Osmosis-Fall-2025

LetterFromtheEditor

Dear Reader,

Welcome to the 19th edition of Osmosis Magazine! As our name suggests, we take complicated and current science literature and make it accessible and engaging for a general audience. While we are a science magazine, you don’t need to be a STEM major to enjoy; there is something for everyone in Osmosis All you need is curiosity

This semester’s edition is jam-packed with exciting stories from disciplines spanning psychology, mathematics, biology, paleontology, technology, and more If you have ever wondered if you could grow a new kidney, if gum is actually good for your teeth, or why we fall for bad boys, this is the magazine for you. And we have so much more!

It has been a joy and a privilege serving as Editor-inChief for the past two semesters. I am beyond proud of all the hard work that the talented writers, editors, and designers put into this edition We had fun putting it together and hope that you enjoy and maybe learn a thing or two from the Fall 2025 edition of Osmosis!

Stay curious,

Sam Chanenson

Editor-in-Chief, Osmosis Science Magazine

Writers

Ainsley Coleman

Bryan Nam

Charlie Lanning

Connor Beasley

Erlinda Sali

Eve Snyder

Garrett Mayover

Joanna Petridi

Kien Bui

Lautaro Lo Prete

Lilly Cashen

Matea Šarkinović

Natalie Small

Natasha Troike

Ned Markham

Parth Patel

Paxton Mills

Stevi Dugas

Trang Nguyen

Editors

Ainsley Coleman

Bryan Nam

Charlie Lanning

Connor Beasley

Erlinda Sali

Eve Snyder

Julia Messerman

Kien Bui

Lautaro Lo Prete

Lilly Cashen

Lily Byam

Marty Snyder

Matea Sarkinovic

Ned Markham

Parth Patel

Paxton Mills

Phoebe Rubio

Sadie Medlock

Sam Chanenson

Stevi Dugas

Trang Nguyen

Zack Ruighaver

Zion Kim

Designers

Ainsley Coleman

Eve Snyder

Lilly Cashen

Sadie Medlock

Sukie Weiner

Sam Chanenson Editor-in-Chief

Class of 2026

Majors: Psychology, Leadership

Minor: Philosophy

Hometown: Radnor, PA,

Hobbies: Rowing, Piano, Musicals

Yifei Qi

Head of Design

Eliz Ustun Vice Editor/

PR

Class of 2028

Major: Biology, Pre-engineering

Hometown: Antalya, Turkey

Hobbies: Cooking, Baking, Photography

Eve Snyder

Franklin Young

Gabriella Meisner

Zion Kim PR

MeetOur Team

Class of 2027

Major: Bio (Neuroscience), Math

Minor: Data Science, Linguistics

Hometown: Shanghai, China

Hobbies: Running, Coding

Nyel Bangash Treasurer

Class of 2026

Major: Math Econ, CS

Hometown: Los Angeles, CA

Hobbies: Coding, Lifting, Peaky Blinders

TheMathThatKeeps YourMoneySafe:

WhyaFewExtraCharactersCouldSaveYou

WRITTEN BY JOANNA PETRIDI | DESIGNED BY AINSLEY COLEMAN

Imagine a cracker (yes that is what malicious hackers are named) sitting behind a screen Their computer is trying millions of password combinations every minute Your bank account password, just eight characters long, is the only thing standing between them and your savings. The difference between a password that takes a week to crack and one that would take longer than the universe has existed isn’t magic or luck. It’s simply math.

Specifically logarithms a tool that supports the way we measure password strength, or what experts call “entropy.”

WHY DO LOGARITHIMS MATTER?

At first glance, logarithms may seem like a useless math topic you left behind in high school, but in cybersecurity, they’re everywhere And, fortunately or not, cybersecurity is linked to your everyday life A logarithm is simply the inverse of an exponent (Brookshire, 2020) If 34=81, then log (81)=43

Instead of asking “what’s 3 raised to the power of 4?” we’re asking, “to what power must 3 be raised to get 81?”

Logarithms help simplify enormous numbers (Donev, 2024). They’re why we can talk about earthquakes using the Richter scale or sound using decibels. Without them, we’d be juggling numbers in the millions or trillions just to describe how loud a jet engine’s roar sounds. How does this tie into passwords? Well, when you think about it, every password is a kind of exponential equation How many possible combinations can exist based on the number of characters in the password?

WHAT IS ENTROPY AND WHY SHOULD YOU CARE ABOUT IT?

Entropy is the measure of how unpredictable your password is how hard it is to crack or brute-force The formula looks deceptively simple:

E = log (R ) 2 L

Where:

E = entropy, measured in bits (bit= binary digit), R = number of possible characters, L = password length.

This base-2 logarithm reflects how computers actually process information (in binary, made up of only 0s and 1s) Every extra bit of entropy doubles the number of possible combinations a computer must try (Lee, 2023)

Let’s put that into perspective Take the simple password: 123456789

Here, R=10 (the ten digits 0–9), and L=9 That gives:

E = log (109)2

E = 332 bits

Not ideal. A modern computer could guess that in seconds your money is gone!

WHY VARIETY WINS OVER LENGTH

Now compare two passwords of the same length:

PASSWORD (8 capital letters, R=26)

E = log (R ) 2 L

E = log (26 ) 2 8

E = 376 bits

P4S$W0rD

(Mix of uppercase, lowercase, digits, and symbols, R=94)

E = log (R ) 2 L

E = log (94 ) 2 8

E = 5244 bits

The second password, though the same length, is almost twice as strong. Just by mixing character types, you jump from a password that might fall in hours to one that could take centuries.

Add length into the mix, and the power of exponential growth kicks in Take this absurdly long password:

BANANASBANKACCOUNTPASSWORD (26 capital letters)

E = log (R ) 2 L

E = log (26 ) 2 26

E= 1222 bits

That’s over three times the entropy of the shorter password proof that length matters even more than complexity

WHAT YOUR MONEY REQUIRES TO BE SAFE

Most banks, like Chase, have password rules that aim for a balance between security and usability: At least eight characters, a mix of upper and lowercase letters, numbers, and symbols, no obvious sequences or repeated characters, etc

Using those rules, the password OrAnGe1! would have:

E = log (R ) 2 L

E = log (72 ) 2 8

E = 49.2 bits

But a more complex version meeting the same guidelines say:

ORANGEapple1324576809@!#$%+/=~

E = log (R ) 2 L

E = log (72 ) 2 32

E = 1845 bits

That’s 375 times higher entropy, which means it’s about 5 × 10⁴⁰ times harder to crack

HOW HACKERS TRY TO GET YOUR MONEY

Hackers use several main types of attacks:

Dictionary attacks – try lists of common passwords like “password123” or “iloveyou”

Keyloggers – record keystrokes from computers using malware

Credential stuffing – reuses passwords leaked in other data breaches

And then there’s brute force the raw power method where a computer tries every possible combination until it hits yours

Modern supercomputers can test up to a billion passwords per second (10⁹/sec). That’s where entropy matters most.

The formula for the number of possible combinations is: C = E (Taha et al., 2023). 2

The time to crack (in seconds) is roughly: T = , (Grigas, 2022).

CRACKING THE NUMBERS

For OrAnGe1!, with 492 bits of entropy:

C = 2E

C = 2492

C = 6467 x 1014

For ORANGEapple1324576809@!#$%+/=~, with 184.5 bits:

C = 2E

C = 21845

C = 3.468 x 1055

Figure 1 Chase Bank Password set-up page from M Spero (https://xcom/max spero /status/1979063423477444917)

That’s about 1.1 × 10³⁶ centuries. Even if your hacker’s computer were powered by a black hole, it wouldn’t live long enough to see the result

THE LIMITS OF MATH

But here’s the catch: security isn’t static While our current computers cannot get close to touching a 184-bit password, quantum computing is rewriting the rules In 2024, Chinese scientists reportedly used a quantum computer to break military-grade encryption, something once considered impossible (Swayne, 2024)

Quantum machines could, in theory, process exponentially more data, slashing those “impossible” cracking times down to hours. What seems mathematically unbreakable today might not stay that way for long.

Still, as of now, password entropy remains our best shield against brute force A high-entropy password buys you decades, centuries, even millennia of it

MATH, SECURITY, AND COMMON SENSE

At the end of the day, your password isn’t just a string of characters It’s a mathematical statement of how much effort and time someone would need to steal your information The longer and more varied it is, the more it multiplies the combinations an attacker must test

Using base-2 logarithms and a little exponential reasoning, we can see exactly why short, simple passwords fail and why your bank, your email, and your social media accounts all nag you to add symbols or increase length

The next time you’re tempted to use something simple like “iloveyou!”, remember: it’s not about convenience, it’s about entropy. Behind every strong password lies mathematics that decides whether your money survives or disappears.

References

Brookshire, B (2020) Explainer: What are logarithms and exponents? Science News Explores http://wwwsnexploresorg/article/explainerwhat-are-logarithms-exponents

Donev, J M K C (2021) Logarithmic scale - Energy Education Energyeducationca http://energyeducationca/encyclopedia/Logarithmic scale

Grigas, L (2022) Brute Force Attacks: What, How, Why? Nordpasscom https://nordpasscom/blog/brute-force-attack/

Lee, B (2023) Understanding Password Entropy: The Key to Stronger Security IDStrong https://wwwidstrongcom/sentinel/what-ispassword-entropy/

Swayne, M (2024) Chinese Scientists Report Using Quantum Computer to Hack Military-grade Encryption The Quantum Insider http://thequantuminsidercom/2024/10/11/chinese-scientists-reportusing-quantum-computer-to-hack-military-grade-encryption/

Taha, Mariam M, Alhaj, Taqwa A, Moktar, Ala E, Salim, Azza H, & Abdullah, Settana M (2013) On password strength measurements: Password entropy and password quality. 2013 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE on COMPUTING, ELECTRICAL and ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING (ICCEEE) https://doiorg/101109/icceee20136633989

StemCells

PotentPotentialforDiseaseTreatment

WRITTEN BY NATALIE SMALL | DESIGNED BY EVE SNYDER

Different cells in the body serve a variety of functions. Cardiac muscle cells contract to pump blood through the heart Nerve cells transmit electrical and chemical signals throughout the body Lymphocytes play a role in the immune system to fight infections (Mostafa, 2022) But how do these different cell types arise? The answer is a special type of cell: stem cells.

Stem cells have the ability to develop into various cell types When cells differentiate, they acquire distinct characteristics such as gene expression patterns and structures that help them perform their designated function in their environment Many types of cells, such as muscle, blood, and nerve cells, don’t typically replicate themselves In contrast, stem cells are undifferentiated, meaning they haven’t developed traits specific to their cell type They can make multiple, sometimes unlimited, copies of themselves, which is crucial during embryonic development. In addition, these special cells can be harnessed in research and disease treatment due to their potential to become numerous cell types and replace damaged cells (Stem Cell Basics, n.d.).

Stem cells can be divided into different categories based on their potency, or ability to differentiate into different cell types Pluripotent cells can differentiate into more than 200 different cell types in the body (Mohn, 2024; Stem Cell Basics, nd) Induced pluripotent stem cells, or iPSCs, are differentiated cells that are reprogrammed to have similar functions to embryonic stem cells Finally, adult stem cells are cells found in tissues or organs that can become only specific cell types of that organ (What Are Stem Cells?, 2025; Stem Cell Basics, nd)

Different types of stem cells can play unique roles in the body and present fascinating avenues of research into cell differentiation and disease treatment. To utilize stem cells in the lab, researchers can “reprogram” differentiated cells into iPSCs by using special enzymes that target and edit specific DNA sites, forcing the expression of genes that cause pluripotent characteristics. As a result, the cell gradually redevelops stem cell traits (Valenti et al, 2019) Additionally, scientists can cause stem cells to differentiate into desired cell types by changing the culture medium, changing the dish, or causing cells to express specific genes They can also isolate adult stem cells from donated tissue or umbilical cord blood (What Are Stem Cells?, 2025; Stem Cell Basics, nd) Stem cells are especially useful in research to investigate diseases and their causes, study the process of cell differentiation, and research personalized medicine, as researchers can take a patient’s cells, make them into iPSCs, and test drugs against these cells (Stem Cell Basics, nd)

Stem cells are already used to treat diseases such as certain types of cancer, including leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma. Bone marrow is located inside the bones and produces adult stem cells that can differentiate into various types of blood cells. Stem cells can be taken from a matched donor and given to a patient to help their body produce healthy stem cells (Brenner et al., 2024).

Stem cell transplants can be used as a treatment for other blood disorders, such as sickle cell disease Sickle cell disease is an inherited disease impacting hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen throughout the body In sickle cell disease, patients have a single point mutation that causes their hemoglobin to form a sickled shape in low-oxygen environments This disease affects about 20 million people across the world and can lead to intense pain episodes, organ damage, and shorter life expectancy due to impaired blood flow

Bone marrow stem cell transplantation is the only way to cure sickle cell disease Transplants can be autologous, meaning that stem cells are taken from the affected individual and genetically modified to fix the diseasecausing mutation before being returned to the patient Most often, these transplants are allogenic, meaning the stem cells come from a healthy donor, usually a sibling While stem cell transplants are the only way to cure this disease, they can have a lot of associated risks, so they are typically only done with patients that experience or are at risk of severe complications. Patients need thorough testing to check their organ function to assess their candidacy. They also need to receive chemotherapy to ablate, or remove, their existing stem cells before being given the donor cells. In addition, it can be challenging to find a match for a transplant. Although stem cell transplants can be a complicated and involved process, it holds the potential to alleviate symptoms and improve patient quality of life (Ashorobi et al, 2023)

Another one of many diseases that stem cells are being researched to treat is retinitis pigmentosa Retinitis pigmentosa is a genetic disorder that impacts the retina, an area in the back of the eye that converts light signals to electrical signals In this disorder, cells of the retina progressively degenerate, leading to vision loss and sometimes blindness Unlike sickle cell disease, various genetic mutations in over 70 genes are associated with retinitis pigmentosa, causing diversity in symptoms and progression rates among patients (Qi et al., 2024). This makes it challenging to target a specific gene or specific mutation in treatment. The goal of stem cell treatment for retinitis pigmentosa is to use them to replace damaged or lost retinal cells. Extensive animal experiments and clinical trials are being conducted to treat this disease, with positive outcomes. So far, results indicate that stem cell treatment can impact the function of retinal cells, improve vision, lead to slower disease progression, and decrease cell death While this is promising, researchers need to further test safety, long-term impacts, and try different treatments on patients at different disease stages to determine the best treatment plan options (Qi et al, 2024)

This is just a glimpse into the myriad applications and developments related to stem cell research From serving as models for disease and drug testing, to repairing damaged cells, to elucidating mechanisms of cell differentiation, these special cells hold vast potential in the world of medicine

References

Ashorobi, D, Naha, K, & Bhatt, R (2023, July 19) Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Sickle Cell Disease National Library of Medicine https:// wwwncbinlmnihgov/books/NBK538515/

Brenner, W, Dugdale, D C, Conaway, B, & ADAM Editorial team (2024, September 6) Bone marrow (stem cell) donation MedlinePlus https:// medlineplusgov/ency/patientinstructions/000839htm

Mohn, E (2024) Cell potency EBSCO https://wwwebscocom/researchstarters/science/cell-potency

Mostafa H K K (2021) Different Cells of the Human Body: Categories and Morphological Characters Journal of microscopy and ultrastructure, 10(2), 40–46 https://doiorg/104103/jmaujmau 74 20

Stem Cell Basics (nd) National Institutes of Health https:// stemcellsnihgov/info/basics/stc-basics

Valenti, M T, Serena, M, Carbonare, L D, & Zipeto, D (2019) CRISPR/Cas system: An emerging technology in stem cell research World journal of stem cells, 11(11), 937–956 https://doiorg/104252/wjscv11i11937

What Are Stem Cells? (2025, September 8) Cleveland Clinic https:// myclevelandclinicorg/health/body/24892-stem-cells

Qi, X Y, Mi, C H, Cao, D R, Chen, X Q, & Zhang, P (2024) Retinitis pigmentosa and stem cell therapy International journal of ophthalmology, 17(7), 1363–1369. https://doi.org/10.18240/ijo.2024.07.22

SyntheticBiology:Could YouDonateYourselfa NewKidney?

WRITTEN BY CHARLIE LANNING

DESIGNED BY AINSLEY COLEMAN

Currently in the United States, there are over 100,000 Americans stuck on the national transplant waiting list for lifesaving surgery Eighty-six percent of them need kidney transplants (Organ Donation Statistics, 2025) However, only 27,000 kidney transplants take place every year. This shortage, along with other factors such as lack of public awareness, donor health complications, and financial disincentives, results in around 4,000 deaths every year (Soltani-Nia, 2024). While organizations such as the Organ Procurement and Transplantation Network and the National Kidney Registry have helped increase the number of transplants through public advocacy and the voucher program, emerging technologies such as regenerative medicine are also opening new avenues for organ transplants

Whether it is academics deliberating molecular structure, theologians discussing the creation of humans, or in pop culture references such as the Lizard in Marvel’s SpiderMan, the concept of regenerative medicine has captivated minds for centuries While the field of regenerative medicine as a whole encompasses the repair, replacement, and regeneration of human cells, tissues, and organs, this article focuses primarily on growing synthetic organs for transplantation (Mao & Mooney, 2015) However, before discussing the science and theories behind generating new organs, it is important to understand why current methods national organ donor screening can be a tedious process due to immunological rejection.

To appreciate why current organ transplants can be so tricky, the human body’s response to foreign entities must be examined. When a person needs an organ transplant,

healthcare providers look for compatible donors whose antigens are as similar as possible to the patient so that an immune response is not triggered Antigens, which can be categorized as self or nonself, are small protein receptors that coat the surface of most cells in the human body and serve as a way for the immune system to recognize entities as either familiar or foreign (Transplant Rejection, 2025). If the antigens are too dissimilar, the immune system may attack the cell or organ Specific proteins called antibodies will bind to the foreign antigens, inhibiting their function and marking them as “alien” for immune cells to target (Forthal, 2014) To prevent organ rejection, doctors screen for matches using Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) typing to sift through six important antigens related to transplantation Since these antigens are inherited, finding a non-related donor is far less likely, as only one in every 100,000 people share the same antigen combination as you (Fu et al., 2012). Unfortunately, even with near-perfect antigen matches, the possibility of a transplant rejection is still present Predicting the outcomes of antigen compatibility is a challenge even for seasoned immunologists Regenerative medicine can help, however, by ensuring exact matches of antigens are received by patients

Over the past few decades, an increased number of screening and public awareness for donor programs has allowed for transplants to become more accessible, but modern medicine has also been looking for other alternatives such as growing synthetic organs One potential method for doing this is xenotransplantation Xenotransplantation utilizes two main components human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs), a type of stem cell that can develop into most cells in the body, and the fetus of another animal (typically pigs) to synthetically grow a human organ as seen in Figure 1 (Nagashima & Matsunari, 2016) In xenotransplantation, human PSCs are directly injected into the pig fetus It is important that during this process that the fetus has an organgenesis-disabled phenotype This is a genetic modification that disables the development of an organ This genetic modification ensures that only the development of the desired human organ in the pig fetus takes place. The genetically altered pig would be allowed to grow until the organ reaches the appropriate level of development, where it will then be transplanted into the patient.

Although xenotransplantation is an interesting approach to organ synthesis, there are immediate bioethical concerns, such as those that arise with abuse in animal research and welfare, and risks associated with cross-species viral transmission (Hawthorne, 2024) While this article examines xenotransplantation from a theoretical standpoint, evaluating the effectiveness and durability of these bioethical concerns in a practical setting is beyond the scope of this writing Due to this contentious nature of xenotransplantation, it is conducted only being tested in limited experimental cases in highly regulated environments (Moazami et al, 2023) Whether it will remain an avenue for future regenerative medicine is unclear, but further research and development of the method could provide a revolutionary catalyst for organ transplantation, especially if it is able to address the bioethical concerns associated with it

While screening and advocacy for organ donations has increased over the past decades, recent findings in regenerative medicine are opening new pathways for organ transplantation. Future applications of regenerative medicine, beyond just kidneys, could revolutionize the medical field. From being able to grow other types of organ failures such as lungs, hearts, and intestines to treating genetic disorders, such as sickle cell anemia, regenerative medicine offers an emerging avenue for addressing a variety of potentially detrimental health issues

Figure 1 Flow-chart of the process of a xenotransplant (Nagashima & Matsunari, 2016)

References

Forthal, D N (2014) Functions of Antibodies Microbiology Spectrum, 2(4), 101128/microbiolspecaid-0019–2014 https://doiorg/101128/microbiolspecaid-0019-2014

Fu, Q, Wang, C, Zeng, W, & Liu, L (2012) The Correlation of HLA Allele Frequencies and HLA Antibodies in Sensitized Kidney Transplantation Candidates Transplantation Proceedings, 44(1), 217–221 https://doiorg/101016/jtransproceed201112041

Hawthorne, W J (2024) Ethical and legislative advances in xenotransplantation for clinical translation: Focusing on cardiac, kidney and islet cell xenotransplantation Frontiers in Immunology, 15, 1355609 https://doiorg/103389/fimmu20241355609

Mao, A S, & Mooney, D J (2015) Regenerative medicine: Current therapies and future directions Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112(47), 14452–14459 https://doiorg/101073/pnas1508520112

Moazami, N, Stern, J M, Khalil, K, Kim, J I, Narula, N, Mangiola, M, Weldon, E P, Kagermazova, L, James, L, Lawson, N, Piper, G L, Sommer, P M, Reyentovich, A, Bamira, D, Saraon, T, Kadosh, B S, DiVita, M, Goldberg, R I, Hussain, S T, Montgomery, R A (2023) Pig-to-human heart xenotransplantation in two recently deceased human recipients Nature Medicine, 29(8), 1989–1997 https://doiorg/101038/s41591-023-02471-9

Nagashima, H, & Matsunari, H (2016) Growing human organs in pigs A dream or reality? Theriogenology, 86(1), 422–426 https://doiorg/101016/jtheriogenology201604056

Organ Donation Statistics (2025, May) https://wwworgandonorgov/learn/organ-donation-statistics

Soltani-Nia, S (2024, September 12) AOPO Highlights Disturbing Crisis: Thousands of Kidney Patients who Died Waiting for Organs in 2023 Could Have Been Saved AOPO https://aopoorg/aopo-highlights-disturbingcrisis-thousands-of-kidney-patients-who-died-waiting-for-organs-in2023-could-have-been-saved/

Transplant rejection: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia (2025, April 1) https://medlineplusgov/ency/article/000815htm

ToQ-TiporNot toQ-Tip

WRITTEN

AND DESIGNED

BY AINSLEY COLEMAN

If you are one of the many people on this earth lucky enough to have wet earwax and use earbuds, you have likely experienced some sort of discomfort at some point in your ears Maybe it’s a slight itch, or a feeling of build-up, and so you reach for a q-tip. And, maybe as you reach for that cotton swab, you feel nagged by a reminder that q-tips are not to be put in your ears! But still, you use one to relieve that discomfort.

That discomfort is more than likely caused by something called an impaction (Schwartz et al, 2017) This is the result of cerumen (earwax) build-up in your external auditory canal (EAC) (Simmons, 2019) Impactions can occur for a variety of reasons, including an increased production of cerumen, excessive or coarse hair in the EAC, foreign instrumentation in your ears (earbuds, cotton swabs, fingers, etc), or narrow/abnormal anatomy of the ear (Gupta & Bhutta, 2023) While impactions tend not to cause any hearing impairment, they are considered to be relatively uncomfortable

You may be wondering: well, if not a q-tip, then how am I supposed to clean out my earwax? In the case of normal earwax production, you usually do not have to Cerumen will move naturally via jaw motions from your EAC to the outer, exposed areas of your ears (auricle) where it is washed off through routine showering or bathing (Simmons, 2019). In the cases of ear impactions, the professional solution is to visit a care provider who can remove the excess build-up through various means. However, of these means, there is no optimal method for safe earwax removal (Sharp et. al., 1990).

The most common way practitioners remove earwax for patients is through ear syringing/irrigation methods, physical removal, micro-suction, or the use of medications such as oils (Sharp et al, 1990) Each of these methods are limited in their availability largely due to cost and training or in their effectiveness at removing impactions (Gupta and Bhutta, 2023) The number of complications that patients

tend to face from impaction removal is not yet confirmed, though rates of complications ranging from 01% to 38% have been noted in the past (Gupta & Bhutta, 2023; Sharp et al., 1990). More concerningly, many practitioners who perform ear impaction removals are not trained to do so, and unaware of how to check for successful removal of an impaction, as well as complications are possible after an unsuccessful impaction removal (Sharp et al., 1990). Not to mention, only 3 in every 5 impaction removals via syringing are successful (Sharp et al, 1990)

Professional ear impaction removals are largely inaccessible General practitioners or primary care providers often do not offer such services, and patients are likely to be referred to a secondary care facility or an otolaryngologist(ear, nose, throat specialist) (Sharp et al, 1990)

So what’s the deal with q-tips why not use them? One of the most common complications with the use of q-tips is damage to the actual ear Initially developed in 1923 for the purpose of cleaning out ears, they have since been warned against (Hobson & Lavy, 2005) Damage to the ear generally occurs when the cotton swab is inserted too far into the EAC. The first third of the ear canal is primarily composed of cartilage, and the inner two-thirds is composed of bone covered by fine hairs, glands, and a thin epithelium (Sevy, Hohman, and Singh, 2023). The inner portion of the ear is much more sensitive and prone to damage from a foreign instrument such as a q-tip. If inserted even further into the ear, there is risk of damaging the temporal membrane

Figure 1 Diagram of Ear Canal (Schwartz et al, 2017)

Figure 2 Tools used in cerumen removal (from left to right): otologic speculum, right-angle hook, cerumen loop, 5 French suction tip, and alligator forceps (Sevy, Hohman, and Singh, 2023)

(Khan et al, 2017) Alongside damage to the ear, there is also risk of pushing cerumen further into the canal, worsening a potential impaction.

Well then, what to do about those ear impactions? Unfortunately, there is currently no optimal method of earwax removal. If seeking professional care through a secondary care provider, the most effective method with the least amount of complications seems to be microsuction (Gupta and Bhutta, 2023) It has relative success in comparison to other methods with a 91% success in clearance with few complications However, it seems not to be as widely offered due to the potential of momentary hearing loss or damage from the sound it produces and the costs associated with equipment and training And, though most people find success in impaction removal with the use of q-tips, there is still the risk of ear damage due to incorrect use

There seems to be no current evidence suggesting that a correct use of a cotton swab is damaging to one's ears Of course, there is always the risk of rupturing sensitive epithelium and the temporal membrane from incorrect use Physical methods to remove earwax have been employed informally since the first century A.D. (Gupta and Bhutta, 2023). This being the case, there is no known “correct” way to remove excess earwax, but there are known safe ways to do so. It is important to mention that if any foreign object is lodged in the ear to not use a cotton swab to attempt to remove it please seek professional care in this case. With the proper education, the removal of excess cerumen could be done by trained practitioners or, with the use of q-tips at home

References

Gupta, T and Bhutta, M F (2023) Ear wax and its removal: current practices and recommendations The Hearing Journal, 76(9), 22-25 https://doiorg/101097/01HJ000097846461642e6

Hobson, J C, Lavy, J A (2005) Use and abuse of cotton buds Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 98(8), 360-361 https://doiorg/101177/014107680509800808

Khan, N B, Thaver, S, & Govender, S M (2017) Self-ear cleaning practices and the associated risk of ear injuries and ear-related symptoms in a group of university students Journal of public health in Africa, 8(2), 555 https://doiorg/104081/jphia2017555

Schwartz, SR, Magit, A E, Rosenfeld, R M, Ballachada, B B, Hackell, J M, Krouse, H. J., Lawlor, C. M., Lin, K., Parham, K., Stutz, D. R., Walsh, S., Woodson, E A, Yanagisawa K, Cunningham, E R (2017) Clinical Practice Guideline (Update): Earwax (Cerumen Impaction) Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, 156(1), 1-29 https://doiorg/101177/0194599816671491

Sevy, J O, Hohman, M H, & Singh, A (2023) Cerumen impaction removal StatPearls https://wwwncbinlmnihgov/sites/books/NBK448155/

Simmons, J C (2019) The Whole Ball of Wax: A Longer Than Normal Post About Your Cerumen UT Health Houston https://meduthedu/orl/2019/02/28/the-whole-ball-of-wax-a-longer-thannormal-post-about-yourearwax/#: :text=It%20has%20a%20function%E2%80%94it,it's%20suppose d%20to%20do%20that!

Sharp, J. F., Wilson, J. A., Ross, L., Barr-Hamilton, R. M. (1990). Ear wax removal: a survey of current practice British Medical Journal, 301, 12511253 https://doiorg/101136/bmj30167631251

Trouble-MakingTeens:Can TheyControlTheirImpulses?

WRITTEN BY NATASHA TROIKE

DESIGNED BY ELIZ USTUN

Teenagers can be moody, irritable, and defiant; they may snap at their parents and make risky decisions that they regret Decisions such as having unprotected sex or taking harmful, illegal substances can be drastically life-changing. Are these risky decisions acts of purposeful defiance, or is there more to it? Are teens truly in charge of their impulses, or are they victims of their developmental biology?

Our ability to self-regulate, the capacity to manage our emotions and behaviors to achieve desired outcomes, is hindered by reward and sensation-seeking urges/behaviors (Wesarg-Menzel et al, 2023) Adolescents, in particular, struggle with self-regulation because their brains are still developing critical brain regions, including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which can encourage partici in risky behaviors (Steinberg and Chein, 2015) A stu 5,000 individuals across 11 countries found that teen between the ages of fourteen and twenty-two heightened activation in brain reward centers, as pic by the peak in reward and sensation sensitivity in Fi (Steinberg and Chein, 2015)

This increase in sensitivity has important beh implications, as heightened sensitivity to rewards teens more likely to prioritize risky behaviors that immediate gratification without thinking about ne long-term outcomes.

This means that adolescents may engage in risky behaviors not because they underestimate the risks, but rather, the thrill outweighs their future consequences This helps explain why a parental approach focused solely on warning or saying “no” is often ineffective, because teen decision-making is not only rooted in logic, but also powerful developmental processes

To explore why teens are wired this way, it is important to look at the brain regions that shape their development. Most research related to emotional development tends to focus on the role of the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex, but the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) also plays a key role and is often overlooked (Gavita et al, 2012) The ACC, a subregion within the prefrontal cortex, is involved in a wide range of functions, including emotional processing and decision-making that impacts our behavior (Gavita et al, 2012) The ACC has key neuronal circuitry that connects the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex, exerting significant effects on our emotional regulation (Stevens et al., 2011). Therefore, its reduced connectivity and activation in adolescence can have drastic influences on emotional well-being In one study, reduced ACC activation was associated with conduct disorders- an executive dysfunction characterized by aggressive and disobedient behaviors, often observed in children (Stadler et al, 2007) This illustrates the profound impact of the ACC’s underdevelopment or dysfunction, which can lead to significant behavioral and emotional disruptions among

Figure 1 Age differences in reward sensitivity and self-reported sensation seeking in a sample of more than 5,000 individuals from 11 countries Note: From Multiple accounts of adolescent impulsivity, by Steinberg & Chein, 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)

But to really understand what’s going on, we have to look at the ACC itself as a work in progress during adolescence The adolescent brain is under constant development and reconstruction, and the ACC is one of these regions MRI scans reveal that children and adolescents activate this region less than adults, likely because the neuronal circuitry connecting the ACC to other brain regions is still maturing, making it harder for them to inhibit their behavior during tasks (Luna et al, 2013; Lichenstein et al, 2016) This underdevelopment helps explain why children may have difficulty controlling their emotional outbursts, including crying and temper tantrums, and why teens often struggle to control their impulsive and risky decisions Overall, these “bad” behaviors actually reflect an essential developmental stage where the brain gradually fine-tunes its regulatory systems and learns how to balance its emotions to exhibit greater self-control and make better decisions over time

Concerning judging teens and their ability to cont impulses, it seems unfair to simply criticize them “reckless” or “rebellious.” Their heightened rewa sensation sensitivity, combined with an underdev and less connected ACC, creates something of a storm for impulsive and risky behaviors Their bra under construction, and they are wired to seek thr experience emotions deeply Movies and televisio represented this chaos in the teen brain: full of thrill and risky choices, so it is nothing new These are individual “bad” choices, but should be recognize reflection of how biology shapes teen identity at th of development The good news is that a parent’s ho their teen will “grow out of it,” seems not to be mere thinking, but reflects the brain’s natural trajectory greater self-control and maturity

References:

Gavita, O A, Capris, D, Bolno, J, & David, D (2012) Anterior cingulate cortex findings in child disruptive behavior disorders: A meta-analysis Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(6), 507–513 https://doiorg/101016/javb201207002

Lichenstein, S D, Verstynen, T, & Forbes, E E (2016) Adolescent brain development and depression: A case for the importance of connectivity of the anterior cingulate cortex Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 271-287 https://doiorg/101016/jneubiorev201607024

Luna, B, Paulsen, D J, Padmanabhan, A, & Geier, C (2013) Cognitive control and motivation Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(2), 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413478416

Stadler, C, Sterzer, P, Schmeck, K, Krebs, A, Kleinschmidt, A, & Poustka, F (2007) Reduced anterior cingulate activation in aggressive children and adolescents during affective stimulation: Association with temperament traits Journal of Psychiatric Research, 41(5), 410–417 https://doiorg/101016/jjpsychires200601006

S b L & Ch J M (2015) M l l f d l

RedFlagsaremyFavorite Color:ThePsychologyof FallingForthe'BadBoys'

WRITTEN BY ERLINDA SALI | DESIGNED BY LILLY CASHEN

The “bad boy” has been a recurring figure in popular culture for years He’s the leather-jacketed brooding rebel, the dangerous lover, the tortured antihero that we have learned to romanticize This archetype blends “juvenile masculinities (aggression, rebellion, hypersexuality)” with appealing qualities like “charisma, ruggedness, and sensitivity,” creating a moral ambiguity that captivates audiences (Gopaldas and Molander, 2019) This contradictory mix keeps him popular across movies, songs, and advertisements Butwith this archetype being ‘a walking red flag,’ why are we still so bewitched by the bad boy, and should we be?

As a media figure, the bad boy mirrors society’s expectations of masculinity Media portrayals of men often emphasize dominance, toughness, and emotional restraint, which reinforces the image of someone powerful yet emotionally unavailable (Scharrer & Blackburn, 2018). This male dominance in media can attract certain viewers, suggesting that the allure of the “bad boy” stems from broader social dynamics (Schramm & Sartorius, 2024). The bad boy is not merely a fictional trope; he reflects a social script about masculinitythat equates dangerwith desirability.

Even beyond the media, the fascination with the bad boy seems to tap into fundamental psychological processes Research by Brodie and Ingram (2021) shows that individuals high in narcissism were more likely to become attached to antiheroes, characters who embody moral ambiguity and rebellion This tendency may help explain why some people feel drawn to dangerous or dominant partners, as such figures fulfill fantasies of intensity, confidence, and transgression that ordinary relationships may lack

From a neurobiological perspective, the thrill of risk activates the brain’s reward system Dopamine is a hormone that plays a key role in why people seek out experiences that are uncertain or risky It does not simply make us feel good; it drives the impulse to seek novelty and learn from unpredictability (Juárez Olguín et al, 2015) When we encounter something new or exciting, the brain releases extra dopamine, which strengthens attention and emotional learning As the UCLA Centerforthe Developing Adolescent (2023) notes, adolescents are especially sensitive to dopamine spikes from risky or surprising situations, making them more prone to romanticize thrill and danger Even when adolescents recognize risk, traits like impulsivity and low anxiety can override rational evaluation, leading to risky decisions (Reniers et al, 2016) As Tull (2019) points out, the adolescent brain is still developing, especially in areas related to impulse control, which contributes to riskier choices and attraction to “forbidden” experiences.

But the story doesn’t end with teenage impulsivity Many people who fall for bad boys also exhibit an “I can fix him” mentality The idea that one’s love or patience can redeem a flawed partner reflects a blend of empathy, idealism, and codependent tendencies Panaghi et al (2016) found that women married to addicted men scored higher in dysfunctional relationship dynamics of codependency where one person assumes the role of “the giver,” sacrificing their own needs and well-being for the sake of the other, “the taker” (Psychology Today, 2023) Especially those high in neuroticism , which is the trait disposition to experience negative affects, including anger, anxiety, self‐consciousness, irritability, emotional instability, and depression (Widiger & Oltmanns, 2017) These traits made them more likely to assume a fixer or rescuer role, especially when they perceived their partner as responsive or appreciative (Robinson & Lewandowski, 2024). In such relationships, helping or healing becomes a form of emotional investment, and since the bad boy is a prototypically flawed man, we feel a need to help him change.

Psychologically, this dynamic aligns with romantic idealization: the belief that love can change or “save” someone Romantic myths, such as “true love conquers all” or “partners can change once they’re loved enough,” feed into irrational relationship expectations (Zagefka et al, 2021) These myths can normalize harmful behaviors, especially among adolescents, who may view jealousy, control, or emotional volatility as proof of passion (Ruiz-Palomino et al, 2021) In this sense, the “fixing” fantasy not only sustains attraction to problematic partners but also distorts perceptions of healthy love These findings show that attraction to dominant or “bad” men can coexist with strong affection and loyalty The “fixer” mindset becomes a way to reconcile contradiction; the partner’s danger makes him thrilling, while his perceived vulnerability makes him redeemable.

Ultimately, the bad boy phenomenon lies at the intersection of biology, culture, and psychology. The media glorifies his rebellion, the brain rewards his unpredictability, and romantic myths justify staying when one should walk away. The bad boy archetype thrives because it feeds both our desire for excitement and our yearning to heal His appeal lies precisely in his contradictions; he is both danger and desire, cruelty and charisma (Gopaldas and Molander, 2019)

References

Brodie,Z P,&Ingram,J (2020) Thedarktriadofpersonalityandhero/villainstatusaspredictorsof parasocial relationships with comic book characters Psychology of Popular Media 10(2) https://doiorg/101037/ppm0000323

FFC 10012, W C (2014) The Bad Boy A Cultural Phenomenon E-Research: A Journal of UndergraduateWork 3(1) https//digitalcommonschapmanedu/e-Research/vol3/iss1/7/ Gopaldas, A, & Molander, S (2019) The bad boy archetype as a morally ambiguous complex of juvenile masculinities: the conceptual anatomy of a marketplace icon Consumption Markets & Culture,23(1),81–93 https//doiorg/101080/1025386620191568998

JuárezOlguín H,CalderónGuzmán,D HernándezGarcía,E,&BarragánMejía,G (2015) Theroleof dopamineanditsdysfunctionasaconsequenceofoxidativestress OxidativeMedicineandCellular Longevity 2016(1) 1–13 https://doiorg/101155/2016/9730467

Leili Panaghi,ZohrehAhmadabadi Khosravi, N, Sadeghi M S, & Madanipour,A (2016) Livingwith Addicted Men and Codependency:The Moderating EffectofPersonalityTraits Addiction & Health, 8(2),98 https//pmcncbinlmnihgov/articles/PMC5115643

Psychology Today (2023) Codependency | Psychology Today Wwwpsychologytodaycom https://wwwpsychologytodaycom/us/basics/codependency

Reniers R L E P Murphy L Lin A Bartolomé S P &Wood S J (2016) RiskPerceptionandRiskTaking Behaviour during Adolescence The Influence of Personality and Gender PLOS ONE 11(4) e0153842 https://doiorg/101371/journalpone0153842

Robinson, S, & Lewandowski, G (2024) Is the LightTriad reallythat light?: The LightTriads role in relationshipsaviorcomplex UTCScholar https://scholarutcedu/mps/vol30/iss2/4/

Ruiz-Palomino E, Ballester-Arnal, R, Giménez-García C, & Gil-Llario M D (2021) Influence of beliefs about romantic love on the justification of abusive behaviors among early adolescents JournalofAdolescence 92 126–136 https://doiorg/101016/jadolescence202109001

Scharrer E & Blackburn G (2018) Cultivating Conceptions of Masculinity: Television and Perceptions of Masculine Gender Role Norms Mass Communication and Society, 21(2) 149–177 https://doiorg/101080/1520543620171406118

Schramm H, & Sartorius, A (2024) The attraction of evil An investigation of factors explaining womens romantic parasocial relationships with bad guys in movies and series Frontiers in Psychology,15 https://doiorg/103389/fpsyg20241501809

Tull M (2019) Who Is Prone to Risk-Taking Behavior and Why? Verywell Mind https://wwwverywellmindcom/risk-taking-2797384

UCLA (2023) The Science Behind Adolescent Risk Taking and Exploration | Center for the Developing Adolescent Developingadolescentsemeluclaedu UCLA https://developingadolescentsemeluclaedu/topics/item/science-of-risk-taking

Us (2017 April 25) The Baddest List Of Bad-Boy Boyfriends We’d Love To Date Refinery29com; Refinery29 https://wwwrefinery29com/en-us/2013/06/47869/bad-boy-boyfriends-characters

Widiger T A & Oltm enormous public hea https://doiorg/101002

Zagefka, H, Clarke, Romantic Relationsh Satisfaction Journalo

ChewonThis HowGumCanPreventCavities

WRITTEN BY GARRETT MAYOVER | DESIGNED BY SUKIE WEINER

Gum has become a staple in my daily routine What started as something I chewed casually after school has evolved into a small yet essential part of how I relax, focus, and stay alert throughout the day Beyond its familiar chewy texture and refreshing flavors, gum has a surprising hidden benefitit can actually help prevent cavities This article will explore what gum really is, the science behind its cavity-fighting abilities, and which types of gum are best for maintaining a healthy smile

What is Gum?

For hundreds of years, records show that people across various cultures have chewed some form of “gum.” In its earliest form, gum was made from tree resin, which was transformed into an elastic substance that people chewed for recreation (“Chewing Gum | What Is Gum Made Of?,” nd) Today, most chewing gum consists of just four key ingredients: a gum base, a sweetener, flavoring agents, and food-grade coloring (“Chewing Gum | What Is Gum Made Of?,” nd) True to gum’s simplicity, this elastic treat is easy to produce

Sweeteners used in gum generally fall into three categories: traditional sugars, sugar alcohols, and “intensive sweeteners,” the latter offering sweetness at far higher concentrations than regular sugars or sugar alcohols (“Chewing Gum | What Is Gum Made Of?,” nd) Traditional sugars are simple carbohydrates that provide a sweet flavor, while sugar alcohols are low-carbohydrate sugars that are easier to digest The manufacturing process is similarly straightforward, as first the gum base is melted, then the other ingredients are mixed in, and finally the mixture is extruded and shaped into the desired form (“Chewing Gum | What Is Gum Made Of?,” n.d.).

How Does Gum Actually Prevent Cavities?

The physical act of chewing gum plays a significant role in stimulating salivary flow. This occurs through the activation of both mechanical and taste receptors located throughout the oral cavity (Mathews, 2009) The mechanical action of chewing provides continuous stimulation, while the flavors and sweetness of the gum further engage taste receptors,

amplifying the overall salivary response. Studies have demonstrated that chewing gum can increase the rate of salivary flow by approximately 10 to 14 times compared to the unstimulated baseline level (“Chewing Gum,” n.d.). Interestingly, research also indicates that sweetened and flavored gums produce a much greater salivary response than unsweetened or unflavored varieties, likely due to the combined stimulation of both receptor types (“Chewing Gum,” nd)

This increase in salivary flow is far from trivial and has several important implications for oral health Saliva is a crucial natural defense mechanism for the teeth and oral tissues When saliva production increases, the levels of essential ions such as calcium and phosphate also rise, which aids in the remineralization of tooth enamel and helps repair demineralization (“Chewing Gum,” nd) Furthermore, as one study notes, “increasing saliva volume helps to dilute and neutralize acids produced by the bacteria in plaque on teeth Over time, these acids can damage tooth enamel, potentially resulting in decay” (Dawes & MacPherson, 1993) Essentially, stimulated saliva acts as a natural buffering system that protects the mouth from the harmful effects of acid production.

Another important distinction lies between stimulated and unstimulated saliva. Unstimulated saliva, which is produced in small amounts during rest, has a relatively weak buffering capacity. In contrast, stimulated saliva, such as that produced while chewing gum, contains higher concentrations of beneficial compounds, including proteins, sodium, calcium, chloride, and bicarbonate (“Chewing Gum,” nd)

hen choosing gum is its ch, as discussed earlier, th Studies have shown wberry, watermelon, and at increasing salivation, ucing the highest levels riendly Gum to Prevent

These elements enhance the saliva’s buffering power, allowing it to neutralize acids more efficiently and maintain a stable pH environment in the mouth Altogether, this process highlights how something as simple as chewing gum can actively support oral health by promoting a balanced oral ecosystem and preventing the conditions that lead to dental decay

Does the Type of Gum Used Matter?

There are two widely recognized types of chewing gum: sugar-containing gum and sugar-free gum. The distinction between these two is crucial for understanding their impact on oral health. Gum that contains sugar includes monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are types of fermentable carbohydrates that can be metabolized by oral bacteria (“Choose a Tooth-Friendly Gum to Prevent Cavities,” 2020) When this happens, acid byproducts are produced, which can erode tooth enamel and contribute to the formation of cavities In other words, rather than helping to prevent cavities, sugar-containing gum can actually promote their development

In contrast, sugar-free gum is defined as gum containing less than 05 grams of sugar per serving (“Choose a ToothFriendly Gum to Prevent Cavities,” 2020) Instead of traditional sugars, it uses alternative sweeteners such as xylitol, erythritol, aspartame, neotame, saccharin, sucralose, or stevia (“Choose a Tooth-Friendly Gum to Prevent Cavities,” 2020) These sugar substitutes are considered noncariogenic because they are metabolized slowly by the bacteria responsible for tooth decay (“Chewing Gum,” n.d.). For example, when bacteria consume xylitol, they are unable to metabolize it efficiently, leading to bacterial death rather than growth. As a result, xylitol-sweetened gum not only avoids feeding harmful bacteria but can also reduce their presence in the mouth over time. Clinical studies have demonstrated that individuals who chewed sugar-free gum for approximately 20 minutes after meals experienced a notable decrease in the incidence of dental caries (Dawes & MacPherson, 1993)

e tooth decay However, gar-containing gums can tion, while sugar-free etened with xylitol, offer freshness Furthermore, o cause jaw problems, joint disorders (TMJ) y one with the American l, can make a surprising smile So, the next time member: you’re not just ght be helping to keep your teeth cavity-free.

References

ChewingGum (nd) RetrievedNovember3,2025,fromhttps:// wwwadaorg/resources/ada-library/oral-health-topics/chewing-gum ChewingGum|Whatisgummadeof?(nd) RetrievedNovember3, 2025,fromhttps://wwwfoodunfoldedcom/article/chewing-gum-whatis-gum-made-of ChooseaTooth-FriendlyGumtoPreventCavities (2020,January30) https://wwwrabelfamilydentistrycom/choose-a-tooth-friendly-gum-toprevent-cavities DawesC,MacPhersonLM Thedistributionofsalivaandsucrose aroundthemouthduringtheuseofchewinggumandtheimplications forthesite-specificityofcariesandcalculusdeposition JDentRes 1993;72(5):852-7 Mathews,J P (2009) Chicle:TheChewingGumoftheAmericas,from theAncientMayatoWilliamWrigley UniversityofArizonaPress

Mushroomsand MindControl

WRITTEN BY CONNOR BEASLEY | DESIGNED BY AINSLEY COLEMAN

In a humid forest climbs a lone carpenter ant At midday, it sinks its mandibles into a leaf’s vein and is locked in place A few days later, a thin stalk of mycelium erupts from its head, dusting the forest floor in spores to infect a new victim The ant has been infected by an unseen puppeteer known as Ophiocordyceps unilateralis sensu lato, more commonly called cordyceps or the “zombie ant fungus” (de Bekker et al, 2021) When we think of mind control, visions of mad scientists and maniacal villains tend to dance through our heads; the true culprits, however, are microscopic organisms that employ a variety of tools to alter and modify their host’s behavior. It is worth noting that this is not the mind control you see in the movies that is, the fungus is not consciously piloting the ant. Rather, “mind control” is a simplified way of explaining how behavioral manipulation works on this scale. Cordyceps displays a particularly spectacular control over an ant’s faculties: coordinating it to die in the perfect microclimate for its growth (de Bekker et al, 2021) But how?

It begins when a spore lands on the hard shell of an unsuspecting victim, sticking to the outermost surface with sticky proteins called adhesins It then begins to grow a flat pad-like structure, which serves as a base for a tendril-like extension, pushing and eating through the tough exoskeleton with a combination of pressure and a cocktail of digestive enzymes (Ortiz-Urquiza & Keyhani, 2013) Once it breaks through to the other side, it morphs its form again This time, it rapidly multiplies and expands throughout the inner-body cavity, circulating throughout the hemolymph, which is an analogous substance to blood in insects, and stealing key nutrients like sugars, fats, and proteins to continue to feed this expansive growth (Lovett & St. Leger, 2017).

During this invasion, where does the ant’s immune system come in to fend off the malevolent microbes? While carpenter ants have their own robust defensive armadas, the fungal invaders slip through the ants’ hemolymph by

altering their morphology to avoid detection evading detection and masking their presence (Lovett & St Leger, 2017) The growth continues to progress, now seeping deep into the muscle fibers of the ant as the fungus accumulates As these fibers grow, they develop networks throughout the ant that are capable of coordinating action (Fredericksen et al., 2017). Atthis point, the carpenter ants have a tendencyto stray from established paths, ostracizing themselves from the rest of the colony. A so-called drunkard’s walk begins, resulting in the host staggering about in a small, restrictive circle (Hughes et al., 2011).

Now, the moment the invader has been working toward: summit syndrome, or more dramatically, the bite At this point, the ant no longer has any real control over its mental processes and is at the mercy of its uninvited guest Guided by invisible urges the ant bites into the underside vein of a

Figure 1: Mature cordyceps stalk erupting from back of dead carpenter ant (Mongkolsamrit et al, 2012)

leaf 15 meters above the ground at noon creating a microclimate with the temperature and humidity most conducive to the growth and reproduction of O unilateralis sl (Hughes et al, 2011) The carpenter ant locks into place, its muscles atrophying and mandibles clenching with unusual pressure into the underside of the leaf and, save for the occasional twitch, remains stagnant until its death within just a few hours (Mangold et al, 2019) The ant remains hanging, while cordyceps continues to eat away at its flesh, eventually erupting with a stalk of mycelium from its back days later. Days after that, the stalk develops a spore-producing structure to infect a new victim (Lovett & St. Leger, 2017).

Given that this infection manipulates the ant’s behavior, you might be inclined to think that the fungus grows into the brain, poking and prodding the neurons with its tendrils. While this may make sense, the truth is actually the complete opposite The infection almost entirely avoids the brain, seeing little growth there, if any at all (Fredericksen et al, 2017) This means that O unilateralis sl must manipulate the ant in other ways Gaslighting? Unfortunately, cordyceps is not quite so manipulative in this regard, instead employing various molecular mechanisms to hijack the carpenter ant’s mind Various studies have shown hundreds of proteins and molecules are potential culprits in the modification of the ants' behavior by genome studies, however mapping out a complete pathway for manipulation remains a topic of ongoing research (de Bekker et al, 2017) These molecules and pathways are highly host-specific and require manipulation of the carpenter ant’s central nervous system and circadian rhythm (De Bekker et al, 2021)

While a scenario like The Last of Us, in which the same infection adapts to target humans in a warming world, remains firmly in the realm of fiction, Ophiocordyceps unilateralis s.l. still captures something deeply real. It’s a striking reminder of how even the smallest organisms can exert astonishing influence over complex behavior, exploiting biology in ways we barely understand Whether it’s an ant with a poppy seed-sized brain or a human with billions of neurons, the question of what controls behavior chemicals, instincts, parasites, or free will remains a mystery And in that sense, maybe we’re all still trying to figure out who’s really in control

Figure 2: Rendering of a fungal network enveloping a muscle fiber (Fredrickson et al, 2017)

References

De Bekker, C, Beckerson, W C, & Elya, C (2021) Mechanisms behind the Madness: How Do Zombie-Making Fungal Entomopathogens Affect Host Behavior To Increase Transmission? mBio, 12(5), e01872-21 https://doiorg/101128/mBio01872-21

De Bekker, C, Ohm, R A, Evans, H C, Brachmann, A, & Hughes, D P (2017). Ant-infecting Ophiocordyceps genomes reveal a high diversity of potential behavioral manipulation genes and a possible major role for enterotoxins Scientific Reports, 7(1), 12508 https://doiorg/101038/s41598017-12863-w

Fredericksen, M A, Zhang, Y, Hazen, M L, Loreto, R G, Mangold, C A, Chen, D Z, & Hughes, D P (2017) Three-dimensional visualization and a deep-learning model reveal complex fungal parasite networks in behaviorally manipulated ants Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(47), 12590–12595 https://doiorg/101073/pnas1711673114

Hughes, D P, Andersen, S B, Hywel-Jones, N L, Himaman, W, Billen, J, & Boomsma, J J (2011) Behavioral mechanisms and morphological symptoms of zombie ants dying from fungal infection BMC Ecology, 11(1), 13 https://doiorg/101186/1472-6785-11-13

Lovett, B, & St Leger, R J (2017) The Insect Pathogens Microbiology Spectrum, 5(2), 101128/microbiolspecfunk-0001–2016 https://doiorg/101128/microbiolspecfunk-0001-2016

Mangold, C A, Ishler, M J, Loreto, R G, Hazen, M L, & Hughes, D P (2019) Zombie ant death grip due to hypercontracted mandibular muscles Journal of Experimental Biology, 222(14), jeb200683 https://doiorg/101242/jeb200683

Mongkolsamrit, S, Kobmoo, N, Tasanathai, K, Khonsanit, A, Noisripoom, W, Srikitikulchai, P, Somnuk, R, & Luangsa-ard, J J (2012) Life cycle, host range and temporal variation of Ophiocordyceps unilateralis/Hirsutella formicarum on Formicine ants Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 111(3), 217–224 https://doiorg/101016/jjip201208007

Ortiz-Urquiza, A, & Keyhani, N O (2013) Action on the Surface: Entomopathogenic Fungi versus the Insect Cuticle. Insects, 4(3), 357–374. https://doiorg/103390/insects4030357

FromConvenience toConsequence

TheHealthRisksofEatingUltraprocessedFood

AND DESIGNED BY EVE SNYDER

Understanding Ultraprocessed Foods and Their Effects on the Body

What happens to the body when it's deprived of vital nutrients from fiber and protein, and pumped full of excessive sugar, fats, and salt? This situation can happen by eating ultraprocessed foods Ultraprocessed foods are made with processes you wouldn't normally perform in a home kitchen, with ingredients that have little, if any, nutritional value Pumped with additives to enhance color and taste, ultraprocessed foods may look appealing, but they can have harmful, longterm health risks (Monteiro et al, 2019)

The Importance of Fiber for Digestive Health

Doctors recommend that half of your plate is filled with fruits and vegetables, a fourth with protein, and the remaining fourth with grains Fruit, vegetables, and grains contain fiber, a type of carbohydrate that promotes digestion in the stomach and intestines (Mayo Clinic, 2024). Digestion is facilitated by bacteria that feed on fiber, so over time, a lack of fiber reduces the variety of bacteria in your gut. Unsurprisingly, ultraprocessed foods have been linked to gastrointestinal disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome. Because the gut can no longer properly process the food you eat, it leaks out of the intestines and into your bladder (Rondinella et al., 2025).

The Role of Protein in Regulating Appetite

Human protein is made up of 20 amino acids Our bodies naturally make 11 of these amino acids, but the remaining nine come from foods such as meat, nuts, seeds, dairy products, and whole grains (Liao, 2024) There are many benefits to eating protein, including weight loss Proteins make you feel fuller for longer, so you feel less hungry overall (Liao, 2024) The little protein in ultraprocessed foods causes consumers to feel less full, resulting in them eating more and gaining weight in the long run (Fardet, 2016) One study found an association between ultraprocessed food and obesity (Juul et al, 2018)

The Impact of Excess Sugar on the Body

Sugar is the body's source of energy, but it can be bad in excess There are two common sugar molecules: fructose and glucose After entering the bloodstream, fructose goes to the liver, while a hormone called insulin attaches to glucose and carries it to cells Eating lots of sugar over a long period of time may result in glucose overwhelming the bloodstream, such that the body cannot produce enough insulin to transport it (Mayo Clinic, 2025). Similarly, too much fructose in the liver causes fat accumulation, which can develop into insulin resistance (Baena et al., 2016). Insulin deficiency and resistance are characteristics of type 2 diabetes, and several studies have linked soda to increased risk of the disease due to its high sugar content (Mayo Clinic, 2025; Lara-Castor et al., 2025).

WRITTEN

How Different Types of Fat Affect Heart Health

Fat is an important part of your diet and is essential for absorbing vitamins and minerals, preventing blood clotting, and reducing inflammation (Harvard Health Publishing, 2022) However, not all fat is good fat There are several types of fats, including unsaturated and trans fats

Unsaturated fats raise high-density lipoprotein, or “good" cholesterol, and lower low-density lipoprotein, or “bad” cholesterol

Good cholesterol is important for blood flow, whereas bad cholesterol can cause a buildup of fat in the arteries, leading to heart disease (“The truth about fats,” 2022). In fact, research has proven that unsaturated fats are beneficial for heart health (Gillingham et al., 2011). These fats are found in foods like nuts, seeds, fish, and minimally-processed plant oils (“The truth about fats,” 2022).

Comparatively, trans fat is harmful to your health because it raises bad cholesterol Trans fats are most commonly found in chemically-modified plant oils (“The truth about fats,” 2022) Predictably, ultraprocessed food has been linked to heart diseases, but the FDA has recently banned the use of these artificial oils (Srour et al., 2019; Food and Drug Administration, 2023).

The Relationship Between Salt and Blood Pressure Salt, also known as sodium chloride, helps regulate fluid balance in the body Sodium is positively charged, so when it interacts with water a compound with partial positive and negative charges the sodium attracts its partial negative charge The two molecules travel together in the bloodstream, so the more sodium present in the body, the more water there is, too This situation increases the volume of blood in the body, causing the heart to work harder to pump blood throughout the body In the long run, this can result in high blood pressure (Berg, 2025) The high sodium content in ultraprocessed foods has been linked to hypertension, or chronic high blood pressure (Oladele et al, 2024) Hypertension increases the risk of heart problems such as heart attacks and strokes (Berg, 2025)

References

Baena,M eta (2016) Fructose,butnotglucose impairsinsulinsignalinginthethreemajor insulin-sensitivetissues ScientificReports 6(1) 26149 https://doiorg/101038/srep26149

Berg,S (2025) Whatdoctorswishpatientsknewaboutsodumconsumption AmericanMedical Association https://wwwama-assnorg/public-health/prevention-wellness/what-doctors-wishpatients-knew-about-sodium-consumption

Fardet,A (2016) Minmallyprocessedfoodsaremoresatiatingandlesshyperglycemcthan ultra-processedfoods Apreliminarystudywith98ready-to-eatfoods Food&Function 7(5) 2338–2346 https//doiorg/101039/C6FO00107F

FoodandDrugAdministration (2023) FDAcompletesfinaladministrativeactonsonpartially hydrogenatedoisinfoods https//wwwfdagov/food/hfp-constituent-updates/fda-completesfinal-administrative-actions-partially-hydrogenated-oils-foods

Gilingham,L etal (2011) DietaryMonounsaturatedFattyAcidsAreProtectiveAgainstMetabolic SyndromeandCardiovascularDiseaseRiskFactors Lipids 46(3) 209–228 https:// doiorg/101007/s11745-010-3524-y

HarvardHealthPublishing (2022) Thetruthaboutfats:Thegood,thebad andthein-between https//wwwhealthharvardedu/staying-healthy/the-truth-about-fats-bad-and-good Juul F etal (2018) Ultra-processedfoodconsumptionandexcessweightamongUSadults BritishJournalofNutriton,120(1),90–100 https://doiorg/101017/S0007114518001046

Recognizing and Avoiding Ultraprocessed Foods

Ultraprocessed foods can be incredibly harmful to your health, particularly because of their high sugar, fat, and salt content combined with low protein and fiber As these foods become more common on supermarket shelves, how do we avoid them? Experts recommend examining ingredient lists for additives for flavor, color, and texture. Sometimes they're labeled, but as a general rule, if you don't recognize many of the ingredients, then it's likely you're looking at an ultraprocessed food (Monteiro et al., 2019). If you wouldn't cook with an ingredient, then you shouldn't eat the food that contains it The best thing you can do for your body and health is to eat foods that help you, not hurt you

Juul,F etal (2018) Ultra-processedfoodconsumptionandexcessweightamongUSadults Britsh JournalofNutrition 120(1) 90–100 https://doiorg/101017/S0007114518001046

Lara-Castor L etal (2025) Burdensoftype2diabetesandcardiovasculardiseaseattributabletosugarsweetenedbeveragesin184countres NatureMedicne,31(2) 552–564 https://doiorg/101038/s41591024-03345-4

Liao,S (2024) Whatareaminoacids?WebMD https://wwwwebmdcom/diet/foods-high-n-amino-acids

MayoClinic (2024) Dietaryfiber Essentialforahealthydiet https://wwwmayoclinicorg/healthylifestyle/nutrition-and-healthy-eating/inMayoClinic (2025) Type2diabetes https://wwwmayoclinicorg/diseases-conditions/type-2dabetes/symptoms-causes/syc-20351193

Monteiro,C A etal (2019) Ultra-processedfoods:Whattheyareandhowto dentifythem PublicHeath Nutrition,22(5) 936–941 https://doiorg/101017/S1368980018003762

Oladele,C R etal (2024) Ultra-ProcessedFoodConsumptionandHypertensionRiskintheREGARDS CohortStudy Hypertension,81(12),2520–2528 https://doiorg/101161/HYPERTENSIONAHA12322341

Rondinella D etal (2025) TheDetrimentalImpactofUltra-ProcessedFoodsontheHumanGut MicrobiomeandGutBarrer Nutrients,17(5) 859 https://doiorg/103390/nu17050859

Srour,B etal (2019) Ultra-processedfoodintakeandriskofcardiovasculardisease Prospectivecohortstudy(NutriNet-Santé) BMJ l1451 https://doiorg/101136/bmjl1451

DoesFreeFoodLeadtoLess Food? DependencyTheory&TheAmbiguousEffectsof

FoodAid

WRITTEN BY STEVI DUGAS | DESIGNED BY SUKIE WEINER

Dependency Theory, in the context of food aid, holds that food aid and subsequent increases in food supply disincentivize local agricultural production, resulting in local dependence on food aid for survival But, is this actually the case? This article first explains the economic theory behind Dependency Theory, then examines why this theory may not connect to reality and some strategies for remedying the flaws of modern non-emergency food aid to ensure effective humanitarian aid

In emergency settings, food aid is considered a uncontested force of good, given its significant impacts on reduced mortality in crisis settings However, in nonemergency settings, the effects of food aid, often in the form of daily or monthly food rations, are highly ambiguous, with much of the uncertainty arising from ambiguous impacts on food prices. Consistent with any ECON 101 classroom, the basics of supply and demand dictate that when communities receive food aid, the supply of local food increases, and when supply increases, prices inevitably fall. For consumers receiving food aid, this results in a twofold benefit to their food access: food aid itself increases their food access, and decreases in food prices make food more affordable Even for non-aid recipients, there is a benefit, as they also enjoy lower food prices The ones who lose, according to theory, are producers of food: local farmers (Barrett, 2006)

Agriculture accounts for 29% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 65% of jobs in developing countries It provides livelihoods to 25 billion people worldwide and is the largest source of income and employment for poor, rural households (CBD, 2016) When prices of food fall, these households receive lower profits from their production, resulting in a decrease in their total income Economic theory suggests that food aid may then leave agricultural households with lower income, jeopardizing their livelihoods In the case of prolonged community receipt of food aid, some households may adapt their agricultural practices to fit the lower profits of food sales through strategies such as selling to different markets or growing non-food crops Other households may leave agriculture entirely, substituting agricultural sales with wage labor In the long-term, local economies are then left with an unexpected spillover effect of food aid: less locally produced food (Barrett, 2006).

As farmers produce less food due to low profits, the total supply of local food decreases. Just as an increase in the food supply led to a price decrease, here, a decrease in the food supply leads to a price increase, theoretically back to pre-food aid prices The net effect of food aid? The same prices, the same amount of food, but more food that comes from outside sources instead of being grown at home Here, we see the Dependency Theory, with food receipt

displacing the sales of local farmers, resulting in a decrease in local capacity to provide food and increasing reliance on outside sources (Barrett, 2006)

Though this model for understanding possible drawbacks of food aid makes theoretical sense, there are many reasons why food aid may not behave this way in the real world One of the most prominent reasons is that food aid often does not come consistently or in sufficient quantities to substitute for locally produced food products For example, a study by Nagoda (2015, as cited by Guatam, 2019) found that food rations allocated in one area receiving food aid varied from 400 to 2500 metric tons, meaning that no household could confidently rely on a certain amount of food aid coming to them each month Moreover, even where households regularly receive food aid, it may not be abundant. The Guatam (2019) study found, for example, that the food aid transfer only met 20% of the total food households needed, though it also halved the aggregate food deficit.

Timing is also a major determinant of whether Dependency Theory actually occurs When food aid distribution coincides with the end of the harvest season, it is most likely to harm farmers' sales This was seen in a study by Barrett and Maxwell (2005, as cited by Barrett, 2006), where sorghum (a type of grain) prices collapsed in southern Somalia in 2000 in part due to poorly timed food aid delivered to neighboring Ethiopia As such, a major force to counteract Dependency Theory has been to target food aid at times when food scarcity is worst In most places, this occurs during the so-called "lean season," which is the time period before harvest and after food stored from the previous harvest has become more limited For example, a study by Leach (1992, as cited by Barrett, 2006) found that Liberian refugees in Sierra Leone during 1990-1991 sold food aid into the market, lowering food prices during their lean season, effectively making food more affordable during the most vulnerable time of the year.

Particularly in the context of subsidized food products, food aid can sometimes be ineffective because it is not a viable substitute for currently consumed food, due to reasons such as high prices or limited availability. Both of these were seen in a study by Guatam (2019); the Nepalese government's subsidized rice program covered only a small portion of total households' food needs (~5%) This was attributable to the relatively high price of the subsidized rice and the necessity to have sufficient disposable cash at the appropriate time of distribution The result was that even households that could afford the rice had a hard time accessing it if they were unable to gather enough cash together quickly enough to purchase rice before the limited stock was gone As a result, 42% of households, mostly the poorer ones, did not utilize subsidized rice in 2013

The conclusion on food aid's impacts is that simplified economic theory cannot explain everything Place and context matter in assessing the costs and benefits of food aid Looking ahead, food aid continues to be an important tool for crisis relief and preservation of life, and it is an imperative first step in many contexts towards building less vulnerable and more resilient communities and households. However, it is not infallible, and taking local context into consideration is important for successful implementation.

References

Barrett C B (2006) Foodaidsintendedandunintendedconsequences

ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD) (2016) SustainableAgriculturePressRelease https//wwwcbdint/idb/image/2016/promotional-material/idb-2016-press-brief-agropdf Gautam,Y (2019) “FoodaidiskillingHimalayanfarms” Debunkingthefalsedependency narrativeinKarnali,Nepal WorldDevelopment,116 54-65

Let’sTalkAboutBirdsBaby:

HowDidBirdsEvolvetoHaveSuchElaborateCourtship Rituals?

WRITTEN BY LAUTARO LO PRETE | D

If you’ve ever watched a nature documentary featuring David Attenborough, you’ve definitely marveled at the eccentric and complex rituals of some bird’s courtship display This behavior is a phenomenon among birds where males will often complete a ritualistic dance as a way to attract a female But why go through all the hassle? What is the purpose of expending so much energy all the while putting yourself at such a heightened risk of predation?

Before discussing the origins of these behaviors, let's learn more about these courtship displays. These impressive courtship displays require optimized metabolic, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems which have evolved to be able to complete these ritual dances (Fuxjager et al., 2022). These performances have trade-offs such as a more positive assessment from the female bird in their choice of a mate resulting from the amount of energy exerted in a display An excellent example ofthese exhaustive displays in birds would be from the male Golden-collard Manakins (Manacus vitellinus), in which these birds perform a routine colloquially known as the ‘jump-snap’ display (much like the ‘bend-and-snap’ from the movie Legally Blond) During the mating season, these birds form leks, a group of males gathering to show their courtship displays, ranging from three to fifteen manakins where they make and maintain free of leaves their own individual one-meter clearing on the forestfloorto attractfemales with a routine of jumping all the while snapping their wings creating a loud snapping noise (Fuxjager et al, 2022) Evolutionary evidence has been shown to favor these exaggerated features for the purpose of mating The golden-colored collar in males that can be erected to make a ‘beard’ is such an example (Fuxjager et al., 2022). The evolution ofthe androgen system is also linked to courtship displays. In the juvenile male manakins studied, the levels oftestosterone affectthe bird’s behaviorfor either not attempting a courtship ritual or by doing so and clearing a plot of land from leaves and performing the jump-snap display (Fuxjager et al., 2022).

But why would they do this complicated routine? The final act ofthe dance ofthese manakins may reveal a part ofthe p ,

bird flies along instead of walking or hopping to show both its vigor and motor functioning abilities after its performance. These are important functions as they demonstrate the vitality of the bird, its resistance to fatigue, and its motor control based on the speed at which the male is able to perform the routine In fact, female Goldencollared manakins prefer males who are able to do the ‘jump-snap’ a fraction of second faster than the other (Fuxjager et al, 2022) This demonstrates that these courtship displays give an evolutionary advantage to males who can perform them with speed and grace to help them reproduce

Coloration in flora and fauna often revolves around two things: camouflage and reproduction In nature (perhaps on a bird walk), you may notice birds possessing either one of these traits Some birds like the Carolina Wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus) stay low to the ground and are a brown color to blend into the soil. While some birds, like the more noticeable male Northern Cardinals, have bright red plumage to attract a mate. Coloration is an important part of a courtship display in birds as it can communicate age, social status, competitive ability, and attractiveness all of which are importantfor mate choice and intrasexual

competition (Delhey et al, 2007) It’s understood that the idea of quality in the plumage reflects the reproductive quality of the bird who bears it (Delhey et al, 2007) However, this important coloration comes at a greater cost forthe bird both in physical appearance and safety

While a colorful bird may stick out for reproductive purposes, a mate is not the only creature it will attract Colorful plumage does the opposite of camouflage, making the male bird far more susceptible to predation Maintenance of these feathers is yet another price that colorful birds must pay The maintenance and development of these bright colors in birds is another facet of a male bird’s courtship routine which allows him to be better favored by the female bird, increasing his chances for reproduction. The onlytime a bird can change its feathers is during the molt season in the late summer and early fall where they replace their feathers, and sometimes in the spring where birds may begin to grow in their breeding plumage (Jaramillo, 2022). Without a molt, the only way to change your plumage as a bird is adjusting feather degradation, coverable color patches, and cosmetic coloration (Delhey et al, 2007) The last of these plumagemaintenance techniques relies on either the Uropygial Gland, at the base of the tail, to secrete a mixture of solutions or external materials which can all affect the coloration of a bird This has been observed in 13 bird families and is thought to be a sexual signal (Delhey et al, 2007)

If brighter colors make them more susceptible to predation and these courtship routines expend energy where it would be more beneficial to maintain for survival, why would evolution favor such contradictions to what’s normally thought of as important for survival? This is because it’s more importantforthese birds, such as the Golden-collard

manakins, to reproduce and pass on their genes than to be camouflaged and maintain energy Since these flamboyant traits are preferred by mates, male birds will try to have the best courtship ritual or plumage in order to be the chosen bird

References

Barske, J, Fuxjager, M J, Ciofi, C, Natali, C, Schlinger, B A, Billo, T, & Fusani, L (2023) Beyond plumage: acrobatic courtship displays show intermediate patterns in manakin hybrids Animal Behaviour, 198, 195-205 https://doiorg/101016/janbehav202301020

Delhey, K, Peters, A, & Kempenaers, B (2007) Cosmetic Coloration in Birds: Occurrence, Function, and Evolution The American Naturalist, 169(S1), S145–S158 https://doiorg/101086/510095

Fuxjager, M J, Fusani, L, & Schlinger, B A (2022) Physiological innovation and the evolutionary elaboration of courtship behaviour Animal Behaviour, 184, 185-195 https://doiorg/101016/janbehav202103017

Jaramillo, A (2022, January 25) Understanding the Basics of Bird Molts Audubon https://wwwaudubonorg/magazine/understanding-basics-birdmolts

Kaufman, K (2022, April 6) Ask Kenn Kaufman: Why Do Some Birds Have Such Extreme Mating Rituals? Audubon https://wwwaudubonorg/magazine/ask-kenn-kaufman-why-do-somebirds-have-such-extreme-mating-rituals

Rutkin, Shelley (2017) Golden-collared Manakin eBird https://ebird.org/species/gocman1

Vasquez-Noboa, A (2019) Golden-collared Manakin eBird https://ebirdorg/species/gocman1

Figure 2: Diagram of Golden-collared Manakin performing a ‘jump-snap’ display (Barske, et al 2023 )

Figure 3: Golden-collared Manakin (Rutkin, 2023)

Spicomellus

TheJurassicEnigma

WRITTEN BY BRYAN NAM | DESIGNED BY YIFEI QI

Imagine stepping into a time machine and messing with the controls until you find someplace interesting to go. Your destination? Morocco, 165 million years ago. You arrive and look around at vast floodplains stretching far across the horizon; flat land cut through by mighty rivers. In the distance, you see something, a creature unlike any you’ve ever seen before. It looks straight out of a sci-fi movie. It seems almost like a reptilian tank, with huge spikes on its neck and hips. The dinosaur looks towards you, then turns away to look for food You have just come face to face with Spicomellus afer, the “African collar with spikes” (Maidment et al, 2021)

Spicomellus was a member of the ankylosaurs, a group of dinosaurs famous for icons such as Ankylosaurus (Maidment et al, 2025) and Edmontonia Their most well-known feature is their extensive armor, consisting of plates and spines across their whole bodies. Though ankylosaurs were a very diverse and long-lived group, existing for around 100 million years, their early evolution has always been shrouded in the poor fossil record, making it challenging to figure out how their armor developed over time (Maidment et al., 2025). The initial description of Spicomellus in 2021 helped fill in some of the gaps in our understanding, but the fossil used to describe it was very fragmentary and did not tell us much about the whole animal (Maidment et al, 2021) However, earlier this year, a new fossil of Spicomellus was described, representing much more of the body than the original

This new specimen has features not seen in any other vertebrate, that is, animals with bones, showing that the evolution of ankylosaurs was much more complicated than anyone could have imagined (Maidment et al, 2025)

Spicomellus was a very peculiar dinosaur for several reasons For one, it is now the oldest known member of the ankylosaurs, dated to around 165 million years ago in the Early-Middle Jurassic period It is also one of the very few ankylosaurs known from the southern hemisphere, and the first to be discovered in Africa (Maidment et al., 2025). This shows that ankylosaurs had a much wider geographic distribution than previously believed and suggests there are still many more fossils to find of this group (Maidment et al, 2021) Spicomellus already stands out from the rest of the ankylosaurs because of its age and location, but its skeleton is where things start getting really bizarre

Figure 1 A life reconstruction of Spicomellus afer by Matthew Dempsey (Source: Natural History Museum, 2025)

Though the holotype, the original specimen, used to describe Spicomellus back in 2021 was very incomplete, consisting only of a partial rib with a few spines attached, there was already an important feature that stood out to the paleontologists who studied it The armor on this dinosaur, technically referred to as osteoderms, consisted of spines fused to other osteoderms, which were themselves fused directly onto the rib bone This direct fusion of osteoderms to ribs is unseen in any other known vertebrate, living or extinct, already showcasing how weird Spicomellus was This also showed that ankylosaurs as a whole were more morphologically diverse, or had more variation in physical traits, than previously thought (Maidment et al, 2021) With no more fossils known at the time, there wasn’t much else that could be concluded about Spicomellus However, that would change in just a few years.

The new specimen of Spicomellus afer described in 2025, represents much more of the body than the holotype did, featuring parts of the jaw, neck, torso, hips, feet, and tail. Alongside these were a vast array of osteoderms, varying significantly in size and shape on different parts of the dinosaur’s body Not only did the presence of all this new fossil material help definitively show that Spicomellus was an ankylosaur, which was a bit hard to tell with just a rib, but it also highlighted just how different it was from all other known members of this group Despite being the oldest known ankylosaur, Spicomellus had the most elaborate and complex armor of any of them There were pairs of spikes almost a meter long around the neck, a variety of long and short spikes around the pelvis, and a potential tail-club, a feature previously thought to have evolved 30 million years later in this group Most ankylosaurs had much simpler ornamentation, consisting mainly of shorter spikes that were more or less the same across the whole body This difference between Spicomellus and other ankylosaurs suggests that ankylosaurs acquired ornate armor very early on and then evolved simpler armor over time, completely upending what was previously thought about the evolutionary history of this group (Maidment et al., 2025).

References

Maidment, S C R, Ouarhache, D, Ech-charay, K, Oussou, A, Boumir, K, El Khanchoufi, A, Park, A Meade, L E, Woodruff, D C, Wills, S, Smith, M, Barrett, P M, & Butler, R J (2025) Extreme armour in the world’s oldest ankylosaur Nature https://doiorg/101038/s41586025-09453-6

Maidment, S C R, Strachan, S J, Ouarhache, D, Scheyer, T M, Brown, E E, Fernandez V, Johanson Z Raven T J & Barrett P M (2021) Bizarre dermal armour suggests the first African ankylosaur Nature Ecology & Evolution 5(12) 1576–1581 https://doiorg/101038/s41559-021-01553-6

Natural History Museum (2025) New fossils show that the “bizarre” armoured dinosaur, Spicomellusafer grewneckspikesuptoametrelong|NaturalHistoryMuseum Nhmacuk https://wwwnhmacuk/press-office/press-releases/new-fossils-show-that-the--bizarre-armoured-dinosaur--spicomellhtml

Figure 2 Image of the new fossils and the “hypothetical positions of armor” on Spicomellus’ body (Source: Maidment et al, 2025 )

For the longest time, ankylosaurs were believed to have evolved their armor as protection The first armored dinosaurs were better able to survive against predators, giving rise to descendants with even more armor Or so we thought The paleontologists who studied the Spicomellus fossils note that the massive spikes on its neck likely took a lot of energy to grow and maintain Features like these in modern animals tend to be the result of sexual selection, like the feathers of a peacock or the mane of a lion. This likely means that the armor in Spicomellus was selected for display purposes, originally evolving to attract mates. However, with the evolution of more dangerous predators came the need for better defense, leading to the armor shrinking and shifting towards defense in later ankylosaurs (Maidment et al., 2025). This is a big departure from what we thought about the armored dinosaurs, underlining how significant a discovery Spicomellus really is

Even in modern times, ground-breaking discoveries in paleontology continue to be made that challenge our previous understanding of the ancient world In the case of Spicomellus, not only will our ideas around the evolution of a whole dinosaur group need to be altered, the limits of our understanding of animals have also been expanded

ATragicLoveStory

Neanderthal-HumanInterbreeding

Humans moved northward when it became too hot and arid. Before that, we spent a few hundred thousand years evolving to the conditions of Africa (Hajdinjak et al., 2018). Our bones, genes, and skills were all honed to ensure survival in a particular climate, so when that climate began to change, the evolutionary traits that developed through years of mutations suddenly became deficient It forced us to move in droves to Western Eurasia, where we found some comfort in the cooler weather (Slimak et al, 2024) We also found another species of human: the Neanderthal

The Neanderthals had been in Western Eurasia for more than 100,000 years (Hajdinjak et al, 2018), so you wouldn’t expect them to go extinct so soon after, but they did We, the Homo sapiens, are mostly to blame for this, but the rest of the blame should fall squarely on the weaknesses of the Neanderthals They have a reputation for being unintelligent compared to modern-day humans Although their brains were disproportionately large, their behavior reflected that of a chimp: territorial, nonverbal, and impulsive (Dorey, 2021) The humans, on the other hand, were already beginning to develop large communities and a common language. However, the Neanderthals had one thing that the humans did not: broad shoulders, big biceps, and a deep, masculine voice (Dorey, 2021). Whether this was what made Neanderthals so appealing to humans is

WRITTEN BY PARTH PATEL DESIGNED BY SUKIE WEINER

unclear, but something about them must have been appealing since we interbred extensively. In fact, we spent so much time with the Neanderthals that their genetic diversity was replaced over time with ours, effectively making their species extinct and ours even larger.

One of the largest interbreeding events took place around 70,000 years ago (Hajdinjak et al, 2018) A group of Neanderthals diverged from the rest and found themselves in close contact with the migrating humans The populations that would eventually meet were large enough to make this event responsible for the majority of gene flow (the transfer of genes between populations) from Homo sapiens to Neanderthals They incessantly interbred for the next thousands of years genetic analysis of humans from Romania even shows they bred with Neanderthals as recently as 39,000 years ago (Hajdinjak et al, 2018) But what is so wrong with interbreeding? If the love was mutual, then are they not entitled to engage in it? Unfortunately, the answer isn’t so straightforward

When the Neanderthals and Homo sapiens had children, their two distinct sets of genes competed over the chromosomes that they would occupy (Hajdinjak et al., 2018). The Neanderthals’ adaptive system could not cope with the competition as well as the humans’ could (Banks et al, 2008) What happened, as a result, was that the Neanderthals’ genes became diluted and they, over generations, blended with humans and gradually lost the distinct genetic identity that made the Neanderthals who theywere (Slimak et al, 2024)

For example, let’s examine the case of Thorin He was a pure Neanderthal (found in France and nicknamed Thorin; Slimak et al., 2024). He belonged to a population that never met modern humans; as such, his DNA never introgressed, and his lineage was genetically isolated (Slimak et al., 2024).

Many years after his death, researchers found a fragment of his molar root and used it to extract DNA, generating a complete Neanderthal genome sequence (Slimak et al, 2024) It revealed the most compelling evidence for the argument that it was the gene flow that killed the Neanderthals Thorin had alarmingly little genetic diversity and alarmingly high levels of homozygosity (identical alleles), leading to recessive genetic disorders (Slimak et al, 2024) Why is this alarming? Because it means his parents were genetically alike, which could indicate that his parents were siblings or cousins In fact, the population that Thorin belonged to was so small that everyone in the population was each other’s relative

The smoking gun here is that, despite Thorin’s population being long isolated from all other hominins, there was still human DNA present in Thorin’s molar (Slimak et al., 2024). It tells us that Thorin’s ancestors (those born tens of thousands of years before him) had contact with humans. The gene flow that occurred then recombined over the subsequent generations, and the DNA fragments became increasingly shorter and spread out (Slimak et al., 2024). Moreover, the human DNA was uniformly distributed across the genome, not concentrated as would be expected from more recent interbreeding (Slimak et al, 2024) This uniformity could have only been a result of admixture thousands of years prior (Slimak et al, 2024), which, combined with the incest, made them biologicallyfragile

Contrasting Thorin and his people with the larger

TrueSilver: AStoryofSkinCoiningWithSilverin

WRITTEN BY TRANG NGUYEN | DESIGNED BY SUKIE WEINER

Silver, one of the most precious metals on Earth, has captivated humans since prehistoric times for its natural shimmer, which has found its way into coins, jewelry, and ornaments (The Natural Sapphire Company, 2025) In traditional Asian medicine, silver’s significance extends beyond jewelry or currency; it is a key component in a practice called “cạo gió”, which involves releasing energy blockages and restoring balance to the body using a smooth metal tool to scrape the skin Although it has been passed down through generations as a remedy for various ailments, a question remains: what makes silver the material of choice?

To help answer that, let’s have a look at “cạo gió” first “Cạo gió”, also known as “gua sha” in Chinese, or “skin coining” in English, is a traditional medical practice in several Asian countries, namely Vietnam, China, and Cambodia (Witham, 2023a). When a patient displays symptoms such as headache, fatigue, abdominal pain, fever, or nausea, they are believed to have “caught wind” (trúng gió), referring to a weakened immune system that allows “bad air” to penetrate the body (California Childcare Health Program, nd; Bui, 2024) Thus, they need to be treated by “scraping wind” (cạo gió) The practice applies traditional medicine theories to affect the meridian system, skin, and muscles, which helps enhance peripheral circulation, relieve muscle tension, eliminate fatigue, and balance the body's yin and yang (Bui, 2024)

The method is simple The patient must first be placed in a warm, enclosed space Then, you apply medicated oil to their skin, hold a tool with smooth, rounded edges like a spoon or a coin at a 45º angle, and start scraping The scraping position is from the neck down the shoulders, along both sides of the spine and ribs, covering the entire back You do it from top to bottom, using even force and long strokes. Each part of the skin is scraped for about 3 to 5 minutes, and red-purple marks will appear, indicating successful treatment as blood circulation is increased. Similar to scratching an itch, they are part of the body's response to irritation and inflammation, causing small blood vessels in the skin to expand and become more visible (Witham, 2023b) It is not recommended to use force to create marks, and scraping should not take more than 10 minutes Afterward, the patient usually eats hot porridge and rests under a blanket to promote sweating

What is interesting is the role of silver in this remedy One of silver’s most remarkable properties is its antimicrobial effects. It is able to release silver ions (Ag+), which react with the cell membrane of bacteria and damage their enzyme systems, leading to cell death – a mechanism known as the oligodynamic effect (Obafunmi et al., 2020). In traditional medicine, when you have a cold or flu, you are exposed to toxic gases through the skin, which are often sulfur compounds Instances of sulfur intolerance related to the gastrointestinal tract have also been reported to cause bloating, nausea, headache, and muscle pain (Hussey, 2018) If you live in an area highly contaminated with hydrogen sulfide (H2S), such as near old water wells or swamps, you can accidentally breathe it in or consume it, causing similar symptoms (Chatham-Kent Public Health Unit, nd) Silver, coincidentally, is found to absorb hydrogen sulfide Through oxidation, the reaction creates silver sulfide (Ag2S), which appears as a thin black layer on the surface of the metal, signaling a successful “cạo gió” (Hillman et al, 2021) In Tibetan communities, 999% pure silver has been used under the same practice for thousands of years They believe the antimicrobial properties of silver are behind why skin coining is effective

Beyond traditional practices, silver and its compounds have been recognized in modern medicine for their health benefits Silver sulfide and silver ions are used in wound dressings, creams, and medical devices, protecting against bacteria, fungi, and even certain viruses (Mohamed et al, 2020; Naumenko et al, 2023; Lansdown, 2006; Barillo & Marx, 2014) However, our understanding of the mechanisms and the full extent of their effects remains limited Excessive exposure to silver can lead to argyria, a condition in which silver particles travel into body tissues, causing the skin to turn a permanent bluish-gray discoloration. This happens usually through prolonged ingestion, inhalation, or direct contact with high concentrations of silver compounds. While not life-threatening, it is both irreversible and cosmetically undesirable (Cleveland Clinic, 2023).

Despite common belief, there is no conclusive scientific evidence confirming the effectiveness of skin coining or whether potential risks are involved Silver may provide a partial explanation for its mechanism, but the perceived benefits could also be attributed to the placebo effect Many people report that drugs and pills failed to relieve their cold symptoms, whereas skin coining appeared to help, which has reinforced its credibility As a result, the practice remains a part of Asian cultures, being passed down through generations

Nowadays, commercials for gua sha facials are widespread, promoting the practice of skin scraping for both cosmetic and therapeutic purposes Variations of the technique depend on the materials used (silver, jade, or smooth stone) and methodology (from gentle to firm scraping). Some use gua sha to rejuvenate the skin, while others apply it as a form of massage to release tension in muscles.

At the end of the day, many traditional Eastern medicine practices remain difficult to explain through the lens of Western medicine Further scientific research could help validate and formalize these practices, which can then be taught in medical schools and even to the public as complementary treatments for conditions like colds or

References

Barillo,D J,&Marx,D E (2014) Silverinmedicine abriefhistoryBC335topresent Burns,40,S3–S8 https://doiorg/101016/jburns201409009

Bui,H Q (2024,December19) Cạogióvànhữngthôngtinbạnnênbiếttrướckhiápdụng BookingCare https://bookingcarevn/cam-nang/cao-gio-va-nhung-thong-tin-ban-nen-biet-truockhi-ap-dung-p5940html

CaliforniaChildcareHealthProgram (nd) Coining:Whatyouneedtoknow https://cchpucsfedu/ resources/fact-sheets-families/coining-what-you-need-know

Chatham-KentPublicHealthUnit (nd) Yourenvironment Hydrogensulfide https://ckphucom/ hydrogen-sulfide/

ClevelandClinic (2023,July28) Argyria https://myclevelandclinicorg/health/diseases/25163argyria

Hillman,C,Arnold,J,Binfield,S,Seppi J (2007) Silverandsulfur:casestudies,physics,and possiblesolutions DfRSolutions https://wwwok2kkwcom/next/silver and sulfurpdf

Hussey,D (2018,April1) Sulphurintolerance:Managingsymptomseffectively DominickHusseyRoot CauseMedicine https://wwwdominickhusseyca/sulphur-intolerance/

Lansdown A B G (2006) Silverinhealthcare:Antimicrobialeffectsandsafetyinuse S KargerAG https://doiorg/101159/isbn978-3-318-01349-8

Mohamed D S El-Baky R M A Sandle T Mandour S A &Ahmed E F (2020) Antimicrobial activityofsilver-treatedbacteriaagainstothermulti-drugresistantpathogensintheirenvironment Antibiotics,9(4),181 https//doiorg/103390/antibiotics9040181

Naumenko,K,Zahorodnia S,Pop,C V,&Rizun,N (2023) Antiviralactivityofsilvernanoparticles againsttheinfluenzaAvirus JournalofVirusEradication,9(2),100330 https://doiorg/101016/ jjve2023100330

Obafunmi,T,Ocheme,J,&Gajere,B (2020) Oligodynamiceffectofpreciousmetalsonskin bacteria FudmaJournalOfSciences 4(3),601-608 https://doiorg/1033003/fjs-2020-0403-334

TheNaturalSapphireCompany (2025,May28) Thehistoryofsilver https:// wwwthenaturalsapphirecompanycom/education/history-precious-metals/the-history-of-silver/

Witham C (2023a October10) Learningtraditionalscrapingtherapy AdeepdiveintoIndonesia’s ancientartofkerokan KomorebiInstitute https://wwwclivewithamcom/single-post/how-you-learntraditional-scraping-therapy-in-east-asia

Witham,C (2023b,September28) Demystifyingredmarks:Thesciencebehindguashamarks KomorebiInstitute https://wwwkomorebi-institutecom/the-gua-sha-journal/demystifying-redmarks-the-science-behind-gua-sha-marks

MyRomanEmpire: TheMysteryofRoman Concrete

WRITTEN AND DESIGNED BY LILLY CASHEN

After the fall of an empire and millennia of conflict and decay, most structures crumble. Yet the monumental dome of the Pantheon, the towering ruins of the Colosseum, and the sprawling miles of aqueducts still stand today, two thousand years later, as testaments to Roman engineering brilliance The survival of these ancient structures was made possible by one of Rome’s greatest innovations: Roman concrete, or opus caementicium

Concrete has existed long before the Romans, but they perfected it, creating a material stronger and more durable than much of what we use today However, with the fall of the Roman Empire, the knowledge of making Roman concrete was lost, and nothing similar was used for roughly 1,500 years (Tellis & Rosenzweig, 2018) The baffling durability of Roman concrete has puzzled researchers for decades, but recent studies have begun to unearth the secrets behind Roman concrete production

Roman concrete typically consists of three components: aggregate, mortar, and brick facing. The aggregate made up most of the concrete mix and could include natural materials, such as stones orvolcanic tuff (a light, porous rock formed from volcanic ash), or construction waste like terracotta or tiling. The mortar was based on lime and pozzolanic ash, a fine, silica-rich volcanic material that reacts with lime to create strong, durable compounds When volcanic ash was not available, the Romans substituted it with crushed and burned tile or brick, which produced a similar reactive effect In the mixture, calcium in the lime reacts with the silicon and aluminum to form calciumaluminum silicate hydrates, the same strong, binding compounds that give concrete its durability To produce lime, sources such as limestone, marble, or travertine were calcined, heated at high temperatures to release carbon dioxide and leave calcium oxide, or quicklime, a highly reactive form of lime that hardens when mixed with water (Martin, 2015)

+ heat → CaO + CO2

Recent research suggests that the Romans employed a technique known as hot mixing to create mortar, either in combination with or as an alternative to slaked lime. Slaked lime is produced by adding water to quicklime, resulting in calcium hydroxide:

+ H2O → Ca(OH)2

CaCO3

CaO

In hot mixing, quicklime is added directly to a concrete mix of aggregates, pozzolans, and water at high temperatures The heat accelerates the chemical reaction, reducing curing and setting times and speeding up construction Hot mixing also produces distinctive lime clasts, bright white mineral chunks embedded in the concrete These clasts are brittle, directing cracks through them When water enters these cracks, the lime can dissolve and either recrystallize as calcium carbonate or react with pozzolanic components to strengthen the material This process creates a gradient of hydration around each clast, preventing them from fully dissolving and allowing them to act as self-healing reservoirs, sealing cracks within weeks (Seymour et al, 2023).

Modern concrete, by contrast, lacks these reactive clasts. It is composed of cement (typically Portland cement), aggregate (sand, crushed stone, or gravel), chemical admixtures, and water. Chemical admixtures are additives that modify the properties of concrete, such as improving workability, accelerating or retarding setting time, or enhancing strength and durability Portland cement is produced by heating a mixture of limestone and clay to about 1500°C to form clinker, which is then finely ground with 3–5% gypsum, a mineral that regulates the cement’s setting time by controlling how quickly it hardens when mixed with water Producing one metric ton of Portland cement releases roughly one metric ton of CO₂ Concrete is the second most consumed material in the world afterwater and is used twice as much as any other building material (Gagg, 2014) Its production contributes to about 8% of total global greenhouse gas emissions

Scientists are looking to Roman concrete for clues on reducing the environmental footprint of modern concrete While there is debate about whether Roman concrete emits less CO2 or requires less water to produce, its sustainability advantage lies mainly in its longevity (Christopher, 2018; Martinez et al., 2025). Roman concrete structures can last thousands of years, as seen in the many miles of Roman roads and ancient marine structures still in use today. In contrast, modern concrete typically lasts 50-100 years. Modern concrete often relies on steel reinforcement, which corrodes in seawater, leading to expansion and cracks in the structure over time, and reducing the life expectancy to around 50 years However, Roman concrete structures generally did not require steel This resilience makes Roman concrete an attractive option for marine structures such as seawalls (Christopher, 2018)

Roman concrete is more than a relic of the past; it is a blueprint for resilient, sustainable construction Its ability to self-heal, endure seawater, and last for millennia offers lessons that modern engineers are only beginning to understand In an age where concrete production contributes to a significant share of global greenhouse emissions, studying this ancient material could inspire greener, longer-lasting building practices The Romans may have lost the secret of their concrete with the fall of their empire, but today’s scientists are uncovering it piece by piece, showing that sometimes the solutions to tomorrow’s problems can be found in the past

References

Tellis, G J, & Rosenweig, S (2018) Roman Concrete: Foundations of an Empire In How Transformative Innovations Shaped the Rise of Nations: From Ancient Rome to Modern America(pp 37–66) AnthemPress https://doiorg/102307/jctv1nhhw86

Martin, N (2015) Toward a Better Understanding of Ancient and Modern Cement and Concrete TheClassicalOutlook,90(4),130–133 http://wwwjstororg/stable/43940280

Martinez, D M, Miller, S A, & Monteiro, P J M (2025) Howsustainablewas ancientRoman concrete?iScience,28(8),113052 https://doiorg/101016/jisci2025113052

Seymour L M, Maragh,J, Sabatini, P, DiTommaso, M,Weaver,J C, & Masic A (2023) Hot mixing Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete Science Advances,9(1) https://doiorg/101126/sciadvadd1602

Gagg, C R (2014) Cement and concrete as an engineering material: An historic appraisal and case study analysis Engineering Failure Analysis, 40, 114–140 https://doiorg/101016/jengfailanal201402004

Christopher,J (2018) Roman concretefordurable, eco-friendlyconstruction – applications fortidalpowergeneration,andprotectionagainstsealevelrise ScienceProgress,101(1),8391 doi:https://doiorg/103184/003685018X15154174791842

*Declaration: The author acknowledges the use of ChatGPT-5 to identify and correct for grammaticalerrors

FromSci-FitoReality:

CouldThereBeLifeonMars?

WRITTEN BY MATEA ŠARKINOVIĆ | DESIGNED BY LILLY CASHEN

Have you ever wondered: Are we alone in the universe? Well, scientists hope to answer the age-old question and they believe that Mars could hold the answer The red planet has been identified as a potential home to life beyond Earth, and this article aims to explore what makes Mars such a strong candidate Understanding the conditions on extraterrestrial objects is key to determining if our existence is a unique phenomenon or ifwe are the product of a recurring eventthat happens throughoutthe universe

Environments that sustain life

Currently, the search for life in the solar system has been narrowed to areas with the fundamental resources for sustaining life: habitable zones There are three most basic requirements of a habitable zone: 1) the presence of water which carries out cellular functions such as metabolism, 2) energy sources such as light and chemical energy which fuel reactions within organisms, and 3) CHNOPS elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur) which form the building blocks of life such as DNA and proteins (Remick & Hellman, 2023) Notably, the chosen requirements for such zones are based on the observed characteristics of living organisms on Earth, but these requirements may differ on extraterrestrial objects

Could there be life on Mars?

A compelling argument has been made in the literature for the past habitability of Mars NASA has been a leading force in the exploration ofthe planetwith four rovers and landers reaching the surface Rovers are remote controlled vehicles thattravel and explore the surface of Mars They detailed atmospheric conditions, water environments, element distribution, and planetary history Evidence suggests that Earth and Mars developed similarly For example, the Martian surface exhibits traits indicative of having once contained liquid water, just like our planet Several ancient impact craters show erosion and are composed offine sediments, suggesting past running water and lake deposits (Luzzi et al, 2025) Given that life on Earth first emerged in water, its presence on Mars strongly suggests that life could have developed there as well (Des Marais, 2010) Additionally, from orbit, the Reconnaissance rover has identified an abundance of near-surface ice atthe planet’s northern midlatitude, just below its North Pole. Ice can preserve organisms that survive in extreme conditions, so future robotic missions could uncoverthe presence of ancient Martian life (Luzzi et al., 2025)

In addition to water, energy availability plays an integral role in sustaining life On Earth, the primary source of energy is the Sun Plants use solar energy to synthesize glucose via photosynthesis Compared to Earth, Mars orbits at a distance roughly 14 times farther from the Sun Even at this distance, light energy is abundantly available at the surface of the planet However, research indicates that Mars’ early atmosphere was stripped away by intense solar winds, consisting of charged particles flowing out of the Sun into space (NASA, 2024) Without this protective layer, Mars is exposed to severe UV radiation from the Sun, which damages DNA – the fundamental building block of life Consequently, this extreme radiation exposure makes life on the surface improbable However, scientists are considering the possibility of adaptations in organisms that could allow them to survive in high UV conditions (Carbol & Grin, 2018).

Lastly, life sustenance also relies on the CHNOPS elements, which physically make up all living organisms. Organic carbon, found in living organisms, and nitrogen, have been identified by the Curiosity rover in the Gale Crater on Mars. Phosphorus was found in more limited amounts, while sulfur appeared abundantly across multiple sites on the planet These discoveries suggest a potential for abiogenesis – the emergence of life from non-living material (Oxford University

Conclusions

We do not have tangible proof of life on Mars yet, but scientists have been working to identify places that are the most likely to sustain organisms The discovery of water, essential elements, and the availability of energy on the planet all make a compelling argument that Mars could be currently habitable or was in the past In fact, Mars is one of the primary extraterrestrial objects being currently investigated for the presence of life The severe exposure to radiation on the Martian surface presents a hostile environment in which organisms would have to survive in extreme conditions However, the existence of life beneath the Martian surface still remains a captivating area for astrobiological research (Des Marais, 2010) Ultimately, further explorations of Mars are crucial, not just to answer the question ofwhetherwe are alone, butto determine if our existence is the product of recurring, predictable events that lead to the origin of life throughoutthe universe.

References

Cabrol,AN,&Grin EA (2018) FromhabitabilitytolifeonMars Elsevier https://doiorg/101016/B978-0-12-809935-300003-7

DesMarais,D J (2010) ExploringMarsforEvidenceofHabitableEnvironmentsandLife

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 154(4) 402–421 http://wwwjstororg/stable/23056860

Luzzi,E,Heldmann,J L Williams,K E,Nodjoumi,G,Deutsch,A,&Sehlke,A (2025)

Geomorphological evidence of near-surface ice at candidate landing sites in northern Amazonis Planitia, Mars Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 130 https://doiorg/101029/2024JE008724

AJourneyIntotheMysterious

QuantumRealm

WRITTEN BY KIEN BUI | DESIGNED BY YIFEI QI

Toward the end of the 18th century, many scientists believed that all the fundamental laws of physics had already been discovered Falling apples obeyed Newton’s laws of motion, spinning compasses were explained by Maxwell’s unification of electricity and magnetism, and steam engines drove the first industrial revolution through the rise of thermodynamics Lord Kelvin stated, “[t]here is nothing new to be discovered in physics now, all that remains is more and more precise measurement” Only “two small clouds,” he warned, were the two remaining mysteries: black-body radiation and the theory of light These small clouds, however, turned out to be gathering storms, revealing entire undiscovered fields of physics (Passion, 2021)

The black-body radiation problem was about the emitting spectrum of hot objects. We are all familiar with the warm colors of a lightbulb or a stove. As things get hotter, the color shifts from red to orange, then to white, and sometimes even to blue. But what if we keep heating it even more? Classical physics at the time said that it would go to violet or even ultraviolet, predicting that more energy would emit light at lower wavelengths. However, that was not what the experiments observed (Passon, 2021) Bewildered by this ultraviolet catastrophe, physicist Max Planck came up with an unusual idea to address the question Instead of assuming that energy was continuous and could take on any value, which nobody questioned at

the time, Planck suggested that energy came in tiny, discrete packets called quanta (Rovelli, 2014) This seemingly absurd mathematical trick made the equations obey the experimental results But it also made cracks in the classical physics realm, and light began to escape in unpredictable ways

That was only the beginning of these discoveries The earlier debate about whether light is a wave or a particle had been settled by Thomas Young’s famous double-slit experiment in 1801, which showed that light behaves like a wave Shine a light through two narrow slits, and one would expect to see two bright lines on the detector Surprisingly, it instead paints a pattern of bright and dark bands, completely breaking our intuition This result strongly supported the idea that light behaves like a wave, interfering with itself to create such a pattern. Later, when scientists tried dramatically lowering the light’s intensity, discrete bright dots were detected, providing evidence that light is a stream of particles. When the scientists kept this dim light running, the alternating bright and dark bands pattern appeared again! Each light particle seemed to “remember” where the others landed. Even stranger, when physicists tried setting up detectors at the slits to see which slit the particles came through, the pattern disappeared and two bright lines showed up (Knight, 2023, pp 11411145) The universe seemed to be playing with the scientists

Figure 1 Black body radiation

(Source: Piela, 2007)

(a) As one heats a box to temperature T, the hole emits electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies

(b) The distribution of intensity I (ν) as a function of frequency ν There is a serious discrepancy between the results of classical theory and the experiment, especially for large frequencies Only after assuming the existence of energy quanta can theory and experiment be reconciled

Figure 2 The double slit experiment

(Source: Giannakopoulos, 2025)

(a) When unmeasured, particles exhibit wave-like behavior, producing an interference pattern a signature of high mutual information and reversible structure (η ≈ 1)

(b) When a measurement apparatus determines the path taken, the interference disappears Entropy is injected, reversibility collapses, and the system transitions to a localized classical outcome

These abnormal phenomena seemed to be unrelated at first glance In 1905, the famous physicist Albert Einstein was among the first to take them seriously and draw a bold conclusion: light itself must also be made of these quanta, which were later called photons. This idea was initially challenged by his colleagues, but soon, matter itself was found to behave in equally perplexing ways. Assumed to be nothing more than tiny charged spheres, electrons also have wave-like characteristics, spreading and interfering like light did (Knight, 2023, pp 1148 - 1149) To describe this strange wave-particle duality, physicists needed a new language beyond the old rules This was the dawn of quantum mechanics

Imagine you have an apple in a box You can pinpoint exactly where the apple is, maybe at the center of the box If we replace the apple with an electron, things get strange At the tiny scale of an electron, it acts as a wave, “spreading” out all over the box You can’t tell where exactly the electron is, but only where it’s more likely to be You might be tempted to think that the electron is just moving so fast that we can’t measure its exact position Better measurement instruments, physicists believed, could reveal this information However, Heisenberg proved that nature itself forbids such perfection: the more you know about its position, the less you know about its momentum. This is known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle (Rovelli, 2014; Knight, 2023, pp. 1183-1184). It's more accurate to imagine a fuzzy electron cloud spanning the box instead of a small electron ball flying around.

Heisenberg

The weirdness of this quantum realm doesn’t stop there Now, imagine the given boxes are all prepared in the same way. If it were the case for apples, every box you open would have the same result: perhaps neatly at the center, since all boxes are identical. But if they were filled with electrons, you might find it at the center of the first box. Maybe huddled by the edge in the second box, and so on. The electron is seemingly everywhere, all at once, in the box, and when you open the box, it just “chooses” a comfy position to reside This phenomenon is called superposition, meaning multiple outcomes exist as real possibilities The action of observation collapses this superposition into a single definite outcome that we observe Absurd, isn’t it? Even Einstein himself, who initially sparked this revolution, couldn’t believe this randomness in the world of physics “God does not play dice,” Einstein said (Halpern, 2015) Just to illustrate how bizarre this idea could get, Austrian physicist Edwin Schrodinger came up with a playful analogy that involves an unfortunate cat In a sealed box sits a cat and a radioactive vial with a 50% chance of decaying and killing it According to superposition, the cat is both dead and alive until the box is opened Schrodinger never intended this as a serious idea, but rather a satire of how absurd quantum mechanics is

A century later, scientists still don’t have a definite answer. It might be uncomfortable, but quantum mechanics asks us to accept that fundamental laws of physics might be crafted by chance, not certainty.

References

Giannakopoulos, B (2025, April 22) What the double slit experiment really shows Entropy, reversibility,andthestructureofthereal Medium https://mediumcom/@billgiannakopoulos/whatthe-double-slit-experiment-really-showsentropy-reversibility-and-the-structure-of-thereal-f06027ee5776

Rovelli, C, Carnell, S, & Segre, E (2016) Seven brieflessonsonphysics PenguinAudio

Passon, O (2021) Kelvin’s clouds American Journal of Physics, 89(11) 1037–1041 https://doiorg/101119/100005620

Piela, L (2007) Chapter 1 - The Magic of Quantum Mechanics InIdeasofQuantumChemistry Elsevier

Halpern P (2015) ‘Einstein’s dice and Schrödinger’s Cat’ by Paul Halpern New York Times https://wwwnytimescom/2015/05/03/books/review/ einsteins-dice-and-schrodingers-cat-by-paulhalpernhtml

Knight, R D (2023) Physics for scientists and engineers: A strategic approach with modern physics (5th ed, Global edition) Pearson Education, Inc

Werner

Erwin Schrödinger

ComputerProblems? MustHaveBeentheSun

WRITTEN BY NED MARKHAM I DESIGNED BY SADIE MEDLOCK

Imagine playing your favorite video game, when suddenly, your character teleports to the top of the level One may be quick to blame the software for faulty code, clueless that this error may have originated from an unlikely source: the sun That’s right, during a speed run of Nintendo’s Super Mario 64, one stray cosmic ray flipped a single bit (a bit is the most basic unit of information inside a computer, storing one of only two possible values of 0 and 1), causing a streamer’s character to glitch in front of him and a live audience This phenomenon, however, can be far more consequential than a video game - how about a national election? During Belgium’s 2003 federal vote, one candidate inexplicably received 4,096 extra votes, more than was mathematically possible The voting machines did not catch any internal malfunctions, but investigators deemed it likely that this error originated from a bit flip in the voting machine’s memory, triggered by a high-energy particle from space (Johnston, 2017).

Imagine playing your favorite video when suddenly, your character teleports to the top of the level One may be quick to blame the software for faulty code, clueless that this error may have originated from an unlikely source: the sun That’s right, during a speed run of Nintendo’s Super Mario 64, one stray cosmic ray flipped a single bit (a bit is the most basic unit of information inside a computer, storing one of only two possible values of 0 and 1), causing a streamer’s character to glitch in front of him and a live audience. This phenomenon, however, can be far more consequential than a video game - how about a national election? During Belgium’s 2003 federal vote, one candidate inexplicably received 4,096 extra votes, more than was mathematically possible The voting machines did not catch any internal malfunctions, but investigators deemed it likely that this error originated from a bit flip in the voting machine’s memory, triggered by a high-energy particle from space (Johnston, 2017)

These strange incidents are examples of what scientists refer to as single-event upsets ( SEUs). SEUs occur when an energized particle, often from solar or cosmic rays, strikes a microelectronic component, swapping a bit from a 0 to a 1 or vice versa As technology advances, so too does its susceptibility to these kinds of events Traditional computing has followed a path of miniaturization and compression, packing billions of transistors onto smaller and smaller chips This has enabled faster, more efficient devices, but, in turn, has also made each bit more vulnerable Smaller transistors store less charge inside of them, meaning they require less energy to flip a bit with stray cosmic particles

These strange incidents are examples of what scientists refer to as single-event upsets ( SEUs) SEUs occur when an energized particle, often from solar or cosmic rays, strikes a microelectronic component, swapping a bit from a 0 to a 1 or vice versa As technology advances, so too does its susceptibility to these kinds of events Traditional computing has followed a path of miniaturization and compression, packing billions of transistors onto smaller and smaller chips This has enabled faster, more efficient devices, but, in turn, has also made each bit more vulnerable. Smaller transistors store less charge inside of them, meaning they require less energy to flip a bit with stray cosmic particles.

This issue will only become more common with the development of quantum computing Unlike classical bits,

This issue will only become more common with the development of quantum computing. Unlike classical bits,

which exist distinctly as a 0 or 1, qubits, the basic unit of information on a quantum computer, can exist in superposition – that is, to be both states at once This property enables quantum computers to perform calculations and processes exponentially faster than current systems Qubits, however, are much more sensitive to environmental noise, and recent experiments have demonstrated that even background radiation from cosmic rays, among other things, can cause multiple qubits to fluctuate simultaneously, resulting in bursts of errors (Chu, 2020) Researchers at MIT and Google have already observed these events in current quantum processors Developers of the Google's Sycamore chip observed that a single high-energy particle induced connected errors across multiple qubits through phonons, small vibrations that cascaded through the processor MIT found that not only can radiation and cosmic rays change qubit expression, but it can also dramatically shorten coherence times - how long a qubit stays in a usable state for computing (Swayne, 2025; Chu, 2020).

which exist distinctly as a 0 or 1, qubits, the basic unit of information on a quantum computer, can exist in superposition – that is, to be both states at once This property enables quantum computers to perform calculations and processes exponentially faster than current systems Qubits, however, are much more sensitive to environmental noise, and recent experiments have demonstrated that even background radiation from cosmic rays, among other things, can cause multiple qubits to fluctuate simultaneously, resulting in bursts of errors (Chu, 2020). Researchers at MIT and Google have observed events in current quantum processors. Developers of Google's Sycamore chip observed that a single high-energy particle induced connected errors across multiple qubits through phonons, small vibrations that cascaded through the processor MIT found that not only can radiation and cosmic rays change qubit expression, but it can also dramatically shorten coherence times - how long a qubit stays in a usable state for computing (Swayne, 2025; Chu, 2020)

As humanity develops, computing will continue to scale up not just in its power, but in how much it affects our daily life, making the impact of these bit flips harder to ignore Sure, we can dismiss these events as glitches in our games, but cosmic rays will carry more weight in critical infrastructure

As humanity develops, computing will continue to scale up not just in its power, but in how much it affects our daily life, making impact of bit flips harder to ignore. Sure, we can dismiss these events as glitches in our games, but cosmic rays will carry more weight in critical infrastructure.

Cloud servers, self-driving cars, financial systems, and medical devices will all become more susceptible and have a greater impact should they malfunction A single flipped

Cloud servers, self-driving cars, financial systems, and medical devices will all become more susceptible and have a greater impact should they malfunction A single flipped

In more critical environments, designers cannot rely solely on ECC to prevent the interference of cosmic particles and radiation They often implement redundancy protocols,

In more environments, designers cannot rely solely on ECC prevent the interference of cosmic particles and radiation They often implement redundancy protocols,

AConversationwith Dr. ShannonJones

FacultyHighlight

WRITTEN BY PAXTON MILLS I DESIGNED BY SADIE MEDLOCK

Dr Shannon Jones, Senior Teaching Faculty in the Department of Biology, is a toxicology expert, teacher, and long-time mentor from Roper, North Carolina With a PhD in Toxicology from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Dr Jones came to the University of Richmond with a purpose: to transform the lives of her students During her post-doc, she discovered an immense love for teaching: “I wanted a career where I could truly just focus on the craft of teaching and effective pedagogy,” Dr Jones said. The University of Richmond draws leading experts, researchers, and professors from across the country, like Dr. Jones, due to its unparalleled resources, small class sizes, and transformative opportunities available to students.

Prior to coming to Richmond, Dr Jones fell in love with toxicology Hailing from a rural town in North Carolina, which grapples with the burden of pollution from nearby factories and paper mills, Dr Jones developed an early interest in howthe environment impacts human health

,as well as how social issues intersect with biological principles “Curiosity kept pulling me back to toxicology," Dr Jones said

At Richmond, Dr. Jones has combined her passion for teaching with her scientific interest in toxicology through original courses such as The Science of Poisoning, Toxic Communities, and SMART (Science, Math, and Research Training). Through her Sophomore Scholars in Residence (SSIR) course, Toxic Communities, Dr. Jones integrates social justice principles, which allows students to work with tangible examples of science intersecting with daily life As Dr Jones describes, low-income communities and communities of colorfrequently bearthe burden of pollution and toxicant exposure from nearby waste disposal sites, and therefore face disproportionately high levels of both chronic and terminal diseases By merging her academic and social interests in a classroom setting, Dr Jones is able to effectively convey to her students scientific principles and whythey matter As Dr Jones stated, “Never give up on the pursuit of knowledge if it can better human health and society.”

Evidently, Dr Jones has found her calling, a role from which she is able to advance causes of academic interest while supporting young leaders.

“Never give up on the pursuit of knowledge if it can better human health and society.”

-Dr. Shannon Jones

Dr Jones smiles with her dog, Louie

However, if she were not a professor at UR, Dr Jones says she would be further developing her love of museums and ensuring that science is accessible and consumable for all populations as a curator Her dream exhibit would delve into the history of civilization’s understanding of both infectious and toxicant-induced disease, spanning the decades into the modern day’s emphasis on environmental justice

Fortunately for the UR student body, Dr Jones remains a continued campus presence and willing supporter Both inside and outside the classroom, Dr Jones is a staunch advocate for the next generation of scientists, always reminding students that “anybody can do science” In her own words, Dr Jones says, “I wantto be a forever resource for students. I care not only abouttheir learning but also about their development as human beings. Students give me hope for what’s to come. I remember how impactful my mentors were when I was younger and trying to figure out my career path. I love the idea of paying itforward.”

Interested

School of Arts & Sciences Student Research: https://asrichmondedu/student-research/

UR SUMMER RESEARCH FELLOWSHIP

Don’t have summer plans? Apply to the Richmond Guarantee for paid on-campus research this summer: https://ursfrichmondedu/

EXPLORE YOUR INTERESTS

Stop by the A&S Student Symposium next semester on Friday April 17th, 2026, to learn about current research projects on campus from fellow students across nearly 30 disciplines in the sciences, and social sciences, humanities, and more!

Research?

SHARE YOUR RESULTS

Want to share your results? Consider presenting at department symposia or publishing in an undergraduate research journal!

SMART students and Dr Jones celebrate the program at the SMART Student Gala

Dr Jones poses with her summer research students