Phoenix coursebook 1vwo hoofdstuk 1.1 - 9789006391244

History Coursebook 1 vwo

www.feniks-online.nl

English edition

History Coursebook 1 vwo English edition

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History Coursebook 1 vwo

Authors Raymond de Kreek Frouke Schrijver Frank Tang Jos Venner Ludwich Verberne Editor Jos Venner

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Contents

About ThiemeMeulenhoff ThiemeMeulenhoff is the premier educational media specialist in the Netherlands, providing educational materials for Primary Education, Secondary Education, Secondary Vocational Education and Higher Education. We develop these materials in close collaboration with educators and contribute to improved learning outcomes and individual talent development.

How you work with Phoenix Periodization

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age of hunters and farmers

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

age of greeks and romans

28

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

From palace to polis 32 Greeks and Persians 35 Athens and Sparta 38 Hellenism 41 From myth to science 43 Round-up 46

age of greeks and romans

3 Imperium Romanum

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The production process for this edition was 100% CO2 neutral. The paper is FSCÂŽ-certified and hence was produced from wood derived from responsibly managed forests.

3000 bc

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

1

bc

8

Traces of the earliest humans 12 From camp to camp 14 Life as a farmer 16 Cities and states 19 Egyptians live with death 22 Round-up 26

2 The Greek World

Please contact the publisher concerning permissions to use part(s) of this publication in lectures, readers and other compilations (Section 16 of the Copyright Act 1912). For further information on the use of music, film and making copies for educational purposes, see www.auteursrechtenonderwijs.nl.

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6

1 Hunters become farmers

ISBN 978 90 06 39121 3 First print, first impression, 2015

4

48

The Roman Empire 52 Kingdom, republic, empire 54 Conquest and construction 58 Late Antiquity (284-476) 60 Romans, Jews and Christians 62 Round-up 65

500

ad

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age of monks and knights

4 The Franks: violence and religion

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

The Frankish empire 72 On the domain 75 Within the abbey walls 77 A new religion: Islam 79 In the castle 82 Round-up 84

86

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

The conquest of England 90 Onward to Jerusalem 94 The crusades 97 The Hundred Years’ War 99 The kingdom of France 101 Round-up 104

age of cities and states

6 The Renaissance in Florence 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

128

age of cities and states

5 Kings and crusades

68

A quick recap of the skills Maps 130 Terms 132 Illustration notes 136

106

City of industry, trade and banking 110 The government of Florence 113 From traders to popes 115 Florence: Renaissance city 120 Renaissance or still the Middle Ages? 124 Round-up 126 Year 2 and 3 age of explorers and reformers age of regents and kings age of wigs and revolutions age of citizens and steam engines age of the world wars age of the television and computer

1000

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1500

1600

1700

1800

1900 1950 2000

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How you work with Phoenix 12

1 Hunters become farmers

1

2

From camp to camp

1 Test your memory: Hunter-gatherers Tick the correct statements.  Hunter-gatherers used script.  Hunter-gatherers could grow crops (such as grain) themselves.  Hunter-gatherers lived in small villages.  Hunter-gatherers survived by eating animals and plants that they found around their camp.  Hunter-gatherers had a lot of personal possessions.  Hunter-gatherers domesticated animals such as cows.

They made cheese and other products from the milk.  Hunter-gatherers lived in simple huts that could be built quickly.

2 Read: Nomadic existence. Practise your knowledge: answering different types of questions a When did reindeer hunters live in the Netherlands? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

This is a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . question. b Why did no hunter-gatherers roam around the Netherlands in the ice age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

This is a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . question because I have to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c Hunter-gatherers lived in small groups of about twenty. Why did they not live in bigger groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

This question is about how people lived together. It concerns the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cause

Effect The ice sheets melt

d Give two reasons why hunter-gatherers moved to another camp after a while.

Reason 1:

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coniferous forests grow in Northern Europe The sea level rises

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Mammoths die out

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Hunter-gatherers do not have to change camps as frequently

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Reason 2: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 Use Source W2

c Write a follow-up to Source 9 so that it matches the title.

You are working in the museum where the reconstructed body of Trijntje is on display. It is your job to develop information for an app. Find information on Trijntje.

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This question concerns the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . aspect of history. Explain your answer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Read: Middle Stone Age During the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Period) two changes occurred in the lives of hunter-gatherers. What were they?

Change 1:

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Change 2: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Read: Middle Stone Age Practise your knowledge: cause and effect There is a table of causes and effects on the next page. Fill in the empty spaces.

5 Use Source 9 a Write down the title of the newspaper article that this source comes from. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

b This title does not really match the contents of Source 9.

Why not?

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This is your history coursebook. The chapters follow the course of history. You will start by looking at how we divide history into periods. This coursebook contains everything you need (texts, sources) for the assignments in the workbook.

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Have fun with history!

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6 Read: What did hunter-gatherers think? a Why do we know so little about what hunter-gatherers thought?

Name of person: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Age:

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Period in which she lived: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

b Why did hunter-gatherers probably draw pictures of animals on the walls of caves?

Where did Trijntje live? What did her dwelling probably look like?

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c Why were grave gifts sometimes found in the graves of hunter-gatherers?

What kind of food did Trijntje eat and how did she get it? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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What tools did she use? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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aspect of history.

13

1.2 From camp to camp

Table for Assignment 4

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How the chapters are organized

Did Trijntje live alone? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Source W2

8

1 Hunters become farmers

1

9

Orientation

Hunters become farmers

prehistory age of hunters and farmers (to 3000 bc)

Neanderthals with emotions

source 1

A unique discovery in a cave near Sima de las Palomas (Spain) in 2011 started a lot of discussion.

Archaeologists found the bones of six Neanderthals there, including a baby and two children. Had they found a 50,000-year-old graveyard?

Or had the group of Neanderthals died in an accident? Perhaps part of the cave had suddenly collapsed.

But the archaeologists reported that all the bodies were in the same position, with their arms crossed and their hands covering their faces.

That could not be a coincidence.

Stone tools and traces of campfires were also found in the cave. That could indicate that other Neanderthals had visited the cave regularly after the burial. And why were two panther’s leg bones in the grave? The discoveries in the Spanish cave could indicate that Neanderthals did not abandon their dead, but buried them in a special way – as people do today.

Drawing of Neanderthals mourning the death of a member of their group. They will bury him in a cave.

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1 Hunters become farmers

11

Orientation

Civilized hunters In 1856 workmen found a human skeleton by coincidence in a quarry in the Neander Valley in Germany. Because this skeleton was buried deep in the earth, it had to be of a person who lived centuries earlier. Scientists soon discovered that the measurements of the bones did not match those of a normal man or woman. People wondered for years about where this ‘human creature’ had come from, and finally reached agreement in 1864.

The bones could not possibly belong to a modern human.

They had to belong to a species that had died out. They called this species Neanderthal, after the place where the skeleton was found.

In the years that followed more traces of Neanderthals were found in Europe. The discovery of 800 Neanderthal skeletons in a mass grave in Croatia in 1899 led people to believe that Neanderthals were very violent, perhaps even cannibals. A few years later, Neanderthal remains were found in La-Chapelle-aux-Saints in France. It was first thought that these remains were 20,000 years old, but further investigation revealed that they were actually 50,000 years old.

Scientists tried to work out what Neanderthals looked like and how they lived. So they made reconstruction drawings on the basis of the skeletal remains. By the start of the twentieth century a picture of Neanderthals had emerged, but they did not look much like people. The

skulls found by the archaeologists were bigger and coarser. People imagined Neanderthals as savage, ape-like creatures who lived in caves, were barbaric, and unable to speak. That is how the traditional image of cavemen brandishing clubs was born.

Now, more than a hundred years later, the image of Neanderthals has changed radically because many new skeletal remains have been found. Recent research has shown that the differences between Neanderthals and modern humans were not so great at all. Neanderthals made tools from flint and animal bones, which they used for hunting wild animals. These tools were very cleverly made. When Neanderthals were choosing temporary dwelling places they considered the seasons and the animals that were around at that time. So they could not have been as ignorant as people in the nineteenth century believed.

Like modern people, Neanderthals did not make objects just for practical use. There is evidence that they liked decoration. For example, they painted animals on the walls of caves. And shells containing traces of dye might have served as make-up boxes. But it is still difficult to say how Neanderthals really lived. They could not write, so we do not know what they thought. A comparison of

Neander Valley

Steinheim Le Moustier Krapina

La Chapelle aux Saints

Shanidar Zafarraya

finding place of Neanderthal remains maximum ice border

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250

archaeological finds can help. In 1982 a well-preserved Neanderthal skeleton was found in a cave in Israel. Its arms were crossed, like the arms of the skeletons in the cave in Sima de las Palomas. That could not be a coincidence. It looked as if Neanderthals buried their dead in a special position for a reason.

significant developments 1 The lifestyle of hunters and farmers.

2 The emergence of agriculture and agrarian societies.

3 The emergence of the first urban communities.

The significance of hunters and farmers

main questions How did the people in the Age of Hunters and Farmers learn to make use of nature?

1 Hunters become farmers

1

Traces of the earliest humans

1.1 Traces of the earliest humans

Neanderthalers en cro-magnonmensen Neanderthals lived at the same time as other hominids, called Cro-Magnons, for a while. Both survived by hunting animals with axes, knives and spearheads made of flint.

They used spears to hunt horses, woolly rhinos and deer.

They could even kill giant mammoths with spears.

Neanderthals were carnivores (meat eaters) but they used animals for other purposes besides food. They made clothes from the pelts and tools from the bones. They also ate wild plants and fruit, which they gathered in the natural environment. That is why Neanderthals are also called hunter-gatherers.

For a long time historians doubted whether Neanderthals could speak. They now appear to have found evidence for that. In 1983 skeletal remains were found in Israel, which included the tongue bone of a Neanderthal. That bone is needed to make sounds.

Neanderthals gradually died out 28,000 years ago.

Perhaps they were driven away or murdered by CroMagnons. The most probable explanation is that different hominids interbred and Neanderthals stopped existing as a separate species.

subquestion 1 How do we gather information on the earliest humans?

Earliest inhabitants of the Netherlands Evidence of early hominids has also been found in the Netherlands, most of it in South Limburg. The chance of finding such evidence is much smaller in the north of the country. During the second-last ice age, between 200,000 and 130,000 years ago, most of the Netherlands was source 4

subquestions 1 How do we gather information on the earliest human beings?

2 How did hunter-gatherers live?

3 How did the emergence of agriculture affect people’s lives?

4 a How did cities develop in Mesopotamia? b How did a well-organized state develop in Egypt?

5 What was the daily life of an Egyptian like?

Picture of a Neanderthal, made in 1909 after a skeleton was discovered in La-Chapelle-aux-Saints. The caption says: ‘An ancestor: Man twenty thousand years ago. The man from La-Chapelle-aux-Saints: accurate reconstruction of a prehistoric caveman.’

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Amud

Places where skeletal remains or Neanderthal fossils have been found. The areas shaded in blue are the parts of Europe that were covered in ice.

Nature was very important to Neanderthals and other hominids. The only way to stay alive was by hunting wild animals and gathering edible plants, seeds, berries, nuts and mushrooms. You needed to know a lot about nature for that. Around 10,000 BC agriculture started to develop in the Middle East. People learned to grow grain and other edible crops and started domesticating animals to keep as livestock. They were experimenting with nature and taking control of it to meet their needs. We are still doing that today!

The introduction of agriculture had a deep impact on history. It enabled populations to grow and led to the establishment of cities and powerful states.

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500 km

1 : 28,000,000

source 3

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covered in ice. When the ice sheets moved they pushed the earth forward and created push moraines in the middle of the country. It is possible that traces of people who lived more than 200,000 years ago were lost as a result of this process.

The ice sheets did not reach the south of the Netherlands.

In the 1980s archaeologists discovered traces of a camp on the banks of the River Maas, where hunters lived 250,000 years ago. They did not find skeletal remains but they did find a knife made of flint and the bones of two rhinos.

The first piece of a Neanderthal in the Netherlands was literally ‘fished up’ in 2001 when a piece of eyebrow bone was found among sand sucked from the bottom of the North Sea. It belonged to a Neanderthal and was possibly 400,000 years old. At that time, the North Sea was dry; it was a large steppe where the earliest humans roamed around searching for food.

Sources The Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon objects and drawings that were found are primary sources; namely, sources that actually date from the period of study.

Archaeologists search for traces of these early humans during excavations and use primary sources to reconstruct their history. Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons did not use script. So we only have unwritten sources from this period. The period before people could write is called prehistory (‘pre’ means before).

The start of a chapter • You will always work based on your workbook. Your workbook tells you what you have to do.

• The first four pages of each chapter tell you what the chapter is about.

• You will find a brief explanation and list of the significant developments in the period of history described in the chapter.

• You will also read why this period is so important.

• You will then find the main question and a number of subquestions. There is usually one subquestion per section

Each chapter has six sections Coursebook • Each section starts with the subquestion for that section.

• A section consists of texts and sources. A source can be a picture (image source) or a text (text source).

• The boxes provide information on how states are organized.

• Some sections have a skills block. These blocks explain the history skills you need to learn. You will complete assignments to help you learn these skills. The assignment will say: Practise your knowledge...

• Two sections give you the opportunity for further study.

Workbook • Each section starts with an assignment in which you will see what you already know about the topic.

• You will summarize what you have learned in the final assignment in each section.

• The end of each section lists what you will need to know for a test: the tips for the test.

• The last block of each section tells you about the section’s assignments (knowledge, comprehension and application).

Life-sized reconstructions of Cro-Magnons, made for a museum in France.

The earliest humans History is the study of the past. But how and when did the earliest human beings exist? People have asked these questions for centuries, and found different answers.

Creation stories appear in all religions. They try to explain how God (or the gods) created the Earth and Man. In the middle of the nineteenth century the naturalist Charles Darwin had another idea and wrote a book about the evolution theory. Darwin said that, millions of years ago, anthropoid apes gradually learned to walk on two legs. These ancestors of modern Man learned how to use tools and fire to hunt animals and cook food.

As a result of evolution (a very slow process that takes millions of years) the first homo habilis lived in Africa, followed by homo erectus.

Homo erectus was the first hominid to walk on two feet.

Different species evolved from homo erectus, including homo sapiens (wise man). Homo sapiens spread from Africa to the rest of the world. About 45,000 years ago homo sapiens (the first modern man) lived in Europe.

At that time, another species had already lived in Europe for about 150,000 years, called homo sapiens neander­ thalensis, or Neanderthals.

source 5

PHOENIX_VWO_Coursebook.indb 4

The evolution of Man.

source 6

A piece of eyebrow bone found off the coast of Zeeland in 2001. In 2009 Minister Plasterk presented a reconstruction of the whole skull.

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How you work with Phoenix

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•

1 Hunters become farmers

25

1.5 Egyptians live with death

Further study in 1.5

Sometimes you will see this symbol in an assignment.

This means you will have to use Phoenix online for this assignment.

Pharaoh Ramesses II demonstrates his power Ramesses II was one of the most powerful pharaohs. He ruled from 1279 to 1213 BC. When Ramesses was pharaoh he demonstrated clearly to everyone that he held absolute power in Egypt. He ordered statues of his predecessors to be destroyed and built monuments to glorify himself. source 26

Picture of the Battle of Kadesh. Pharaoh Ramesses II is standing in a chariot on the right. Left are the enemies, surrounded and taken prisoner.

source 27

source 25

•

this symbol means that you can work on this assignment together with others.

The Egyptians said that the Hittites pleaded for their lives. However, in the ancient capital of Hattusa, a Hittite clay tablet was found describing the battle, which says that Ramesses II was defeated and that he had to retreat as far as Damascus. Sixteen years after the Battle of Kadesh Ramesses II and Hattusili III, the new king of the Hittites, entered a treaty in which they pledged not to attack each other. They promised to exchange defectors and refugees and to fight together against common enemies. This treaty lasted for the entire reign of Ramesses II.

The pharaoh had some official titles which were always announced before his name: Protector of Egypt, suppressor of foreign lands, Rich in years, great in conquests, Lord of both countries, Mighty is the truth of Ra, chosen of Ra, Lord of power Ramesses, loved by Amon.

He covered the temple walls in hieroglyphics to glorify himself and to describe everything he had done for the temple.

From: H. Pragt, Ramses II en Nefertari, 2012.

Enemy states source 24

Ramesses also enlarged a temple dedicated to the god Amon in the capital city of Thebe. And he built statues of himself there, wearing two crowns, one on top of the other. The red crown symbolized Upper Egypt and the white crown symbolized Lower Egypt. Ramesses wanted to make absolutely clear that he ruled over both parts of Egypt.

Round-up Coursebook • The sixth section in a chapter is called the Round-up. This section summarizes what you have learned. It tells you: the significant developments of the period, what you have learned so far and what you are now able to do.

• The period’s most important events and people are shown here in the timeline.

• The chapter’s terms are also grouped together in the Round-up

A tomb for the pharaoh

The pharaohs who ruled before Ramesses had gained more territory through conquests. As a result, Egypt was regularly threatened by external enemies. Pharaoh Ramesses needed a strong army to defend the national borders.

In 1274 BC the Egyptians fought a huge battle against the Hittites, a people that lived north-east of Egypt. During the attack Ramesses II commanded an army of thousands of chariots. He hoped to win this battle and conquer Hittite territory. But he failed. The Egyptians did not conquer any territory and were forced to retreat.

Ramesses narrowly escaped being taken prisoner by the Hittites during the battle.

In 1259 BC Ramesses II entered a peace treaty with the Hittites.

Ramesses II ordered a new city to be built. Its name was Piramesse, which means ‘house of Ramesses’. It was filled with immense statues of the pharaoh. Ramesses ordered craftsmen to design new statues of himself, especially for Piramesse. Statues from the old capital of Memphis were also transported to Piramesse.

26

Ramesses II died in 1224 BC. Work started on his tomb in the Valley of the Kings long before his death. Ramesses was mummified and entombed during a magnificent ceremony. His tomb was filled with precious grave gifts to make life easier for him in the afterlife. The walls of the tomb were decorated with scenes from the book of the dead.

There is almost nothing left of the tomb of Ramesses II. It was plundered by robbers and almost all the grave gifts disappeared. The mummy of the pharaoh was, however, well preserved and is now on display in a museum in Cairo, the capital of modern Egypt.

1 Hunters become farmers

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1

significant developments 1 The lifestyle of hunters and farmers 2 The emergence of agriculture and agrarian societies 3 The emergence of the first urban communities

what you know How hunter­gatherers, the first farmers, the inhabitants of the cities in Mesopotamia, and the Egyptians made use of nature to stay alive.

1 How we gather information on the earliest human beings.

2 What the lives of hunter­gatherers were like.

3 How the emergence of agriculture affected people’s lives.

4 a How well­organized cities developed in Mesopotamia. b How a well­organized state developed in Egypt.

5 What the daily life of an Egyptian was like.

what you can do Identify causes and effects when you study history.

Distinguish between written and unwritten sources.

Distinguish between primary and secondary sources.

40.000

40.000 bc > The first homo sapiens in Europe

28.000 bc > Neanderthals died out

20.000

Mediterranean Sea

Lower Egypt

limestone Memphis

Th e

N ile

sandstone

10.000

10.000 bc > End of the last ice age, discovery of agriculture

Thebe sandstone

Abu Simbel

fertile land capital

5300 bc > First farmers in South Limburg: linear pottery culture

pyramid precious stones

3500 bc > Cuneiform script develops in Mesopotamia > Farmers from the funnel beaker culture build dolmens

gold

27

officials People who work for the government.

Paleolithic Age Period of the hominids and hunter­gatherers. Also called Early Stone Age. past All the events and developments that happened before. pharaoh The leader of Ancient Egypt. He made the laws in the country. polytheism Religion with more than one god. prehistory Period in which people could not write. primary sources Documents and objects from the past that help us to understand how people lived at that time. rituals Actions that are repeated over and over again, for example, at funerals or church services. secondary sources Sources that describe a historical period but do not actually date from that period. slaves People who are owned by other people and who work for them without pay. social differences Differences in the position and status of people in society. state A region with borders that is ruled by one government.

Stone Age Period in prehistory when people made tools from stone. unwritten sources Objects from the past, such as tools and cooking pots. Not written sources. written sources Letters, books and other documents.

copper 0

rock

3000 bc > A pharaoh takes control of Egypt 2650 bc > Pharaoh Djoser rules Egypt

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1200 bc > Gold headdress made for Puabi

0

22

Giza Saqqara Lake Fayum

Upper Egypt

ea dS Re

agrarian society Society in which farming is the main means of subsistence. agricultural revolution The start of agriculture around 11,000 BC in the Near East. archaeologists Scientists who dig in the earth to find objects that help us to understand how people lived in the past. craftsmen People who make objects by using their hands and simple tools. creation stories Stories that try to explain how God (or gods) created the world and human beings.

Early Stone Age See Paleolithic Age evolution A very slow process of development, possibly continuing for millions of years.

hunter-gatherers People who lived by killing animals and gathering plants, fruit and nuts. ice age Period when part of Europe was covered by a thick layer of ice. irrigation agriculture System that makes use of man­ made methods to transport water to fields where crops grow.

Late Stone Age See Neolithic Age Mesolithic Age Period when hunter­gatherers lived for a longer time in the same place. Also called Middle Stone Age. Middle Stone Age See Mesolithic Age Neolithic Age Period when agriculture was discovered. Also called Late Stone Age. nomads Groups of people who move from camp to camp. They have no permanent place to live.

evolution theory A scientific theory which says that humans developed from apes millions of years ago.

Fertile Crescent Area in the Near East where agri­ culture began around 11,000 BC. grave gifts Objects which are placed in the grave of a dead person. hierarchy System (such as a society) with different levels of status, from lowest to highest. hieroglyphics Combinations of pictures used by Ancient Egyptians to communicate. historian A person who tries to discover how people lived in the past by making use of sources. history Field of study which explores and describes the past with the aid of sources.

age of hunters and farmers (to 3000 bc)

30.000

Map of the tomb of Pharaoh Ramesses II in the Valley of the Kings.

1.6 Round­up

Round-up

terms

Workbook • The workbook has assignments that will help you to prepare for a test. Some assignments ask you to practice your history skills, and some assignments are on terms from the chapter. Finally, you will complete a summary assignment.

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100

200 km

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Egypt in the time of the pharaohs.

1279 bc > Pharaoh Ramesses II rules Egypt

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1.5 Egyptians live with death

1 Hunters become farmers

Further study in 1.5 Pharaoh Ramesses II demonstrates his power 1

3

Pharaoh Ramesses II ruled Egypt from

www.feniks-online.nl

to Source W8

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Read: Graves and mummies

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People also called Ramesses

because he ruled Egypt for so long.

Tawaret: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The

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succeeded by one of his

Grave of his mother: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Read the subquestion

An Egyptian farmer brings offers to the temples of the gods Hapy and Ra every day. He buys a figure of the goddess Tawaret from one of the priests. He takes it home and gives it to his wife. He places a food offer at the grave of his mother.

Find out more information about these gods and explain why the farmer performed these rituals.

Hapy: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ra: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. Pharaoh Ramesses II was

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Because: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Terms: hierarchy, social differences, craftsmen, slaves, polytheism, rituals Assignments: 3, 4, 6, 9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Knowledge 1, 2a, 2b, 3, 6 Comprehension 4, 5a, 5b, 8, 10 Application 7, 9

1 Hunters become farmers

1 Timeline assignment Look at the timeline in Round-up. Why is the agricultural revolution not in the timeline? ...................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................

a Fill in the following names on the right places on the map: Nile delta – the Nile – Upper Egypt – Lower Egypt – Valley of the Kings – Thebe – pyramids at Giza. b Colour the areas where irrigation agriculture was used in green.

Place the following statements in chronological order (early to late). a The ice sheet melted slowly. b More plants and animals were found in the wild. c The first farmers settled in the south of the Netherlands. d Farmers migrated from the Near East to Europe. e The average temperature rose. f The last ice age came to an end. g Hunter-gatherers did not have to move camps as often as before. h Agriculture was discovered in the Near East.

The correct order is:

The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lived in large parts of the Middle East and Europe during the same period as homo sapiens. The earliest humans lived in a totally different way from modern humans. The earliest humans were ................................................................................

. Archaeologists

sometimes find objects that belonged to them. These objects are often made of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . That is why this period is also called . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

were . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It is very difficult

......................................................................................................

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25

. Researchers have tried to

find out about their ideas and feelings by studying cave

Write down for each map whether the term ‘state’ belongs to it. Explain why.

0

100

7 Use Source 24. Practise your knowledge: primary and secondary sources and Written and unwritten sources a Is Source 24 a(n): Unwritten source? Yes / No, because:

........................................

......................................................................................................

Primary source? Yes / No, because:

............................................

......................................................................................................

b Priests were highly respected in Egypt.

Give two reasons for this.

Reason 1:

......................................................................................

......................................................................................................

Reason 2: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................................................................................................

6 Use Sources 29 and W9

to find out what they thought because they did not have ......................................................................

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6 Round-up

5 Summarize Sections 1.2, 1.3 and 1.4

Practise your knowledge: cause and effect

The earliest humans did not live in a permanent place, they 2 Map assignment. Use Source 29

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

b Make a (digital) presentation of two buildings used by Ramesses to demonstrate his power. Include at least three images of each building.

6 Round-up

1

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Tips for the test

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ramesseum: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Source 25: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Because: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Key term 2: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Find out more

a Look for information on two other buildings constructed by Ramesses II. How do they send messages of power? Write short notes on them.

Aboe Simbel: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Use Sources 24 and 25

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Key term 1: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4

Source 24: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Read the subquestion and summarize

Choose two key terms from the coursebook that describe the daily life of the Egyptians. Explain your choice.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

of Ramesses II

Which message does Ramesses II try to send out in each source?

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

...............................................................................

was not placed in a pyramid but in a tomb in the

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Archaeologists have never found any graves of slaves from Ancient Egypt. But they have found graves of people like Horemheb. Explain the difference.

9

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

........................................................................................................................

If the heart did not weigh more than the feather the dead person could proceed to the afterlife. The god Horus (8) took him by the hand and led him past Osiris, the god of the underworld (9).

Fact or fiction? Use Source 26

Ramesses II built statues and buildings to show that he was all-powerful. But that was not always the case.

Is Source 26 true? Explain your answer.

Biography of Ramesses II Read the sources in the coursebook and fill in the missing words.

200 km

1 : 19,000,000

8 Script a Explain why script did not develop among hunter-gatherers but it did develop in cities.

Not among hunter-gatherers because: ......................................................................................................

drawings and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

......................................................................................................

Mediterr an

4 The Stone Age

ean Se a

EGYPT

dS Re ea

eN Th

ile

0

250

Early Stone Age:

500 km

1 : 28,500,000

3 Summarize Sections 1.1 and 1.2 Fill in the missing words to make a good summary of the key characteristic of the Age of Hunters and Farmers.

There are different explanations for the existence of human beings. According to the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Charles Darwin people originate from ......................................................................

. This development lasted

for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . years. The first hominid to walk on two feet was . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PHOENIX_VWO_Coursebook.indb 5

Write down the numerals of the terms below beside the period that they belong to.

I agricultural revolution II groups of nomads grow III Neanderthals IV farm dwellings V funnel beaker culture VI Fertile Crescent VII hunting and gathering VIII Trijntje IX hunters can stay in one place for longer periods of time X reindeer hunters XI script

......................................................................................................

In cities because: ...................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................

funnel beaker culture

Source W9 The spread of the funnel beaker culture.

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Source W9: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

......................................................................................................

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Middle Stone Age: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

......................................................................................................

Late Stone Age:

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...........................................................................

b Why did prehistory not come to an end at once?

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Source 29:

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9 Summarize Section 1.5 Say whether each statement is true or false. a Everyone in Egypt had an equal chance of becoming a government official. True / False b Women were at the bottom of the hierarchy. True / False c There were different gods in the Egyptian religion. True / False d The Egyptians thought that rituals had an effect on the workings of nature. True / False e The Egyptians mummified their dead because they thought it was pretty. True / False

...................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................

Knowledge 2a, 2b, 3, 9 Comprehension 1, 6, 7b, 8a, 8b Application 4, 5, 7a

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29/06/15 16:12

6

Periodization History

Dividing up time: periodization

History skills

Dates

The subject of history is about people’s past. A lot has happened in the course of history. In your history lessons you will learn about great discoveries and about terrible wars. You will learn about the lives of ordinary people and about exciting events. You will learn about many historical people, some rich, some poor, some geniuses, and others a little crazy. By understanding what people experienced in the past, you will better understand the people of today and the society we live in. Our current society is a product of the past, after all.

There is a correct way and a wrong way to study the past.

Your history lessons will teach you the correct way. This will help you to avoid drawing incorrect conclusions from that past. You will also be better able to avoid the mistakes of the past. Learning how to do this correctly is all part of learning history skills. One important history skill has to do with categorizing and organizing events in the past. The way you divide up time is important. This is known as chronology.

source 1

Queen Wilhelmina with princess Juliana. Photo from 1914. Wilhelmina was queen from 1880-1948.

source 2

When dividing up time we use dates: we count the number of years ago that something happened. Dates are not the same all over the world. There are Jewish, Christian, Muslim and Chinese calendars, for example.

Nowadays most people throughout the world use the Christian calendar. This calendar begins with the birth of Christ: year 1. This event was so important to people in Europe (where Christianity is the predominant religion) that they used it to start counting the years. But history of course does not begin with the birth of Christ. People lived and important things happened even before year 1.

How do you indicate the time from that period? You just count backwards: ‘That happened ten years before the birth of Christ’. You write this as: 10 BC. If something happened 500 years after the birth of Christ, then you write 500 AD. Often the ‘AD’ will be left out.

Queen Juliana with her husband Prince Bernhard and their four daughters.

Photo from 1962. Juliana was queen from 1948-1980.

3000 bc

Prehistory

PHOENIX_VWO_Coursebook.indb 6

To keep track of all those past events, you need to organize them. If you want to organize words, you can use the alphabet. In geography you use a map to show where places are located or how far apart they are. This is also a form of organization. History is about the past and how people lived in the course of time. We therefore use time to organize history. One event happens earlier than another event. A cause is always earlier than the effect.

By dividing time into pieces, you can specify exactly when something happened.

1

bc

source 3

Queen Beatrix and Prince Claus, her eldest son Willem-Alexander and Maxima. Photo from 2001.

Beatrix was queen from 1980-2013.

500

ad

Antiquity

29/06/15 16:12

7

Periodization

Blocks of one hundred years: centuries

Periods

Ages

Timeline

We divide up the hundreds and thousands of years of our history into centuries. A century is a block of one hundred years. When we say: ‘That happened in the seventeenth century’, we mean that it happened in the seventeenth block of 100 years after the birth of Christ. The first century starts with the birth of Christ and ends in the year 99. So the seventeenth century is the period starting in the year 1600 and ending in the year 1699.

Ages are a helpful tool for dividing up time. Your Phoenix books use ages that have been devised for education.

Their names always start with ‘Age of ...’. For example: Age of Hunters and Farmers, or Age of the World Wars. Below is a list of the ages and the symbols used.

tot 3000 bc

age of hunters and farmers 3000 bc-500 ad

age of greeks and romans 500-1000

age of monks and knights 1000-1500

age of cities and states 1500-1600

age of explorers and reformers 1600-1700

age of regents and kings 1700-1800

age of wigs and revolutions

Instead of ages, we sometimes use other names. The Age of Greeks and Romans is also known as Antiquity. And the Middle Ages is another name for two ages added together: the Age of Monks and Knights and the Age of Cities and States. ‘Antiquity’ and ‘the Middle Ages’ are examples of names of periods. A horizontal timeline is shown below featuring the ages and the matching period names.

Timelines are another helpful tool for dividing up time.

You use them to show time as a kind of ruler. The ruler is divided into sections.

A timeline must adhere to five rules: 1 Each section of the timeline must represent an equal amount of time. You can decide for yourself how much time. A month, a century... whatever is most convenient. You indicate the time above the timeline.

2 The timeline must have logical start and end points.

If you make a timeline of your own life, then you do not have to start in the year 1500.

3 Put the events you want to organize a little bit above the timeline. You can then draw a line to connect them to the correct spot on the timeline. Most timelines are horizontal. If you want to connect a lot of events to the timeline, then a vertical timeline might be better. Then you can add text at exactly the right place, and your timeline will remain clear. There is a vertical timeline at the end of each chapter. Look at the Round-up of Chapter 1 or 2.

4 The timeline should be clear. If your timeline is sloppy, then you cannot read the information. That is a waste of time and effort.

5 Give the timeline a title if you can. For example: ‘timeline of my life’, ‘timeline of the twentieth century’.

1800-1900

age of citizens and steam engines 1900-1950

age of world wars 1950-present

age of the television and computer

1000

the Middle Ages

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1500

1600

1700

Early Modern Time

1800

1900 1950 2000

Modern Time

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1

source 1

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1 Hunters become farmers

Hunters become farmers

Drawing of Neanderthals mourning the death of a member of their group. They will bury him in a cave.

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Orientation

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prehistory age of hunters and farmers (to 3000 bc)

Neanderthals with emotions A unique discovery in a cave near Sima de las Palomas (Spain) in 2011 started a lot of discussion.

Archaeologists found the bones of six Neanderthals there, including a baby and two children. Had they found a 50,000-year-old graveyard?

Or had the group of Neanderthals died in an accident? Perhaps part of the cave had suddenly collapsed.

But the archaeologists reported that all the bodies were in the same position, with their arms crossed and their hands covering their faces.

That could not be a coincidence.

Stone tools and traces of campfires were also found in the cave. That could indicate that other Neanderthals had visited the cave regularly after the burial. And why were two panther’s leg bones in the grave? The discoveries in the Spanish cave could indicate that Neanderthals did not abandon their dead, but buried them in a special way – as people do today.

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1 Hunters become farmers

Civilized hunters In 1856 workmen found a human skeleton by coincidence in a quarry in the Neander Valley in Germany. Because this skeleton was buried deep in the earth, it had to be of a person who lived centuries earlier. Scientists soon discovered that the measurements of the bones did not match those of a normal man or woman. People wondered for years about where this ‘human creature’ had come from, and finally reached agreement in 1864.

The bones could not possibly belong to a modern human.

They had to belong to a species that had died out. They called this species Neanderthal, after the place where the skeleton was found.

In the years that followed more traces of Neanderthals were found in Europe. The discovery of 800 Neanderthal skeletons in a mass grave in Croatia in 1899 led people to believe that Neanderthals were very violent, perhaps even cannibals. A few years later, Neanderthal remains were found in La-Chapelle-aux-Saints in France. It was first thought that these remains were 20,000 years old, but further investigation revealed that they were actually 50,000 years old.

Scientists tried to work out what Neanderthals looked like and how they lived. So they made reconstruction drawings on the basis of the skeletal remains. By the start of the twentieth century a picture of Neanderthals had emerged, but they did not look much like people. The

source 2

skulls found by the archaeologists were bigger and coarser. People imagined Neanderthals as savage, ape-like creatures who lived in caves, were barbaric, and unable to speak. That is how the traditional image of cavemen brandishing clubs was born.

Now, more than a hundred years later, the image of Neanderthals has changed radically because many new skeletal remains have been found. Recent research has shown that the differences between Neanderthals and modern humans were not so great at all. Neanderthals made tools from flint and animal bones, which they used for hunting wild animals. These tools were very cleverly made. When Neanderthals were choosing temporary dwelling places they considered the seasons and the animals that were around at that time. So they could not have been as ignorant as people in the nineteenth century believed.

Like modern people, Neanderthals did not make objects just for practical use. There is evidence that they liked decoration. For example, they painted animals on the walls of caves. And shells containing traces of dye might have served as make-up boxes. But it is still difficult to say how Neanderthals really lived. They could not write, so we do not know what they thought. A comparison of

Picture of a Neanderthal, made in 1909 after a skeleton was discovered in La-Chapelle-aux-Saints. The caption says: ‘An ancestor: Man twenty thousand years ago. The man from La-Chapelle-aux-Saints: accurate reconstruction of a prehistoric caveman.’

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Orientation

Neander Valley

Steinheim Le Moustier Krapina

La Chapelle aux Saints

Shanidar Zafarraya

finding place of Neanderthal remains maximum ice border

0

250 1 : 28,000,000

source 3

500 km

Amud

Places where skeletal remains or Neanderthal fossils have been found. The areas shaded in blue are the parts of Europe that were covered in ice.

archaeological finds can help. In 1982 a well-preserved Neanderthal skeleton was found in a cave in Israel. Its arms were crossed, like the arms of the skeletons in the cave in Sima de las Palomas. That could not be a coincidence. It looked as if Neanderthals buried their dead in a special position for a reason.

significant developments 1 The lifestyle of hunters and farmers.

2 The emergence of agriculture and agrarian societies.

3 The emergence of the first urban communities.

The significance of hunters and farmers

main questions How did the people in the Age of Hunters and Farmers learn to make use of nature?

Nature was very important to Neanderthals and other hominids. The only way to stay alive was by hunting wild animals and gathering edible plants, seeds, berries, nuts and mushrooms. You needed to know a lot about nature for that. Around 10,000 BC agriculture started to develop in the Middle East. People learned to grow grain and other edible crops and started domesticating animals to keep as livestock. They were experimenting with nature and taking control of it to meet their needs. We are still doing that today!

The introduction of agriculture had a deep impact on history. It enabled populations to grow and led to the establishment of cities and powerful states.

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subquestions 1 How do we gather information on the earliest human beings?

2 How did hunter-gatherers live?

3 How did the emergence of agriculture affect people’s lives?

4 a How did cities develop in Mesopotamia? b How did a well-organized state develop in Egypt?

5 What was the daily life of an Egyptian like?

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1 Hunters become farmers

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Traces of the earliest humans

subquestion 1 How do we gather information on the earliest humans?

source 4

Life-sized reconstructions of Cro-Magnons, made for a museum in France.

The earliest humans History is the study of the past. But how and when did the earliest human beings exist? People have asked these questions for centuries, and found different answers.

Creation stories appear in all religions. They try to explain how God (or the gods) created the Earth and Man. In the middle of the nineteenth century the naturalist Charles Darwin had another idea and wrote a book about the evolution theory. Darwin said that, millions of years ago, anthropoid apes gradually learned to walk on two legs. These ancestors of modern Man learned how to use tools and fire to hunt animals and cook food.

As a result of evolution (a very slow process that takes millions of years) the first homo habilis lived in Africa, followed by homo erectus.

Homo erectus was the first hominid to walk on two feet.

Different species evolved from homo erectus, including homo sapiens (wise man). Homo sapiens spread from Africa to the rest of the world. About 45,000 years ago homo sapiens (the first modern man) lived in Europe.

At that time, another species had already lived in Europe for about 150,000 years, called homo sapiens neander­ thalensis, or Neanderthals.

source 5

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The evolution of Man.

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1.1 Traces of the earliest humans

Neanderthalers en cro-magnonmensen Neanderthals lived at the same time as other hominids, called Cro-Magnons, for a while. Both survived by hunting animals with axes, knives and spearheads made of flint.

They used spears to hunt horses, woolly rhinos and deer.

They could even kill giant mammoths with spears.

Neanderthals were carnivores (meat eaters) but they used animals for other purposes besides food. They made clothes from the pelts and tools from the bones. They also ate wild plants and fruit, which they gathered in the natural environment. That is why Neanderthals are also called hunter-gatherers.

For a long time historians doubted whether Neanderthals could speak. They now appear to have found evidence for that. In 1983 skeletal remains were found in Israel, which included the tongue bone of a Neanderthal. That bone is needed to make sounds.

Neanderthals gradually died out 28,000 years ago.

Perhaps they were driven away or murdered by CroMagnons. The most probable explanation is that different hominids interbred and Neanderthals stopped existing as a separate species.

Earliest inhabitants of the Netherlands Evidence of early hominids has also been found in the Netherlands, most of it in South Limburg. The chance of finding such evidence is much smaller in the north of the country. During the second-last ice age, between 200,000 and 130,000 years ago, most of the Netherlands was

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covered in ice. When the ice sheets moved they pushed the earth forward and created push moraines in the middle of the country. It is possible that traces of people who lived more than 200,000 years ago were lost as a result of this process.

The ice sheets did not reach the south of the Netherlands.

In the 1980s archaeologists discovered traces of a camp on the banks of the River Maas, where hunters lived 250,000 years ago. They did not find skeletal remains but they did find a knife made of flint and the bones of two rhinos.

The first piece of a Neanderthal in the Netherlands was literally ‘fished up’ in 2001 when a piece of eyebrow bone was found among sand sucked from the bottom of the North Sea. It belonged to a Neanderthal and was possibly 400,000 years old. At that time, the North Sea was dry; it was a large steppe where the earliest humans roamed around searching for food.

Sources The Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon objects and drawings that were found are primary sources; namely, sources that actually date from the period of study.

Archaeologists search for traces of these early humans during excavations and use primary sources to recon­ struct their history. Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons did not use script. So we only have unwritten sources from this period. The period before people could write is called prehistory (‘pre’ means before).

A piece of eyebrow bone found off the coast of Zeeland in 2001. In 2009 Minister Plasterk presented a reconstruction of the whole skull.

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History Coursebook 1 vwo

www.feniks-online.nl

English edition

History Coursebook 1 vwo English edition

PHOENIX_VWO 1_LB_omslag.indd 1

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