Chapter 1: The Study of Child and Adolescent Development
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CHAPTER
This chapter introduces the study of development by providing key features of developmental theory. Throughout the chapter, the story of Romanian children who were raised in institutions in the 1980s is used to highlight developmental concepts. The chapter presents major theories in developmental science, including evolutionary, psychodynamic, learning, cognitive, and developmental systems theories. Four key issues central to developmental theories are presented.
The chapter also discusses the ways that developmental scientists conduct research. Methods of data collection are presented, including observation, self-report measures, standardized tests, and biological assessments. Coverage of general research designs, including case studies, correlational designs, and experimental designs is also included. Research designs that are specific to developmental science are presented, such as longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. The importance of replicability is discussed, highlighting the concepts of effect size, open science, and meta-analysis. The chapter concludes with a discussion of diversity factors, research ethics, and four professions that utilize developmental science.
CHAPTER-AT-A-GLANCE GRID
Chapter Outline Instructor’s Resources
1.1 Developmental Theories
Learning Objectives 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3, 1.1.4, 1.1.5, 1.1.6, 1.1.7, 1.1.8
Application Activities: Apply Important Issues Addressed by Developmental Theories, Thinking About Evolutionary Theories, Sensitive Periods of Development: Genie; Compare and Contrast Psychodynamic Theories of Development; Think Like a Behaviorist; Vygotsky’s Theory and Culture, Compare and Contrast Classic Cognitive Development Theories, Vygotsky’s Theory and Culture, Don’t Get All WEIRD About It
Pair and Share: Observational Learning; Classical Conditioning and Childhood Fears; Evaluating Information-Processing Theories
Class Activities: Apply Bioecological Theory to Your Development; Bronfenbrenner’s Theory and Head Start
Class Discussion or Writing Assignments: Linking Social Learning Theory to Neuroscience; Social Learning Theory and the Bobo Dolls
Writing Assignment: Bronfenbrenner’s Model
Integrating Theories: How Do Developmental Theories Explain the Development of Extraordinary Abilities?
Observing the Dynamic Child 1.1: Early Literacy
The Dynamic Child in the Classroom: Understanding the Development of Children in Foster Care
1.2 Studying Child Development
Learning Objectives 1.2.1, 1.2.2, 1.2.3, 1.2.4, 1.2.5, 1.2.6, 1.2.7
Application Activity: Compare and Contrast Observation Methods; Bring a Standardized Test to Share; Evaluating Research Designs: Why Would Anyone Ever Use Correlational Studies?; Apply Developmental Designs to a Research Question; Applying Diversity Factors to Child Development; Evaluating Research Scenarios: Violation of Ethical Guidelines?; Choosing a Career in Developmental Science
Pair and Share: Distinguish Independent and Dependent Variables; Positive and Negative Correlations; What Category Is Right for You?
Class Discussion: Crisis? What Crisis?
Shared Writing: Children and Families Who Are Unhoused
Writing Assignment: Observation Methods
Class Presentation: Society for Research in Child Development Policy Briefs
Observing the Dynamic Child 1.2: Accelerating Cognitive Development
Copyright © 2025, 2020, 2017 Pearson
CHAPTER OUTLINE WITH LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Introduction: A Tale of Deprivation
What to Expect When Raising Your Virtual Child: Simulating Child Development
1.1 Developmental Theories
Key Features of Developmental Theories
1.1.1 Identify the most important features of a developmental theory.
Developmental Issues
1.1.2 Identify four important issues addressed by developmental theories.
Nature and Nurture
Continuity and Discontinuity
Early and Later Experience
Adverse, Protective, and Compensatory Processes
Evolutionary Theories of Development
1.1.3 Describe the key features of Darwin’s theory of evolution and evolutionary theories of development, including attachment theory and nativism.
Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment
Nativist Theories
Psychodynamic Theories
1.1.4 Identify the key concepts used by Freud and Erikson to explain social and emotional development.
Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
Learning Theories
1.1.5 Identify the key concepts used by learning and social learning theorists to explain development.
Classic Learning Theories
Social Learning Theory
Classic Cognitive Development Theories
1.1.6 Identify important contributions from Piaget and Vygotsky to an understanding of the development of thinking.
Piaget’s Theory
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Modern Cognitive Development Theories
1.1.7 Identify the key features of information processing and developmental cognitive neuroscience theories.
Information Processing Theories
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Theories
Developmental Systems Theories
1.1.8 Explain how multiple factors operating over time are thought to influence development within developmental systems theories.
The Bioecological Model of Human Development
Dynamic Systems Theories
Observing the Dynamic Child 1.1: Early Literacy
The Dynamic Child in the Classroom: Understanding the Development of Children in Foster Care
1.2 Studying Child Development Research Methods
1.2.1 Describe the major methods of collecting data on children.
Observational Methods
Self-Report Methods
Standardized Tests
Biological Assessments
Research Designs
1.2.2 Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the major categories of research design
Case Studies
Correlational Studies
Experimental Studies
Designs for Studying Developmental Change
1.2.3 Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of research designs used to study developmental change
Longitudinal Designs
Cross-Sectional Designs
Scientific Replicability
1.2.4 Identify problems and progress in dealing with scientific replicability.
Studying Diversity
1.2.5 Identify aspects of diversity and explain how they are investigated.
Defining Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status
U.S. Census Data 2010–2020
Ethics in Child Development Research
1.2.6 Describe ethical precautions researchers take to protect children participating in studies.
Developmental Science and Careers with Children
1.2.7 Identify four main categories of professions that utilize developmental science to improve the lives of children.
Shared Writing: Children and Families Who Are Unhoused
Observing the Dynamic Child 1.2: Accelerating Cognitive Development
LESSON PLANS
1.1: Developmental Theories
Introduction/hook to stimulate students’ interest
Organizing theme: How do different theories describe, explain, and predict various aspects of development?
Discuss the experiences of the Romanian children who were raised in institutions as examples of the impact that early deprivation has on development across a range of domains. Describe the ways that different developmental theories account for the impact of early deprivation.
Inform students that the course will explore major theoretical perspectives in developmental science, and that these theories attempt to describe, explain, and predict development.
Learning Objective 1.1.1 Lecture Notes: Identify the most important features of a developmental theory.
Development is defined as patterns of changes in behavior, thinking, or emotions over time.
Begin the discussion by presenting the most important features of developmental theories: the ability to describe, explain, and predict development. Ask students to describe an aspect of their own development (i.e., learning how to play a sport or musical instrument, or some other skill). How do they explain the development of their ability? (Students may cite natural inclination or formative experiences such as formal lessons or summer camps.) How do they predict how the ability will change or stay the same over time (i.e., did they get better at the skill over time? What may account for these changes)? Ask students to keep their example in mind throughout the class to think about how different developmental theories may account for their chosen ability.
Developmental theories provide a framework for understanding development, and they guide specific ways to promote development.
Learning Objective 1.1.2 Lecture Notes: Identify four important issues addressed by developmental theories
Four issues are used to describe, predict, and explain development: nature and nurture, whether development is continuous or discontinuous, early and later experience, and adverse, protective, and compensatory processes.
“Nature” refers to the role of genetics, and “nurture” refers to the role of the environment, in development. Maturation (change in the body that is genetically directed) is associated with theorist Arnold Gesell. Epigenesis refers to biological processes that interact with experience to turn certain gene expressions on or off.
Continuity stresses that change happens gradually, whereas discontinuity refers to changes that occur suddenly and abruptly.
Early experience highlights the role of events early in a person’s life, and later experience highlights the impact of events that happen later in development. Plasticity refers to the extent to which development can be modified by experience. Developmental cascades involve environmental exposure to some type of risk factors that increase over time, which then impact other areas of development.
Adverse, protective, and compensatory processes are often referred to as ACEs (adverse childhood experiences) or PACE (protective and compensatory experiences). ACEs refer to any experience that might have a negative impact on children’s later health and development. PACEs include experiences or resources in the environment that prevent, mitigate, or remediate negative health and behavioral outcomes. Vulnerability refers to factors that lead to higher risk for maladaptive outcomes, as would be present when ACEs outnumber PACEs Resilience refers to factors that buffer the impact of risk factors.
Application Activity: Apply Important Issues Addressed by Developmental Theories
Ask students to apply each of the important issues in development to some type of developmental change. For instance, ask students to consider how personality development may be explained using the frameworks of nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, early and later experience, and adverse, protective, and compensatory processes. Ask students to consider each issue in explaining how personality may change over the period from childhood to adulthood. This may be used as an inclass writing assignment or class discussion.
Learning Objective
1.1.3 Lecture
Notes: Describe the key features of Darwin’s theory of evolution and evolutionary theories of development, including attachment theory and nativism.
Evolutionary theories examine the ways humans have adapted to the environment to promote survival of the species. Darwin’s initial formulation of the idea has been refined over time.
John Bowlby’s formulation of attachment theory proposed that babies evolved certain behaviors (i.e., crying, smiling) that stimulate caregiver–child interaction. These behaviors facilitate development of attachment between child and caregiver, leading to the child’s survival.
Nativist theories highlight innate core capacities, and nativists argue that such capacities (inherited from distant human ancestors) are essential to human development. Examples include rudimentary concepts of number, a basic understanding of the properties of objects, or a kind of proto-theory of mind.
Application Activity: Thinking About Evolutionary Theories
Find a video of an adult and infant interacting through facial expressions, such as a caregiver and child looking at one another and making eye contact and vocalizations (assuming the child is preverbal, such that cooing, babbling, or laughing would be present). Ask students to consider how the interaction depicted in the video would be explained by evolutionary theories. What do you see in terms of evolutionary adaptations and behaviors that promote attachment? How do the behaviors observed promote attachment? How does the caregiver respond to the child? This may be used as an in-class writing assignment or class discussion
Application Activity: Sensitive Periods of Development: Genie
Direct students to examine the infamous case of Genie, the feral child living in deplorable conditions in the 1960s (if you are unfamiliar with this case, ample coverage is available through online resources). Then, prompt students to think about Genie’s experience and what it reveals about the nature of development and sensitive periods. In particular, ask students to consider the nature of language development as a sensitive period, and perhaps draw parallels to the experiences of Romanian children who were raised in institutions. Does Genie’s experience support the idea of sensitive periods? Why or why not? Provide specific evidence to support your response. This may be used as an in-class writing assignment or class discussion
Learning Objective 1.1.4 Lecture Notes: Identify the key concepts used by Freud and Erikson to explain social and emotional development
Psychodynamic theories highlight the role of conflicting forces and the impact of early experience.
Sigmund Freud’s theory of development discusses the role of the three parts of the personality (id, ego, superego) and five stages of psychosexual development. Although most tenets of Freud’s theory lack research support, Freud was among the first theorists to consider the impact of early experience on later development
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development highlights the importance of social and emotional development in conjunction with societal expectations. In Erikson’s theory, a child moves through eight stages over the course of the life span, reconciling crises along the way. Erikson highlighted the identity crisis in adolescence, in which a person attempts to answer the question, “Who am I?” Although Erikson’s theory is criticized for vagueness, it helped to identify key socioemotional developmental issues.
Application Activity:
Compare and Contrast Psychodynamic Theories of Development
How are Freud’s and Erikson’s theories similar? How do they differ? Apply each theory to understanding the impact of early deprivation in a child’s life (you may relate this back to the experiences of Romanian children who were raised in institutions). How does each theory account for the impact of early experience? How might this manifest itself later in life? This may be used as an inclass writing assignment or class discussion.
Learning Objective 1.1.5 Lecture Notes: Identify the key concepts used by learning and social learning theorists to explain development.
Learning theories highlight the role of the environment in explaining development.
Classical conditioning explains development through patterns of responses to stimuli, as seen in the work of Ivan Pavlov and popularized by John Broadus Watson
Operant conditioning, popularized by B. F. Skinner, purports that behavior is controlled by the consequences of punishment or reinforcement.
Social learning theory, primarily associated with Albert Bandura, examines the role of modeling, observation, and imitation in learning new behaviors. Observational learning occurs when a child observes another person perform an action and then tries to imitate it.
Application Activity: Think Like a Behaviorist
Present students with the following prompt and ask them to apply operant conditioning principles to solving this dilemma: Imagine that you are a preschool teacher, and you have a student who consistently disrupts class by talking out of turn and running about the classroom. How could the teacher use the principles of operant conditioning to correct the child’s behavior? Present specific suggestions that the teacher could use in the classroom. This may be used as an in-class writing assignment or a class discussion
Pair
and
Share: Observational Learning
Children learn many new behaviors through the processes of observation and imitation. Ask each student to pair with another student and discuss times that they imitated a modeled behavior. (This works particularly well if students are first asked if they had older family members or friends whom they very much wanted to emulate when they were children.) Ask students to think about times they have been around children who imitated their behavior (i.e., copying their language, actions, style of dress).
Pair and Share: Classical Conditioning and Childhood Fears
During early to middle childhood, it is typical for children to experience fears (i.e., fear of the dark, dogs, monsters under the bed). Ask each student to pair with a partner and discuss a fear that they had as a child or have observed in a child. Ask students to think about the origin of the fear how did it develop? For some children, fears develop through the process of classical conditioning, in which an object becomes associated with a fearful experience. Ask students to think about how classical conditioning principles apply in explaining the development of some childhood fears.
Learning
Objective 1.1.6 Lecture Notes:
Identify important contributions from Piaget and Vygotsky to an understanding of the development of thinking.
Cognitive theories describe and explain how children’s thinking, language, memory, and other processes change with development.
Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct knowledge in the world around them. Children organize this knowledge into ways of thinking about or acting on objects. Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of development focused on how historical and cultural factors influence cognitive development. Vygotsky proposed that much learning takes place in social contexts, where more expert members of society interact with children to teach the ways of the cultural group.
Pair and Share: Compare and Contrast Classic Cognitive Development Theories
Ask students to form pairs and compare and contrast the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. How are they similar? How are they different? (Note: In comparing and contrasting these theories, students will often view them as opposing. Highlight the fact that these two theories complement one another well in understanding cognitive development )
Application Activity: Vygotsky’s Theory and Culture
As an extension of Vygotsky’s theory, ask students to explore the work of Barbara Rogoff, particularly her research comparing Mayan and U.S. families. Rogoff’s research applies Vygotsky’s principles of guided participation and teaching the ways of a given culture. Ask students to consider how Vygotsky’s theory applies to Rogoff’s research. How do cultural practices influence the goals of learning?
Application Activity: Don’t Get All WEIRD About It
Several pundits and researchers alike have noted that the vast majority of psychological research is conducted on children living in countries that fit the acronym WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratically governed). Ask your students to share their views on how (or whether) this limits the scientific enterprise. For example, it could be argued that researchers studying basic human processes (perception, for instance, or memory) want to understand just that; the processes, regardless of the human whose brain is performing those processes. On the other hand, ample research demonstrates that perception, memory, and a host of other activities can be very much influenced by culture, suggesting that a science claiming “humans operate this way” needs a few asterisks applied to it. Steer the discussion toward the ideas of developmental theorists such as Erik Erikson or Lev Vygotsky, each of whom emphasized the importance of the social and cultural context in development.
Learning Objective 1.1.7 Lecture Notes: Identify the key features of information processing and developmental cognitive neuroscience theories.
Information processing theories liken cognitive systems to a computer. Developmental changes in ability to use cognitive processes such as memory are comparable to changes in hardware or software. Children experience age-related changes in strategies and executive functioning capabilities.
Developmental cognitive neuroscience theories reflect an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the relationship between changes in the brain and changes in behavior and cognition. Evidence from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and functional MRI (fMRI) shows that children’s efficiency in problem solving is a function of experience and age. In examining institutionalized children, MRI scans revealed abnormalities in white matter tracts that connect the rear temporal lobe to the frontal lobe.
Pair and Share: Evaluating Information Processing Theories
Ask students to form pairs and evaluate the pros and cons of information processing theories. Is the human brain exactly like a computer? Can they think of any examples in which the brain is not similar to a computer? You might note that professional researchers don’t really think the human brain operates like a computer; it’s more of a useful analogy that arose during the 1960s, a time when people were rejecting mechanistic behaviorist explanations of behavior and, coincidentally, when computer science was making great strides. (If you want to get fancy about it, you can discuss connectionist models such as parallel distributed processing.)
Learning Objective 1.1.8
Lecture Notes: Explain how multiple factors operating over time are thought to influence development within developmental systems theories.
Developmental systems theories view development as influenced by many components that interact with each other over time.
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model of development holds that the developing child is influenced by layers of a system: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem. A child is constantly influenced by the interaction among multiple layers, as well as by the relationships between parts of the system.
Dynamic systems theories view development as the constant interplay of multiple factors, including genetics, brain development, mental states, physical states, and the child’s environment. These systems are in constant motion, but eventually settle based on the self-organizing principle.
Class Activity: Apply Bioecological Theory to Your Development
Provide the following prompts to each student to apply Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model: Directions: Think about a particular time in your childhood (e.g., when you were 6 years old). Then, answer the following questions based on Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory of development.
1. Microsystem
Members of your family? Extended family? Family friends?
Significant people at school? Daycare? Babysitter? Extracurricular activities?
People in your neighborhood?
Involvement in any extracurricular activities (e.g., sports, music, church)?
2. Exosystem
Did your parents or caregivers work outside the home? If so, where? How much time did your caregivers spend at work? What was the work schedule like? Were you involved in caregivers’ work (e.g., accompanying a caregiver to work)?
Were your caregivers involved in other organizations of which you were not a member (e.g., neighborhood organizations, church, social groups, sports teams, community organizations, volunteering activities, attending school)?
3. Mesosystem
How would you describe the relationship between your caregivers and your teachers at school? How about the relationship between your caregivers and the leaders of any extracurricular activities you did (e.g., relationship between your caregiver and your coach)?
How would you describe the relationship between your caregivers and your daycare, babysitter, or after-school programs (if applicable)?
4. Macrosystem
• Describe the culture in which you grew up
• Small town, suburban, urban, or rural? Socioeconomic status of community?
• Diverse or homogenous? Languages spoken?
• Religious background of the area?
• Broader cultural values (e.g., individualistic or collectivist values)?
• Impact of governmental influences such as health care, WIC vouchers, educational policies, neighborhood programs?
5. Chronosystem
What was happening in the world? Which international and national events were taking place?
Who was president? Who were the influential leaders?
What was the economy like? How did this impact your family?
Were there any wars? If so, how did this impact your family?
After students complete this activity, ask them to consider how each layer of the system impacted their development. Tie this back to Bronfenbrenner’s approach Students may become overwhelmed with the complexity of the model; use this as an opportunity to point out that this model is very challenging to test in research, and it is used more as a framework for understanding developmental influences as opposed to a testable theory of development.
Class Activity: Bronfenbrenner’s Theory and Head Start
The class may be surprised to learn that Bronfenbrenner’s theory provided the impetus for the development of the Head Start program, which targets low-income children and their families with a comprehensive preschool experience. Begin by asking students what they know about Head Start. If the class does not know about Head Start, inform them of the various services that Head Start offers (e.g., education for children; medical and dental care; meals; assistance to parents with education, finding housing, accessing social services). Ask the class to apply Bronfenbrenner’s theory to the Head Start model.
Observing the Dynamic Child 1.1: Early Literacy
Present students with a worksheet containing the following questions and ask them to work in pairs. Show the Observing the Dynamic Child 1.1: Early Literacy video (1:19). This can be used as an inclass participation grade. NOTE: Be sure to remove the * before using this as a handout for students; let’s not give away the correct answers!
1. Although the child tracing letters in a picture book cannot read yet, a dynamic systems theorist could identify several component skills she is already working on that will eventually make reading possible. All of these component skills you can observe in the video, EXCEPT
a. tracing the letters helps her recognize letters in printed words
b. saying the names of the letters helps her store them in verbal memory
c. *reading the word “pig” on the bottom of the page helps her build a vocabulary of words she recognizes when she sees them again
d. naming the picture on the page helps her learn to associate the letter and its name with the first sound of the picture (e.g., p – pig)
2. Lev Vygotsky emphasized that cultures provide experiences and tools for cognitive development. Reasonable examples of culturally provided tools for literacy in the immediate situation exist, EXCEPT __________.
a. the picture book with traceable letters
b. the shelves and books available in the literacy center
c. the song that the girl is singing to aid her memory of the ABCs
d. *the teachers off-camera who are asking the children to “tell the story” in the book they picked up
3. Theorists John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura would point out some aspects of the literacy center that reflect concepts from learning theories. Which example is a correct illustration of each concept?
a. Observational learning: The children sitting and turning the pages of books are imitating one important part of reading that they have observed adults doing
b. Reinforcement: The child tracing letters and singing the ABC song was presumably positively reinforced for these activities on some previous occasion
c. Shaping: The child who is sitting in the chair is shaping the reading task to fit her interest in being the one who gets to occupy the coveted position in the chair.
d. *Both a and b.
To encourage additional critical thinking following the Observing the Dynamic Child video, ask students to take each layer in Urie Bronfenbrenner’s theory and apply it to specific ways to promote child literacy. For instance, at the microsystem level, parents could read books to a child
or take the child to the library. At the macrosystem level, social programs could be enacted that provide free books to families with young children
Additional Activities, Demonstrations,
and Exercises
1. Linking Social Learning Theory to Neuroscience
Research examining mirror neurons in the brain provides a biological explanation for the processes of observation and imitation. Students may be fascinated to know that similar areas of the brain are active both when we observe a new behavior and when we imitate that same behavior. Outside class, ask students to explore research on mirror neurons and ask them about the implications of such research. Why might mirror neurons be valuable from an evolutionary standpoint? What role do these neurons play in basic human behaviors? How would social learning theory account for the role of mirror neurons?
2. Social Learning Theory and the Bobo Dolls
Albert Bandura is perhaps best known for his research involving Bobo dolls to test the relationship between observational learning and aggression. Locate a video that showcases this research, show the video, and then ask students to consider the relevance of the research today. How might this be used today in understanding exposure to violence through television programming or online content? What about living in violent neighborhoods? Can students find any possible flaws in the research conducted by Bandura?
3. Writing Assignment: Bronfenbrenner’s Model (To be completed outside class)
To help students further apply Bronfenbrenner’s model, direct them to choose one of the following programs to research:
1. High Scope Perry Preschool Program
2. Head Start
3. Nurse–Family Partnership
For the chosen program, ask students to write a two- to three-page paper that applies the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems model to understanding the program components.
4. Integrating Theories:
How Do Developmental Theories Explain the Development of Extraordinary Abilities?
Locate a video of a child performing some type of extraordinary task. Suggested videos include a child musical prodigy (e.g., a child playing the piano exceptionally well) or a child with exceptional athletic talent. Show the video and then ask students to apply these theories to the development of the child’s skills:
Jean Piaget
Lev Vygotsky
Erik Erikson
Information processing
Developmental cognitive neuroscience
Operant conditioning
Social learning theory
Dynamic systems theory
The Dynamic Child in the Classroom: Understanding the Development of Children in Foster Care
Overview
The Chapter 1 video (6:46) provides an interview with a foster parent and a social worker. Both people have experience working with children raised under harsh circumstances. The video helps students apply concepts and theories (such as attachment, the sensitive period, and social learning theory) to real-life situations faced by children in foster care
Discussion Questions from the Video
1. How does the concept of a sensitive period apply to early childhood trauma?
As the social worker (Sarah) notes, many parents assume that children adopted in infancy or early toddlerhood will not have harmful lasting consequences from their early experiences. However, even a 9-month-old baby adopted out of an abusive or neglectful situation may require extra attention to develop a healthy attachment to the foster or adoptive parent.
2. What kinds of behavior problems do children and adolescents with early trauma exhibit?
Children may not trust foster parents at first, and possibly not for a long time. They may close themselves off from the foster parents (for example, by not speaking to them) and have trouble believing that the foster parents will meet their basic needs. They also fear being rejected by their foster parents as they have had a history of moving from home to home.
3. How does attachment theory apply to working with children adopted out of difficult circumstances?
Therapists aim to foster a secure attachment between foster parents and children, as this bond is essential to later development. Sarah uses attachment-focused family therapy to help clients build that base and the serve/return response between parents and children.
4. How might you analyze the parenting approaches Sarah and Gretchen recommend in terms of attachment theory and social learning theory?
Sarah encourages parents to be authoritative in kind and considerate ways that allow the child to receive the parenting. Gretchen points out that foster children need unconditional love, whether or not their behavior is acceptable. Gretchen also explains that if the parent models good emotion regulation, children are less likely to exhibit problems with emotion regulation.
Module 1.2: Studying Child Development
Introduction/hook to stimulate students’ interest
Organizing theme: How do we use the scientific method to investigate the questions posed by developmental science? How do research methods differ?
Inform students that different methods of conducting developmental research will be explored, and various research designs are chosen based on the question that the researcher investigates.
Another way to create interest and flip the classroom is to ask students to form groups and generate their own research question to be investigated using selected research methods, research designs, and developmental designs (see the third item under Innovative Ideas for Chapter 1).
Learning Objective 1.2.1 Lecture Notes: Describe the major methods of collecting data on children.
Observational methods:
1. In naturalistic observation, researchers observe a child in the child’s natural environment.
2. In structured observation, researchers place a child in controlled situations designed to bring about some type of behavior, and they then record the behavior.
3. Ethnographic methods seek to understand behavior within a child’s cultural group, often within non-Western cultures.
Self-report methods ask research participants to provide information about the self, such as thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes. Self-report research methods include questionnaires and structured interviews
Standardized tests are developed based on norms, or expected performance given a particular age level. Standardized tests are concerned with reliability, or consistency over time, and validity that the test measures what it claims to measure.
Noninvasive biological measures are increasingly employed in developmental research. For example, heart rate and blood pressure are used as measures of arousal, attention, or fear, usually in response to certain stimuli or situations. Researchers can measure the electrical activity of muscles to obtain a more precise record of motor movements. More elaborate techniques using fMRI or NIRS are also gaining popularity.
Application
Activity:
Compare and Contrast Observation Method
Ask students to generate strengths and weaknesses of structured versus naturalistic observation. What are the advantages of each approach? What are the drawbacks of each? What types of conclusions may researchers draw as a function of using naturalistic or structured observations? This may be used as a class discussion or in-class writing assignment.
Application Activity: Bring in a Standardized Test to Share with Students
If you have access to one, bring in a standardized test to share with the class, such as the Bayley Scales of Infant Development or the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Discuss the materials included in the test and the types of things that the child is asked to do. If you do not have access to such materials, there are many examples online of sample items from the Wechsler scales, including block design, digit span, similarities, and matrix reasoning. In general, it is best to use simulated items for secure tests such as the Wechsler or Stanford-Binet Intelligence tests. If you have questions about how such materials may be used in class, see the American Psychological Association statement on the use of secure psychological tests in the education of graduate and undergraduate students at: https://www.apa.org. (Using the site’s search engine, search for “use of secure psychological tests.”)
Learning Objective 1.2.2 Lecture Notes: Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the major categories of research design
Case studies provide an in-depth account of a person or a small group of people.
Correlational studies examine the relationship between two variables that are not experimentally manipulated. A correlation coefficient indicates the direction and magnitude of the relationship between two variables. Positive correlations indicate that both variables move in the same direction; negative correlations indicate the variables move in opposite directions. Correlational designs do not permit a researcher to reach causal conclusions; they only permit description of a relationship between variables.
Multiple regression may be used in cases in which experimental manipulation of variables is not performed. Multiple regression evaluates the correlations between multiple independent variables and a single dependent variable
Experimental studies allow for the possibility of reaching causal conclusions about the relationship between two variables, because of random assignment, control conditions, and manipulation of an independent variable. The independent variable is the variable that differs between the experimental and control conditions. The dependent variable is the outcome or the variable that is measured.
Laboratory experiments allow the researcher to exercise greater control over extraneous variables; field experiments are conducted in natural settings, and they allow the researchers to better understand how the variables of interest operate in real life. Intervention studies evaluate the outcomes of an intervention.
Application Activity: Evaluating Research Designs: Why Would Anyone Ever Use Correlational Studies?
After presenting these designs, ask students to think about why correlational studies exist at all. Why not just use experiments to study everything, if that is the only sure way to establish causal relationships? Ask students to generate possible independent variables that cannot be experimentally manipulated ethically or practically (i.e., gender identity, age, exposure to trauma, socioeconomic status) to highlight the contribution of correlational designs.
Pair and Share: Distinguish Independent and Dependent Variables
Students sometimes have difficulty distinguishing independent and dependent variables. Use this activity to provide additional examples. Ask students to form pairs and identify the independent and dependent variables in each case.
1. Cara wants to examine the effects of early life exposure to trauma on substance use in adolescence.
2. Dr. Sardonicus has enlisted two groups of children as research participants. One group receives no physical education classes during the week, and the other group has physical education classes every day. Dr. Sardonicus then observes instances of hyperactive behavior in the classroom.
3. Jolisa is interested in the relationship between a child’s diet and ability to focus. One group of children receives a very nutritious diet, and the other group eats what they would usually have. She then measures how well the children pay attention in the classroom.
4. Andre hypothesizes that exposure to violent television shows will increase aggression in children.
5. Manuel predicts that children who participate in a greater number of extracurricular activities will receive lower grades in school.
6. Jaycee hypothesizes that children who are exposed to more books in early childhood will have better literacy skills in first grade.
You might note that some of these are not true independent variables. For example, early exposure to life trauma cannot or should not be experimentally manipulated; rather, it is a measured variable that allows a comparison between two groups, children who have or have not experienced such trauma. Similarly, unless Jolisa steadfastly controls all the participants’ diets, or Manuel randomly assigns some children to participate in more activities than others, these are also measured (rather than manipulated) variables. (The same logic can be applied to Andre and Jaycee.) However, you can use this as an opportunity to note the compromises researchers often have to make and discuss larger issues of internal validity or ethical considerations.
Pair and Share: Positive and Negative Correlations
Ask students to work with a partner to determine the direction of the following correlations:
1. Infants who are held more tend to cry less.
2. Children who are taller tend to weigh more.
3. Children who are shorter tend to weigh less.
4. Children who are absent from school more often receive poorer grades.
5. Children who have highly involved parents tend to get better grades in school.
6. Children who are friendlier tend to enjoy school more.
7. Families with more children tend to experience less stress.
8. Children who demonstrate better executive functioning tend to receive better grades.
Learning Objective 1.2.3 Lecture Notes: Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of research designs used to study developmental change
Developmental research designs allow developmental researchers to study developmental change.
Longitudinal studies follow the same group of participants over two or more time points. Longitudinal studies allow researchers to track changes over time, but they are expensive, timeconsuming, and participants often drop out of the study.
Cross-sectional studies allow researchers to study people in different age groups at the same point in time. They are more feasible than longitudinal studies, but they do not permit the same conclusions as longitudinal studies. Cohort effects may also explain group differences.
Application Activity: Apply Developmental Designs to a Research Question
Ask each student to pair with another student. Ask students to apply longitudinal and cross-sectional designs to the following research question: How do children’s toy-sharing behaviors change between ages 2 and 8? First, ask students to think of a way to operationalize “toy-sharing behaviors.” From there, students can apply the developmental designs to the research question. For each design, ask students to evaluate strengths and weaknesses.
Learning Objective 1.2.4 Lecture Notes: Identify problems and progress in dealing with scientific replicability.
Some critics have posited a replicability crisis in psychology and other fields, suggesting that research findings may not be able to be reproduced, or reproduced at much smaller levels of impact. Publishing trends, the file drawer problem, the nature of peer review, capitalizing on probability, and a host of other variables have been suggested as being implicated in questionable research and publishing practices.
Fortunately, some practices and techniques have recently received attention in addressing these concerns. For example, the open science movement calls for greater transparency regarding methods, analyses, data sharing, and other aspects of the research process. Meta-analysis and the effect size computations that accompany it have received renewed interest in several fields.
Class Discussion: Crisis? What Crisis?
Crisis? What Crisis? is the name of a 1975 album released by Supertramp, but it is relevant to a discussion topic you might share with your students. Much has been made of the supposed faulty foundation underlying psychological science, but thoughtful rebuttals based on empirical evidence are also available. Depending on how much time you’d like to spend discussing professional matters, you might ask students to read an article by Daniel T. Gilbert, Gary King, Stephen Pettigrew, and Tim Wilson (search online for “No Evidence for a Replicability Crisis in Psychological Science”) or simply summarize the arguments for them. (Exploring that article will reveal several other works surrounding this issue.) Similarly, you might look for Fritz Strack’s thoughtful meditations on the illusion of exact replication (and again, the many articles and blog posts associated with it). If you’re really, really into it, consult Daniel M. Wegner’s “The Premature Demise of the Solo Experiment.” The take-aways for your students and the object of class discussion, should be that: 1) replication has always been a foundational element of the scientific enterprise, 2) reputable scientists recognize this and practice it, 3) whether any result can ever be replicated exactly or conceptually is a matter of some philosophical debate, although 4) virtually everyone would agree that the accumulation of scientific knowledge is a slow, self-correcting, incremental process.
Learning Objective 1.2.5 Lecture Notes: Identify aspects of diversity and explain how they are investigated.
Developmental scientists explore whether patterns of development differ as a function of variables such as racial and ethnic group membership and socioeconomic status.
Race generally refers to physical appearance characteristics. Ethnicity refers to cultural background features, such as nationality, religion, language, and social practices.
Most developmental studies group children based on the categories outlined in the U.S. Census.
Socioeconomic status (SES) refers to level of education by a child’s parents, family income, and the type of job held by the head of household. This variable impacts many aspects of a child’s life, such as neighborhood, schools, and the amount of learning resources available.
U.S. Census data can be consulted to identify trends in race and ethnicity in the population, and from there, to construct theories and research programs that better reflect the statistical composition of people under study.
Application Activity: Applying Diversity Factors to Child Development
Ask students to consider how diversity factors (race, ethnicity, SES) impact child development. Ask students to think about how the categories provided by the U.S. Census may overlook important cultural distinctions and the possible implications of this. You may also choose to expand this activity into an out-of-class writing assignment in which students explore certain areas of research regarding the effects of diversity factors on developmental contexts, such as neighborhood, schooling, or health care access.
Learning Objective 1.2.6 Lecture Notes
: Describe ethical precautions researchers take to protect children participating in studies.
Children are considered a vulnerable research population, and certain precautions must be taken to ensure ethical research practices. These guidelines include use of unharmful procedures, informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing procedures, and caution in using deception.
Researchers should guarantee unharmful procedures by using the least stressful procedures possible and avoiding procedures that could result in lasting harm to the child.
Researchers must provide informed consent in which the risks, benefits, and procedures are outlined to the research participant (and, in many cases, their parent or caregiver).
Researchers are bound by confidentiality, or protection of the participant’s information and responses.
Researchers must exercise caution in using deception, and participants must be debriefed following a study so they understand the study’s true purpose.
Application Activity:
Evaluating Research Scenarios: Violation of Ethical Guidelines?
Ask students to form pairs or present the following scenarios to the entire class for discussion. Ask students to identify the ethical problems in each scenario. Note: There are no ethical violations in scenario 5.
1. Angelo wants to investigate the memory strategies used by preschoolers. Because he is pressed for time, he begins collecting data as soon as he is ready instead of waiting for Institutional Review Board approval.
2. Cassandra is conducting research on the effects of harsh punishment on children’s own levels of aggression. She tells one group of parents in her study to always use extreme physical force when correcting their child’s behavior. The other group of parents is directed to use techniques other than physical discipline to correct behavior, such as time-out.
3. Ivanhoe is presenting his research on adolescent identity development at a research conference. In his presentation, he mentions the first and last names of the adolescents who participated in his study, in order to give them credit and acknowledge their participation.
4. Isa used deception in her study, but she never told the child participants about the actual purpose of her study.
5. Destiny did not begin collecting data until she received approval from her university’s Institutional Review Board. She followed informed consent procedures and maintained the confidentiality of her research participants. When the study concluded, she debriefed all participants on the true nature of her research.
Learning Objective 1.2.7 Lecture Notes: Identify four main categories of professions that utilize developmental science to improve the lives of children.
Psychologists work with children in clinical settings, hospitals, schools, and through various social programs. Researchers work in universities, hospitals, government agencies, and research institutes.
Health care professionals, such as pediatricians, psychiatrists, nurses, and physical and occupational therapists, are concerned with the development of children as it relates to understanding of disease, health, and medical practices.
Educators work directly with children in school settings.
Policy makers, program directors, and attorneys design programs for children, including public policies that directly impact children. Attorneys may provide guidance to children who are asked to provide testimony in legal situations.
Pair and Share: What Category Is Right for You?
Ask each student to pair with another student, and then discuss which of the four categories of professions most appeals to them. Why did they choose that particular area? Ask students to
The Dynamic Child 3e, Manis
speculate regarding the type of training that each specialty requires. After students discuss in pairs, bring the whole class back to a larger discussion. Ask students to share which profession they chose and why, and ask the class for feedback regarding professional training required in each area. Use this as an opportunity to inform students about the educational pathways and relevant experiences they will need to successfully achieve their career goals.
Shared Writing: Children and Families Who Are Unhoused
Unhoused children resemble institutionalized children in some ways (lack of adequate cognitive and social stimulation) but not in others (they are in the care of a parent or caregiver). Describe one aspect of development that you think might be compromised for unhoused children. Explain briefly a research method you could use to study this aspect of development.
Observing the Dynamic Child 1.2: Accelerating Cognitive Development
Present students with a worksheet containing the following questions and ask them to work in pairs. Show the Observing the Dynamic Child 1.2: Accelerating Cognitive Development video (3:30). This can be used as an in-class participation grade. NOTE: Be sure to remove the * before using this as a handout for students!
1. A researcher who wants to know if the amount of time children spend in class sorting spindles into number bins is associated with more advanced understanding of numbers would most likely use a design.
a. *longitudinal
b. cross-sectional
c. case study
d. hybrid
2. In the study mentioned in question 1, the researcher is likely to use all of these methods of collecting data EXCEPT __________.
a. naturalistic observation
b. structured observation
c. *structured interview
d. standardized test
3. A researcher who wants to know whether the specific experience of sorting spindles with a teacher’s guidance improved children’s number knowledge would use
a. a correlational study
b. a field experiment
c. an intervention
d. a laboratory experiment
e. *both b and d
To encourage additional critical thinking following the Observing the Dynamic Child video, ask students to consider this question: How could a researcher apply a cross-sectional, longitudinal, or intervention design to investigating improvements in children’s number knowledge?
Additional Activities, Demonstrations, and Exercises
1. Writing Assignment: Observation Methods (To be completed outside class)
Tell students that they will observe social interaction skills by going to a public area to watch children. Good places to observe include the grocery store, shopping malls, parks, or playgrounds. Direct students to observe at least three different children in their chosen location. Remind students that during the observation, they should be as unobtrusive as possible. In the observation, ask students to note the following:
Child’s presumptive age and gender
What the child is doing
Who is with the child
How the child seems to respond to interactions with others (adults, other children)
How the adult responds to the child (if an adult is present)
Any ways that the child facilitates social interaction (e.g., smiling, making eye contact, talking, sharing, nodding, facial expressions, problem solving, etc.)
Ask students to write a two- to three-page summary that compares and contrasts the social interaction skills of the different children observed.
In the paper, ask students to make note of any limitations or strengths to naturalistic observation. For instance, were there times during the observation when they wanted to intervene? How much control did they have over what the child encountered or did during the observation? How could a laboratory observation make it easier to observe a child’s social interaction skills? What are the strengths of using naturalistic observation to answer this research question?
2. Student Group Presentations: Society for Research in Child Development Policy Briefs
The Society for Research in Child Development (www.srcd.org) is the leading professional association for developmental scientists. Ask students to visit the website and focus on a policy brief. Students will find a number of topics on which the SRCD provides detailed information, such as children and terrorism, military families, abuse and neglect, Common Core and child development, federal budgets and child policies, and so on. Ask students to form groups of three to four members and select a policy brief topic. Students will then present the main findings from the policy brief to the class. This exercise will help students understand how research informs public policy.
3. Choosing a Career in Developmental Science: Society for Research in Child Development Careers
The Society for Research in Child Development (www.srcd.org) is the leading professional association for developmental scientists. Ask students to visit the website and find a career in developmental science that appeals to them. Have students bring a description of the career to class with them, as well as the level of education and experience that is required for the career. Use this to stimulate class discussion. Students may also be interested to know that the SRCD website has sample professional documents available, such as sample cover letters, research statements, and curriculum vitae Perusal of the research statements may also help students understand the relevance of research to developmental science, as well as the different types of research that developmental scientists conduct.
INNOVATIVE IDEAS FOR CHAPTER 1
Writing Assignment or Presentation: Child Trends
Direct students to the website for Child Trends (https://childtrends.org), an organization dedicated to providing research summaries on developmental science issues. Students will find a host of research summaries on topics in child development. Ask students to choose one issue and write a two- to three-page paper summarizing the relevant research on this topic. Alternatively, this could be done as a class presentation in which students present the main research findings. Encourage students to make the connection between research findings and policies.
Writing Assignment or Presentation: Brookings Institution
Direct students to the website for the Brookings Institution (www.brookings.edu), a nonprofit organization devoted to independent research and policy solutions. Its mission is to conduct highquality, independent research and, based on that research, to provide innovative, practical recommendations for policymakers and the public. Ask students to choose one issue from the website and provide a summary of the relevant research in the area. Alternatively, this could be done as a class presentation in which students present the main research findings. Encourage students to make the connection between research findings and policies.
Investigate a Research Question Group Discussion
This activity can be used to alternately lecture and flip the classroom during a one-hour and 15-minute class. Ask students to form small groups and arrive at a research question they would like to investigate. Ask each group to state its research question. After a summary of research methods, ask the groups to discuss which methods they will use to investigate their question (different types of observational methods, self-report methods, or a particular type of standardized test). After a summary of research designs (case study, different types of correlational studies, or experimental studies), ask each group to discuss and share the research design it will use and explain the pros and cons. Finally, after summarizing developmental designs (cross-sectional or longitudinal), ask the groups to discuss and share which developmental design they will use, if applicable to their research question, and explain the pros and cons.
Discussion: Standardized Testing in Schools: Controversy?
This exercise asks students to compare and contrast the role of standardized testing in schools by gathering information for and against the practice. After gathering information on both sides of the issue, ask students to debate the role of standardized testing in schools.
Writing Assignment: DevelopmentalScience.com
Dr. Diana Divecha created the website Developmental Science (http://www.developmentalscience.com), which contains digestible articles linking developmental research to real life. Ask students to visit the website and prepare a summary of one of the articles found there. Ask students to consider how the information could be useful to professionals, parents, and caregivers.
Writing Assignment: Developmental Science Journal Search
Direct students to search available library databases for relevant developmental science journals. (If your library does not have access to such databases, direct students to use Google Scholar as their search engine, as they may find free access to journal articles through here.) Journal titles include Applied Developmental Psychology, Child Development, Applied Developmental Science, Developmental Science, International Journal of Developmental Science, European Journal of Developmental Science, Developmental Psychology, Child and Infant Development, and others. To link this assignment to the research methods presented in this chapter, ask students to find an article that uses a developmental research design, such as longitudinal, cross-sectional, or an intervention with a long-term follow-up. Ask students to write a summary of the article, specifically describing how the study utilized one of the developmental research designs.