WDA-LA Newsletter-ENG

WDA-LA

Wildlife Disease Assosiation - Latin America

Tenth Edition

May 2024

2

Custodians of the Territory: A bridge between academia and communities

8

Quatri: The four-eyed toad

Efforts for the community conservation of the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus)

Update on Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza status in Latin America

Custodians of the Territory: A bridge between academia and communities

What is “Custodians of the Territory”? How does it come about?

Custodians of the Territory would be the common name given to the “Territory Community Conservation Program” (Programa de Conservación Comunitaria del Territorio), which is grounded in the UNICEN School of Veterinary Sciences. The name came about 10 years ago in a rural high school, it was chosen by a group of kids. The program is an initiative that gathers tons of passions, and in a way, it serves as a bridge between the university and the people. In early 2009, we began to develop the first field explorations,

inquiring specifically about kinetically originated lead pollution in wetlands and wildlife, in this case, ducks and water birds from the same family. On one hand, we were interested in doing applied research, and on the other, there was the local community, who were also concerned about the subject. You could say that the program arose from listening to the community. The program came up from this dialogue, which, on the one hand, has this research focus, but on the other, it has this continuous interaction with communities; it is a gathering of willings and multiple interests.

What kinds of activities do you carry out? How are you set up?

The topics are selected because they seem like a priority to us, whether it is an issue within a National Park or, in this case, the pollution of wetlands and so on. The next step is getting in touch with the people on these sites. From this encounter, the selection of the main topic ends up being

nourished by listening to the community. The project is never the same by the end, let’s say, as when it began, where we thought that there was only one triggering problem, and then the issues turned out to be more diverse when we incorporated the interests of the people.

What have been the challenges or difficulties that you have faced, and how did you overcome them?

We could say that there are internal and external challenges within the program Internally, in a country that tends to be very underfinanced for education, there are problems associated with maintaining a workgroup included in a program that does not only rely upon volunteer work. We have to figure things out as a university and as a country to find this inter-discipline that a conservation program needs and to have a response to the members that are not merely vocational. Thus, the challenge has been to combine the interests of the participants, which most of

Interview with: Dr. Andrea Caselli, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. Director of the Territory Community Conservation.

By: Belén Natalini, Ezequiel Condori y Sheyling Alvarado Chía

Photography: Fabián Canuti

the time are research-oriented, extensions, or teaching, with the economic possibilities so that it is not only a hobby, that conservation has stakeholders and the group can cement itself.

We also work out agreements with municipalities to fund salaries for people for a couple of years in exchange for interventions that the municipality needs, and other times the funding is international That’s the challenge, to be in search of funding and, on the other hand, to meet the needs of people to work to live, and I repeat that conservation is not a hobby.

Regarding external challenges, many times, the topics we investigate have so many multiple interests or topics that reveal anthropic actions that should be addressed, they are sensitive topics, and it is not something for which they are going to give you a lot of support or a lot of money. So externally, these issues mean that you have to work with a lot of passion and with a lot of academic support, knowing that the obstacles are everywhere Sometimes that is not an easy job, but I think that these difficulties also make us stronger.

What disciplines are part of the program today? How are you organized?

Initially, we were a small group, but as our research expanded, so did our team. For example, we have to provide information about wetlands or fauna, but the productive matrix where the wetland is located is also important, and that is how the Agroecology Core emerged This group is coordinated by a biologist who completed a master's degree in agronomy and is doing a PhD in native plants In this group, biology is merged with agronomy, and within that core of Agroecology, there are veterinariansagronomists.

Our vision as veterinarians also integrates the ecosystem health, the fauna health, and the health of people in that One Health Core; the doctors with whom we work, who are few but who are very involved with the Environmental issues, are as important as us veterinarians. There is also the Environmental Communication Core, coordinated by an audio-visual director, so the members have more to do with photography, with everything that is conceptual design, graphic design, and so on And there is a Conservation Core,

“Our strength lies in listening. We talk a lot, but we also listen a lot, and that listening makes us receptive to what is happening to understand where it would be important to invest.”

Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM). Director of the Territory Community Conservation Andrea Caselli

where there is also a biologist who completed her PhD and is doing her postdoc in invasive exotic species. Our areas of work complement each other so that these five nuclei in which we organize ourselves also bring together the vocations of the students who are approaching and, on the other hand, respond to the needs that the environment dictates to us in terms of fields of research

What are the main strengths of the program that have allowed it to continue functioning over the years?

In 2009, we started the rudiments of the program, and in 2017, it was formalized, but long before, in 2013, it began to be called Custodians of the Territory I believe that the strength lies in listening We talk a lot, but we also listen a lot, and that listening makes us receptive to what is happening to understand where it would be important to invest.

So, it was in 2013 that the idea of creating a diploma program was born. People do not want you to come and say, “I'm from the University, and I'll tell you how it is ”' People want you to tell them how it is, but they also want to tell you what they know That is where all this comes from, local knowledge, recovering what people know, and combining it with us academics

That same listening led to people who could not travel to take the intensive diploma offered in Entre Ríos, Santa Fe, and Buenos Aires, being able to participate in a virtual training program.

This trajectory, continuing with the strengths of the program, brought together the best people. That was another strength of the program, and that's how the master's degree program was born, which has recently been approved by CONEAU, and is called Master's Degree in One Health, which, again, is not only important to train educators in the territory but also professionals who will be researching in the territory and perhaps training the trainers. The dynamic that the program has had in the past years is about listening to the necessary lines of research, listening to what the community needs, and also listening to ourselves, what we can give and what we cannot give I think those are the main strengths of the program

What other positive impacts do you think the program has?

I would separate it into two groups: on one hand, the positive impacts on the community and on the other hand, the positive impacts on us as researchers and as mem-

bers. We are analyzing interview we conducted with participants the Diploma and the trainin program in Santa Fe, and there is recurring feeling, which is the se confidence of havin professionalized themselves.

The knowledge stays inside them and that confidence makes the approach the territory different They gather tools to genera change, and it leads them generate responsible actions. Th person will act, facing hunters wh shoot lead or facing a politicia who wants to convince them something, but they won't shou they will act professionally

The other thing within th community is that they becom quite free. They started learnin about waterbirds and wetland but they also learned scientif methodology and are capable identifying other topics th interest them Now there is a exceptional project called A Squa Meter of Native Trees, and man schools are involved, and it is the process; they ask us for help, b not that much, because they hav self-management.

They themselves are trainin trainers, and that's freedom. As f us, we feel a bit more real tha when one is just on a paper; wh we are doing is shared. When w find a topic for doctoral studies whatever it may be, that no on imposed in any way, we know th we are being useful and that wh we have we share with others, an it has a positive impact bo academically and humanly, whic makes us want to be where we a and we hold great affection for th program

“Sometimes the academic career seems like a chain with a lot of links, and we never quite find the real connection between them, and the people from the places really help a lot with that connection between the links of what we have been investigating. Many times they are the users of our findings.”

Photography: Fabián Canuti

It happened to me a long time ago to go to the north for a project related to flamingos, and we arrived at a beautiful, charismatic place, a nice hotel, we investigated, and people from all over came. We left, and the locals had no idea what problems the flamingos were facing, and they were the central actors in that scenario, right? So, to say, well, if one does not dialogue, one is also abusing one's ego as a researcher and, at the same time, is depriving oneself of that connection between the links of what one investigates, which sometimes is given by the people, right? I think that it is not only what is beautiful for the community but what is REAL. We become more real, as researchers too.

Where is “Custodians of the Territory” heading? How are you projecting the growth of the program?

courses, and the others with whom we have spent less time also have a different path. Our program will continue to strengthen research initiatives; that is something natural because we are in academia and because we are very involved in the research that is being carried out and those that are foreseen On the other hand, custodians are also heading towards responsible extensions We are training ourselves very responsibly in the lines in which we work so that what we extend to the territory is firsthand know-ledge, well, also complemented with all the second-hand knowledge available, and I think that is a difference in the program, focusing on research, on teaching through the master's program that will start in 2025, but not losing sight of where we can take it.

One very interesting aspect of that is the changes in the perception dynamics of how many people are custodians. On the one hand, there are, as we say, UNICEN custodians, those of us who sit in an office; at the moment, there are ten people pursuing their postgraduate studies, and those ten individuals have their own ten different paths, and at the same time, there are many other people within Custodios UNICEN such as Rubén Quintana, Ana Silva, Martín Santiago, Marcela Uhart, Alexis Trigo, who are researchers already very well trained and who also have their own projections and paths On the other hand, there are also people in six provinces with whom we have been working Three of them have more activity simply because there have been more diplomas or more training

Andrea, considering that this note will surely be read by someone out there that is taking their first steps in conservation or a project with a One Health approach, what would you advise them?

If I had a suggestion to make to someone that is just beginning and is interested in conservation, my first thought would be to try to comprehend complex systems, like it was an onion with layers. Because only coming from the humility of facing a complex system and seeing how many edges it has one can scale to the concept of interdiscipline When one tries to understand a complex system and realizes the amount of steps and processes and so forth one says: “Right, I can’t do this all by myself”, then one goes from being an individual to being and attempt of a network, at least an attempt of a network, and there a concept of interdiscipline starts to form that underlies the definition

of integral health or One Health. The definition that health is just one, and that the health of the environment reflects on the health of animals, plants, people, then I have to begin to understand the complexity, and if I understand this complexity, then I don’t want to be alone in the face of it because I can’t grasp it And there a budding network is born, then one stops elbowing and starts to put the shoulder in, and stops fighting with the other, who is also a researcher in conservation And instead of fighting you say: “What can you help me out with?”, and secondly, more than understanding the complexity it is trying to find real back up from within the network. The institution where I am, understands the importance of interdisciplinary, it is going to help me to foster this working web. So in that case it is not just me showing up with an individual point of view, but trying to see where I’m going, where I want to work, who do I want to give my talent to, where am I going to put my brain into play If I can join that with my passion, my passion for innocence, my passion for those who do not have a voice to defend themselves or my passion to try to help this environmental complexity that I’m understanding, the projects become very solid and very serious.

Andrea Caselli Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. Director

of the Territory Community Conservation Program (PCCT).

Director of the Diploma in Education and Territory Conservation.

Professor in Natural Resources and Sustainability, FCV - UNICEN. Professor in Elementary Education Bachelor, FCH - UNICEN

Quatri

Hi! My name is Quatri, and I’m a toad; but not just any toad

I have two glands that look like another pair of eyes

So, when I’m off guard, and they wanna attack me

I’m the foureyed toad!

This pair of fake eyes fools predators that want to eat me since they always attack me from behind.

I’ve missed it! When they realize it, I’ve already escaped. But this doesn’t always work

Yuck! This tastes disgusting! These glands also produce a substance that tastes bad.

Actually, I only have two eyes, but in my back

They get confused when they see eyes in the front and in the back

Where is the back?!

I’ve got you!

How lucky I am! I am safe again!

By day I’m one, and at night I’m another! hehehe Since I’m an amphibian, I have two lives (amphi = “both” and bios = “life”)

As a tadpole, I breathe through my gills.

When I become an adult, I also lose my tail, and that’s why I’m an anuran (an = “without”, and oura = “tail”)

My skin is really important!

In addition to gases, I also exchange electrolytes through my skin

But I’m not alone! I have microscopic friends (bacteria and fungi) that live in my skin and also protect me.

There’s a rumor that a microscopic fungus is killing all the amphibians around the world.

Whereas as an adult, I breathe through my lungs I can also exchange gases through my skin.

All this process is known as METAMORPHOSIS

SKIN

My skin is the first line of defense against the ones who want to attack me It secretes substances that destroy the ones that attempt to get in

Quatri lives happily and in harmony with his microscopic friends

although not every bacteria and fungi are good

Oh no!

All my friends are dying! Who can help us now?

By multiplying in their skin, I make it thicker and avoid the gas and electrolyte exchange

I’m Bd, a bad fungus, and I can get through the toads’ skin

...and so the toad dies from a heart attack.

Bd has moved around the world and is killing all the toads. The scene is not very encouraging!

But not everything is lost!

Remember the fungi and bacteria from the skin?

They’re going to fight for the toad’s safety!

They’ll produce antifungal metabolites that will help to fight against Bd

As scientists, we’re on the search for these good bacteria and fungi to help the little toads.

And the fungus ends up dying.

Quatri is helping us in the search for these little friends so we can save the little toads!

Be part of our international community of students!

Efforts for the community conservation of the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus)

By: Anamaria Martínez Marín. MV, Maria Alejandra Arias Lugo. MV

The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) is a species of scavenging bird belonging to the Cathartidae family, predominantly inhabiting South America. Its range extends across the Andes mountain range and the coastal areas adjacent to the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, making it the largest nonmarine flying bird in terms of wingspan on the planet (1) It holds significant cultural importance in the Andean regions of South America, serving as a national symbol for countries such as Bolivia, Peru, Chile, Colombia, and Ecuador, and uniting the seven Andean nations (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela) (2).

Its role as a scavenger is crucial in the ecosystem, accelerating the decomposition process (2). Despite its ecological importance, the Andean condor faces the threat of extinction. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies it as a vulnerable species, with

population studies indicating less than 6,700 in dividuals and decreasing (3). Therefore, the implementation of conservation projects becomes essential to increase the number of individuals in the wild and preserve their genetic diversity while developing strategies for their long-term survival

In 2016, Colombia concluded the National Program for the Conservation of the Andean Condor led by the Ministry of Environment However, recognizing the importance of the species and the need for continued conservation efforts, the Jaime Duque Park Foundation joined the initiative to lead a breeding and release program in collaboration with other members of ACOPAZOA (Association of Zoos and Aquariums).

Some of the anthropogenic threats that this species faces: Direct

Run over in a lesser extent

The program aimed to build upon the work initiated by the Cali Zoo in the late 1990s by importing three pairs of condors from Chile, which were no longer suitable for release but were reproductively viable.

In 2019, the program evolved with four strategies: ex situ conservation, in situ conservation, sustainable production, and environmental education and communication. A new scenario, the El Almorzadero páramo, located in San Andrés, Concepción, and Cerrito municipalities in the department of Santander, was added along with its inhabitants through the Association of Peasants Coexisting with the Condor (ACAMCO). This initiative aimed to transform traditional sheep and goat farming systems to prevent further ecological degradation and the depletion of natural resources such as water By 2019, the program further refined its strategies, strengthening its objectives,

“The Condor unifies th the Andean region: Arg Chile, Colombia, Ecuad Venezuela”

The program currently encom development strategies:

In situ conservation: The primary the El Almorzadero páramo Santander and Norte de Santan community-based animal mo conducted through sighting rec discovered that this páramo hos largest and most stable condor with up to 29 condors simultaneously.

Ex situ conservation: Breeding release purposes. The Jaime Foundation currently has an condor pair, with the female la egg, though it was not Additionally, a male and two fe the process of forming a seco male was returned to th Conservation Park as the fema years ago

Environmental education and communication for community participation:

This collaborative effort involves rural families in three municipalities around the páramo, aiming to provide and disseminate important environmental and productive information for territorial appropriation

The strategy seeks to establish a connection between the animal, the ecosystem, and the local community, motivating rural families to engage in more sustainable practices once they recognize the natural wealth surrounding them.

Instead of eliminating their traditions, the focus is on educating them to create a stable, secure environment with less ecological degradation to support species conservation. The program targets all population groups, including children, youth, adults, educational institutions, community action boards, among others

Sustainable production: This strategy focuses on families involved in the project through ACAMCO. Training sessions on sustainable and harmonious production in the páramo and with the condor are conducted, and infrastructure is provided to improve systems Tools such as in-kind incentives are utilized for families meeting specific criteria related to training and improvement in coexistence with the páramo and animals

The program extends the concept of conservation beyond in situ conservation and animal management to a broader and sustainable approach. It involves working with communities to embrace the presence of the condor, caring for and protecting the habitat, while respecting their customs and way of life, fostering a healthy coexistence with the ecosystem.

The COVID-19 pandemic had both positive and negative impacts on the program. As mentioned by Estefanía Gómez Betancurt, Director of Project Management at the Jaime Duque Park Foundation, the park relied on visitor-generated income for the animals in its care. Consequently, the conservation program took a back seat as the priority shifted to keeping the animals at Bioparque Wakata alive and sustaining the livelihoods of over 400 members However, this allowed the program to apply for a grant from the International Union for Conservation of Nature to purchase land for a research center in the region The center aims to provide an effective experience in páramo and condor conservation while serving as a model for sustainable production

During this period, the program focused on repairing the property, fostering community engagement, and creating a collaborative environment between park staff and the local community. This lack of division between park personnel and the community created a warmer and more welcoming atmosphere for conservation programs, education, and ultimately increased the chances of success by considering human-animalecosystem factors.

Among the program's projections is the aim to involve 50 rural families over a 10-year period, increase the number of condor specimens for

release into the wild, improve the quality of life for people as much as possible, and restore the paramo ecosystem. This reflects their ongoing commitment to community conservation efforts.

Acknowledgments

A heartfelt thank you to the Jaime Duque Park Foundation, Bioparque Wakata, and Estefanía Gómez Betancurt for their time and passion in describing condor conservation

References

(1) Cailly-arnulphi, v. (2013). Características poblacionales del cóndor andino (vultur gryphus) en el parque natural provincial ischigualasto, Argentina ornitologia neotropical 24: 101–105, 2013

(2) R Wallaceetal ,SavingtheSymboloftheAndes: ARange Wide Conservation Priority Setting Exercise for the Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus) (Wildlife Conservation Society, La Paz, Bolivia, 2020); https: //bolivia.wcs.org/ Portals/14/Libro%20 Condor ingles pdf

(3)TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies,“Andea n Condor: Vultur gryphus” (2020); www iucnredlist org/ species/ 22697641/181325230.

(4)Y.SierraPraeli,“Amenazalatente: 34cóndoresmueren envenenados en Bolivia” (2021); https://es.mongabay. com/2021/02/ condor-andino-envenenamiento- bolivia/

UPDATE ON HIGHLY PATHOGENIC

AVIAN INFLUENZA

STATUS IN LATIN AMERICA

By: Florencia

and

Viviani, Diana Netto Hernandez Blazquez

Lucas Federico Arce

INTRODUCTION

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 is a disease caused by an RNA virus of the Orthomyxoviridae family, which has raised significant concerns among international health institutions due to its zoonotic potential, high pandemicgenerating capacity, and severe negative impact on commercial poultry farms and wild birds. First identified in geese in the Guangdong province of China in 1996, HPAI H5N1 has since spread worldwide, affecting Africa, Asia, America, Europe, and the Middle East, posing a continuous threat not only to wild birds but also to captive and backyard birds, as well as to wild and domestic mammals and humans (Breed et al , 2023)

H5N1

Since 2020, a variant of the H5N1 virus belonging to clade H5 2.3.4.4b has caused a significant number of deaths in both wild and domestic birds in Africa, Asia, and Europe.

This variant spread through migratory birds to North America in 2021 and subsequently to Central and South America in 2022 (Klaassen & Wille, 2023). Throughout 2023, several countries in the Americas reported outbreaks and documented episodes of massive deaths in wild birds and marine mammals due to this variant Although the avian influenza virus has circulated worldwide for decades, the current panzootic is the largest in magnitude since its first identification, not only due to its spread to regions where it had not been identified before but also because of the high mortality and the broader range of animal species being affected (Shi et al., 2023). In South America alone, from its first identification in October 2022 to November 2023, the mortality of 597,832 birds from at least 82 different species and 50,785 wild mammals from at least 10 species was documented (Banyard et al., 2023).

By August 2023, losses accounted for 36% of the Peruvian pelican population, 13% of Humboldt penguins in Chile, and 9% of the sea lion population in both countries (Cárdenas-Alayza et al., 2016; Breed et al., 2023). Additionally, two cases of human infection were reported in this region, the first was in Ecuador in January 2023 (Bruno et al., 2023, WHO, 2023a) and the second in Chile in March 2023 (Pardo-Roa et al., 2023; WHO, 2023b).

FIRST CASES IN LATIN AMERICA AND SPREAD INTO CENTRAL AMERICA

Since the first infection in wild birds in Colombia (blue-winged teal -Spatula discors-) and in México (gyrfalcon -Falco rusticolus-) in October 2022, possibly transmitted through the migration of wild birds from North America (SENASICA, 2023), the HPAI H5N1 virus rapidly spread in wild animal populations in Central and South America. In these two initial countries, the greatest impact was observed in pelicans, waterfowl, and raptors (WAHIS, 2023).

In Central America, the first reports were in Panamá (December 2022) and Honduras (January 4, 2023), followed by notifications in Costa Rica and Guatemala in January 2023 and subsequently at the Havana Zoo (Cuba) in February of the same year Overall, the mortality in wild birds in Central America was low compared to other regions of the Americas and mostly restricted to brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis) In isolated cases, infections were also reported in two members of the Phalacrocoracidae family (unidentified species) in Panama and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) in Costa Rica between January and February 2023. After several months of epidemiological silence, H5 HPAI was detected in a frigatebird (Fregata minor) in Costa Rica in October. At the Havana Zoo, the common goshawk (Accipiter nisus) and the Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) were also affected (WAHIS, 2023).

NORTH-SOUTH DISPERSION IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN PACIFIC COAST

Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the virus entered South America through multiple introductions from North America (Ruiz-Saenz et al., 2023) and possibly through the avian migratory route of the Pacific (Pardo-Roa et al., 2023; Leguia et al., 2023; PAHO, 2023). Initially, most identified infection hotspots in South America were in areas corresponding to this route, partially separated from the rest of the region by the Andes mountain range Cases were reported in Ecuador (WAHIS, 2023) and Peru in November 2022 (Leguia et al , 2023; Gamarra-Toledo et al , 2023a, 2023b), and a month later in Chile (Jimenez-Bluhm et al , 2023), with massive mortalities in wild birds and marine mammals, mainly pinnipeds, in these last two countries (Breed et al , 2023) Along the Ecuatorian coast, following the initial cases, HPAI infection was found in magnificent frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) and blue-footed booby (Sula nebouxii) (Carrazco-Montalvo et al., 2023). In Tierra del Fuego (Chile), the first detection of the virus occurred in march 2023 in black-necked swans (Cygnus melancoryphus), demonstrating a high speed dispersion, covering around 6000 km from Colombia in October 2022 to the southern tip of Chile in less than 6 months (Breed et al., 2023).

Until July 2023, the number of reported seabird deaths in Peru reached 519,541, with Peruvian boobies (Sula variegata), Guanay cormorants (Leucocarbo bougainvillii), and Peruvian pelicans (Pelecanus thagus) being the most affected The disease also impacted other bird species, such as blue-footed boobies, penguins, and gulls (Ariyama et al , 2023; Gamarra-Toledo et al , 2023a, 2023b; Peru Ministry of Health, 2023) In Chile, numerous outbreaks were identified in domestic and wild birds The virus spread rapidly from the north to the south of the country, likely associated with the arrival of migratory birds during spring and various human and ecological variables, such as bird species diversity, human activity levels, precipita-

tion in the wettest month, minimum tempe-rature in the coldest month, and daily tempe-rature range in each region (Azat et al., 2023). Among the affected wild birds were also Peruvian pelicans and blue-footed boobies, Kelp gull (Larus dominicanus), and Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti).

Both countries witnessed a significant impact on marine mammals: by July 2023, mortalities totaled at least 9,414 individuals in Peru (98% of which were South American sea lions -Otaria flavescensand, the remaining 2% included the common dolphin -Delphinus delphis-) (Breed et al., 2023; Leguia et al., 2023; Peruvian Ministry of Health, 2023) In Chile a total of 16,856 sea lions, 61 pinnipeds (other species), 39 otters (Lontra felina and Lontra provocax), and 106 cetaceans (Chilean dolphin -Cephalorhynchus eutropia, common dolphin -D delphis, and spinner dolphinPhocoena spinipinnis-) were registered (Chilean National Fisheries and Aquaculture Service, 2023; Breed et al , 2023) Between January and April 2023, 5,224 sea lions were counted as dead or in distress on the shores of protected areas in Peru (Gamarra-Toledo et al., 2023c). Since the sampling involved a relatively small proportion of the animals present on the coasts of both countries, not all of these deaths may be attributed to H5N1 HPAI, although there was a higher mortality rate among birds, otters, and sea lions compared to similar seasons in previous years.

Official figures may underestimate these mortalities due to the inaccessibility of certain sites, and many animals may have died at sea. In the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador), where there are about 78 endangered endemic animal species, the first notification of HPAI was in September 2023, affecting suliform birds of the Fregatidae and Sulidae families (World Animal Health Information System, 2023) The H5N1 HPAI virus detected in Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and Chile showed a strong association with sequences isolated from crescent ducks (S discors) corpses in September 2022 in Minnesota, United States (Ruiz-Saenz et al., 2023).

SPREADING AND FIRST CASES OF HIGHLY PATHOGENIC AVIAN INFLUENZA (HPAI) IN LATIN AMERICA

* The H5N1 virus belonging to clade H5 2.3.4.4b spread through migratory birds to North America in 2021 and subsequently to Central and South America in 2022 (Klaassen & Wille, 2023)

October 2022 -Colombia First identification of the virus in Latin America

November 2022 -First report in Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela

December 2022 - First report in Chile and Panama

January 2023First report in Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala and Bolivia

January 2023Ecuador First report in Human

February 2023 - First report in Cuba, Argentina and Uruguay

March 2023 - Chile First report in Human

May 2023 - Brasil

October 2023 - South Georgia Islands

WEST-EAST DISPERSION IN SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES

The spread of the virus east of the Andes was not initially associated with the same level of mortality in wild animals as along the Pacific coast. Although the first record in this area was on the coasts of Venezuela in November 2022, with the death of 172 brown pelicans, no subsequent cases were detected until January 2023 when it was diagnosed in a commercial farm in the municipality of Sacaba, Bolivia. The following month, the first case of HPAI in wild birds (Cloephaga melanoptera) was detected in Argentina, at Laguna de los Pozuelos (Jujuy province), near the border with Bolivia, as well as in Uruguay. The similarity of the viral strains isolated from black-necked swans in Laguna de Garzón (Uruguay) to those in Argentina and Chile suggests that the H5N1 HPAI virus initially spread along the Pacific migratory route and then spread to Uruguay (Marandino et al , 2023)

This west-to-east dispersion in South America may have been, in part, through birds found in highaltitude lagoons, such as the guayata (C. melanoptera) and the southern flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis). Like the black-necked swan, these species do not undertake long migrations between hemispheres; instead, their movements respond to local conditions (Capllonch, 2018; Marandino et al., 2023). In the following months, HPAI H5 was detected in Bolivia (in poultry and swallows -Pygochelidon cyanoleuca-) and in Paraguay (in poultry), as well as in other sites in Argentina and Uruguay. However, these outbreaks were not associated with large mortalities of wild animals. From then until mid-2023, the black-necked swan was the species in which the virus was most frequently isolated in these two countries Still, there were also positive cases in Bahama pintail (Anas bahamensis), red-gartered coot (Fulica armillata), speckled teal (Cloephaga picta), kelp gull (L dominicanus), and turkey vulture (Cathartes aura) (SENASA, 2023; WAHIS, 2023)

In Brazil, avian influenza was first detected on May 15, 2023, in wild birds (Reischak et al , 2023; WAHIS, 2023) On May 22, the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Supply declared a zoosanitary state of emergency throughout the country for 180 days (MAPA, 2023). Confirmed cases until November 9, 2023, were 135 in wild birds, 164 in aquatic mammals, and 3 in backyard birds, with no commercial birds involved (WAHIS, 2023). Most diagnosed cases were found in the city of Vila Velha-ES. The most affected bird species by the disease is the South American tern (Thalasseus acuflavidus), which was also the first species to test positive for HPAI in this country. The virus sequences isolated from T. acuflavidus show between 97.5% and 99% similarity to those found in Chile and Peru between 2022 and 2023 (Reischak et al., 2023).

SOUTH-NORTH DISPERSION PATAGONIA AND SOUTH AMERICAN ATLANTIC COAST

In relation to the affection of wild mammals in the east of the Andes, the first cases of HPAI H5 (N not yet typed) were reported in marine mammals in Argentina, at the latitude of the city of Río Grande (province of Tierra del Fuego, in the extreme south of the country) in August 2023 (SENASA, 2023). This occurred shortly after sick individuals of South American sea lions were reported in the neighboring city of Puerto Williams (Tierra del Fuego, Chile) (Plaza et al , 2023; WAHIS, 2023) Subsequent cases were recorded along the Atlantic coast in the Argentine provinces of Santa Cruz, Chubut, Río Negro and Buenos Aires (SENASA, 2023; WAHIS, 2023) In this case, in contrast to the north-south direction in which the virus had traveled along the Pacific coast, it covered a distance of more than 2,500 kilometers from the southern tip of the continent to the coasts of Buenos Aires within a period of two weeks (Breed et al., 2023).

Unlike what has happened so far in Chile and Peru, in Argentina no outbreaks with large deaths of birds were initially reported (Plaza et al., 2023), only in September 2023 were recorded of ten birds affected in each outbreak (WAHIS, 2023). However, this could be due to a lack of records or because a large part has occurred at sea or in remote areas, making them inaccessible for study 80% of the mammals killed in Argentina so far were South American sea lions, although the virus has also been detected in South American fur seal (Arctocephalus australis) and in Southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina). In September, South American sea lions and fur seals infected with HPAI H5 were also reported near Montevideo (Uruguay), as well as specimens of the South American tern (Sterna hirundinacea) (Tomas et al., 2023; WAHIS, 2023). The cases in Uruguay could have been, therefore, a continuation of the outbreaks in Argentina and these, in turn, of the events recorded in Chile, in a similar way to what

unusual number of dead adults and subadults was observed, and a reduction of between 40% and 70% of adult individuals on the coasts compared to the same season from the previous year (WCS, 2023). Dead individuals of other species were also recorded, such as the South American tern (S hirundinacea), the royal tern (Thalasseus maximus), sandwich tern (Thalasseus sandvicensis eurygnatha), common tern (Sterna hirundo) , L dominicanus and O flavescens The samples, so far, have shown positive results for both M leonina and S hirundinacea (WAHIS, 2023; WCS, 2023) . The routes of infection in these cases are not yet fully clarified, and it is not possible to be sure if transmission occurs exclusively from infected birds, if environmental contamination with the virus could be playing a predominant role, or if these events of mass mortality in marine animals would represent a possible scenario for HPAI virus transmission between mammals (WOAH, 2023). of marine bserved in t affected a lion (O. fur seal ccurred in y near the na (WAHIS,

Photography: Punta Bermeja Protected Natural Area, Río Negro province, Argentina Pablo Ulrich

Photography: Valdés Peninsula, Chubut province, Argentina Ralph Vanstreels

RISK OF INTRODUCTION TO THE ANTARCTIC

In a report published in August 2023, OFFLU warned that the disease could reach Antarctica and its coastal islands due to the spring migration of wild birds from South America to breeding sites in Antarctica. Towards the end of October of the same year, three cases of H5N1 were confirmed in brown skuas (Stercorarius antarctica) on Bird Island (South Georgia Islands). Although outside the breeding season it is a predominantly pelagic species, in the southern spring it nests on the coasts of Antarctica and adjacent islands, so recent cases imply an imminent introduction of HPAI H5N1 to the Antarctic Peninsula. On the other hand, subsequent faunal mortality in South Georgia Islands (with positive results in S. antarctica and L. dominicanus) and later also in the Falkland Islands in Southern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialoides), yielded HPAI H5N1 viral sequences that grouped phylogenetically with those found in Uruguay, Peru and Chile (Bennison et al , 2023)

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUSPECTED CASES OF HPAI IN WILDLIFE

From national and local health authorities, the main recommendations focus on continuing with health surveillance, the collection of samples only by trained personnel and control measures to prevent the spread of the disease.

tions that particularly involve marine mammals (affected species, number of individuals involved, genetic characteristics of the H5N1 virus isolated) as well as other unusual hosts is of special importance, by allowing a better understanding of the origin, evolution and transmission mechanisms of the virus between individuals of the same and different species (EFSA, 2023; Plaza et al., 2023; WOAH, 2023); The latter is relevant for the timely evaluation of the pandemic risk potential of HPAI (EFSA, 2023). The unification of surveillance procedures is also recommended, with standardized methodologies between the different areas and countries of the region when quantifying the respective HPAI cases (EFSA, 2023).

2. PERSONAL PROTECTION

Personnel involved in field tasks that involve some type of interaction with wildlife susceptible to the virus must use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE). This includes the use of gloves (ideally double), N95 masks, coveralls, boots, and safety glasses or goggles. To avoid possible transmission through fomites, disinfection of field equipment, as well as footwear and outer clothing, must be carried out before and after handling animals, especially when working in different areas or colonies (SCAR, 2023; CMA- ICMBio, 2023).

3. SAMPLING

In addition to surveillance efforts focused on detecting positive or negative cases of the HPAI H5N1 virus, the sequencing of the isolated viruses is essential in order to carry out genomic surveillance that allows detecting relevant mutations (Leguia et al., 2023; WOAH, 2023). The rapid exchange of information between researchers and health authorities regarding infec-

In the case of suspected HPAI outbreaks, only trained personnel in full PPE should enter colonies where affected wild animals are found. Taking samples also requires prior management of the corresponding permits (ethical and scientific) from local authorities, as well as making the relevant arrangements with diagnostic laboratories (prior to sending the samples)

In the case of seabirds that show signs of infection, cloacal and oropharyngeal swabs can be performed; swabs should be placed in viral preservation medium immediately afterwards. In the case of pinnipeds, nasal swabs can be done. If seabird corpses are present, as many oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs as possible should be performed and, when performing the postmortem examination, a series of diagnostic tissues such as the lungs and brain should be included, given the neurotropism of HPAI Carcasses can be collected for post-mortem examination as long as a type 2 biosafety laboratory is available. This is not feasible in the case of marine mammals, where necropsies are performed in the field only by trained personnel. The biological and tissue samples collected must be preserved in the appropriate environment and conditions according to the type of diagnostic test for which they are intended (SCAR, 2023; Breed et al., 2023).

4. IMMEDIATE ACTION ON FINDINGS

In the presence of a suspected case of avian influenza, the current recommendation is to abort field work and avoid handling dead or sick animals, as well as preventing domestic animals from coming into contact with corpses. Monitoring of the case(s) can however continue remotely. The use of binoculars and photographic or audiovisual devices, as well as the use of drones, as long as you have the necessary permits, are useful tools when reporting events to health authorities (SCAR, 2023)

In order to mitigate the spread of the disease, carcasses should be removed from the environment as quickly as possible to prevent people and/or other animals (such as dogs or scavenging birds) from coming into contact with them, since they are not only susceptible of suffering from the disease but can also facilitate its spread (Plaza et al., 2023). When there are large deaths of birds and marine mammals and in remote and difficult-to-access areas, the scenario

becomes complex and it is not always possible to carry out the final disposal of the corpses to eliminate the infection. Each event must be treated individually and in accordance with the guidelines of local health and environmental authorities (CMA-ICMBio, 2023; Breed et al , 2023)

In all cases, the presence of dead wild birds and/or marine mammals or with signs compatible with HPAI infection must be notified to the corresponding health authority The signs that refer to the disease are mainly respiratory (dyspnea, abundant secretions from the nose and mouth), digestive, neurological (abnormal postures with hyperextension of limbs, disorientation, tremors and muscle contractions, opisthotonos, incoordination and difficulty in locomotion, among others) and, in the case of marine mammals, also reproductive (abortions) (SENASA, 2023).

Photography: Punta Bermeja Protected Natural Area, Río Negro province, Argentina Martina Miqueo Lauriente

Valeria Falabella

SOME REFERENCE BODIES FOR THE NOTIFICATION AND DIAGNOSIS OF HPAI

National Agri-Food Health and Quality Service (Argentina) . Agricultural and Livestock Service (Chile) . Division of Veterinary Laboratories (DILAVE), Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (Uruguay).

National Agrarian Health Service (Peru).

National Animal Health Service (SENASA, Costa Rica).

Colombian Agricultural Institute (Colombia).

National Agri-Food Health, Safety and Quality Service (SENASICA, Mexico).

Agricultural Defense / Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (SDA/MAPA) (Brazil)

Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food, Directorate of Animal Health (Guatemala)

FINAL WORDS

When this student chapter committee first met after the WDA-LA Biennial Conference in Valdivia, Chile, and discussed writing a new issue of the newsletter, the words “Avian Influenza” emerged on the microphones and on the chat boxes of everyone present. Since the first news that was heard about the outbreaks on our continent that was shared through the association's networks and through our personal contacts, concern has

been expressed more than once about this emergency and the threat it represents to ecosystems It was then that a subcommittee undertook the task of collecting information in different formats from the cases in all the countries of the region to share a modest update from our place as Latino student members of the WDA.

This note mentions introduction events in the different countries that were found during our compilation, understanding that there are more that have been reported and probably others that have not yet been reported. Without intending to be an exhaustive manual on HPAI, we propose an approach to wild cases in the Latin American region and some elements observed in their dispersion process with the hope that they will collaborate in the guidance of those who approach this problem At the same time, we seek to catalyze communication between those of us who have felt concerned about our regional fauna and thus join forces and achieve a comprehensive approach to the issue This article would not have been possible without the help and guidance of Drs Marcela Uhart, Pablo Plaza and Marina Winter, who through different media warmly offered us their support and their critical and constructive perspective. We also extend our gratitude to the Environment Secretariat of Río Negro (Argentina) and to the WCS (Wildlife Conservation Society) Argentina, for the shared photographic material.

Photography: Punta Bermeja Protected Natural Area, Río Negro province, Argentina Fernando Gabriel Hartmann

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Editorial Coordination

Lucas Federico Arce (Argentina)

Editorial Committee

Valentina Sepúlveda (Chile), Nikté Licona (Honduras) and Carol Sotto (Brazil)

Art Direction and Design

Nikté Licona (Honduras)

Portuguese Translation and Adaptation

Diana Netto Hernandez Blazquez (Brazil), Carol Sotto (Brazil), Guilherme Rogerio (Brazil) and Fernando Vilchez (Peru)

Translation and Adaptation to English

Angel Herrera Mares (Mexico), Adriana Urbina (Nicaragua), Karen Uxue Martínez Pérez (Mexico), Carol Sotto (Brazil), Fernando Vilchez (Peru), Nikté Licona (Honduras) and Elizabeth Linares Alcántara (Mexico)

NEWSLETTER

Wildlife Disease Assosiation - Latin America Tenth Edition May 15, 2024

FREE PUBLICATION FOR MEMBERS

** If you are a first author and are a member, student, life member or emeritus member of the Wildlife Disease Association (WDA) you can submit your manuscript to the Journal of Wildlife Diseases.

NEWSLETTER Wildlife Disease Assosiation - Latin America Tenth Edition May 15, 2024