PDF Solutions Manual for Cities and Urban Life 8th Edition by Macionis

CHAPTER 2: EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD’S CITIES

Summary

Urban Origins

LO 2.1: Examine the cosmic calendar to better understand the urban evolution

According to archeologists, the first cities emerged approximately 10,000 years ago, but it was only in the last several centuries that the urban population expanded considerably. Hence, cities are quite recent in world history. When human beings appeared some 200,000 years ago, they lived in small groups as hunters and gatherers and moved every few weeks to look for food. As the population expanded and competition for food increased, our ancestors decided to settle in a fertile area, grow their own food, and eventually pursue other interests, such as crafts and science. This is known as the agricultural revolution, which occurred roughly 10,000 years ago. Humans created permanent settlements, where they raised crops and learned to domesticate animals for use in the fields or as a food supply. In these settlements, they developed a more complex division of labor, a hierarchical power structure, and a productive surplus. These factors contributed to the transformation of villages into towns and then cities.

Jericho, whose settlement dates back to 8000 B.C.E., is thought to be the oldest city in the world. Its size, as well as its complex social structure, observed in the remains of houses and fortification define it as a city. In the following millennia, Jericho changed hands several times and experienced both progress and setbacks. Archeological research in Catalhöyük in presentday Turkey reveals the existence of a large and complex city dating back to 6000 B.C.E. No evidence exists of any plunder or massacre during the city’s nearly 1,000 years of existence.

City-States and Urban Empires

LO 2.2: Recall some of the early city-states and the urban empires

It was only in about 3500 B.C.E. that the idea of a city took hold as people wanted the benefits of the city: more choice, better economic opportunities, and ongoing excitement. As more people moved to cities and increased the demand for goods and services, the state emerged to manage the needs of the inhabitants. City-states conquered others and made alliances to form urban empires in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus River Valley, China, Central America, and South America. This corresponds to the first urban revolution, which lasted from 4000 B.C.E. until 500 C.E. The history of cities shows a combination of benefits and suffering.

The first urban empire was in Mesopotamia. In the Mesopotamian cities, a ruling elite controlled and protected the area around the city, including the outlying land. These cities had a highly complex social structure, including a power hierarchy and a pronounced division of labor. Early Mesopotamian urban life centered on religious beliefs. The complex social structure also included a strong military elite and an increasing capacity to wage war. By 3500 B.C.E., cities organized as politically distinct city-states were often at war with each other. This led to

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the formation of urban empires. In the context of urban dominance, cities experienced many changes, including, but not limited to, cultural and technological advancements.

Unlike Mesopotamian cities, the first Egyptian cities were not well preserved. The pharaohs were considered gods and had control over the Nile region creating a peaceful environment for cities to develop. Again, cities exhibited a rigid social structure. During the Old Kingdom period (2700–2180 B.C.E.), pharaohs began to conquer neighboring territories, stealing wealth and enslaving people, who, in turn, were used to build many of Egypt’s famous monuments. This era ended with famines and riots and was followed by alternating periods of growth and decline in Egyptian cities.

The rest of the section surveys other cities such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in the Indus region of present-day India and Pakistan; Liangzhu, Cheng-chou, and An-yang in China; and the early cities of the Americas. By 2500 B.C.E., Mohenjo-Daro had a gridiron system, a welldeveloped sanitation system, and evidence of a large, prosperous middle class. In contrast, early Chinese cities reflect their hierarchical social structure with the political and religious elite living apart from the common people. In Mesoamerica, agricultural technology and the formation of a complex social structure accompanied the rise of cities, but this area was not well suited to the production of large surpluses due to its terrain and the lack of domesticated animals. All early cities had relatively favorable ecological conditions, some sort of trade or food surplus, a complex social structure characterized by a division of labor, and a power hierarchy often based on theocratic rule. Early cities were relatively small compared to today’s cities and did not guarantee a high standard of living for most residents.

Cities in the Western world did not emerge until about 1800 B.C.E. in Crete and then in Greece. The Greek city-states were more egalitarian than Mesopotamian and Egyptian cities and highlighted the great potential of urban civilization. Following the collapse of Greece due to a series of destructive wars, Rome emerged as the center of the Roman Empire. The city’s growth was based on the accumulation of military power and wealth. Roads and aqueducts are two great Roman achievements, but like other amenities, they were built for the benefit of the military elite and at the expense of the poor. With the collapse of Rome began the Middle Ages, during which trade practically disappeared and cities declined into small towns and villages centered on feudal estates. Around the eleventh century, the crusades contributed to the reemergence of trade and cities. As Carcassonne illustrates, cities often remained small, were typically located at the intersection of rivers and roads, were enclosed in high protective walls, and were centered on a church and public square. During the Renaissance, cities continued to expand and became learning centers for the elite.

The Rise of Modern Cities

LO 2.3: Review the genesis of the modern city where commerce replaced agriculture as the primary way to make a living

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As commerce replaced agriculture as the primary means of income, a middle class emerged. People engaging in shop keeping, trade, government work, and commercial ventures became known as the bourgeoisie. Thus, by the mid-seventeenth century, feudalism was diminished. Capitalism became the norm, and the Industrial Revolution fueled even more strongly the dominance of the city-based market economy. Further, even with the threat of plague, urban populations expanded, wealth dominated, and demographic transitions (a decline in death rates combined with constant birth rates) began, and it would continue into the twentieth century. Additionally, population control took the form of fewer families producing multiple children, as the number of children in a family was no longer linked to economic production. Today, in most industrial nations, population growth not only slowed but actually faces a decline, especially in most European countries and Japan. The rest of the chapter focuses on a case study of London to illustrate the growth of a modern city.

Case Study: London—The History of a World City

London was developed as an outpost of the Roman Empire in the first century B.C.E. The Romans retreated in 410 C.E. and left London to defend itself against a number of tribes until 1066, when William the Conqueror took control of the city and became King of England. For five and a half centuries, London grew steadily; however, in 1550, it had become a world city, mostly due to its preeminence in sailing and international trade. London experienced a period of renaissance similar to other European cities: the population grew; commerce thrived; and art, literature, music, and drama flourished. Overcrowding contributed to the Great Plague of 1665–66 and to the Great Fire of 1666. Nevertheless, by 1700, the population had increased again, and the city was rebuilt. The expansion of the British Empire led to rapid urban growth with millions of people moving to London to find jobs and adding to the concentration of poverty. During the first half of the twentieth century, poverty decreased partially because of the equalizing effects of the Great Depression, but in 1940, Hitler’s forces destroyed much of the city. Although tourism and the service sector expanded following World War II, many industries and the empire were lost contributing to economic decline. In the twenty-first century, London’s economic structure changed dramatically as the nature of work and the workplace changed. London became viewed as an example of blending the past and the present. Additionally, property values have increased, and as a result, the division between social classes has become more obvious. Growth in terms of race, ethnicity, and immigration is also more visible. Today, the influx of immigration places a serious strain on public services, and it has become more economically polarized.

Conclusion

The emergence of cities as a dominant force in human affairs is one of the crucial events of history. In many instances, cities were the driving force behind the development of civilization. They combined ideas in new ways, produced great wealth, wielded incredible power, and became home to an increasing proportion of the world’s population.

Yet throughout history, cities have not always had the same character. The city is largely synonymous with civilization itself. Each chapter in the story of human civilization has thus produced distinctive cities: cities of the early empires, the medieval city, the Renaissance city, the industrial city, and most recently, the post-industrial city. Thus, both constancy and change

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coexist in the history of cities. Together, these processes create urban living.

Suggestions

Readings

1. Hamblin, Dora Jane. 1973. The First Cities. New York: Time-Life. To date, this book is still one of the most comprehensive surveys of the history of early cities. It is also accessible to students.

2. Liverani, Mario. 2006. Uruk: The First City. London: Equinox Publishing.

This book is a comprehensive overview of the city of Uruk.

3. Mumford, Lewis. 1961. The City in History. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.

This book, which has now become a classic, provides an extensive study of the history of Western cities.

4. Sjoberg, Gideon. 1965. The Preindustrial City: Past and Present. New York: Free Press. This book discusses the history of the preindustrial city. It helps students who have never experienced this context better understand the elements of these cities.

5. Thorp, Robert L. 2006. China in the Early Bronze Age: Shang Civilization. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

This book provides students with an overview of early Chinese civilization.

Websites

1. “Pictures of American Cities” https://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities

This is a website that provides viewable photographs of American cities in history.

2. “A Population History of the World’s Cities” http://www.demographia.com/dbxuscitypophist.htm

This website provides a population-based history of the world’s major cities.

Projects

1. Research the history of the city in which you live. When did it first emerge? What factors promoted its growth? Has it been expanding at a constant rate or has it experienced ups and downs? This project could be applied to ancient cities as well as modern U.S. cities.

2. Obtain maps or archeological pictures and descriptions of an ancient city. Find evidence of

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the size of the city’s population, the extent of the division of labor and the complexity of the social and political structure.

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