Uppingham Research Journal - Issue 1, April 2024

By

By William McChesney

How is female identity and sexism portrayed

Foreword

Welcome to the Uppingham Review Journal, where the curious minds of our generation are leading students’ scholarly discussions, posing exciting problems and offering captivating opinions. We are thrilled to present the first edition of the Uppingham Review Journal: the platform led by high-school students for high-school students to publish the most outstanding works.

In the pages, you will explore science, humanities, arts and technology through the perspectives and ideas of student scholars. Each article, research paper and creative work has been carefully chosen for its quality, originality and impact on its field. These pieces showcase what level of work students can accomplish even at these foundational steps towards higher education.

Uppingham Review-Journal goes beyond being a review journal; it exemplifies how student-scholars can lead, motivate and offer insights to the global academic community. It is the only secondary school student-led academic publication in the country and symbolises student empowerment and intellectual collaboration. Our team of editors, all pupils at Uppingham School, has put in a great deal of effort to carefully curate a collection of the most outstanding papers that not only meet, but surpass ,the standards of academic excellence.

As you explore this edition, we encourage you to recognise the opinions, research and the deep level of exploration that each writer brings to their work. From ground-breaking studies to literary interpretations and from innovative technological advancements to critical analyses of historical events, we showcase the finest achievements in student academic pursuits.

Furthermore, this publication acts as a link that connects student-scholars with the wider academic community, offering a platform for discussion, feedback, and development. We hope that Uppingham Review-Journal will spark a love and interest in learning and exploration in both readers and contributors alike; our goal is to nurture an environment for student research that will thrive in the years to come.

In introducing this edition, I thank our contributors whose commitment and brilliance set a high academic achievement standard. We also express gratitude to the Uppingham staff: tutors, teachers and mentors whose guidance has been vital in turning this vision into reality.

In particular, I would like to acknowledge Mr Addis, who has consistently helped with assessing the works and day-to-day operations of the Journal, providing invaluable knowledge and experience for the Journal.

Eliazar Marchenko Uppingham Review Journal Founder and Head Editor

An introduction to superconductivity

By Avignon Lam

Abstract

Superconductivity is a promising technology that can have many uses in the future, from medical imaging to transport systems to power transmissions. This paper provides a basic understanding of the mechanisms behind low temperature superconductivity, and its potential applications in a larger scale.

Introduction

We know that when temperature decreases, resistance decreases as well, and that the relationship between the two can be modelled as linear at room temperatures. However, when temperature further decreases, resistance begins to decrease at a smaller rate, and at very low temperatures it is found that the resistance sharply drops to 0 for certain materials (See Fig 11 ). In fact, Onnes discovered this in 1911 when he cooled liquid helium down to 4.2K2. This is described as superconductivity.

Properties of superconductivity

There are a few properties that superconductors exhibit. Firstly, a superconductor placed in a magnetic field will have induced currents that have its own magnetic field. These magnetic fields expel any magnetic flux inside the superconductor, showing what is known as the Meissner effect, which can be shown by the London equations. A common demonstration of the effect is by placing a small superconductor on a magnetic track. The superconductor will then levitate on the track and can move with little resistance to motion.

Another property of superconductivity is that when put in a magnetic field (H) of large enough strength (i.e. > Hc, the critical value), superconductivity disappears. This temperature varies with material and is generally higher in Type 2 superconductors than Type 1 superconductors. The difference between the two types is that Type 2 superconductors, can enter a mixed state when the magnetic field strength is between Hc1 and Hc2, where the material remains superconducting mostly but contains holes, often called vortexes, to allow the some of the magnetic field lines to pass through, allowing it to be placed in a magnetic field of larger strength. (Fig 23) 1

Mechanisms

As for now, the most popular theory of explaining superconductivity is the BCS theory named after the initials of the 3 scientists that proposed the theory. However, the theory only provides an explanation to conventional superconductors with critical temperature lower than 40K, and the exact mechanism behind superconductors with a higher critical temperature is still unknown.

A key part to understanding BCS theory are the Cooper pairs of electrons which can move through the lattice (Fig 34). To put it simply, the formation of cooper pairs occurs due to distortions of the lattice of the material. When an electron moves through the lattice, positively charged ions in the lattice are slightly attracted to the moving electron, creating an area of higher charge density. This area of higher charge density attracts another electron. This results in the 2 electrons becoming bounded with each other. Do note that these “bonds” can have a length of around 30 to 1500Å, and will also have many other electrons between them, hence they are not actually bonds.

Alternatively 5, we can consider two electrons with opposite momentum (and opposite spin) having wavefunctions Ψ1 = ei(kx-wt) and Ψ2 = ei(-kx-wt) where ±k is their momentum. The probability distribution of the superposed electrons, |(Ψ1 +Ψ2) ⁄√2|2, results in a standing wave, hence there are regions of higher electron charge density and regions of lower charge electron density, resulting in the distortion of the lattice as positive ions are more attracted towards regions of high electron charge density.

Now that Cooper pairs are formed we can talk about their quantum properties. The pairs can be treated as a single particle and have an integer spin as opposed to a half integer spin of a single electron, hence they obey Bose-Einstein statistics and can now occupy the same energy level. This is different from normal materials at room temperatures where electrons obey the Pauli exclusion principle and must occupy different energy levels with pairs of opposite spin. The Cooper pairs in the lattice are now said to be in the same quantum state, meaning that each pair must gain equal amounts of momentum in an electric field, and have the same momentum. Hence, breaking just one of the pairs through interacting with the lattice is impossible as that would mean not all the pairs have the same momentum, resulting in no resistance as there is no interaction. However, as temperature rises near the critical temperature, we gain enough energy to break all the pairs, and electrons now interact with the ions in the lattice, causing resistance.

3 “The Phenomenon of Superconductivity and Type II Superconductors”, R.G. Sharma, 2021

4 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cooper_pairs.jpg

5 https://thiscondensedlife.wordpress.com/2015/09/12/draw-me-a-picture-of-a-cooper-pair/

Applications

There are various fields which can see the applications of superconductors. These applications all use the property of a superconductor that it can have a strong magnetic field, however these applications are currently limited due to the low critical temperature of superconductors, and difficulties of manufacturing strong and resistant superconducting wires that can withstand strong currents or magnetic fields.

Superconductors are often used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). MRI requires a strong magnetic field in order to align hydrogen nuclei to the field. When the field is disrupted, the protons realign and release specific radio waves, which are detected and can create an image. As a strong magnetic field is required, superconductors such as the common NbTi (Niobium-Titanium), are used in coils around the patient table. These superconductors are surrounded by a coolant such as liquid helium to maintain low temperatures. Although NbTi currently dominates the superconducting technology in MRIs, there is potential usage of MgB2 in situations where a extremely high magnetic field is not required.

Superconductors can also be used in transport, particularly in Maglev trains. These trains require strong magnetic repulsions or attractions to different coils to lift the train up, which a superconductor enables. The trains can than move along the track without friction to the ground, potentially allowing much higher speeds.

Other uses may include particle accelerators where superconductors are used to create strong EM fields, or in power transmission, although the latter is too expensive to be used on a large scale currently. They can also be used in quantum computing where the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states are represented by the ground and excited states of the qubits respectively.

Conclusion

To conclude, superconductors are materials that have no resistance under their respective critical temperatures. This is due to the binding of electrons to form Cooper pairs, which behave like bosons and have the same quantum state, preventing them from interacting with the lattice. Superconductors have many potential applications, such as in MRI, trains, quantum computing, or in particle accelerators.

Bibliography

Brian Skinner, This Condensed Life. “Draw me a picture of a Cooper Pair”

https://thiscondensedlife.wordpress.com/2015/09/12/draw-me-a-picture-of-a-cooperpair/#:~:text=In%20a%20Cooper%20pair%2C%20two,carry%20electric%20current%20without%20 dissipation

Explainthatstuff. “Superconductors”

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/superconductors.html

University of Cambridge. “Lectures on Superconductivity”

https://www.ascg.msm.cam.ac.uk/lectures/

University of Cambridge. “Superconductivity (All content)”

https://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/superconductivity/printall.php

Increasing Use of Artificial Intelligence in Genomic Medicine for Cancer Care: The Promises and Possible Drawbacks

By Summer Jones

1. Abstract

This article explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is currently being used in genomic medicine. It examines the role of AI and how it can be used to evolve and improve medicine as a whole and discusses whether or not we should integrate it more into healthcare by evaluating its benefits and potential challenges. It explores the social, logistical, ethical, and other factors that can be considered when considering how AI can be used to benefit genomic medicine.

2. Introduction

Medicine is an ever-evolving discipline that demands new and innovative ideas in order to save as many lives as possible. Cancer is a disease that remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide, killing approximately 10 million in 2020 alone. (1) Thus, the discussion of artificial intelligence (AI) regarding cancer treatments is becoming increasingly prominent in the medical field. It seems almost inevitable that AI will eventually become standard across all modern medical specialities in healthcare, with more than $1 billion in venture capital investment being received by global healthcare big data analytics companies in the first nine months of 2017 as stated by Merck Capital. (2) However, many are divided in their beliefs of how much of a role AI should have in our future. Individuals may question whether the potential drawbacks that AI creates may outweigh its possible benefits as suggested in a lot of mainstream media. Therefore, we are left with a fundamental question: Should AI be used in genomic medicine for cancer care?

3. Artificial Intelligence: What is it?

AI is a combination of sophisticated technological advances, encompassing a series of algorithms combined with theories that enable it to carry out tasks that typically require ‘human’ intelligence. Our perception of AI varies greatly. Some may consider AI in terms of science fiction, envisioning a dystopianesc future as seen in Blade Runner or Star Trek, whereas others may instead associate it with medical diagnosis (3) or radiotherapy. Similar to other industries, the field of medicine is embracing AI to surpass the limitations of human capabilities. The Cambridge Dictionary defines AI as (4) ‘the study and development of computer systems that do jobs that previously needed human intelligence.’ So, to put it plainly, artificial intelligence is a broad term that could be interpreted as the use of robots to carry out tasks in the place of humans. Artificial Intelligence in medicine intends to improve and save the lives of many by achieving greater success (in terms of precision and speed among other skills) than humans can independently.

4. The Current and Future Use of AI in Genomic Medicine for Cancer Care

Current AI techniques and models vary largely due to the number of different companies that claim them. (5) However, a standard computer-based model commonly used is Machine Learning (ML) - it comprehends patterns in an overall volume of information to construct classification and prediction models derived from the training data. It was first termed by Arthur Samuel in 1959 and since then has evolved greatly.(6) It can be used to create and develop individual treatments for patients, assist doctors in learning what to prescribe and predict the potential future of a patient’s medical journey.(7) It uses a system where it is trained, as perhaps a human would, where it will be punished for bad performances and rewarded for good performances. This feedback system reinforces its learning over time which helps it make models that can be used to then perform complex tasks. The Machine Learning will process data from a number of sources (biological, clinical, environmental, and experimental) through formatting, cleaning, scaling, normalization, unsupervised learning, and deep learning. (8) This creates models that are generated using Machine Learning algorithms (Model training and Evaluation). After model development and selection, diagnostic results can be predicted and thus provide medical advice. Therefore, it could be suggested that Machine Learning is significant in changing how the healthcare system works. It can help to make diagnoses and prescriptions of drugs and also reduce the risk of clinical

errors for cancer patients. This could mean that doctors, among other individuals in the medical system, have more time to help a greater amount of cancer patients or reduce the risk of ‘burnout’ and so allow them to work more efficiently and devote more time to other features of patient care. (9)

Omics technologies aim to detect genomics in a specific biological sample and can be combined with AI to enable the study of complex biological systems. This has allowed the identification of disease biomarkers (using omics data) that can then lead to a simplification of a patient cohort categorization and can give preliminary diagnostic data to enhance the management of cancer patients and minimise high-risk emergencies in patients. Oncology itself relies on a history of evidence of past patient data which forms the basis for the creation of scoring systems. These, in turn, lead to the implementation of cancer risk assessment and disease diagnosis. (10) Using traditional approaches, it is almost impossible to understand the innumerable number of environmental and genetic factors relevant to specific cancers. However, AI allows for comprehension of this web of interactions as it can interpret the inconceivable magnitude and high dimensionality (11) of such data. Therefore, it is vital to use AI in a way that allows for an accurate understanding of a person’s cancer status.

AI techniques like deep learning technology (DELT, a subset of machine learning) can be used to identify and classify different tumours. (12) It can be used in cancer prognosis in combination with genomic data and uses methods that have been successful in predicting patient survival times, improve the function of gene editing tools and predict how certain types of cancer will progress in a patient. In recent years, DELT has continued to evolve extensively due to advances in learning algorithms, ever-increasing data availability and increasing computing power. AI-based models are now typical as part of breast cancer imaging. In August 2023, a Swedish study found that the utilization of AI software to interpret mammograms (an X-ray picture of the breast) resulted in the detection of 20% more cancers when compared to the conventional double reading approach by two radiologists. Additionally, the use of AI did not cause an increase in false positives. (13) This study provides an example of how AI can be used to diagnose cancer at its early stages of development. Consequentially, more patients can be cured of cancer and thus the economic, personal, and societal costs of cancer care are reduced. More time can be spent devoted to enhancing cancer care itself. For example, doctors could potentially develop more personalised care and support planning for patients.

The integration of ML and genomics data can help to diagnose cancer subtypes, understand cancerdriven genes better, and discover new markers and drug targets. These features can ultimately pave the way for customised approaches and treatments for individual patients. For instance, in 2021, Xingze Wang developed a deep network model (LungDIG) that can diagnose lung cancer subtypes by mixing imagegenomics data and hybrid deep networks that have achieved ‘not only a higher accuracy for cancer subtype diagnosis than state-of-the-art methods but also has a high authenticity and good interpretability.’(14) Moreover, AI is also being used in combination with liquid biopsy to identify signatures of colorectal malignancies (CRC, the second most frequently diagnosed type of cancer). (15) Machine learning techniques are being used to find the primary kind of cancer from a liquid biopsy. This is significant because early detection of CRC can have a huge impact in decreasing mortality and current methods like histopathological analysis of tumour tissue and colonoscopy are limited in success and no longer sufficient in capturing ‘the complex relationships between biomarkers and cancer subtype heterogeneity’ (16) Another current use of AI is demonstrated through a company named Freenom which uses AI to screen for cancer by analysing a person’s blood sample. It has raised over $100 million from investors and its test is being used by leading healthcare providers. (17) Evidently, there are a series of examples over recent years that demonstrate the potential of AI in combination with genomic data in improving diagnosis over a broad range of cancer types.

The integration of CRISPR with artificial intelligence is also a promising area for enhancing cancer therapeutics. ML tools and DL models can help the CRISPR-Cas9 system to have higher-precision target predictions. MDL-based algorithms have significantly improved the system’s efficacy concerning the reduced off-target effects which is a crucial factor in expanding their application in clinical therapeutics. As the list of new algorithms continues to evolve, the CRISPR-Cas9 system is expected to improve its increased on-target activity with corresponding minimum off-target effects, which will ultimately be crucial in its future clinical and therapeutic applications. (18) CRISPR technology itself can be used to modify immune cells and so make them more powerful in preventing the development of cancer and can alter DNA nucleotides (to prevent harmful mutations) through ‘cutting’ certain genes and replacing them with the correct versions. This is done to control and avert the process of carcinogenesis. (19) As CRISPR is still a new technology, any additions like AI are vital in improving its use in the future and determining how it can be used in relation to cancer care.

Moreover, AI algorithms can help analyse errors in prescriptions made by doctors. A study from John Hopkin’s patient safety experts claimed that medical error accounts for close to 250,000 people per year in the USA alone, therefore being the third leading cause of death in 2016. (20) ML models analyse historic electronic health records (a stored collection of patient-related information, that has been adopted in routine practice as genomic medicine has advanced) and then compare new prescriptions against this information. Any current prescriptions which differ from the typical patterns get flagged and enable doctors to take note of them and, if necessary, review and adjust them. An example of the success of AI being used in this way can be found in Brigham and Women’s Hospital’s use of an ML-powered system that serves this purpose. Over the course of a year, the system identified a total of 10,668 potential errors, with an impressive 79% being clinically valuable. In consequence, the hospital was able to save $1.3 million in healthcare-related expenses and enabled the improvement of quality of care by preventing drug overdosing and health risks. (21) VAIPE (a system developed by the research team at Vin Uni-Illinois Smart Health Centre and partners) is another example of an AI algorithm that uses graph neural networks and contrastive learning to warn users of medical errors when detecting prescription drugs. Dr Hieu, co-leader of the project, claimed, “The accuracy of these algorithms is completely superior to existing traditional methods.”

The field of genomics is rapidly evolving and ultimately transformative- it is becoming increasingly clear how intertwined this field of medicine and AI are becoming. The future of AI in genomics is promising and is estimated to be worth $47.6 billion by 2025. Over the next few years, engineers are researching how ML can be used with nanotechnology to improve medicine delivery and ultimately how AI can be integrated across the healthcare system. The application of AI in healthcare as a whole has the potential to manage some of the supply-and-demand challenges, such as long waiting times, limited resources, and overwhelmed healthcare professionals, faced by the NHS. It is projected that by the year 2030, the world will have 18 million fewer healthcare professionals whilst the gap between supply and demand will continue to escalate for staff employed by NHS trusts and potentially increase to almost 250,000 full-time equivalent posts. (22) With these factors, aging populations and the rising burden of chronic diseases, AI may appear to be the only viable solution in the future of medicine.

5. The Problems of the Combination of Artificial Intelligence in Genomic Medicine for Cancer Care

Whilst AI has already proven to be useful in genomic medicine e it is likely that as it advances further several ethical, medical, and technological challenges will be confronted. Like all disciplines, AI has its limitations.

One crucial concern is that of the patient’s privacy. Many of the emerging AI companies are controlled by private entities outside of the NHS (23), which could lead to such corporations having a greater role in protecting and using patient health information. This information is typically highly sensitive and revealing about patients and their families, therefore it may cause great stress to the public if public bodies are able to obtain their information without their direct knowledge. For instance, a survey conducted among a sample of four thousand American adults revealed that only a mere 11% were willing to share health data with tech companies in stark contrast to 72% with physicians, and only 31% were ‘somewhat confident’ in tech companies’ data security. Clearly, there is a struggle between the need for technology like ML that needs data in order to work accurately and the actual desire of the public to share their own genomic and health information. This could cause more stress to patients (such as those in cancer care) and create a sense of unease, which is ultimately opposed to the effect that the healthcare system wants to have on its nation.

In spite of the fact that many patients have a willingness to believe in AI-based diagnosis itself, many tend to more frequently trust doctors when the AI-based diagnosis differs from that of the doctors. (24) Ergo, it could be suggested that AI should remain as a tool to extend human capabilities rather than to replace them. Therefore, it is important to have experienced and knowledgeable professionals who can interpret the results from AI and make decisions based on them, as often AI is described as ‘black box’ (‘a system that produces an output without justification’). (25) Moreover, there is a potential issue with AI using incorrect data. There is a possibility that inaccurate or even incomplete data could be used in AI algorithms and thus cause inaccurate diagnoses or treatments for cancer patients. AI may even perpetuate existing inequalities in healthcare (if limited in its database), so, it must be emphasised that diverse and representative datasets are used to prevent inaccurate conclusions. AI also presents economic challenges. These issues primarily stem from the high computational costs associated with AI algorithms and the significant resources necessary (like ‘high-performance computing and large data storage capabilities’).

6. Conclusion

As evident from the great variety of applications of AI in genomic medicine for cancer care, it is clear that there are many advantages and promising ways we can use AI both now and in the future in healthcare. It is undeniable that there are some challenges in the current AI technology, however, there is no reason to suggest that we should not continue to improve and find ways to integrate AI into the medical industry. We should embrace that AI will become increasingly prominent in the future of all industries, and so be prepared to tackle the ethical issues that will arise with its adoption into modern society. AI algorithms have already proven to improve cancer care across a broad range of studies and will undeniably further medical progress.

References

(1) Cancer Research UK, (2022), Worldwide Cancer Statistics [Available from: rb.gy/gnw1c]

(2) G eorge Morrisey, (2018), Will artificial Intelligence eventually replace Cancer geneticists? [Available from: https://shorturl.at/eCKY3]

(3) The Medical Portal, (n.d.), AI In Medicine [Available from: rb.gy/bl8oa]

(4) Cambridge Dictionary, (n.d.), Meaning of Artificial Intelligence [Available from: rb.gy/hpb8o]

(5) Jia Xu, Pengwei Yang, Shang Xue, Bhuvan Sharma, Marta Sanchez-Martin, Fang Wang, Kirk A. Beaty, Elinor Dehan, Baiju Parikh, (22 January, 2019), Translating cancer genomics into precision medicine with artificial intelligence: applications, challenges and future perspectives [Available from: rb.gy/23xt1]

(6) Wikip edia, (6th October, 2023), Machine Learning [Available from: rb.gy/6v02s]

(7) Sudeep Srivastava, (September 29, 2023), The Future of Patient Care: AI in Healthcare [Available from: https://shorturl.at/anDKP ]

(8) Sameer Quazi, (15 June, 2022), Artificial Intelligence and machine learning in precision and genomic medicine [Available from: https://shorturl.at/lTX01 ]

(9) Jia Xu, Pengwei Yang, Shang Xue, Bhuvan Sharma, Marta Sanchez-Martin, Fang Wang, Kirk A. Beaty, Elinor Dehan, Baiju Parikh, (22 January, 2019), Translating cancer genomics into precision medicine with artificial intelligence: applications, challenges and future perspectives [Available from: rb.gy/23xt1]

(10) Jacob T Shreve, Sadia A. Khanani, MD, and Tufia C. Haddad, (2022), Artificial Intelligence in Oncology: Current Capabilities, Future Opportunities, and Ethical Considerations [Available from: https://shorturl.at/moJS1 ]

(11) Minhyeok Lee, (July, 2023), Deep Learning Techniques with Genomic Data in Cancer Prognosis: A Comprehensive Review of the 2021-2023 Literature [Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10376033/]

(12) Directorate-General for Internal Policies of the Union, (21 May, 2021), Background Note on Unlocking the Potential of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Cancer Research and Care [Available from: rb.gy/a4oue]

(13) Jamie DePolo, (August 3, 2023), AI-Supported mammogram Reading Detects 20% More Cancers [Available from: https://www.breastcancer.org/research-news/ai-mammogram-reading]

(14) Xingze Wang, Guoxian Yu, Zhongmin Yan, Lin Wan, Wei Wang, Lizhen Cui Cui Lizhen, (December, 2021), Lung Cancer Subtype Diagnosis by Fusing Image- genomics Data and Hybrid Deep Networks [Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34855599/]

(15) Octav Ginghina, Ariana Hudita et al., (March 8, 2022), Liquid Biopsy and Artificial Intelligence as Tools to Detect Signatures of Colorectal Malignancies: A Modern Approach in Patient’s Stratification [Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8959149/ ]

(16) Linjing Liu, Xing jian Chen et al., (June 30, 2021), Machine Learning Protocols in Early Cancer Detection Based on Liquid Biopsy: A Survey [Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8308091/ ]

(17) Arkadiusz Skuza, (July 9, 2022), AI and Genomics: A Profitable Advancement for the Healthcare Industr y [Available from: rb.gy/m2xrm ]

(18) Ajaz A . Bhat, Sabah Nisar at al., (18 November, 2022), Integration of CRISPR/ Cas9 with artificial intelligence for improved cancer therapeutics [ Available from: rb.gy/0j540]

(19) Rob Stein, (December 13, 2022), CRISPR gene-editing may boost cancer immunotherapy, new study finds [Available from: rb.gy/9wg6h]

(20) Michael Daniel, (May 3, 2016), Study Suggests Medical Errors Now Third Leading Cause of Death in the U.S. [Available from: rb.gy/yk4lt]

(21) Sudeep Srivastava, (September 29, 2023), The Future of Patient Care: AI in Healthcare [Available from: https://shorturl.at/anDKP ]

(22) Junaid Bajwa, Usman Munir, Aditya Nori, Bryan Williams, (2021), Artificial Intelligence in healthcare transforming the practice of medicine

[Available from: https://www.rcpjournals.org/content/futurehosp/8/2/e188.full.pdf]

(23) Blake Murdoch, (15 September, 2021), Privacy and aritifical intelligence: challenges for protecting health information in a new era

[Available from: https://bmcmedethics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12910-021-00687-3]

(24) Lushun Jiang, Zhe Wu et al., (March, 2021), Opportunities and challenges of artificial intelligence in the medical field: current application, emerging problems and problem-solving strategies [Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8165857/]

(25) Saravanan Sampoornam Pape Reddy, Delfin Lovelina Francis at al., (2023), Artificial Intelligence in the G enomics Era: A Blessing or a Curse? [Available from: https://shorturl.at/lIXZ0]

James Elroy Flecker: Poetry and Personae

By Benedict Braddock

James Elroy Flecker, of course, is relevant to Uppinghamians as the poet and OU for whom our senior literary society is named; moreover, he is relevant to the author personally not only as an Uppinghamian but also as a Decanian, both attending Dean Close School in Cheltenham before coming here; indeed, the library at Dean Close is called the “Flecker Library” to this day. But Flecker also has a broader significance as one of the central figures in pre-First World War 20th century poetry, forging a strongly individual and often visionary voice out of threads as disparate as the Parnassian movement in France and the contemporaneous Georgians in England, the poetries of the Classical world and of Central Asia, often all viewed through the lens of his own upbringing, which instilled in him both a religious impulse and a sense of “home” to which Flecker often returns. As he matured as a poet, Flecker seems to have adopted three central literary “personae” - Flecker the Headmaster’s Son, Flecker the Visionary, and Flecker the Romantic, which lend character to his work in often quite unexpected ways through an inventive use of poetic diction and imagery, and a seamless blurring of distinct influences.

1. Biographical sketch

Herman Elroy Flecker, as he was named at birth, was born on November 5, 1884 in Lewisham; his father William was a failed mathematician turned Anglican priest who, in 1886, made the decision to take his wife Sarah and two-year-old son across the country to become the first headmaster of Dean Close School in Cheltenham, where Flecker was raised and later educated. He spent his sixth form years, however, here at Uppingham, where he garnered a bad reputation for his lack of punctuality and general slovenliness, although rigorous training in Greek and Latin composition instilled in him a strong and lasting interest in the Classics; indeed, the first poems of which he was proud, published among the “Juvenilia” in his Collected Works, were a set of translations of Catullus. After Uppingham, Flecker studied at Trinity College, Oxford, where he adopted the name “James” and became close friends with Arthur Waley, later to become a leading orientalist and sinologist, and John Beazley, who would go on to be a noted archaeologist and art historian. While at Oxford, Flecker became greatly influenced by the last flowering of the Aesthetic movement there, which valued “art for art’s sake”, under the tutelage of John Addington Symonds; Flecker later stated that he wrote “with the single intention of creating beauty”1, and though he is often associated with the Georgian movement, his work, fortunately, does not possess the same pastoral lifelessness and diluted middlebrow conventionality that tends to characterise that particular school, but instead shows the influence of both Aestheticism and the French school of Parnassianism, which relied on clarity and simplicity for its emotive force. After graduating with a third in Greats, he trained as an interpreter in Persian and Arabic at Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge; it was during this period that his first collection of poems was published, The Bridge of Fire, in 1907.

In 1910 he briefly joined the consular service, serving as an interpreter in Constantinople, Smyrna and Beirut, but was forced to resign having been diagnosed with tuberculosis later that same year. Fortunately the experience had not been in vain; his time in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East inspired poems in the collection The Golden Journey to Samarkand, published in 1913, which was followed a year later by a novel, The King of Alsander; moreover, he had met Helle Skiadaressi that same year on a ship bound for Athens; they were married in 1911. Sadly, however, Flecker’s tuberculosis gradually became more intense, and he spent his last two years in various sanatoria in Switzerland, dying at Davos on January 3, 1915, at the age of thirty; on his death, he was described in perhaps justifiably hyperbolic terms as “unquestionably the greatest premature loss that English literature has suffered since the death of Keats”2. He was buried at Bouncer’s Lane Cemetery in Cheltenham in critical high regard but in relative public obscurity; however, the publication and staging of his verse play Hassan in 1922 made him a betterknown figure than he had been in his life and established him in the national consciousness as an important figure in early 20th century literature.

1 (Ward 1928, p175); cf. J. C. Squire’s introduction to The Collected Poems of James Elroy Flecker (1916).

2 (Macdonald, 1924)

2. Flecker the Headmaster’s Son

Arguably, the first Flecker “persona” to emerge was that of Flecker, the Headmaster’s Son. Growing from infancy to adulthood in a school environment where strict discipline had to be followed at all times had an essentially threefold effect on Flecker’s creative output: firstly, the regular chapel services he had to attend for long periods on Sundays and also during the week instilled in him a strong religious impulse; secondly, being tied so closely to an institution that encouraged competition both internally and with other schools fostered a strong sense of identity and the value of “home”; thirdly, the privileged but also socially vulnerable position he held as the son of the headmaster brought about a sense of isolation and loneliness, and having to prove himself on his own terms. This may explain his impatience to excel in Greek and Latin translation, but more importantly this combination of conflicting factors created an internal tension in Flecker to which he would return in his poems throughout his life. For example, in the early poem From Grenoble Flecker states an initial desire to experience the world in its fullness which is replaced by a yearning to return to his natural domain:

Now have I seen, in Graisivaudan’s vale,

The fruits which dangle and the vines that trail,

The p oplars standing up in the bright blue air,

The silver turmoil of the broad Isere

And sheer pale cliffs that wait through Earth’s long noon

Till the round Sun be colder than the Moon.

Mine b e the ancient song of Travellers:

I hate this glittering land where nothing stirs: I would go back, for I would see again Mountains less vast, a less abundant plain,

The Northern Cliffs clean-swept with driven foam,

And the rose-garden of my gracious home.3

The image of the “rose-garden” probably came from the garden of flowers that Sarah Flecker had cultivated at Dean Close, and which the young Flecker must have explored for hours as a child. Flecker also drew on his experiences of summer holidays at the Dorset seaside town of Southbourne in the poem ‘Brumana’, written in April 1913, when Flecker was wracked with tuberculosis and, according to Heather Walker, “the heat was intolerable and on doctor’s advice…[Flecker’s Greek wife, Helle Skiadaressi] took her husband up to Brumana on Mount Lebanon [where they were staying] in the hope that the cool mountain air would aid his recovery”4. Flecker became productive yet yearned to go back to England, a feeling that was heightened by the sight of pines near the place he was staying, which reminded him of the ones he had seen at Southbourne as a child. It was said that the boy Flecker preferred to wander alone at Southbourne, but the freedom he lacked at Dean Close may not have left him with much choice. The reference to the “chosen tree” in Brumana may also have meant that he had a set path at Southbourne and a particular arbour he returned to time after time because it afforded him a certain sense of security:

3 (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 29)

4 (Walker 2006, 512)

Oh shall I never never be home again?

Meadows of England shining in the rain

Spread wide your daisied lawns: your ramparts green

With briar fortify, with blossom screen

Till my far morning – and O streams that slow

And pure and deep through plains and playlands go,

For me your love and all your kingcups store,

And – dark militia of the southern shore,

Old fragrant friends – preserve me the last lines

Of that long saga which you sung me, pines,

When, lonely b oy, beneath the chosen tree

I listened, with my eyes upon the sea.5

Interestingly, the outbreak of the First World War in July 1914 caused the outcomes of his Headmaster’s Son persona to come full circle; what had been a difficult, conflicted, and deeply personal element of his poetic voice now found a new purpose as a means of expressing a sense of patriotism; his home was now not limited to the confines of the Dean Close rose-garden, but could be extended to include the whole of Great Britain. This new mode was expressed in one of Flecker’s final poems, The Burial in England, which finished in 1914 but was not published until February 1915, two months after the poet’s death. It contrasts the burial of the dead in England with the quick but much less friendly doom that awaited the soldiers killed in France in the early stages of the war, and is similar in tone to Rupert Brooke’s “The Soldier”; indeed, the two poems share remarkably similar original titles – Flecker’s was originally called “The Speech of the Grand Recruiter”, Brooke’s simply “The Recruiter”. The outbreak of war also caused a shift in Flecker’s poetic vision from optimism to the view stated by Hassan in Flecker’s long verse drama of the same name: “poetry is a princely diversion, but for us, it is a deliverance from Hell”⁶; nonetheless, in The Burial in England, Flecker’s assuredness of diction and the integrity of his earliest motivations stand as firm as ever:

These then we honour: these in fragrant earth

Of their own country in great peace forget

Death’s lion-roar and gust of nostril-flame Breathing souls across to the Evening Shore.

So on over these the flowers of our hill-sides

Shall wake and wave and nod beneath the bee

And whisp er love to Zephyr year on year,

Till the red war gleam like a dim red rose

Lost in the garden of the Songs of Time.⁷

3. Flecker the Visionary

In spite of the turn in tone necessitated by the outbreak of the First World War, throughout his poetic career, Flecker also cultivated a persona as a Visionary. Poems such as “To a Poet a Thousand Years Hence”, possibly Flecker’s best-known work today, express notes of pessimism comingled with a more assertive sense of optimism that often looks far into the future while bearing in mind the weight of historical precedent. This perceptive dichotomy is perhaps most clearly distinguished in two poems, “A New Year’s Carol” and “Prayer”, both written in January 1906, the beginning of Flecker’s last year at Oxford. The titular generic designation “carol” in the former poem has important implications. In the

5 (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 179)

⁶ (Flecker 1922, ‘Hassan’, 84)

⁷ (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 236)

Oxford Book of Carols, Percy Dearmer describes carols as “songs with a religious impulse, which are simple, hilarious, popular, and modern. They are generally spontaneous and direct in expression…the typical carol gives voice to the common emotions of healthy people in a language that can be understood and music that can be shared by all”⁸. Certainly Flecker’s use of the stable, “measured swing” of the rhymed quatrain form and direct poetic diction convey these attributes; more importantly, however, the substance of Flecker’s poem, like, the carol form and the concept of “New Year” itself, looks thematically both to the past and future. Indeed, Flecker’s ABBA rhyme scheme could recall Tennyson’s use of the same pattern made famous by his In Memoriam, which similarly faces tonally in two directions, moving from “despair to happiness” via “individual, historical and natural pasts” and “Christian pronouncements”⁹.

Awake, awake! The world is young, For all its weary years of thought: The starkest fights must still be fought, The most surprising songs be sung.

And those who have no other Gods

May still behold, if they bestir, The windy amphitheatre

Where dawn the timeless periods.

Then hear the shouting-voice of men

Magniloquently rise and ring: Their flashing eyes and measured swing

Prove that the world is young again.

O stubborn arms of rosy youth, Break down your other Gods, and turn To where her dauntless eyeballs burn,— The silent pools of Light and Truth.10

Prayer, by contrast, is more sober and much less idealistic in tone:

Let me not know how sins and sorrows glide

Along the sombre city of our rage, Or why the sons of men are heavy-eyed.

Let me not know, except from printed page, The pain of litter love, of baffled pride, Or sickness shadowing with a long presage.

Let me not know, since happy some have died

Quickly in youth or quietly in age,

How faint, how loud the bravest hearts have cried.11

⁸ (Dearmer et al. 1928, v)

⁹ (Kozicki 1977, 673)

10 (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 27)

11 (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 70)

The stable quatrains of A New Year’s Day Carol contrast strongly with Prayer’s use of terza rima, an interweaving form which creates a sense of echo and perhaps nervous expectation. Although both poems begin with imperatives, A New Year’s Day Carol’s apostrophic opening ‘Awake, awake!’ is far more emphatic than the repeated 1st person singular form with which Prayer begins: “Let me not know…”, which also establishes an apophatic language of denial and a desire for ignorance that is at odds with the optimism of “Light and Truth” in the former poem. There, the speaker seems aware of the burden of intellectual history and exhaustion of the “weary years of thought” yet succeeds in articulating a sense of purpose and newfound confidence in the reliability of poetic form. Flecker re-enforces this idea through the broader imagery of Classical antecedents represented by the “windy amphitheatre” and also by bringing in the visual aesthetic of printed poetry; the “silent pools” at the end of a New Year’s Day Carol perhaps suggest the text of a poem, ensconced in white space, like droplets or leaves upon the pool of the page. “Prayer” does not trade in this “starkest fight” of language; instead, Flecker uses subtle paradox and irony, for example, in the last line – “how faint, how loud the bravest hearts have cried”, perhaps heralding prophetically the fragmentation and scepticism pervasive to post-World War One Modernist literature.

4. Flecker the Romantic

The last of Flecker’s three central persona to develop was that of Flecker the Romantic. Flecker’s disciplined upbringing promoted Victorian values of fortitude and restraint over public displays of overt emotion, and so it is perhaps unsurprising that when Flecker’s own romantic experiences in the more liberal circles he moved in at Oxford are presented in his earlier works, they are generally elaborated as furtive subtexts, buried beneath a normative, if rather insipid, veneer. Thus an unknowingly appreciative public audience could be maintained while close friends could procure their own pleasures and meanings. For example, in the brief early poem entitled Song, dated March 1904, a farewell addressed to an ostensibly female love disguises a refer parting between Flecker and John Beazley before the return to Oxford:

Not the night of her wild hair

Nor the remembrance of her eyes

Leave me in so deep despair

As her echoing good-byes.

Swift musicians of the air

Still repeat those idle sighs

And their violins prepare Newer deeper melodies.

Although the path between appearance and reality had to be tacitly navigated at Oxford, Flecker’s experiences at Cambridge were altogether more highly strung; the milieu Flecker moved intended to be far more unabashed in its beliefs. Rupert Brooke, for example, with whom Flecker frequently dined, attracted both by his good looks and their mutual passion for Swinburne and East Asian poetry, maintained a loyal circle of intimates, both men and women; Brooke was also a member of a Cambridge society called the Apostles, for whom homosexuality, it was said, was an open and blatant creed12 Members were chosen for their good looks and family background, with intellectual powers as a secondary condition. On a political level, the Fabian Society pursued the cause of socialism unrepentantly. Flecker’s inability to relax his deep-seated repressive characteristics is reflected by the pervasiveness of elements of regret and isolation in his poems written around this period; for example, The Ballad of Camden Town,

12 (Deacon 1986, 55); for a comprehensive view of the relationship between this and the contemporary literary milieu in Cambridge see also (Taddeo 1997)

written in January 1909, presents a fictional relationship between a speaker and a woman called Maisie, who leaves the speaker when he is ill, recalling the disintegrating relationship between Flecker and Beazley; in both instances, one in the partnership had to creep away and leave the other not able to explain fully the reason why. The Ballad of Camden Town is also pervaded by a semantic field of emptiness; the room the speaker and Maisie share is described as

A b ed, a chest, a faded mat And broken chairs a few, Were all we had to grace our flat In Hazel Avenue.13

The room in this flat is more like the sickrooms of his experience, or the sanatorium of a school, or the cheap Continental hotel rooms Flecker shared with John Beazley, perhaps suggesting a pretended grandeur amid an undesired sexual sterility. Flecker would return to these images in later poems, such as In Hospital, when, suffering from the full effects of tuberculosis, these same themes of isolation and distress would recur:

Would I might lie like this, without the pain, For seven years — as one with snowy hair, Who in the high tower dreams his dying reign —

Lie here and watch the walls — how grey and bare, The metal b ed-post, the uncoloured screen, The mat, the jug, the cupb oard, and the chair;

And served by an old woman, calm and clean, Her misted face familiar, yet unknown, Who comes in silence, and departs unseen,

And with no other visit, lie alone, Nor stir, except I had my food to find In that dull b owl Diogenes might own.14

In contrast to these two turbulent periods, the years Flecker served as an interpreter in the Eastern Mediterranean represented something of a golden age for both his love life and his romantic poetic persona. On an Athens-bound ship in 1910, he met Helle Skiadaressi; the two were married rather uneventfully in May of the next year, but the period around their honeymoon for Flecker was marked by an extraordinary bout of happy productivity. In February 1911, he composed his Epithalamion, extolling, through classical allusions to Thetis, Triton, Peleus and Aphrodite, the “joyous beauty”15 of married life, and in July he wrote another classically-inspired poem, In Phaeacia, which recalls much of the imagery of Flecker’s earlier works, while also reflecting Flecker’s love of the olive trees of Corfu and above all the garden where he spent so much time.

13 (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 100)

14 (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 194)

15 (Walker 2006, 457)

Had I that haze of streaming blue, That sea below, the summer faced, I’d work and weave a dress for you And kneel to clasp it round your waist, And broider with those burning right Threads of the Sun across the sea, And blind it with the silver light That wavers in the olive tree. 16

A mere year on, however, the mood seems to have shifted somewhat; another poem, written for Helle’s birthday, entitled The Old Ships, also mentions Phaeacia, but the underlying message seems to be “Helle should be content with the beauty of Corfu and what Flecker thought was ‘the time and the place and the loved one together’”17. In other words, Flecker the romantic remained as precarious and as complex as ever.

5. Conclusion

To conclude therefore, in spite of his short life and limited public recognition, the poetry of James Elroy Flecker, crafted through the guises of several interlocking personae, yields a complex, unpredictable, yet profoundly fascinating voice. From the multifaceted desires of the Headmaster’s Son, drawn both to the security of “home”, whether intimate or national, and to the companionship of others, to the young visionary, holding both history and possibility in a single instance, and the maturing romantic, beset by dualities of frustration and contentment, appearance and reality, and repression and expression, Flecker invites us to engage with his epoch in a powerfully sensitive and sensual manner, that our pilgrimage, in some of Flecker’s most famous words, may indeed be beguiled, and that we too “shall go always a little further”:

it may b e

Beyond the last blue mountain barred with snow, Across that angry or that glimmering sea, but surely we are brave, Who take the golden road to Samarkand.18

1⁶ (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 166)

1⁷ (Walker 2006, 494); though see also (Symonds & Ellis 1975, 130)

1⁸ (Flecker 1946, ‘Collected Poems’, 148)

Bibliography

Deacon, R. (1986) The Cambridge Apostles: A history of Cambridge University’s élite intellectual secret society. New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux.

Dearmer, P., Williams, V.R. and Shaw, M. (1928)

The Oxford Book of Carols. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Flecker, J.E. (1922) Hassan: the story of Hassan of Bagdad and how he came to make the golden journey to Samarkand: a play in five acts. London: William Heinemann.

Flecker, J.E. (1946) The Collected Poems of James Elroy Flecker: With an introduction by John Squire Edited by J. Squire. London: Secker and Warburg.

Kozicki, H. (1977) ‘“Meaning” in Tennyson’s In Memoriam’, Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, 17(4), p. 673. doi:10.2307/450315.

Macdonald, A. (1924) ‘James Elroy Flecker’, Fortnightly Review

Symonds, J.A. and Ellis, H. (1975) Sexual inversion. New York: Arno Press.

Taddeo, J.A. (1997) ‘Plato’s Apostles: Edwardian Cambridge and the “New Style of Love”’, Journal of the History of Sexuality, 8(2), pp. 196–228.

Walker, H. (2006) Roses and rain: A biography of James Elroy Flecker. Ely: Melrose Books.

Ward, A.C. (1928) Twentieth Century English Literature. London: Methuen & Co Ltd. (E.L.B.S. ‘English Library’ series).

Resource Utilisation Elasticity Model: How resource utilisation elasticity impacts longterm economic growth

By Eliazar Marchenko

Abstract

Economics is a science of decision-making. This paper introduces the Resource Utilisation Elasticity (RUE) theory, which improves the current sustainability decision-making process, allowing decisionmakers to use the minimum necessary data to arrive at the current level of long-run economic equilibrium through analysis of the economy’s resource utilisation elasticity. Resource Utilisation Elasticity (RUE) is the measure of an economy’s ability to adapt its resource use for sustainable growth in response to changes in resource availability and technological innovation. This model reflects a general relationship between resource utilisation elasticity and the level of long-run equilibrium, allowing for a more effective decision-making process. This paper explains the relationship between resource utilisation elasticity and long-term economic output in a non-linear manner, exploring a more realistic logarithmic approach. This model reflects the dynamism of resource utilisation in the economy and how it impacts long-term economic growth. Through this approach, the model poses an alternative lens to view policy interventions and resource utilisation, allowing for a more informed and effective decision-making process, leading to both better sustainability and long-run economic growth.

Introduction

Economics has been, traditionally, a science of decision-making, making the best economists, those who can make effective and efficient decisions with minimum available data. Therefore, the most effective economic theories are the ones that reflect the current economic landscape with minimum necessary data, allowing for more effective and informed decisions to be made. Building on this perspective, the RUE theory is a general framework that allows for a quicker and more efficient decision-making process to be carried out. The RUE theory allows for complex economic dynamics to be simplified into a more manageable and predictable curve, providing an explicit view of resource allocation dynamics in the modern complex resource utilisation systems. The RUE model allows both the benefits of specificity and speed.

The RUE theory is significant because it relies on a long-term approach to sustainability, unlike the other models, which simply consider resources as a backdrop for economic agents’ activities.1 The RUE theory prioritises resource utilisation effectiveness and provides a dynamic framework for decision-makers to understand how variations in resource utilisation may impact long-term economic output. By using a more dynamic, sigmoidal curve function, the RUE curve captures the dynamic relationship between phases of resource utilisation (inelastic, unit elastic and elastic) and their corresponding economic outcomes. 2

Modern economies face the realities of increasingly diminishing resources, environmental degradation and increasing search for green-energy technologies. Thus, there is an urgent need for an economic framework that goes beyond traditional, linear theories, and approaches resource allocation in a more dynamic, and, thus, effective manner. The RUE fills this gap by offering a flexible, dynamic curve that considers both resource allocation efficiency and macroeconomic environmental constraints.

This paper adds to the existing body of literature by emphasising the importance of resource elasticity in shaping long-term economic equilibrium. Thus, offering a unique perspective on the sustainability of long-term economic growth. The RUE model provides policymakers and economists with an opportunity to reevaluate their long-term objectives for policy in a time characterised by environmental issues and the pursuit of sustainable development paths.

1 Daly, H.E. & Farley, J., 2011. Ecological Economics: Principles and Applications. Island Press.

2 Romer, D. (2011). Advanced Macroeconomics. McGraw-Hill.

Theoretical Framework

1. Conceptual Underpinnings

The RUE theory presents an economy as a dynamic entity with subject to resource constraints because the modern economies are subject to resource constraints, which not only limits the maximum output, but also means that there is a non-linear relationship between resource inputs and outputs. In contrast to conventional models, which frequently assume constant returns to scale or concentrate only on labour and capital factors of production as simple inputs, the RUE model includes resource elasticity as a key factor affecting economic equilibrium. The RUE theory attempts to reflect this case of resource elasticity, which includes labour, capital, and land (natural resources), being elastic by nature and the evolving changes to it with the growth of an economy.3

2. Mathematical Representation

The RUE theory is reflected by a logarithmic function that reflects the relationship between resource utilisation elasticity and economic equilibrium. This relationship is formalised as follows:

EERGDP = A

1

Where EERGDP is the economic equilibrium level of real GDP at a given resource elasticity; A reflects the maximum output achievable; k is the parameter determining the steepness of the curve, reflecting how quickly an economy transitions from one phase to another; p is the resource utilisation elasticity; p0 is the mid-point of the curve where the economy exhibits unit elasticity.

3. Curve Dynamics and Influencing Factors

There are several factors that influence the position and progression of an economy through the RUE curve; some of the factors are presented below.

• Technological advancements are the main factor that would directly influence resource utilisation elasticity. Advances in technology can increase efficiency and productivity, thereby increasing A and adjusting p0. Thus, technological progress provides increased production capabilities, moving an economy along the RUE curve.

• Policy intervention from the government may influence the progression of the economy through the RUE curve, as any economic policy, environmental and social. Changes to policies can have a significant impact on k, the determinant of steepness. Although, the effective policies can facilitate quicker and smoother transitions.

• Global and environmental factors have significant impacts on individual economics, as the global economic trends, trade dynamics and environmental changes can lead to fluctuations in GDP and long-term output of the economy, impacting the extent of resource utilisation efficiency, r, leading to changes in the position of the economy along the RUE curve.

4. Assumptions

The RUE model posits that economies operate with varying degrees of elasticity, at different stages of economic development. In the early, inelastic, phases, resources are utilised in a way that’s not responsive to increases in inputs; thus, for higher resource input, there is less than a proportional output of production in the long-run, meaning that the output doesn’t increase as much as the inputs do. As economies progress and develop, they reach a unit elastic stage where inputs and outputs move in proportion to each other; thus, proportional output is produced as to input. In later stages of economic development, resources are utilised in a more responsive and elastic manner, meaning that for a decreased amount of resource inputs, there is a proportionally larger output of production in the longrun. This allows economies to achieve larger proportional increases in output, for each unit of input.

The RUE model has several key assumptions that should be taken into account to outline the scope of the theory. Primarily, the model has the assumption of homogeneity of resources; thus, their transfer between different applications in an economy will have no opportunity cost. This assumption allows the model to focus directly on the relationship between the elasticity of resource utilisation in the economy and its level of real output. Secondly, the theory has the standard economics assumption of rationality of economic agents, which allows for a more smooth transition between different phases of elasticity of resource utilisation, meaning that the economic agents will behave more predictably and cohesively, allowing for the model to more directly focus on the long-term real output of the economy. The theory also assumes that there is a continuous, smooth transition between the different levels of elasticity in resource utilisation, focusing on the long-term economic output, disregarding the short-term fluctuations and external shocks; thus, these external, temporary shocks are not taken into account in the model. Finally, the model operates under the assumption of full employment of the economy, with no spare capacity, and, thus, all resources are being actively utilised, which allows for the model to focus solely on the effect of changing elasticity on the long-term real output of the economy. Thus, resource allocation dynamics are not taken into account in the model.

The focus of the model on the long-term perspective, in this theory, reflects the theory’s goal of creating a comprehensive framework for understanding how resources are used in a dynamic economy, and what their impact on real economic output is in the long-term. These basic assumptions, together, determine

the extent and scope to which the RUE theory can be used, outlining the situations where it is expected to provide insights and guidance for policymaking.

5. Empirical implications

Most modern economic theories accept that there are significant implications of resource utilisation efficiency on policy design; however, the RUE theory proposes that the relationship between resource utilisation elasticity and long-term economic output is non-linear. It’s clear that most economies with higher levels of resource utilisation elasticity, thus efficiency, will have a higher development level due to their both technological and labour quality, allowing their resources to be better employed in a dynamic economy. Therefore, in economies with a higher level of resource utilisation efficiency, the theory suggests taking a slower and long-term approach to technology may, in other words, a more sustainable approach to technology, be beneficial, as unsustainable technology may lead to a sooner approach of the resource limit in the short-term if the new technologies require higher usage of resources, they may cause an economic downturn and recession.4 Therefore, it is crucial for developed economies to accurately assess their level of resource utilisation efficiency and the sustainability of their technologies to avoid approaching resource limitation bottlenecks at an accelerating rate of resource utilisation and unsustainable technologies as this may cause production at an unsustainable level, leading to significant economic setbacks. In contrast, in economies with a lower resource utilisation efficiency level, policymakers may focus on the development of all technologies, though still giving preference to those more sustainable, which would allow for an accelerated level of resource utilisation elasticity, allowing for more rapid economic development which will then, in the long-run, foster improvements in the more sustainable technologies. Therefore, developed economies should focus on the promotion of only sustainable technologies to improve both their short-term and long-term sustainability of economic output, while less developed economies should focus on a general level of promotion of technological advancement, which will foster more sustainable solutions in the future as they go further along the resource utilisation elasticity path.

Thus, the RUE model suggests that to tackle the issue of inefficient resource utilisation in economies characterised by low resource utilisation elasticity, such as economies with highly inelastic to unit elastic resource utilisation, policymakers can consider implementing strategies that foster investment in infrastructure and education, for example, investing in the development and improvement of infrastructure such as roads, bridges and utilities. These improvements and advancements provide a more long-term approach to technological development and are arguably more sustainable for long-term economic development rather than larger top-down projects often promoted by the Western countries in their “aid” provisions. These advancements enhance the effectiveness of resource allocation by reducing transportation expenses and increasing overall productivity, allowing for a smooth transition between the different levels of resource utilisation elasticity, leading to sustained and sustainable economic growth, which is imperative in the modern global economy. Additionally, promoting research and development by providing grants, tax incentives or fostering partnerships between the public and private sectors can drive progress that enhances resource utilisation efficiency; this approach is significant as it aims to enhance the long-term productive capacity of the economy and transition towards a flexible and adaptable economic system, which is crucial in the future development of these economies, towards higher levels of output and income.

4 Stern, N. (2007). The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. Cambridge University Press.

5 Sachs, J. D. (2015). The Age of Sustainable Development. Columbia University Press.

6. Policy relevance

Hence, policymakers can use the RUE theory to analyse the long-term impact of their technological advancements’ decisions and their programmes aimed at technological development; through this analysis, the long-term policy can be pivoted and improved by aiming at more bottom-up technology development across all regions to encourage even and, thus, more sustainable development.5 By following the RUE theory, they can determine the path towards higher levels of resource utilisation elasticity; improve the ecological stance of their regions, by and prevent resource bottlenecks from occurring in the short term as the economy progresses through different resource usage levels. The RUE theory encourages policymakers to monitor the levels of resource utilisation elasticity to both model the future progression of the economy and to identify the potential improvements in the economy to promote a sustainable growth approach, as different growth paths are characterised through various stages of elasticity.

These approaches to long-term development allow for a smoother, and more coherent transition from different stages of resource utilisation elasticity, and thus, a lower chance of quick economic output boom with a subsequent downturn, but rather, a more consistent, long-term growth in output. For instance, policies that promote investment in essential industries, create an atmosphere that is more favourable for firms and business development, which can be done through tax breaks for capital-intensive enterprises, removal of excessive regulation and subsidies can all serve to promote capital accumulation. Additionally, the policymakers should focus on infrastructure development, which can entail large public-sector investments, such as in energy, transportation, or communication networks, which would improve resource utilisation elasticity and, in addition, act as the foundations for more sustainable, sustained economic growth. Additionally, in terms of modern economies’ development, a particular emphasis should be placed on educational programs that develop the future labour force’s IT and digital skills; as for modern economies with the current emphasis on the development of these sectors, the labour force possessing such skills will be valuable in the long-run. The strategies suggested by the RUE theory, for the growth of economies with limited resource utiliasation elasticity, are crucial for addressing both short-term challenges faced by low elasticity economies and long term issues. They aim to foster development that aligns with the RUE theory’s emphasis on economies and efficient resource utilisation.

The RUE theory’s focus on sustainability revolves around shifting towards a higher usage of green energy resources across the whole economy. A good example of such strategy for long-term sustainable development through increasing resource utilisation elasticity could be Finland and its “circular economy” model. The circular economy model, in particular, provides a valuable insight into potential long-term economies’ dynamics; as more and more economies approach a higher level of development, a higher level of resource conservation and re-utilisation will be essential in improving resource utilisation elasticity even further, thus, allowing for sustained economic growth in the long-run. It’s not a policy change; it’s a complete reimagining of how we approach energy and resource utilisation. By moving away from non-renewable energy sources and embracing sustainable alternatives, we can not only, make a significant positive impact on the environment, but we can also develop conservation strategies which would allow for higher resource utilisation efficiency, allowing for a smooth economic progression and development. This transition is more than simply adopting green technologies; it involves completely reshaping our understanding of energy and resource conservation, for example, a similar shift can be seen in Spain’s growing sustainable energy sector, through investments in solar farms and promoting the use of green power, Spain is not only reducing its carbon footprint but also creating an industry that is both sustainable and future-proof.

The RUE theory takes technological advancement and innovation at its core, as new technology drives innovation and develops a higher level of resource utilisation efficiency through higher levels of productivity.

5 Sachs, J. D. (2015). The Age of Sustainable Development. Columbia University Press.

It is generally accepted that policy frameworks should rapidly establish environments for research and development. However, the RUE theory poses a significant emphasis on a need for, perhaps, slow but methodical and sustained implementation of the new technologies to avoid creating inflationary pressures on the economy by raising the level of GDP unsustainably; thus some recent European top-down strategies in developing countries would be considered unsustainable by the theory. However, the theory does generally accept that technological advancements and improvements are the essential drivers of sustainable economic growth. Supporting high-tech industries through incentives, such as subsidies and tax breaks, and fostering an entrepreneurial ecosystem are the key strategies to maintain and enhance resource utilisation elasticity levels in both the short and long term. Such strategies would allow for a longer-term outlook on the economy and would improve the level of resource utilisation efficiency in phases of adoption of such programs rather than in a dangerous, inflationary manner as sometimes proposed. The model also acknowledges that policies focused on innovation lead to increased output while facilitating sustainable resource utilisation through efficient production methods and sustainable practices. The main idea, in terms of technological progress, would be that at the later stages of economic development, when the economy approaches full capacity, it is significant that increasing technological levels would have an exponentially increasing effect, while land/natural resources may be depleting; thus, it’s vital to differentiate towards more sustainable technologies, as higher resource intensity technologies would rather create inflationary pressures if other resources become constrained, causing an economic downturn; while more sustainable technologies will allow for higher resource elasticity allowing for a longer span of the diminishing resources.

The RUE model emphasises the need for an alignment of fiscal and monetary policies to ensure optimal resource utilisation elasticity levels. It suggests that fiscal policies should prioritise investments in sectors that promote resource efficiency. This can include providing subsidies for technologies, funding infrastructure projects that encourage efficient resource use and supporting educational programs that align with the demands of a modern economy. On the monetary policy side, the model proposes that central banks and monetary authorities should consider adjusting interest rates and liquidity provisions to support these efforts. This may involve utilising monetary policy tools to encourage investment in industries focused on resource efficiency or stabilising macroeconomic conditions for sustainable growth. The impact of the RUE model extends beyond singular economies, affecting global trade and global economic collaboration. The model advocates for trade policies that facilitate the exchange of technology and skills, thereby enhancing resource utilisation elasticity. It emphasises the importance of cooperation in establishing ecological regulation and standards and promoting joint technological initiatives.

Essentially, the RUE model offers policymakers a framework to develop long-run, sustainable economic strategies, covering a range of areas such as labour policies, environmental initiatives and technological interventions. The main goal of applying the model is not to solely promote growth and development using the concept of improving resource utilisation efficiency in a linear manner; however, to make decisions accordingly to the stage of development of the economy and ensure a responsible and efficient use of resources to then promote long-term development and economic growth.

7. Extensions and limitations

Although the RUE theory has some significant policy and empirical implications and provides an important, novel lens for developing the long-term development of economies, like any theory, it has several drawbacks and significant limitations, which can be expanded upon in the future. Primarily, the theory assumes homogeneity of all resources, which is not true in reality, and thus, the theory does not take the opportunity cost of switching different resources across various economic sectors across applications. Therefore, a possible expansion of the theory could be in developing a more general framework that would include the opportunity cost of reallocating resources and their various applications across the economy. Although it is

important to emphasise that the main theory does not concern resource allocation within the economy directly, thus, it is a suggestion of implementation in the future rather than a significant “problem” within the theory. Additionally, the theory does only considers the long run; thus, making direct assumptions on the short-term dynamics of policy implications is troublesome. Finally, it’s significant that the theory instead provides a general overview of the economic landscape within the realities of modern economies; thus, it may be complex to directly calculate resource utilisation elasticity precisely, but rather, in a general area, which would still provide significant and valuable information for policy development in the long term.

Discussion - Case Studies and Real-World Applications.

In this section we will discuss how the RUE model aligns with the real world, what solutions to the current problems of countries with various levels of resource elasticity it poses and the future vision of these economies according to the RUE theory. In this section, we will discuss four key economies that would be representative of developed economies, Germany; emerging economies, India; and developing economies, Kenya; as well as a country with an uncertain future level of development and economic growth, such as China. By aligning those economies’ current resource utilisation elasticities, we can deduce what types of policies could be implemented, and compare with the real world, allowing for a detailed analysis of these economies.

1. Germany – A developed economy

Analysing a highly developed economy, such as Germany’s, provides an invaluable insight into the future development of the European countries, additionally allowing us to discuss the dynamics of such an efficient economy, showcasing the RUE model’s application.

Germany has highly efficient resource utilisation; thus, it has a high resource utilisation elasticity due to its robust and highly technological manufacturing sector and commitment to sustainable practices, such as the Green Dot and Deposit Refund systems, which allow for both more efficient resource utilisation and reallocation throughout the economy. The high level of elasticity is evident from the level of adoption of the newest technology and the rate of green-energy technological advancements, which can be, most directly, seen through the policy of “Energiewende”, showcases Germany’s shift from more inelastic resource utilisation elasticity phase to a more elastic phase.6 The Energiewende policy, which aims to shift Germany from fuels to renewable energy sources, has played a key role in their fiscal strategy. This initiative involves investment in solar, wind and other renewable technologies, effectively steering the economy towards more sustainable resource usage; this shift contributes to more sustainable and long-term efficient resource utilisation, allowing for a sustainable growth of RGDP of Germany, which is clearly reflected through Germany’s GDP growth since 2010, when the policy was passed, by 30.2%. This is a significant increase, and can be clearly attributed to a range of sustainable policies implemented by Germany, which led to higher resource utilisation elasticity, allowing for a higher level of GDP, clearly as described by the RUE model. This sustainable transition reduced the environmental impact of manufacturing and also stimulated innovation and investment in green technologies, which is consistent with the principles of the RUE model.

Germany’s strategy also places a strong emphasis on promoting R&D in fields that are essential to technical innovation and sustainability through the encouragement of scientific research, with subsidies, particularly in the field of green technology, and provisions of tax breaks to businesses that invest in sustainability and green energy R&D. Germany’s dedication to promoting an economy with greater resource utilisation efficiency is evident in their strategic approach to sustainable resource usage through promotion of the circular economy model. Moreover, Germany acknowledges the importance of infrastructure development outside the energy sector, utilising government expenditure in digital infrastructure to enhance broadband

⁶ Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi). (2020). Energiewende: Germany’s Energy Transition. BMWi.

accessibility and facilitate all industries-wide transformation towards greater sustainability, which maximises resource utilisation elasticity.

Additionally, Germany’s monetary policy aligns with the RUE theory, allowing for increased resource utilisation elasticity and higher economic growth rates. Although Germany’s monetary policy is primarily governed by the European Central Bank (ECB), the decisions made by the ECB have a significant impact on Germany’s overall economic landscape; for example, the ECB consistently lowered the interest rates, until July 2022 and increased liquidity provisions, which played a role in promoting investments in industries that prioritise resource efficiency. Lower interest rates, for example, can encourage borrowing and investment in sectors that are critical to Germany’s transition towards a sustainable economy. Moreover, the ECB’s quantitative easing programs, which involve buying government bonds, indirectly support Germany’s fiscal policy initiatives, as due to reduced costs of borrowing, they enable the government to allocate funds to sustainable projects and infrastructure without being hindered by high financing expenses.

In conclusion, Germany’s strategy for approaching the monetary and fiscal policies in a more sustainable way, as observed in the RUE model, showcases a strategic approach to managing a sustainable, in the long-term, economy showing a progression towards higher resource utilisation elasticity indeed increased Germany’s real GDP and long-term output. The focused emphasis on investing in infrastructure and innovation through fiscal policy, coupled with an accommodating monetary environment, highlights their dedication to enhancing the flexibility of resource utilisation, leading to subsequent improvements in long-term output as predicted by the RUE theory. It would be accurate to describe Germany’s current economy as approaching the elastic phase of the resource utilisation model; additionally, as the new greenenergy technology continues to be developed in Germany, and as their energy resource utilisation shifts towards more sustainable energy, their RUE curve will shift rightwards.

2. India – An emerging economy

India presents a relatively contrasting image when compared to developed economies, like Germany. However, it serves as a case study for understanding the application of the RUE model in the context of an emerging economy, which, in contrast to developed countries, may need to invest in even non-green-energy technologies to improve and shift its productive capacity and resource elasticity first.

India, with its growing economy and rapidly increasing population, finds itself in a phase of rapid modernisation of rural areas and mass development, in pursuit of higher resource utilisation elasticity. India’s utilisation of resources is undergoing a transformation, shifting from resource usage to gradually increasing elasticity, driven by the Indian government’s “Make in India” initiative, aimed at transforming India into a global manufacturing hub, underscoring the emphasis on technological advancement. India’s approach to resource utilisation is characterised by a focus on enhancing energy sources and improving infrastructure, which can be seen through recently undertaken projects in the green-energy sector, particularly, in solar and wind power, for example, the National Solar Mission, which is a part of India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change. This initiative aims to promote sustainable power generation and reduce dependence on fuels.⁷ By diversifying the energy mix and decreasing reliance on non-renewable resources, India is able to transition towards more sustainable and long-term aimed resource utilisation, allowing for rapidly expanding production capacity and improving resource utilisation elasticity. This is evident from its rapidly increasing GDP since the adoption of the National Action Plan on Climate Change in 2008, as the economy started entering the unit elastic phase of the RUE model, with a rapid increase in GDP by 204.89%.

⁷ Government of India. (2008). National Action Plan on Climate Change. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.

However, India faces challenges along its path towards achieving higher resource utilisation elasticity, such as issues in infrastructure, regulatory obstacles, and heavy reliance on coal for energy continue to pose sustainability problems for the longer-term development of the country, although it is important that at the unit elasticity phase of the RUE model, it may be that India still has spare capacity in an unsustainable direction, which will allow it to continue utilising less resource-efficient production methods, however, that spare capacity is diminishing, and soon India will have to more actively transition towards more sustainable practices. It is complex to fully transition such a diverse economy, like India’s, and thus, it is a task that necessitates gradual changes in resource utilisation elasticity, changing its approach to sustainable technologies in phases, as these changes can only be achieved through policy efforts.

India’s fiscal policies have increasingly prioritised the support of sustainable and green-energy practices and innovation in the green-technology sector; the government has been investing in large capital projects, developing infrastructure in rural and inaccessible areas and providing more incentives, for green-energy projects; all of these initiatives not only create a more long-term sustainable vision for India’s economic growth, however, they also allow to expand the productive capacity of India in the short term. As an emerging country, India still possesses some undiscovered productive capacity in land resources; however, its attempts to integrate a view of sustainability at this early stage mean that its economy will be rapidly expanding throughout the unit elastic phase, leading to a sizeable further increase in output. In addition, on the monetary policy side, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has played a vital role in maintaining India’s economic stability, which is crucial for backing the country’s sustainability initiatives, aiming to create a balance between maintaining low inflation and stimulating long-term economic growth, creating an environment that encourages investments in sustainable resource industries.

In the future plans and currently, it’s clear that India’s long-term strategy is to enhance resource utilisation elasticity through strengthening its commitment to current sustainable practices that it currently employs, developing them further; moreover, India is developing infrastructure and fostering innovation, as the combination of these factors alongside monetary policies that encourage sustainability and green-energy transition will play a pivotal role in shaping India’s future economic trajectory. As India progresses further, its approach towards resource utilisation and sustainability can be expected to become more aligned with the principles of the RUE model for the unit elastic economies, as India rapidly approaches that benchmark, which will directly contribute towards building a more resilient economy.

To conclude, India’s economic situation and its rapid approach towards unitary elasticity of resource utilisation provide an invaluable perspective on how the RUE model can be applied in an emerging economy, showcasing the interconnectedness between development, technological advancements and sustainable resource utilisation, acting in synergy, creating both a movement along the RUE curve towards unitary elasticity and shifting it outwards through the discovery of new resources and rapid population growth at the same time, thus, allowing for a significant potential increase in output in the future. As India progresses through phases of development, the country’s policies and efforts to effectively manage the elasticity of resource utilisation will play a key role in attaining sustainable economic growth, as predicted by the RUE model.

3. Kenya – A developing economy

Kenya, as a representative of a developing economy, according to presents a further contrast from the developed and emerging countries, offering a valuable perspective on resource utilisation and technologies, as well as sustainability and bottom-up approaches, allowing us to observe the application of the RUE model in a developing economy which is only at an early, highly inelastic stage of the RUE curve but rapidly advancing towards inelastic and potentially unit elastic resource utilisation elasticity in the most foreseeable

future. Unlike developed economies like Germany, which should be focused on maximum efficient resource utilisation and conservation through the improvement of sustainable technologies and capital projects, or rapidly evolving economies like India, which should be focused on expanding the frontier of available resources and increasing their productive capacity alongside trying to improve sustainability; Kenya’s developing economy is developing at an increasing rate, and will focus primarily on increasing productive capacity through all means, even at cost of lack of sustainability, its journey reflects the challenges and opportunities that many African nations face in their pursuit of economic growth.

Kenya’s economy relies heavily on agriculture, tourism and an emerging service sector; as its economy is attempting to move away from its overreliance on the primary sector, it will, naturally, go through industrialisation and a subsequent rise in the tertiary sector. Industrialisation will prevail, and Kenya will at first need to focus on using all the available resources and technologies to increase its production and capacity, and to move towards less inelastic resource utilisation; however, as it moves more towards the tertiary sector majority, it will have to refocus on sustainability, increasing investments into capital projects and green-energy transmission. Compared to developed economies, Kenya is still at the lower end of the spectrum of stages of resource utilisation elasticity, likely falling in the inelastic category. Thus, its focus should be on transitioning from inelastic resource usage to adopting more flexible and sustainable adaptable practices in the longer-term by improving infrastructure, adopting technology and embracing sustainability, and rapidly expanding production in the short-term to improve productive capabilities.

Kenya has made progress in adopting sustainable and green-energy practices, particularly in renewable energy, which can be seen through various bottom-up schemes promoted in Kenya, which not only enhance the rate of green-technology adoption but also allow for an increased resource utilisation elasticity. On a side note, it is notable that now it is a global trend, due to globalisation, that emerging and developing countries receive masses of technological aid from developed countries; these technologies are often non-sustainable or sustainable but too sophisticated, which, though, may allow them to develop more rapidly and pass through the inelastic or unit elastic stages of resource utilisation elasticity, but may also result in the avoidance of development of the manufacturing (secondary) sector altogether. This may lead to negative externalities of overconsumption of certain goods and services in the future as the economy and technological levels are developing too fast for an adequate adoption of the technology and cultural acceptance of it, leading to an extreme growth bubble in these countries. As previously stated, rapid advancement in technology and elusion from the natural path of development, thus, a “smooth” transition from one level of resource utilisation elasticity to another, will result in only a short-term increase in output; however, it will only diminish the economy in the long-term as it would create a positive output gap, at which the economy would operate beyond its sustainable capabilities. Therefore, the Kenyan economy stands out as a leader in sustainable energy adoption and utilisation across Africa, with multiple international initiatives, such as WaterAid, Green Mini Grids, and Lake Turkana Wind Power Project; all of these projects have made substantial improvements in Kenya’s level of resource utilisation elasticity through development of green-energy and conservation of resources, and technology developments.

Additionally, the Kenyan government has invested in geothermal plants to increase the proportion of renewable energy within its national power grid, which shifts the energy and resource utilisation towards more sustainable practices. This also aligns with the RUE model’s emphasis on resource utilisation but also helps reduce reliance on less environmentally friendly energy sources such as fossil fuels. However, despite all of these advancements in sustainable energy and bottom-up projects, Kenya encounters obstacles in harnessing the potential of utilising resources with higher elasticity. The deficiency in basic infrastructure in rural and remote regions hinders the efficient utilisation of resources, diminishes business capabilities, and thus, hinders advancements in productive capacity.

⁸ Republic of Kenya. (2018). Kenya Vision 2030. Ministry of Planning, National Development and Vision 2030.

The Kenyan government has put in place several initiatives, with the goal of enhancing infrastructure and promoting advancement, notably the “Vision 2030” development plan, which outlines a strategy for progress focusing on key sectors like energy, transportation and education, and set up a fiscal policy designed to support these initiatives by increasing government expenditure on infrastructure projects such as roads and information technology networks.⁸ On the monetary policy side, managed by the Central Bank of Kenya, it plays a key role in ensuring inflation is controlled and maintains a sustainable environment to encourage investment and growth in industries that make efficient use of resources. As Kenya continues to invest in infrastructure, various types of energy, including green-energy and non-renewables, and technology, it becomes increasingly evident that it is on a path towards achieving a higher level of resource utilisation elasticity, increasingly rapidly approaching unit elasticity.

To conclude, Kenya’s economic path fully aligns with the RUE model, demonstrating the obstacles and opportunities faced by developing countries in the highly inelastic and inelastic phases of the RUE model. Kenya is already moving in a sustainable energy direction, which significantly improves its resource utilisation elasticity, allowing it to achieve higher long-term levels of output. However, to increase the speed of this transition, Kenya would likely need to use non-green-energy practices and fully undergo industrialisation, which will then allow it to fully develop and transition towards higher levels of resource utilisation elasticity, such as elastic and highly elastic levels. Despite its challenges, this journey positions Kenya on a trajectory towards a more resilient and prosperous future.

4. China – Resolving the uncertain future

China’s economic transformation in the past decades has been truly remarkable, characterised by a surge in its manufacturing sector and extensive international trade. However, relying heavily on exports has made the economy vulnerable to fluctuations in markets and international trade disputes. In light of this situation, Chinese policymakers are actively working on diversifying the structure of the economy and strengthening the nation’s economic resilience.

A key aspect of this strategy involves shifting towards a more domestic consumption-driven model. This deliberate shift aims to reduce the risks associated with relying on exports by prioritising domestic consumption as a key driver of economic liquidity and aggregate demand. Such a change is expected to enhance stability, reduce exposure to fluctuations in export demand and pave the way for a more sustainable, domestic-based, growth path in the future.

Technological innovations also play a key role in China’s adaptability to global trade changes and global technological shifts. China has established itself as a leader in high-tech sectors, with companies like Jinko Solar and Sinohydro Corporation spearheading advancements in intelligence, e-commerce and green energy technologies. These technological advancements boost productivity and efficiency of resource utilisation and also allow for their more efficient allocation, leading to a rise in productive capacity and, thus, GDP.

By leveraging the potential of these advancements, China positions itself to take advantage of opportunities that can enhance its global competitiveness and economic adaptability. However, there are challenges that may limit China’s flexibility. A significant shift in demographics is occurring as the population ages and the labour force shrinks, which poses risks to growth and could potentially hinder the economy’s resilience. Moreover, as the case of population overestimation unfolds, there are further growing concerns about the potential shrinking of the productive capacity and increased tax burdens on the younger generation. Furthermore, geopolitical tensions and trade disputes present further external obstacles; such pressures can impede China’s ability to take on external economic shocks and sustain its growth momentum.

Conclusion

The exploration of the Resource Elasticity Equilibrium (RUE) theory in this paper has illuminated a new pathway for understanding the intricate relationship between resource utilisation and long-term economic stability. This theory diverges from traditional linear economic models by introducing a non-linear, logarithmic approach that more accurately reflects the dynamics of modern economies. By integrating resource elasticity into the analysis of economic equilibrium, the RUE model offers a fresh perspective on the sustainability of economic growth, emphasising the importance of adapting to the evolving nature of resource utilisation in a globalised world.

The case studies of Germany, India, and Kenya provide practical insights into the application of the RUE model across different economic stages. Germany’s advanced economy, with its focus on sustainable practices and technological innovation, demonstrates the model’s effectiveness in a high-elasticity context. India, as an emerging economy, underscores the transitional challenges and opportunities in striving for higher elasticity, balancing sustainable development with economic growth. Kenya, representing developing economies, exemplifies the initial stages of the RUE curve and highlights the potential for growth and sustainability despite starting from a position of lower elasticity.

The findings in this paper suggest that the RUE model is a valuable tool for policymakers and economists, offering a framework for developing long-term sustainable economic strategies. By considering the stage of economic development and resource utilisation elasticity, the model guides decision-making towards the efficient and responsible use of resources, fostering sustainable growth and development.

Bibliography

Daly, H.E. & Farley, J., 2011. Ecological Economics: Principles and Applications. Island Press.

Pindyck, R.S. & Rubinfeld, D.L., 2018. Microeconomics. 9th ed. Pearson.

Romer, D., 2011. Advanced Macroeconomics. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill.

Sachs, J.D., 2015. The Age of Sustainable Development. Columbia University Press.

Solow, R.M., 1956. A contribution to the theory of economic growth. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 70(1), pp.65-94.

Stern, N., 2007. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. Cambridge University Press. Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), 2020. Energiewende: Germany’s Energy Transition. Available at: https://www.orkestra.deusto.es/images/investigacion/publicaciones/informes/cuadernosorkestra/Energiewende_English.pdf.

Government of India, 2008. National Action Plan on Climate Change. Available at: https://dst.gov.in/climatechange-programme.

Republic of Kenya, 2018. Kenya Vision 2030. Ministry of Planning, National Development and Vision 2030. Available at: https://nairobi.aics.gov.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Kenya-Vision-2030.pdf.

How did Nazism become so popular by 1933?

By Henry Peech

Abstract

The term ‘Nazism’ provokes a disturbing image in the minds of the majority of all people today but there was a time when it dominated the German population. This essay includes an examination of the impact of the loss of World War One and the Treaty of Versailles on the growth of support for the Nazi party. Additionally, I explore where the support for Hitler comes from with the aid of Richard F. Hamilton’s book ‘Who voted for Hitler?” and conclude that despite the popular belief of a ‘disenfranchised’ lower-middle class voting for the Nazi party, support came from within all levels of German society. Hitler’s appeal to a variety of different people can greatly be attributed to his success.

Introduction

‘And now Gentlemen, forwards with God’1 were the words exclaimed by President Hindenburg as Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany on 30th January 1933. I question whether God approved of the reign that was to follow, a reign which has and will continue to haunt not only Germany but all of humanity. The Nazi party were able to ascend into power through democratic means, albeit not entirely democratic as forced cooperation and scaremongering played large roles, but people would still come out in their thousands to vote for and support Hitler and his fascists. Throughout this essay, I will examine the different factors that allowed Nazism to become the dominant political ideology in a nation that prided itself upon its education, sophistication and civilisation. I will explore how the loss of the First World War and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Versailles disillusioned the German people with their governments and fuelled the need for an extremist leader.

The effect of the ‘Great War’

Four years of total war crippled Germany’s morale, economy and industry. The combination of the loss of the war and the devastating terms of the Treaty of Versailles provided Hitler with the perfect framework to build his campaign. In the ‘25-point programme’, initially published in 1920 but frequently referred to throughout the Nazi rule, Hitler outlines his promise to ensure ‘the revocation of the peace treaties of Versailles’2 which immediately demonstrates to the German people that he will eradicate the suffering and bring justice to their nation. Even the least patriotic of Germans would take a liking to such a promise.

The terms of the Treaty of Versailles planted seeds of discontent amongst the German people with the Treaty being labelled as ‘diktat’3 – ‘dictated peace’. At the time of the treaty, the British economist John Maynard Keynes stated “It contributed to German economic and political instability that allowed for the formation of the National Socialists (Nazis) just a year later”4 demonstrating the significance of the treaty within Germany. Tom Holland and Dominic Sandbrook clearly outline in their podcast The Rest is History – Rise of the Nazis5 that the Germans did not believe they started the war at all and rather they were flanked by Russia and France as they attempted to support their longstanding ally Austria. The German people felt they were very much forced into signing the Treaty of Versailles and claiming responsibility for the entirety of the war under Article 231 of the Treaty - the ‘War Guilt Clause’⁶ . The terms of the Treaty further undermined German values: economic strength was crushed with the Reparations bill equivalent to £6.6 billion today, military prowess was greatly diminished with the army being limited to 100,000 men and the air force banned entirely and the once powerful German empire was reduced to rubble as it was forced to surrender all of its overseas colonies and around ten per cent of its territory⁷. The German nation was left with a crippled economy, devasted morale and a military that was a mere shadow of its former self. The

1 ‘World in the Grip of an Idea: 10. Germany – National Socialism in Power’ – Clarence Carson, 1977

2 ‘Nazi Party Platform’ – Holocaust encyclopaedia

3 ‘The Aftermath of the First World War’ – the Wiener Holocaust Library

4 ‘Jun 28, 1919 CE: Treaty of Versailles’ – National Geographic

5 ‘The Rest is History – the Rise of the Nazis’ – Tom Holland and Dominic Sanbrook

⁶ ‘The Treaty of Versailles’ – Histroy.com editors, 2009

⁷ ‘The Treaty of Versailles’ – Histroy.com editors, 2009

hypocrisy of the treaty further enraged the Germans. The US President, Woodrow Wilson, preached the concept of nations being granted ‘self-determination’ in his ‘Fourteen-point Plan’⁸ which was supposed to be the guideline for how the Treaty of Versailles would be crafted. However, whilst newly independent nations such as Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were granted ‘self-determination’ from the dissembled AustriaHungarian empire, German people living in regions such as the Saar, Rhineland and Upper Silesia were all forced to live under French or Polish governments which they did not elect. All of Germany’s overseas colonies in the Pacific and Africa were made mandates of the League of Nations rather than being allowed to govern for themselves. The German people were outraged at the blatant hypocrisy within the treaty and became disillusioned with the Western powers and their government officials who signed the treaty.

The resentment for the Treaty only grew as Germany underwent hyperinflation in 1923 resulting in extreme economic hardship across the country combined. Further turmoil ensued as a result of the Wall Street Crash of 1928 and the consequent Great Depression. The Dawes Plan had been introduced in 1924 to provide Germany with loans from the US to pay back the reparations bill it almost meant the German economy became almost entirely dependent on those loans. When the US withdrew these loans following the Wall Street crash, the German economy was devastated - wages fell by 39% from 1929 to 1932⁹, and full-time employment fell from twenty million in 1929, to just over eleven million in 1933. In the same period, over 10,000 businesses closed every year. The Dawes Plan would never have been introduced if the reparations bill set out at Versailles had not been as unattainable as it was. Without the Dawes Plan, Germany would not have been so dependent upon American financial support and consequently, the Great Depression would not have had the same calibre of effect on Germany.

Throughout all this time Hitler and his ‘twenty-five-point programme’ became more and more popular amongst the people. The Treaty of Versailles had become hated by almost the entire population and whilst current officials abided by it, Hitler promised to revoke it completely. All of their suffering and heartbreak at the destruction of their once glorious nation seemingly could be solved by the Nazi party. It is essential to note that when humans are at their most desperate, as the German people were, they look to extremist leaders to solve all their problems quickly. The people had grown tired of the Weimar Government’s incompetence. The German Chancellor in 1929, Heinrich Brüning, cut government expenditures in trying to stabilise the crumbling economy as well as raising taxes, slashing wages, and reducing the unemployment benefit at a time when 1 in 4 Germans were unemployed. Hitler represented a new Germany: a Germany that was not bullied by the Western powers, a Germany that was strong and affluent, and a Germany that was united behind love for the nation.

Food queue in Berlin in 1924

⁸ The Fourteen Points’ – The National WWI Museum and Memorial ⁹ “The Nazi rise to power” – The Wiener Holocaust Library

Where was Hitler’s support coming from?

Many historians regard the 31st July 1932 election as being the key election in understanding the support for Hitler. It was at this election that the Nazis secured 37.3%10 of the national vote having previously received a dwindling 18% in the 1930 election. The Historian Richard F. Hamilton, in his 1982 book titled ‘Who Voted for Hitler?’, writes “Since only three out of eight voters supported Hitler at that point, one must ask, which Germans voted for Hitler?”11. When considering the devastating effects of the previous fourteen years on the German population, one is inclined to make the assumption that is it the poorer members of society voting for Hitler as they have suffered the most as a result of Germany’s poor economic situation and therefore seek the greatest change. However, Hamilton subverts this view through his analysis of the voting records of the 14 largest German cities which reveal that Hitler’s support ‘varied directly with the class level of the district, with the wealthiest districts giving him the strongest support’12. The historical journalist Dan Simon writes ‘Hamilton finds no evidence to support the truism that a disenfranchised lower-middle class embraced Hitler’s Nazi Party’13. In Berlin, Hamilton describes Hitler garnering 60% of the vote in the ‘upperand upper-middle-class districts’14, a trend which is repeated in ‘Frankfurt, Cologne, Munich, Hanover, Stuttgart, Nuremberg, and Mannheim’15. If it is the wealthier members of society willingly voting a fascist into power then we must question the motives behind this. These Germans voting for Hitler were relatively unaffected by the dire economic state of Germany and were able to carry on with their lives as normal. Hamilton describes those who still took their regular vacations in July16. The effects of the Treaty of Versailles and the Great Depression had not been felt by this group of people to the same extent as the lower classes so what is it that causes the surge in support for Nazism. Marxist historians would argue the rise of a middle class within Germany resulted in the upper class seeking to quash any threat to their economic power and they saw Hitler as the man to do this. However, we must examine the role that communism itself plays in causing the influx of support for the Nazi party.

10 Hamilton, Richard F. Who Voted for Hitler? Princeton University Press, 1982

11 ‘Who voted for Hitler?” – The Nation. – Dan Simon

12 Hamilton, Richard F. Who Voted for Hitler? Princeton University Press, 1982

13 ‘Who voted for Hitler?” – The Nation. – Dan Simon

14 Hamilton, Richard F. Who Voted for Hitler? Princeton University Press, 1982

15 Hamilton, Richard F. Who Voted for Hitler? Princeton University Press, 1982

1⁶ Hamilton, Richard F. Who Voted for Hitler? Princeton University Press, 1982

Adolf Hitler was welcomed by supporters at Nuremberg, in 1933.

Throughout Europe, communism had spread rapidly with the Soviet Union being at the centre. In 1920 an attempted communist revolution led by Rosa Luxembourg and the Spartacists made the threat all too real for the German people and fears had only brewed since then. By 1932, mainstream media throughout Germany presented Hitler as a man of action who could ‘effectively counter the Marxist threat’17 and people latched on to this idea, particularly wealthy business owners. The media did not outright support Hitler but they did not reject him either. They condoned the violence brought about by the SA as a ‘justified response to the attacks from the other side’. People throughout the nation, people who feared communism greatly, read the newspapers and saw Hitler as their saviour; the man who would crush any communism in Germany. The Nazi party portrayed extreme urgency whilst their rival parties such as the Social Democrats seem disorganised and unclear in their intentions. Hitler united people from all levels of society under a common cause: preventing Germany from falling to communism.

Hitler’s success in the 1932 elections can be attributed to his ability to generate support from every fraction within Germany. The Nazi party’s aggressive anti-communist stance attracted wealthy business owners, the promise to revoke the humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles gathered the support of economically challenged and Hitler’s persuasive and powerful speaking indoctrinated the masses. The turmoil of the first two decades of the 20th Century enabled Hitler to take full advantage of the chaos. Violent revolution had become engrained in German society with the Spartacists and Kapp-Putsch in the 1920s, thus rendering Hitler’s aggressive and violent strategies a political norm. Dan Simon goes as far as to argue that it is because of Hitler’s ‘willingness to engage in undemocratic, often violent, actions’ that he had such success in voters’ minds. When faced with economic challenges, crippled morale and an ineffective government, people lose sight of their morality and are easily brainwashed into supporting a regime that, under normal circumstances, they would condemn.

To conclude, it was not the extreme radicals or mental unstable that caused Hitler to become so dominant. It was the masses of ‘normal’ people who fell into the indoctrination of the Nazi party when faced with extreme economic or political pressure. The devastating Treaty of Versailles in 1919 marked the start of this economic pressure on the individual and only continued to burden the German public for the decades that followed. The careful manipulation of the German people by the Nazis transformed their hatred for the Treaty into support for themselves. The wealthy saw Hitler as the challenger of communism, the man who would protect their businesses, whilst the poor saw Hitler as the restorer of economic prosperity within Germany, the man who would tackle unemployment. To view Nazism as some unique, one-off concept poses a great threat to society. Regular German people across all wealth classes still latched onto it regardless of its fervent antisemitism and disdain for liberal democracy because they saw it as the most appealing solution to their increasingly dire situation. The opposition to the Nazis was too ill-organised or weak to offer any countersolution resulting in the entire population succumbing to fascism. As a society, we must be extremely aware of this fact to prevent such events from ever occurring in the future.

Mathematical analysis of panel 32 from the Topkapı scroll

By William McChesney

Abstract

This paper intends to analyse panel 32 from the Topkapı scroll from symmetric, fractal and constructive perspectives. We will first categorise the panel’s symmetry using conventional symmetry groupings; then we will discuss the 2-layered aspect of the panel and how this idea is explored further in the scroll. Finally, we will assess theories on construction and present ideas on the methods used to create the design.

Introduction

Throughout the Islamic world, mosques, Qurans, and other architecture are adorned with abstract geometric patterns that date back to the 7th century. This artistic tradition forms a visual part of the Islamic identity 1 that has expanded and evolved over time. One of the most notable documents of this is the Topkapı scroll. Prepared in Iran around the 16th century, the scroll contains 114 panels of various Islamic designs, most notably Kufic, Muqarnas and geometric patterns. The importance of this manuscript is not to be underestimated; it provides key insights into the construction of the development of designs on which many modern designs are based on. The topic of this paper - panel 32 - is a geometric design drawn with straight ink lines in red and black and without shading. Figure 1 shows the original design2, and Figure 2 shows the underlying structure or base design drawn on a computer program. Like most designs in the scroll, the pattern is unique and is based on 5-and 10-pointed stars, with the centres of the ten-pointed stars lying on the lines of the base structure. ‘Filling’ the space are most notably various 6- and 4-sided irregular shapes. The 6-sided shapes are ‘hourglass’ ‘darts’ and a ‘squished’ regular hexagon, and the four-sided shape is the ‘petal’. As can be seen in Figure 1, the centre ten star is surrounded by eight smaller five-angle stars and 2 large 5 stars of prominence. This is a variation from most Islamic designs, where there is either a clear centre star of importance or a repeating unit. Panel 32 has been designed to show one module of a repeating set, with artists being able to translate the panel to form a continuous tessellation, as shown with 4 panels of the original design in Figure 2. Furthermore, the dimensions of the panel are 1 √2, meaning by tessellating the pattern, the ratio of the sides remains the same as it is scaled up, allowing for aesthetically pleasing dimensions regardless of size. The scroll also shows little sign of wear 3, suggesting that the scroll was not so used for reference but as an exhibition piece in the palace as a record of the tiling works present in the palace. Overall, panel 32 is one of the more detailed patterns of the scroll and one of the first geometric design panels, meaning its underlying geometry is less complex. This does not limit the extent to which the panel is valuable, as with deeper analysis, the panel can give important insights into the development and inspiration of the roots of Islamic geometry.

Figure 1

1 Loai M. Dabbour, 2012, ISSN 2095-2635, Geometric proportions: The underlying structure of design process for Islamic geometric patterns,

2 G. Necipŏ glu, The Topkapı Scroll: Geometry and Ornament in Islamic Architecture, Getty Center Publication, Santa Monica, 1995.

3 Rogers, J.M. (1997), “Notes on a recent study of the Topkapı scroll: a review article”. Bulletin of the school of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.

Symmetry

Firstly, we now know that all Islamic designs must be part of one of the seventeen wallpaper groups4, meaning we are able to classify this design using one of the seventeen wallpaper groups. First, we will attempt to classify the panel as a single design and then classify it as it was intended to be designed. Considering only the panel as a single design, we can see there is only one line of symmetry running through the centres of the 2 prominent stars that reflect the two sides. Part of the reason there is only one line of symmetry is due to the dimensions of the panel, having been designed in a 1: √2 aspect ratio, but most importantly, the panel was designed as a ¼ segment of a larger design based around ten-pointed stars. Therefore, by considering the base design of the panel, we find a different symmetrical grouping. Shown in Figure 3 is the base design of the panel copied, rotated and translated 16 times to form a larger pattern with an underlying symmetry of *442, or p4m in conventional notation5. This order of symmetry is not uncommon for Islamic designs and can be found in many designs due to the relatively simple method of creation. This difference in symmetry between the design and its sub-grid suggests that the pattern was designed by ‘filling’ the sub-grid with detail.

Layers

The idea of multi-layered Islamic designs is not uncommon. In fact, several of the designs in the Topkapı scroll show clear signs of intentional 2-layer design. Take, for example, Figure 3 from panel 49 from the scroll. There is a clear distinction of where the ‘border’ of the larger design has been filled with a more intricate design, giving a clear indication of a 2-layer nature. The fact that shapes in the final design are sometimes identical to shapes in the base design allows for the obvious introduction of a second layer within the design. The 2-layer nature of panel 32, however, is much more subtle. By close inspection, we can tell some of the lines are red, whereas most are black. Although it is possible that these lines are from the construction, this is unlikely, considering almost all construction lines in the scroll have been removed. Furthermore, highlighting the red lines in a thicker black line (Figure 5) shows a further design, one that bears much similarity with some of the intricacies of the detailed design. By highlighting one area of the design, we can see these two layers are almost identical apart from magnitude. This is evidence of an almost exact selfsimilarity within the design that has been intentionally included by the artist. In his 2010 study⁶, Cromwell used a modular theory to produce these 2 layered designs based on panel 32 (Figure 6). He demonstrates

4 R.L.E. Schwarzenberger , “The 17 Plane Symmetry Groups”, The Mathematical Gazette Vol 58 No 404.

5 Raymond F. Tennant, 2002, Subgroup lattices for crystallographic groups

⁶ CROMWELL, P.R., 2010b. Islamic geometric designs from the Topkapı Scroll II: a modular design system. Journal of Mathematics and the Arts, 4(3), pp. 119-136.

how the ideas already present in the panel can be used to generate more designs. In the example, he fills the base grid with Girih tiles, which is a common technique used to create Islamic designs out of a set group of tiles. The idea of a fractal nature of these designs gives a further sense of infinity, therefore expressing the infinite nature of God⁷, which could be the intention of the artist. The fractal nature of the design cannot be measured currently, however, as it is a space-filling tessellation, so we cannot apply the Hausdorff fractal dimension here. This remains an interesting area of research, as by measuring the self-similarity would allow for comparison of the complexities of different patterns. However, there are limitations to the fractal nature, the main issue being that there can only be a few layers before the design is lost by being too small. Alternatively, a large space is required for a multi-layered design for the viewer to be able to see more than one lower layer with detail. The concept of a fractal geometric design is good in theory but is hard to put into practice, as discovered by the designers of the scroll. Take, for example, panel 32; to achieve even a threelayered effect, the largest design will have to be almost 30 times the size of the smallest design, stretching the limits of detail humans can perceive comfortably. There is no clear solution to constructing larger multi-layered patterns, but the idea still remains interesting.

⁷ Sutton, D. 2007. Islamic Design: A Genius for Geometry. Wooden Books Ltd, Glastonbury

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Construction

Although the fundamental methods of construction are not complicated in themselves, the variation in design proves to be an extremely rich source of designs limited only by the imagination of the designer. The construction of basic Islamic designs is simple; the use of basic tools such as rulers and compasses can allow an artist to create some quite complex designs. Other techniques of creation include the use of stencils to trace shapes or grid paper to draw the shapes, each with its advantages and disadvantages. What is more certain is that the patterns were designed elsewhere before being copied down onto the parchment paper. However, we will instead focus on the mathematical construction instead of the actual techniques of creation, which are much more trivial. As mentioned previously, we now know that all Islamic designs must be part of one of the 17 wallpaper groups⁸. However, it is almost certain the original designers of these patterns did not know about these groups and, therefore, did not use the symmetry patterns to design their tessellations. Advances in mathematics, such as graph theory and symmetry groups, as well as computerisation techniques, have allowed mathematicians to create and document methods of generating Islamic designs. Important papers include Grünbaum and G.C. Shephard, ‘Tillings and Patterns’, as well as several important works by P.R. Cromwell and Craig S. Kaplan. One method suggested is the Polygons-in-contact technique or PIC to generate the base design⁹. As the name suggests, this method involves putting regular polygons in contact and filling the space with irregular shapes. In regard to panel 32, this method could have been used by drawing the decagons and pentagons in contact and filling the gaps with the irregular hexagons to achieve the sub-grid. This method seems the most likely due to the fact the shapes on the panel are almost perfectly regular, a feature that is harder to achieve by solely using a compass and straightedge. This leaves the interior detail of the panel. By analysing the panel’s sub-grid, we can find the PIC base pattern of tessellated regular and irregular polygons. The base pattern of the design is made up of tessellated regular decagons, regular pentagons, and irregular hexagons, as shown in Figure 5. One possibility for the construction of the panel is through the drawing of the base design, then ‘filling’ the shapes with more complex Islamic motifs. Proposed by Cromwell, he states: “A small-scale pattern either fills or compartments in a large-scale pattern”. Cromwell suggests the larger modules were designed first and then ‘filled’ with the more intricate design, therefore achieving the 2-layered aspect. This method is the easiest and seems the most likely, considering it is possible to accurately identify all the shapes with just a straight edge and compass. However, there are two different fillings of hexagon compartments: some have decagons at 3 corners with a ‘barrel’ module, whereas others have decagons at 4 corners with rhombus modules. This lack of consistency hints that an organising principle is different from the compartment-filling method proposed by Cromwell, but there is not enough evidence for us to rule it out.

⁸ B. Grünbaum and G.C. Shephard, tillings and patterns, W.H. Freeman & Co., New York, NY, 1987.

⁹ Craig S. Kaplan and David H. Salesin (2004), “Islamic star patterns in absolute geometry” ACM transactions on Graphics, Vol. 23, No.2

Figure 5

Conclusion

Shown in this paper is the complexity of Islamic design and the detail each design holds. By the in-depth analysis of the symmetry, layered nature and construction of a single panel of the Topkapı, we have shown the care and detail put into the creation of these often-ignored designs. We have shown that there has been conscious effort put into considering all parts of the panel, from the dimensions to the use of colour for the lines and have shown techniques used to create tessellations of planes that cover several symmetry groups. We have then proven how ideas of fractals are present with the seventh-century Islamic scholars and how different methods of construction can lead to vastly different designs. Overall, Islamic design is an underappreciated art, where many modern designs are copied without respect to the artists creating unique designs. An analysis of a single pattern can provide amazing insights and show how each unique pattern has its own identity.

Figure 6 shows how the subgrid of panel 32 can be used to create a different, simpler design. Figure 7 shows panel 28 from the Topkapı scroll, which bears a resemblance to panel 32.

Other sources

Brian Wichman and David Wade, “Islamic design: a mathematical approach” (2017). Birkhäuser, ISMB 978-3-319-69976-9

Dr Marwah Mohammed Ibrahim, “The design of an innovative automatic computational method for generating geometric Islamic visual art with aesthetic beauty” (2016), PHD thesis, University of Bedfordshire

P. R. Cromwell, “Islamic geometric designs from the Topkapı scroll I: Unusual arrangements of stars”.

C.S. Kaplan, taprats, computer-generated Islamic star patterns, hhtp://www.cgl.uwaterloo.ca/~csk/ Washington/taprats/

Aziz Khamjane and Rachid Benslimane, “Generating Islamic quasi-periodic patterns: a new method”. CROMWELL, P.R., 2016. Modularity and hierarchy in Persian Geometric Ornamentation

Figure 6

Figure 7

How is female identity and sexism portrayed in the Old Testament?

By Jasper Blake

Introduction

The Old Testament is without doubt a collection of some of the most influential pieces of writing in human history, standing as a cornerstone of religious literature. It offers a unique glance into the ancient biblical world and shows the societal norms of those times. One of these elements is the portrayal of women in these stories. This essay will aim to understand what challenges faced women at the time, how different stories can be interpreted, and how these stories can relate to modern-day issues that face us in the journey for gender equality.

Section one: Biblical foundations

In this section, the early biblical foundations of sexuality in Christianity will be discussed. Sex is one of the key topics in the Old Testament and is discussed frequently with many areas of contention. These foundations are still commonly used today, especially by more conservative Christians such as evangelicals.

Both creation stories

The Bible has two different accounts for the creation of the world. The most common account for the creation of the world can be found in Genesis 1:1-2, with the second being found in Genesis 2:4-24. The first account, although the more famous and well-known of the two, is thought to have been written later during the Jewish exile in Babylon1. Both stories reference human sexuality.

First creation story

The first passage that we should analyse is Genesis 1:26-27:

Then God said, “Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness; let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, over [a]all the earth and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth.” 27 So God created man in His own image; in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them.²

The first issue arises when we start to look at the gendering of the passage. It’s very clear that in the New King James Version, the biblical scholars are talking about men, specifically Adam. In Hebrew, Adam is the word for man, and this word means human being and has no specific gender assigned to it. Therefore, to say that God created man like it does in this passage is a mistranslation and one that has caused many issues with people often using this as a poor excuse for a hierarchy of the sexes. The real meaning of the passage is that God created human beings in his likeness and not just men. This is why in the NRSV version of the Bible (which is the one I will be using from now on) the translation has been changed to humankind.

The story then continues with God blessing both genders:

28 God blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground.”

This passage shows that God explicitly blesses both genders without any hierarchy and also tells them to multiply in the famous passage, “Be fruitful and increase in numbers”. Then Genesis later goes onto say in Genesis 1:31:

31 God saw all that he had made, and it was very good. And there was evening, and there was morning—the sixth day.

One way to see this is it enforces the positive attitude that God has towards sex and reproduction, a theme that is not very common later on in the Bible.

The first creation story is very positive with both sexes being created equally and both are blessed equally. God tells them to have sex and then tells us that all of this is good in the last passage of chapter one.

The second creation story

The second creation story is completely separate and different from the first, with both being different entities. There is at no point an attempt to harmonise the two stories. One of the major ways that this story differs to the first is the way in which women came about. According to the first story, men and women were created at the same time, we can see this in the quote from “Let us make mankind in our image” . This is different to the second creation story where many interpret that man was made first and then women came second as a sort of “helper”.

18 The LORD God said, “It is not good for the man to be alone. I will make a helper suitable for him.”

21 So the LORD God caused the man to fall into a deep sleep; and while he was sleeping, he took one of the man’s ribs[g] and then closed up the place with flesh. 22 Then the LORD God made a woman from the rib[h] he had taken out of the man, and he brought her to the man.

This passage would make it seem that God deliberately created Eve as a helper for the man, and that women came from the man’s rib. Many have taken this interpretation literally and have therefore used it to justify sexism and misogyny. Phyllis Trible argues differently in her book God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality. Trible points out that the words ‘companion’ and ‘helper’ are not direct translations of the original text and it’s a mistake to take these words at face value as both have negative connotations in the English language. Both of these words imply a slight hierarchy, with one being more important than the other. Trible says:

“To the contrary, in the Hebrew scriptures this word often describes God as the superior who creates and saves Israel.” 4

God is therefore described by the same word that describes Adam’s helper. One must also remember that Adam is also the word for mankind, again meaning that God did not make a male then a female but mankind as a whole and again this is a mistranslation. The idea that the women was made as a helper for the man is a common misconception and one that is caused by slight mistranslation of the word ezer being translated to helpmate but according to Trible means more of a mentor than assistant and is frequently used to describe the relationship between God and Israel.5

Another crucial point to remember in this passage is the manner of the creation of male and female from the asexual Adam. Before verse 22 in chapter 2 of Genesis, the human created by God is only referred to as Adam, which we know means to be humankind and in the original text we would have not seen pronouns such as him and her, its only in the English language translation where we need a pronoun for the verse to make sense that we find the pronouns. In Hebrew, the word is means male and issa female. It is only after verse 22 where God takes the rib of Adam that the words is and issa are used, therefore we can deduce that actually both genders were created simultaneously from the non-gendered Adam.

3 Genesis 1:26

4 (Trible 1979, 90)

5 (Trible 1989)x

Trible makes the argument like this:

“The new creature, built upon the material of Adam, is female, receiving her identity that is altogether new to the story, the word issa. The old creature transformed is male, similarly receiving identity that is new to the story, is.” 6

Therefore, in the second creation story both men and women are created at the same time from a separate non-gendered being. There is also no inclination of hierarchy in the sexes, contrary to many interpretations. This is not to say that the book of Genesis is an advocate for gender equality, far from it as we will soon find out.

The story does not end there. The first female is portrayed as being free and autonomous, there is no indication that the male should be controlling her. The serpent of the garden of Eden approaches the woman and says:

3 Now the serpent was craftier than any of the wild animals the LORD God had made. He said to the woman, “Did God really say, ‘You must not eat from any tree in the garden’?” 7

The woman responds with what God told her to which the serpent replies:

4 “You will not certainly die,” the serpent said to the woman. 5 “For God knows that when you eat from it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.” 8

The woman eats the fruit and then gives some to the husband. There is no implication of the woman coercing the man and forcing him, he just eats it. This is not how it is often told; many seem to think that the women coerced the man into eating, even forcing him but this is simply not the case.

This can be seen in many early Christian theologians such as Augustine of Hippo. Augustine says that:

“The curse God pronounced on your sex still weighs on the world … You are the devil’s gateway … you are the first that deserted the divine law … All to easily you destroyed the image of God, Eve”9

Philip Vivian summaries another early Christian thinker, St Jerome who was a biblical scholar and translator of the Bible into Latin. Vivian says that St Jerome’s thoughts on women are:

“Women is the root of all evil” 10

Both of these examples show that the misinterpretation that the women either coerced the man or ate the fruit due to a fault in her sex was very widespread and this misconception still remains today.

After both the male and the female have eaten the fruit, God find out what has happened11 and both the male and female are punished. Peter Vardy makes the argument in the book “The Puzzle of Sex”:

“The man was not criticised (By God) for failing to control the women – he had not right of control.” 12

⁶ (Trible 1979, 97)

⁷ Genesis 3

⁸ Genesis 3:4

⁹ (Aquinas AD 413 - 427 , Chapter 11)

10 (Vivian 1906, 284)

11 Genesis 3:11

12 (Vardy 1997 , 9)

Therefore, there was no expectation by God that the women would be disobedient, and he is not angrier at Adam for letting her do this. The story then goes on to describe the punishment handed out by God to Adam and the women:

16 To the woman he said,

“I will make your pains in childbearing very severe; with painful labor you will give birth to children. Your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you.”

17 To Adam he said, “Because you listened to your wife and ate fruit from the tree about which I commanded you, ‘You must not eat from it,’

“Cursed is the ground because of you; through painful toil you will eat food from it all the days of your life.

18 It will produce thorns and thistles for you, and you will eat the plants of the field.

19 By the sweat of your brow you will eat your food until you return to the ground, since from it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust you will return.”13

The significant part of this passage verse 16 where God says, “Your desire will be for your husband and he will rule over you.” This is the first ever mention in the Bible of male dominance over women that is not a mistranslation or interpretation. It goes on in verse 20 to say:

20 Adam[c] named his wife Eve,[d] because she would become the mother of all the living.14

This now signifies Adam’s dominance over Eve we are reminded of chapter 2 verse 19 through 20 where God brings the animals to Adam (who’s still at this point a non-gendered being) to name them and have control over them.

19 Now the LORD God had formed out of the ground all the wild animals and all the birds in the sky. He brought them to the man to see what he would name them; and whatever the man called each living creature, that was its name. 20 So the man gave names to all the livestock, the birds in the sky and all the wild animals.15

The naming is what gives Adam control over things as this is what gave Adam dominance over the animals and plants, therefore its significant is it shows his dominance over Eve.

The fact that the first example of male over female dominance only happens after the fall is very interesting as in the Garden of Eden everything is perfect with God saying that it is good. 16 Therefore, and argument could be made that in a perfect world without sin (Eg. The Garden of Eden before the fall), hierarchy in sex

13 Genesis 3:16-19

14 Genesis 3:20

15 Genesis 2:19-20

1⁶ Genesis 1:31

would not exist as it does not exist in the Garden of Eden and is only references as a punishment for both man and women after the fall. Lisa Sowle Cahill makes the argument in her book: Between the sexes: Foundations for a Christian Ethics of Sexuality that:

“… we find that supremacy and subordination … are not part of the original creation but of the condition of sin.”17

And Peter Vardy says that:

“… the idea of male supremacy and female obedience is only introduced in the second account as a result of the disorder brought about by sin.” 18

Conclusion of Part One

Here are some takeaways from what is discussed above:

1. B oth of these stories can be viewed through the lens that they were written by people who saw what they thought was God’s sustaining world.

2. B oth of these stories are not harmonious, and they tell two different accounts. We do not know which one is right.

3. Both men and women were created absolutely equally although after the fall, Eve is made to be under the control of the man.

4. At no point does the text make any reference to the idea that Eve eating the apple had anything to do with her sex. This idea is one that is hugely damaging and can no longer be sustained.

Part two: Gender and Sexuality in the Old Testament as a whole

This next section will be split into three sections:

The Patriarchal period

This period is the one immediately following the creation story in the Bible and is called the patriarchal period as it follows the great patriarchs of the Bible. These include Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. This period contains the great flood, the Jewish exile in Egypt, the Jews escaping with Moses and finally the Jewish people living a nomadic lifestyle in the desert before taking Jericho and driving out the Canaanites in Israel.

The period of Judges and kings

After Joshua led the Israelites into their homeland, a period of judges came about where the country had no specific leader, but different leaders called Judges. In this period, Israel was mostly being controlled by different foreign kingdoms as a punishment for their sins. These leaders were incredibly evil and corrupt, so when God felt that the Israelites had learnt their lesson for being sinful, he sent a Judge to periodically restore peace and order. But this did not often last long with the Israelites quickly turning back to their wicked ways, and so the cycle repeats.

The exilic and post-exilic period

The exilic period came after the Babylonian invasion of Judah, where all of the Israelites were taken off to Babylon, hence the name the Babylonian exile. The Jews were eventually let back into Israel, and this is known as the post-exilic period.

The Patriarchal period

The Prophetess Miriam

The first woman that will be discussed in this section is that of Miriam. Miriam was the sister of Moses and Aaran who were all Jews born into slavery whilst in Egypt. She is first mentioned in Exodus chapter two after we learn in Chapter one, that the Pharaoh is planning on killing the newly born Israelite boys due to his fear of a rebellion. Due to this fear, Moses’s mother, and sister (Miriam) place him in a papyrus basket and hide him in the reeds of the river Nile. The daughter of the Pharaoh finds the baby and adopts Moses as her son. Miriam watches this happens and offers up her mother as a housewife, making sure the connection to the mother and baby does not show. Her quick thinking saves Moses’s life, and doing this means that the Jewish people can be saved from slavery.

The next time Miriam is references in the Bible is in Exodus chapter 15 where she leads the newly freed Jewish people in a song and dance in thanks to God but the most famous story regarding Miriam is that of her sin in Numbers 12. The text states:

12 Miriam and Aaron began to talk against Moses because of his Cushite wife, for he had married a Cushite. 2 “Has the LORD spoken only through Moses?” they asked. “Hasn’t he also spoken through us?” And the LORD heard this.19

It is also important to note that the heading for the chapter in the NIV version is ‘Miriam and Aaron oppose Moses’. After God hears them, he tells Miriam, Moses, and Aaron to come out of the tent as he scolds them. God then punishes Miriam with leprosy:

10 When the cloud lifted from above the tent, Miriam’s skin was leprous[a]—it became as white as snow. Aaron turned toward her and saw that she had a defiling skin disease, 11 and he said to Moses, “Please, my lord, I ask you not to hold against us the sin we have so foolishly committed. 12 Do not let her be like a stillborn infant coming from its mother’s womb with its flesh half eaten away.” 20

The interesting point about this story is that only Miriam is punished by God for gossiping and being jealous of Moses even though both Miriam and Aaron seem to be guilty of it. Even Aaron seems convinced of his guilt as he uses the word, we. Therefore, it seems very unfair that God only punishes Miriam. One interpretation is that Aaron could not have been punished by God as he had already been made a High Priest of Israel. 21 Therefore if Aaron had been punished like Miriam had been, then he would have been disgraced in the eyes of the people and he would not be able to carry out his holy duties. This however is not a satisfactory answer as only men could become High Priests. Thus, it seems that the only reason Miriam was punished more than Aaron was because she was a woman.

The story of Miriam and her sin enforces the idea of male supremacy over women and this objectification of women is something that we will find very common later on in other stories. We can see this in the story as disobedience from a woman is clearly seen as a much more serious offence than disobedience from a man.

Abraham and Sarah

Another way in which we can clearly see the male dominance over women in the patriarchal period is through the story of Abraham and Sarah, Sarah being Abrahams’s wife. Marriage at this point was seen much more as a political move than one done out of love. This is because at the time it would be arranged by the two families and then the family of the son would pay a ‘brides’ price’ in return for the marriage of the daughter. However, it is unclear who this money was for, as we can see in the Rachel and Leah (the two wives of Jacob) as they say that their father has “been using up money given for us”22 the wife did not just become the husband’s property (although this wasn’t far off), she did have minimal rights within the marriage. Some examples of this include:

1 If the husband died the wife had the right to stay in the husband’s family by marrying another member of it

2 The right to fo od

3 The right to clothing

4 The right to sleep with her husband23

Although these rights are very minimal, they are still interesting to note. The story of Abraham and his wife Sarah is important to this point as it shows the attitude towards marriage at the time. The twelfth chapter of Genesis states:

11 As he (Abaraham) was about to enter Egypt, he said to his wife Sarai, “I know what a beautiful woman you are. 12 When the Egyptians see you, they will say, ‘This is his wife.’ Then they will kill me but will let you live. 13 Say you are my sister, so that I will be treated well for your sake and my life will be spared because of you.”24

Abraham was worried that people would kill him just to sleep with his wife, this shows how much the husband was truly dominant over the wife in this time period as to sleep with another man’s wife was considered similar to taking his property25, hence why Abraham was worried that he would be killed.

The period of Judges and Kings

The Story of Rahab

Joshua was the successor to Moses after he had died. Joshua was determined to bring his people into the land that God had promised him. But to do this first he defeats the Canaanites who were living in Israel. The first big city that Joshua had to take was Jericho. Before the assault, he sent two spies into the city. The spies entered a prostitute’s house, her name was Rahab. The king of Jericho found out about the spies in the city and demanded that Rahab reveal them, but she hid the spies and said to the king:

“Yes, the men came to me, but I did not know where they had come from. 5 At dusk, when it was time to close the city gate, they left. I don’t know which way they went. Go after them quickly. You may catch up with them.”26

The spies are therefore saved, and Rahab goes onto tell them that she knows that God has given the Jews this land and asks if she and her family can be saved from the murder that will follow. The two men agree saying “Our lives for your lives!” and Rahab helps them escape the city.

22 Genesis 31:15

23 Exodus 21:10

24 Genesis 12:11-12

25 Proverbs 6:29-30

2⁶ Joshua 2:4-5

After the fall of Jericho, as promised, the prostitute and her family were saved from being killed by the Israelites.

There is some debate as to whether Rahab was actually a prostitute or not. The Hebrew term, ishah zonah or , is used to describe Rahab in Josha 2:1 and this term translates literally to prostitute women:

27

However, the Hebrew word zōnâ may refer to secular or cultic prostitution. Robert Boiling makes the argument that the author of Joshua may be trying to make the reader think of a:

“Immemorial symbiosis between military service and bawdy house” 28

If she is a prostitute, then it’s important to note that nowhere in this story does anyone disapprove of her profession. Peter Vardy puts it like this:

“Rahab was a prostitute who was nevertheless the key to Israel’s successful attack and not once is there any mention of disapproval of her profession.” 29

What this story does show is that she was able to turn to God and trust the people of Israel to not kill her or her family and for this faith, she is rewarded when everyone else in the city is killed. It does not matter that she is an outcast in society, she helped the people of God when they needed it. This is obviously a major message that Jesus would rely in the New Testament, caring for the marginalised. There is no mention of her being virtuous or at all worthy but the key message is that she was there for the Jewish people when they needed it.

The Levite’s concubine

This story, also known as the Benjamite war, is one of the darkest in the bible. It takes place in the books of Judges and shows the truly sinful nature of the Benjamite tribe. The story starts with a Levite traveling with his concubine (a woman who lives with a man but has lower status than his wife) through the Benjamite city of Gibeah. He needs a place to stay and bumps into an old man in the market square who says to the Levite:

20 “You are welcome at my house,” the old man said. “Let me supply whatever you need. Only don’t spend the night in the square.” 21 So he took him into his house and fed his donkeys. After they had washed their feet, they had something to eat and drink.30

The Levite obliges and they go back to the old man’s house for a meal. The story takes a turn as:

22 While they were enjoying themselves, some of the wicked men of the city surrounded the house. Pounding on the door, they shouted to the old man who owned the house, “Bring out the man who came to your house so we can have sex with him.”31

The owner of the house is horrified with the mob and offers his virgin daughter and his concubine to the mob.

2⁷ Joshua 2:1

2⁸ (Boiling 1981, 144-145 )

2⁹ (Vardy 1997 , 22)

30 Judges 19:20-21

31 Judges 19:22

25 But the men would not listen to him. So the man took his concubine and sent her outside to them, and they raped her and abused her throughout the night, and at dawn they let her go. 26 At daybreak the woman went back to the house where her master was staying, fell down at the door and lay there until daylight.32

The Levite finds the concubine the next morning after she had been raped all night by the gang. It is not clear if the concubine is alive as the text states:

28 He said to her, “Get up; let’s go.” But there was no answer. Then the man put her on his donkey and set out for home33

Once the Levite got home, he took the concubine (possibly dead or alive) and cut her up into twelve parts and sent them to the twelve tribes of Israel. All of the tribes are outraged at what has happened saying:

“Such a thing has never been seen or done, not since the day the Israelites came up out of Egypt. Just imagine! We must do something! So speak up!” 34

This then triggers the Benjamite war where all the tribes launch a war against the tribe of Benjamite leaving only 600 men. Not wanting the tribe to go extinct, the Levites pillage and massacre the city of Jabesh-Gilead to kidnap maidens for the Benjamite tribe.

This story is often interpreted as trying to show the reader how bad the political landscape was at this time, and therefore some claim the story to be made up or an exaggeration. As we know this took place during the time of Judges when there were no kings. Many people wanted a king at the time35 as they saw the chaos that was happening in the country. Something that supports this interpretation is the fact that the author of the book keeps saying the phrase “At this time, there was no king in Israel” (Judges 17:6, 18:1, 19:1, and 21:25) therefore many see this last story in the book of Judges as a way to justify the appointment of a king to Israel to avoid violence and restore order. Yairah Amit makes the argument that these last chapters of the book of Judges were written by a post-exilic author whose intent was to make a political statement that Israel needs a king.36

If we look at this story through a social lens we can once again clearly see that idea that women are subordinate to men. we can see this as the main points of the story are not the rape of women but that guests are holy and should not be harmed. The old man who houses the Levite is more shocked that the men want to rape his guest than he is that they want to rape anyone full stop. Ken Stones says that:

“Apparently the sexual violation of women was considered less shameful than that of men, at least in the eyes of other men. such an attitude reflects both the social subordination of women and the fact that homosexual rape was viewed as a particularly server attack on male honour.” 37

Both men also give up the safety of the concubine and the daughter to save their own skin. Once again showing the common believe at the time that men owned women. The aftermath also shows this, Peter Vardy says:

“The vengeance was taken on the whole tribe of Benjamin and women were obtained, like a commodity, to repopulate the tribe after its near destruction.” 38

32 Judges 19:25-26

33 Judges 19:28

34 Judges 19:30

35 1 Samual 8:4-5

3⁶ (Amit 2007)

3⁷ (Stones 1999)

3⁸ (Vardy 1997 , 25)

The aftermath of the war on the tribe of Benjamin shows the truly horrifying position of women in the biblical world.

The Exilic and Post-exilic period

Esther

The Book of Esther is the only book along with the Songs of Solomon in the Bible to not mention God and is also one of only two books to be named after a woman (the other being Ruth). The book takes place in the exilic period when the Jewish people were being held captive in Babylon, more specifically during the reign of King Ahasuerus in the first Persian Empire.

The story starts with us learning that the King’s wife is banished after refusing to be shown off at a banquet by the King.

11 to bring before him Queen Vashti, wearing her royal crown, in order to display her beauty to the people and nobles, for she was lovely to look at. 12 But when the attendants delivered the king’s command, Queen Vashti refused to come. Then the king became furious and burned with anger.39

A beauty pageant is held to decide a new Queen for the King and Esther, a young Jewish Girl is chosen but she hides the fact that she is a Jew. Esther has a cousin named Mordechai who overhears one of the King’s advisors named Haman planning to kill all of the Jews. He decided the date by rolling a die with the Hebrew word for this being pur. Mordechai begs his cousin to stop this plot from happening and Esther agrees to it. Haman, after leaving a banquet one night, finds Mordechai in the street and he orders his execution using a steak to impale him. The king spares Mordechai due to an earlier incident when Mordechai stops the King’s death. Esther invites both the King and Haman to a banquet that she is hosting. At the banquet, she says:

“If I have found favor with you, Your Majesty, and if it pleases you, grant me my life—this is my petition. And spare my people—this is my request. 4 For I and my people have been sold to be destroyed, killed and annihilated. If we had merely been sold as male and female slaves, I would have kept quiet, because no such distress would justify disturbing the king]”40

The King is outraged at what he hears and demands to know who is behind the plot to which says:

“An adversary and enemy! This vile Haman!” 41

The King executes Haman by impaling him on the same steak that Mordechai was going to be impaled on and the Jewish people are saved as the king enacts a decree allowing the Jews the to defend themselves. The Jewish holiday Purim is celebrated because of this story.

The first thing to point is the banishing of the Kings first Queen, who was trying to save her own dignity. Sarojini Nadar says this in her essay, Gender, power, sexuality, and suffering bodies in the Book of Esther: Reading the characters of Esther and Vashti for the purpose of social transformation:

“She does so with the conviction that her dignity is more important to her than the king’s display of his power.”42

3⁹ Book of Esther 1:11-12

40 Book of Esther 7:3-4

41 Book of Esther 7:6

42 (Nadar 2002 )

However, the author of the book is not keen to show this side of things, instead we are once again shown the consequences women face for being insubordinate to their husbands.

When it comes to Esther, she is portrayed as a heroine for the obvious reason of saving the Jewish people. However, one could argue she is not the feminist heroine that many portray her to be. This is because unlike the Queen Vashti, Esther does not disobey any social norms. Although what she does is bold and very brave, it does not go against the hierarchy of the sexes, like Vashti’s actions. She also operates in the circle of the high court of the King; therefore, she cannot relate to many of the common people at the time. Nadar puts the argument like this:

“Esther seems to be no radical feminist. In fact, feminist scholars are quick to point out that in comparison to Vashti Esther only possesses humility, beauty, grace, loyalty and obedience while Vashti possesses dignity, pride and independence. Esther also operates within the sphere of the court, therefore one could argue, like Mosala (1993) that she operates from a completely high-class setting and therefore there is little possibility that poor women can identify with her.” 43

Although Esther is incredibly brave, she should not be seen as a shining beacon of gender equality in the bible like she sometimes is.

Conclusion

Women do not have an easy life in the biblical world with many stories in the bible highlighting the inequality and struggles that woman faced during that time (sometimes unknowingly). The Old Testament serves as an insight into what social and cultural norms at the time, shedding light on how these views on gender roles have evolved. It is crucial to understand these stories with a nuanced understanding and not always taking them at face value. It is also critical to understand how these stories can have damaging effects on modern society if they are taken out of context, and some even in context. Examining The Old Testament invites reflection on the progress made and the modern-day challenges that face contemporary society when it comes to gender equality.

Bibliography

Amit, Yairah. 2007. The Book of Judges: The art of Editing.

Aquinas, St Thomas. AD 413 - 427. The City of God

Boiling, Robert. 1981. Joshua, Vol 6, Anchor Bible Serise.

Cahill, Lisa Sowle. 1985. Between the Sexes: Foundations for a Christian Ethics of Sexuality.

Linder, Doug. 2004. “In the Beginning: Two Stories of Creation.” law2.umkc. Accessed January 5, 2024. http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/gen1st.htm#:~:text=(Most%20Biblical%20 scholars%20today%20believe,in%20the%20sixth%2Dcentury%20B.C.).

Nadar, Sarojini. 2002 . “Gender, power, sexuality and suffering bodies in the Book of Esther: Reading the Characters of Esther and vashti for the purpose of social transformation.” Thesis, Natal .

Stones, Ken. 1999. “Concubine of a Levite: Bible.” Jewish Women’s archive. December 31. Accessed January 5, 2024. https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/concubine-of-levite-bible.

Trible, Phyllis. 1979. God and the Rehtoric of Sexuality. Richmond: Fortress press.

Vardy, Peter. 1997. The Puzzel of Sex

Vivian, Philip. 1906. the Churches and Modern Thought