
I am seated inside a dark, low-ceilinged room awash with
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
red light and papered with Japanese art and posters. This is Makutsu, a yakitori bar on a popular street in Panjim,
Seaweed has long been harvested and used in the
Goa, where chef Pablo Miranda offers me my first taste of
food industry. Some of its applications include in the
Indian seaweed.
thickening gel, agar agar; the additive and food compound, carrageenan; in alginate, an extract which is used as a
The source? The Goan shores, and marine conservationist
binder and emulsifier, and in dairy and meat products.
Gabriella D’Cruz. On their plates, most urban Indians have so far been Seaweed are macro algae—marine vegetables that grow
acquainted
in the oceans. These macro-algae are classified into three
restaurants that serve nori, kombu and wakame.
with
imported
seaweed
through
Asian
categories: brown, green and red. They can be dried and stored for a long time. Low in calories, high in fibre
However, this is about to change. Indian seaweed is here,
and boasting a high mineral content, these fast-growing
and ready to stake a claim to our palates and plates.
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R ASA *** The change is surfacing in restaurants in Goa.
with it, using it in stock, salads, and drying it,” she says.
A large part of the credit goes to D’Cruz, who has been
drying it (just once) to ensure the delicate flavours are
championing native seaweed for two years. The marine conservationist runs Good Ocean, a venture dedicated to highlighting seaweed diversity in Goa (and India at large) and exploring its potential as food. Goa’s coastline is home to 145 documented varieties of seaweed. D’Cruz harvests one kind: sargassum, a brown
Dastidar prepares seaweed by shade-drying and sunretained. As someone who makes a lot of furikake, she has also experimented with creating a podi version. Podi (colloquially called gunpowder) is a spicy condiment made of roasted lentils, seeds and spices, which is very popular in the South Indian states. Down the road from Makutsu is For The Record Vinyl Bar,
genus of seaweed.
where Buland Shukla has been experimenting with cocktails
“It grows in bulk and up to 3 metres in length,” D’Cruz says.
now also working with seaweed. The new menu here stars
“It is larger than the other [types] and there’s less fear of it being overharvested. It has a similar flavour profile to kelp/ kombu, and can also be used to mimic it. In addition, it has
featuring Indigenous liquors such as feni and mahua. He is seaweed in two ways: dusted over thick-cut potato wedges, giving them a truffle-like umami flavour, and adding another layer of crunch to a dish containing beer-battered
its own interesting flavour, and is very nutritious.”
mussels placed on top of a smoked aubergine bharta foam.
The winner of The Food Chain Global Youth Champion
At the newly opened Elaa Café and Bar in Anjuna, chef
Award 2021, D’Cruz had a line of pet treats incorporating seaweed called Sea Doggos, but discontinued it as it was too expensive to produce. Today, she sells dried seaweed directly to restaurants, harvesting and processing it herself. Her supply chain is small. It includes just four restaurants for now. For most chefs, even those familiar with seaweed, Indian
Sandeep Sreedharan uses dehydrated sargassum in his vegetarian laksa. The menu of his “earth-based café” has a heavy emphasis on vegetarian and vegan dishes; he uses local, sustainably sourced ingredients in his versions of global fare. “Seaweed is the closest thing to match the flavour profile of belacan [or prawn paste],” he says. “It tastes like
seaweed is a new ingredient.
the ocean.”
“Chefs need to familiarise themselves with native seaweed
Sreedharan first used seaweed for a private dinner he
species. [They need to] understand the flavour and texture,
catered in Mumbai two years ago, and now intends to add
[which] takes time. It needs innovation,” D’Cruz says.
it to more of his dishes. He has even used it in rasam.
There are ongoing experiments. While some are still in the
“The seaweed here is sometimes more intense in flavour.
research stage, others are finding spots on menus. Burger Factory, a chain of restaurants serving gourmet burgers with multiple outlets in Goa, is working on a seaweed burger. At Makutsu, Miranda uses it as a topping on his dishes. He is also currently working on dehydrating it to make a dashi, and tossing some in a fresh seaweed salad
You have got to really understand it and treat every batch differently,” he cautions. “There’s a lot of responsibility involved in using this ingredient.” That is why Najeeb Bin Haneef took three years to perfect his seaweed cookies. In 2016, the biotechnology student at
with ginger and chilli tamari.
Thrissur’s Sahrdaya College of Engineering and Technology
Anumitra Ghosh Dastidar, chef and co-founder of Edible
applications in food. Zaara Biotech launched in 2019
Archives, an experimental, ingredient-led restaurant in North Goa, has been experimenting with Indian seaweed for two years. The ingredient isn’t unfamiliar to her: she has seen seaweed farming in China, and has used it in her Japanese and Korean dishes.
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“I apply my Japanese and Korean experience to work
started researching micro algae and seaweed and their with B-lite Cookies, healthy cookies containing spirulina and seaweed. “Our research helped us realise that if we had to tap the nutritional profile of seaweed and package it in a way that
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appealed to people, bakery items like cookies and cupcakes would be ideal,” Haneef says. Zaara Biotech works with the Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (ICAR-CIFT) in Cochin and sources its seaweed from Rameshwaram in southern Tamil Nadu and the Lakshadweep islands. The seaweed is dried, powdered and used in cookies made with white and dark chocolate; they have also experimented with breads, buns and cupcakes. Their cookies are exported to the U.K., U.S. and Germany, among other countries. In April 2022, they aim to launch seaweed noodles too. “There needs to be more awareness of the properties of seaweed and the potential of the ingredient,” Haneef says. He wants to build it, one cookie at a time.
*** Seaweed appears to be the crop of the future. Globally, people are researching and talking about aquaculture as the future of food. Allied Market Research, a global research firm, says the seaweed industry all over the world is anticipated to generate $9.07 billion by 2024. “The global popularity of seaweed and its applications in food is reflecting in India too, and there’s been more of a demand rather than us trying to push it,” says D’Cruz, adding that she has received enquiries from outside Goa as well. However, the future of seaweed as food is likely to face a few challenges in India. Seaweed is seasonal, and it cannot be harvested all at once: the tide has to be right, and the plant cannot be in its reproductive phase. There is also the concern of overharvesting, especially if there is large-scale demand. People need to know which seaweed is rare or crucial to the ecosystem. India’s traditional food practices are also different from other Asian seaweed consuming nations like Japan. Its appeal may naturally be restricted to those who have had the opportunity to experiment with food. “India is not a seaweed-eating nation. The local palate doesn’t know this flavour. The people eating seaweed in a big way are the upper middle class, who can afford to go
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R ASA to sushi restaurants,” says marine conservation scientist Aaron Savio Lobo. “Interestingly, none of our coastal communities eat it. It may be used as part of local medicine but not in the cuisine,” Dastidar says. There is no doubt that it is an unfamiliar flavour, even for those who consume fish. D’Cruz first tasted seaweed
"There’s no denying that utilising these nutritious vegetables from the sea could be the sustainable way forward."
during her stint at a seaweed company in Scotland. Initially, she says she found the taste alien to her palate. “We are not used to eating it, so initially there was a lot of aversion to the new fishy flavour. But, as you start eating
In addition, seaweed in India is different from what
more, it grows on you,” she says.
is available in other Asian countries. The difference is apparent in flavour profiles, nutrient content, texture and size. It’s a difference that D’Cruz likens to that between an apple and a banana. Hence, the challenge lies in familiarising people with the ingredient and then offering them knowledge on how to incorporate it into their daily food habits. “If it is in a faddish and fancy way, it will never go to every sector of society, which won’t be sustainable,” says Dastidar. “If it doesn’t go back to the community, then it becomes a commodity with no connection with the community harvesting it, and they are less likely to conserve it.” To this end, Dastidar hopes to carry some of her seaweed podi to Tamil Nadu and introduce people to it.
*** Lobo believes that seaweed can be part of a larger solution in India’s food future, but needs to be approached delicately and with nuance. It has to be a multi-concerted effort pushed by government policies and food technology institutes, involving coastal communities that farm seaweed. Recently, as part of the proposed Blue Revolution, an initiative that aims to augment the country’s production of fishing, aquaculture and seafood, the Indian government invested approximately $6.4 billion to increase seaweed production to at least 1 million tonnes by 2025. Even though the money is available, there are regulations in place. When Haneef set out to sell cookies, he turned to international guidelines and followed them. The absence of
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a proper policy regarding seaweed harvesting means it could become a free-for-all. “Anyone can take over a local fishing area, decide they want to have a massive seaweed farm and start harvesting and selling it. Where are the checks?” D’Cruz asks. Lobo agrees, adding that the harvesting should remain in the control of small-scale fishers and seaweed should have a beneficial impact on their lives. The change should begin with the coastal communities and their diets. “We have to ask: do we need to push it into communities that don’t use it, or do we need to value–add, or uplift what agroecology is doing well? It’s about understanding what was part of local culture and diets, and build on what they know,” he says. There’s no denying that utilising these nutritious vegetables from the sea could be the sustainable way forward. India has only just started flirting with the possibility of seaweed as food, in burgers, cookies and salads. With the right initiative and guidance, the future could very well be blue. And green.
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M o u r ni n g Mi l k Powd e r
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times—morning tea break, lunch break, and afternoon tea break.
In Sri Lanka, milk powder is not just a commodity—it brings p e o p l e t o ge t h e r f o r t h e social ritual of teatime. T h e c o u n t r y ’s c u r r e n t economic crisis has made this ever yday ingredient inaccessible.
Considering this, it was difficult to comprehend the answer I received when I walked into a resthouse near Puttalam—a town in the North Western Province of the country—recently and asked for a cup of tea. “No milk tea, sorry,” came the resounding voice from behind the counter. “We have run out of milk powder, and cannot find it anywhere. I can give you plain tea.” I felt almost insulted. Grudgingly, I acquiesced to a cup of plain black tea. *** As good as it is, my Nani’s signature recipe is an expensive one, because it features fresh milk. In fact, powdered milk has long been the secret behind the country’s milk tea frenzy. Being an island nation, fresh milk is not easily available. Hence, for decades, a box of concentrated milk powder has been the shortcut to this indulgence.
TEXT
Zahara Dawoodbhoy
PHOTOGRAPHY
Nazly Ahmed
Milk powder is also widely used as a substitute for breast milk, and was in fact initially marketed as a health drink for infants and children. According to a 2002 Massey University study, which looked at the role of motherhood in creating a market for milk powder in Sri Lanka, “The key
For most of my life, ordering tea at a roadside kade in Sri Lanka has been marked by a customary question: “Do you want tea or plain tea?” The de-facto tea being referred to here is what most other cultures might call milk tea—a tooth-achingly sweet, creamy drink steeped with the flavour of black tea. A warm cup of milk tea is a symbol of hospitality in Sri Lanka, and every household will have its own way of preparing the drink, the nuances of which are often held up with a particular sense of pride. My Nani or maternal grandmother’s version, and my own personal favourite, is made by simmering the tea leaves directly in fresh milk, and topping off the brew with a teaspoon of condensed milk. Tea drinking is so ubiquitous in Sri Lankan life that it has even spilled into the country’s white collar workday. Every corporate office in any city will have three recognised break
to establishing market dominance was gaining the trust of mothers in Anchor products, which are marketed as the best-quality milk products that mothers can buy for their children.” This market strategy proved to be extremely fruitful, as New Zealand—the birthplace of the Anchor brand—is one of the leading countries to supply milk powder to Sri Lanka. Although many non-governmental organisations and Sri Lankan women’s groups have since discouraged the consumption of milk powder for infants, the product remains an essential part of the diet for Sri Lankan children. When the COVID-19 pandemic hit Sri Lanka in early 2020, just as the national economy was beginning to recover from the Easter Sunday bomb attacks that took place one year earlier, resulting lockdowns and border closures served as the trigger that plunged the country into an ongoing economic crisis. With the wide-scale loss of jobs in the wake of the pandemic, and a range of other factors
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R ASA such as loss of tourism, tax cuts, low reserves of foreign exchange, and financial debt, Sri Lanka is currently in dire economic straits. The waning tourism industry, which previously contributed more than 10 percent of the country’s GDP, has resulted in a lack of incoming foreign currency and a sharp dip in foreign reserves. As economist Rehana Thowfeek noted in an Al Jazeera article, the situation in the country “... is boiling down to a choice between servicing its debt or paying for imports of everyday needs. So far it appears that the government is committed to the former, even if that means sacrificing the needs of its citizens.” As a result, uncleared essential items such as milk powder
"In 202 1 alone, the price of a 400g pack of milk powder increased by Rs 250, a steep hike of 33 percent. In late March 2022 , news reports noted that the price of the same 400g packet shot up by Rs 250 in a single day."
continue to pile up at Colombo’s port even as domestic prices soar. Certain corporations, including Milco Sri Lanka, Pelwatte Dairy Industries Ltd. and Nestlé Lanka produce milk powder locally, but even combined, are able to meet only around 40 percent of the country’s demand, and the majority of dairy products are indeed imported. In 2021 alone, the price of a 400g pack of milk powder increased by Rs 250, a steep hike of 33 percent. In late March 2022, news reports noted that the price of the same 400g packet shot up by Rs 250 in a single day. Visakam Thiruvadhirai, a tuk tuk driver and father of three who lives in the outskirts of Colombo, noted how many roadside shopkeepers in the area had begun opening up 1 kg packets of milk powder and dividing them into smaller 100g packets. “People can’t afford a whole packet anymore,” Thiruvadhirai said. “I used to get the big packet for my family, which would last us a few weeks, and now I can only afford to get the small [100g] packets. We have all stopped drinking milk tea and we save all the milk powder for the children.” In January this year, local news agencies reported that long lines of people were queuing outside shops for a packet of milk powder again, after lines were temporarily dispersed a month earlier due to a police directive ordering citizens not to queue. Some of these lines were forcibly dispersed A man prepares tea outdoors for protesters who will arrive at GotaGoGama, the main protest site in Colombo, Sri Lanka, where thousands of people have been gathering everyday to demand political change and solutions to the country's economic crisis.
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by police officers as citizens began openly voicing their frustrations with the government, and blaming President Gotabaya Rajapaksa for this shortage. To quell the chaos during this time, the government issued tokens for available packets, but by January 2022, the
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practice was discontinued and lines began to snake outside
“From the mid 1950s to 1977, Sri Lanka had a policy
stores once more.
environment that favoured local production and selfsufficiency,” said Dr. Siri Hettige, Professor Emeritus of
The quiet irony behind this situation is that the very
Sociology at Colombo University.
ingredient from which Sri Lankans are experiencing withdrawal symptoms has played a vital role in creating the
The implications of this centralised, inwardly-oriented
conditions that have made its loss so potent.
economy was that official pricing, rationing and distribution policies were the main instruments through which the
***
government tried to achieve its social objectives. According
As someone who was born in the mid ‘90s, it is difficult to
to a study conducted by the University of Peradeniya in
divorce my childhood memories from milk powder. I don’t
2019, Sri Lanka was at one point about 80 percent self-
remember the first time I drank a glass of diluted powdered
sufficient in dairy production, even with a lower availability
milk, because it dates back further than my own memory.
of irrigated farming systems.
But I do remember that by the time I was six years old, I was eating whole teaspoons of plain milk powder, relishing
Just one generation before my six-year-old self was
as it dissolved in my mouth to produce a thick, gooey mess
devouring large amounts of concentrated milk powder, my
that stuck to my teeth, equal parts sweet and salty.
mother was waiting outside her house for the milkman. He would come early in the morning before school started
The abundance of milk powder was something that I had
to fill four bottles left out on her doorstep with fresh milk.
never questioned. It was only recently that I learned how
My mother recalls with fondness how her twin brother
unique this was to my generation.
would gulp down her glass of milk on the days when she
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"Currently, Sri L anka spends around $ 400 million annually on milk powder alone, and the product has woven itself into the countr y ’s national identity."
couldn’t finish it. The next morning, empty bottles were left
“The population was increasing, and people started
outside for the milkman to refill.
moving into urban areas which were densely populated,” Hettige said. “People could not consume things which
“A lot has changed in what people consume and how
they
consumed
in
villages,
and
so
the
consump-
they consume it, and the free market economy created
tion patterns became different, and demand for new
a situation where these changes occurred very quickly,”
products increased.”
Hettige explained. Sri Lanka had been suddenly thrust into the 21st century, The pivotal moment Hettige refers to occurred in late
and my mother’s milkman couldn’t keep up.
1977, when authorities initiated comprehensive economic
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reforms, reversing policies of the previous two decades.
As a consequence, milk powder was injected into the
Open market policies were adopted in an attempt to
country’s economy in 1983, when Nestlé Lanka, a subsidiary
boost production, increase employment and improve the
of the global giant, commissioned its first plant. This
standards of living. The decision was fuelled by changes
plant initially produced condensed milk, but expanded its
that had been happening gradually.
operations a few years later with a focus on milk powder.
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Herath is one of many farmers in Matale employed by
outsource production to developing nations in order to
Richlife Dairies Ltd., a dairy company in Sri Lanka. The
cope with economic constraints caused by World War II.
company is well-known in the area and respected by farmers for the relatively higher rates it offers. At times,
According to a study conducted by the University of
the company also intervenes to help farmers with loan
Peradeniya in 1992, Nestlé Lanka was initially given
schemes that enable them to grow their enterprise and
permission to collect milk from three districts in the country.
produce more yield.
The company also embarked on a large development programme to increase milk production in these districts.
But when asked about business growth, many dairy
But by 1992, fuelled by open economic policies, the formal
farmers in the Matale area have a similar answer.
segregation of areas for milk collection was deregulated and Nestlé Lanka was free to collect milk from all districts
“Maybe by cultivating other products, like spices.”
in Sri Lanka. The idea of growth in dairy farming is never brought up as “Self-sufficiency dropped [by] half because the consump-
a viable option.
tion of dairy products increased,” economist Thowfeek said. “New products were introduced to markets and
“It is very difficult to grow the milk industry in Sri Lanka,
demand was not stifled as before, as there was no rationing
even though doing so will greatly help deal with crises like
by the state.”
what we are experiencing today,” said Mangala Kotalawela, manager of milk procurement for Richlife. “Real growth
Milk powder rapidly replaced fresh milk around the country,
involves making a shift toward self-sufficiency, and taking
partly because of the convenience that it introduced
on something ambitious like India did.”
into the Sri Lankan household. Milk could now be kept unrefrigerated in the kitchen for months, and families no longer had to spend money on daily deliveries from the milkman. By the 2000s, the country was able to meet only 30 percent of the national requirement. Currently, Sri Lanka spends around $400 million annually on milk powder alone, and the product has woven itself into the country’s national identity. *** H.M. Shanthirathne Herath wakes up every day before sunrise to feed his six cows. Unlike other dairy farmers in Matale, a town in the Central Province of Sri Lanka, he doesn’t take his cows outside to feed. From years of experience as a dairy farmer, he has found that exposure to the sun decreases the amount of milk the cows produce. So he goes out every morning to the watte—a patch of overgrown shrubbery and grass—near his home and collects grass to bring back for his cows. Once they are done feeding, he collects milk into a 25-litre plastic vat and waits for a company van to arrive. “Everything I produce, I give to the company, because it gives me a good rate and so I prioritise that,” Herath said. “Many people from my village come and ask to buy milk from me, but I cannot get the same prices through them, and so I won’t sell it to them. Here in the village, we don’t really drink fresh milk. We use milk powder.”
R ASA *** Despite similarities in culture and history, the story of India’s dairy economy diverges greatly from Sri Lanka’s. Like Sri Lanka, India was left without a blueprint for economic improvement following their independence from the British in 1947. In the decades that followed, the country struggled to meet the demands of a growing population. In response to this, India’s National Dairy Development Board launched an ambitious project in the early 1970s known as Operation Flood, which transformed the nation from a milk-deficient nation into one of the world’s largest milk producers. The initiative was based on an experimental pattern that
"Conversations on food shortages are always framed from the perspective of survival, and rightly so. B ut...I realised that what has made the shortage of milk powder in Sri L anka so visceral is that it has deprived us of a way of coming together."
created a national milk grid, linking producers throughout India with consumers in over 700 towns and cities, reducing seasonal and regional price variations and ensuring that milk producers got a major share of the income generated
widely due to the country’s relatively low consumption
from consumers.
of meat.
Harish Damodaran, rural affairs and agriculture editor
“Milk is the only source of animal protein and fat for the
for The Indian Express and Senior Fellow at the Centre for
vast population of the country that is vegetarian,”
Policy Research in New Delhi, told me that milk has “very
Damodaran said. “So this made the White Revolution
high income elasticity of demand” in India. That is, when
essential for India.”
the incomes of people increase, so does their consumption of milk.
This is not the case in Sri Lanka, which has a much higher consumption of meat compared to India. Besides, milk
“One cannot imagine what India’s imports of milk powder
products like cheese are not an essential part of the
and butter would have been if we did not have the White
country’s diet.
Revolution,” he said.“It has helped [the country] keep up with both its increase in population and incomes.”
“In that way, powdered milk was the perfect product for Sri Lankan culture, where the majority of milk consumption
The White Revolution was widely hailed as a success, and
comes from tea,” Hettige said. “It is convenient, quick and
it is from this transformation that the iconic brand and
has a long shelf life, and can be kept without the need for a
cooperative Amul emerged. The company’s three tier
refrigerator, which many households don’t have.”
structure effectively cut out middle men, allowing dairy farmers to profit more from milk sales.
There is also a shortage in arable and grazing land in Sri Lanka, and agriculture itself is on the decline. Coupled with
In 1997, Dr. Verghese Kurien, credited as the man
a shortage of expertise in animal husbandry, it is perhaps
responsible for India’s self-sufficiency in milk, visited Sri
not surprising that Kurien’s ideas never bore fruit in
Lanka, determined to replicate his model and reduce the
Sri Lanka.
island’s dependence on high cost, imported milk powder. While many see Sri Lanka’s inability to follow the Indian But Kurien’s efforts failed, due to the exertions from a
dairy model as a failure, others—like Thowfeek—believe
strong import lobby, as well as cultural, social and economic
that Sri Lanka should handle its economic issues differently.
conditions in Sri Lanka. For one, the dairy culture in both
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countries were starkly different. There are entire castes
“Personally, I do not think we need to be self-sufficient in
in India that specialise in cattle rearing and dairy farming,
everything we consume,” she shared via email. “We must
and fresh milk and milk products are consumed far more
be careful in the pursuit of self-sufficiency because we
R ASA home for tea. I also knew that any attempt I made to refuse would lead to stronger insistence, so I sheepishly walked back into the house and sat down. “Since you’re here to ask about my cows, how about a glass of fresh milk,” Herath beamed, as he shouted to Nalini from the kitchen, instructing her to heat up the milk. My excitement at the novelty of what I was being offered quietened my anxieties about my stomach, and I happily enjoyed two cups of warm, sweet milk, collected straight from the cows only hours earlier. Herath and I chatted about the differences between country and city life, and I left his house feeling full of conversation, perspective and fresh milk. For Herath, my visit was a rare occasion to indulge in the fruits of his own labour. Conversations on food shortages are always framed from the perspective of survival, and rightly so. But leaving Herath’s house that morning, I realised that what has made should only be doing so if it is comparatively more costefficient.”
the shortage of milk powder in Sri Lanka so visceral is that it has deprived us of a way of coming together. It gave me a newfound understanding as to why people wake up before
Thowfeek believes that Sri Lanka can improve production capabilities in several industries by liberalising the country further, and fostering free markets, competition, innovation and knowledge transfers. “As for addressing current shortages, these are [stemming from] ill-informed policy decisions which need to be addressed immediately, which, in my opinion, is a completely different discussion to whether or not we ought to be self-sufficient,” Thowfeek said. *** After thanking Herath for inviting me into his home, showing me his cows, and speaking so openly with me about his trade, I headed out to the road where my car was parked. But I was stopped in my tracks by Herath’s wife, Nalini. “Don’t leave yet,” she said, panting from trying to catch up with me. “You must stay for tea!” Even though I was still recovering from a stomach ache, I could not bring myself to break the cardinal rule of Sri Lankan hospitality—never refuse someone who invites you
the sun rises to wait in line for a packet of milk powder. “There is something about tea drinking that feels so essential here,” I remember a friend of mine telling me— over a cup of tea, of course. “I didn’t grow up in a family that was particularly close to each other, but we all had this one thing, this one time, where we all came together and talked. Of course, the conversations we had were always trivial and never too revealing, but at least we were talking to each other.” It is unclear if Sri Lanka will ever see the end of this economic crisis, and opinions on what the country should do next vary greatly. But as I think back to the countless cups of tea I have shared with friends, colleagues and strangers over the years, Herath’s parting words to me feel especially weighty. “You must come visit me again and show me your article,” he said, chuckling. “I am curious about what you will say about our profession and the shortage. In a few years, all the milk powder will be gone from our country, and then I won’t ever see you again.”
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M o m o s B eyo n d B o rde r s
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Fo r t h e s m a l l T i b e t a n Muslim community i n t h e K a s h m i r Va l l e y, traditional meat-stuffed d u m p l i n g s h av e p a v e d the way for an enduring bond with the local population.
TEXT
Suhail Bhat
PHOTOGRAPHY
Sameer Mushtaq
A group of Tibetans who came to Indian-administered Kashmir in 1969 after a failed rebellion against Chinese domination, have fostered a profound bond with locals in
the
Kashmir
Valley
through
their
food—momos
in particular. Momos are dumplings, usually stuffed with meat, chicken or vegetables. Staying true to tradition, most Tibetan restaurants in Kashmir roll out the thin dough rounds using a small wooden dowel. Momos—especially with beef and chicken fillings—are so popular in the Valley that they have become a staple Kashmiri dish. How did momos—and Tibetans—find a place in Kashmir? In 1959, as many as 100,000 Tibetans accompanied the Buddhist spiritual leader, the 14th Dalai Lama, to India after a failed uprising against Chinese domination. While a majority of the refugees were Tibetan Buddhists,
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R ASA locally known as “Tibetan colonies.” Eidgah accounts for nearly 90 percent of the total Tibetan population in the Kashmir Valley. A smaller number of Tibetans also live in Gulshan Mohalla in Srinagar’s Makhdoom Sahib neighbourhood.
*** Despite the small numbers of the community, Tibetan culture and cuisine are ubiquitous around the Valley. The Tibetan colony in Eidgah, in particular, has become a favourite spot for momo lovers, with hundreds of people flocking here weekly to sample the delicacy. The flavour varies according to the technique and filling. During the winter months in Kashmir, nothing beats a plate of steamed, minced mutton momos. They are delicious paired with a mint chutney or chilli sauce. Deepfried momos are best eaten with mayonnaise and chilligarlic sauce. Abdul Kareem runs Ab. Kareem Momo Hut, one of the oldest Tibetan restaurants in the Valley. His father, Ghulam Qadir, was among the first Tibetans to introduce momos in Srinagar. “My father started this business some 40 to 50 years ago, and he was the first person to sell momos in Kashmir,” Kareem says. “Now there are many Tibetan restaurants selling momos all over the city.” He explained that his father decided to start a restaurant since he could not find work after he migrated. (Although Tibetan Muslims have Indian passports and are allowed to vote—unlike Tibetan Buddhist refugees—they were
the communist authorities also barred roughly 3,000 Tibetan Muslims living in Central Tibet from practising Islam, forcing many to seek refuge in the conflict-torn Kashmir Valley. Today, around 1,500 Tibetan Muslims live in governmentallotted quarters in Srinagar’s Hawal and Eidgah areas,
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"Abdul K areem runs Ab. K areem Momo Hut, one of the oldest Tibetan restaurants in the Valley. His father, Ghulam Qadir, wa s among the first Tibetans to introduce momos in Srinagar."
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prohibited from owning land or working for the Kashmir
Kashmiri food at home. One of his daughters is married to
government under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution.
a Kashmiri.
Even though the article was abrogated in 2019, only those Tibetan Muslims who can prove that their ancestors
“I have never been treated as a foreigner,” Kareem says,
belonged to the state, are allowed to own land).
reflecting on a lineage that he shares with other members of the community.
Unlike many Tibetans who turned to embroidery to support themselves, Qadir chose to make a living by selling
“My roots are in this region, so I consider myself a Kashmiri.
traditional Tibetan cuisine.
My forefathers were Silk Route traders from here, and they settled in Tibet.”
“Because of the law [Article 370], we could not get a government job or acquire land,” Kareem explains. “As a
The Sangeen Darwaza, a Mughal-era arched entrance
result, my father decided to open a restaurant.”
in Srinagar’s Hawal neighbourhood, leads to another Tibetan colony, which houses at least 200 Tibetans living
Kareem says that his father struggled at first because
in government quarters. A slew of cafes serving Tibetan
momos were unfamiliar to the locals.
cuisine have sprouted throughout the colony.
“He needed to make ends meet but instead created a
The Tibetan Kitchen, owned by Mohammad Abubakar, is
secure business,” Kareem says.
one such well-known momo restaurant. Apart from a shared faith, he believes that food has helped his community form
Like the majority of Tibetan Muslims in the Valley, Kareem
strong bonds with locals.
has adopted virtually every aspect of Kashmiri culture and language. He is known for his sense of humour among
“The majority of our customers are Kashmiris, since momos
the customers. Fluent in Kashmiri, he also prefers to eat
have become a local delicacy,” he said.
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M e h e r Var m a’s B a d Ta b l e M a n n e r s H e r e' s a b e h i n d - t h e - s c e n e s g l i m p s e a t t h i s Whetstone Radio C ollective podca st that takes an intimate look at food in South Asia.
“The episode ‘Where There Are No Butchers, There are
Varma, talking about food seriously means going beyond
Cinnamon Buns’ was certainly the most challenging to
good etiquette.
record and script,” said Varma. “I grappled with my
@whetstoneradio
For cultural anthropologist and food writer Meher
positionality throughout (and still do) and constantly “While I love glamorous cooking shows and glossy
questioned what gave me the right to represent a caste-
cookbooks, I wanted to disrupt the formality around
oppressed group in English. Fortunately, my guests were
dining,” she says. “Good conversations begin when good
able to help me think through these self-reflexive questions,
manners collapse.”
and working together on the conversation, way before it was recorded, made for a much richer, honest episode.”
Spurred by this desire to “talk, really talk” about food—an emotive and often divisive issue—in South Asia, Varma’s
In Season 2 of Bad Table Manners, Varma hopes to expand
podcast is called Bad Table Manners.
the scope of her research to South Asia at large. Like season 1, the topics will be “...bathed in antho-water,” as
The show had a strong debut in India on streaming
Varma puts it.
platforms like Spotify, making it clear that listeners in this part of the world have an insatiable appetite for chatting
“I am an anthropologist first, and a food enthusiast
about food.
second,” she said. “I can't really talk about a meal without thinking about the labour in the kitchen that produced it, or
The first season of Bad Table Manners is situated within
walk into a supermarket without thinking about culturally
the Indian context. Each episode of the podcast explores
shaped notions of taste. It’s just the way my brain is wired
a hyper-local issue, ranging from the shrinking abundance
I guess, but thankfully, Bad Table Manners showed me that
of India’s marine life to the importance of eggs in India’s
there’s an audience out there for this approach.”
mid-day meal scheme; and from the lingering imprint of Partition on Delhi’s food to the thorny connections between
The complete first season of Bad
food and caste.
Table Manners is available on all major podcast streaming platforms.
While each of these episodes offered its own revelations,
Visit whetstonemagazine.com/radio
Varma says she was most challenged by the one that
to learn more about the network.
explored food and caste identities.
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PHOTOGRAPHY
Nazly Ahmed
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