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Instructor’s Resource Manual

Essentials of Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach

Fourteenth Edition

James M. Henslin

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Chapter 1: The Sociological Perspective

Chapter Summary

This chapter explains what sociology is. The sociological perspective focuses on the connection between biography and history. This chapter discusses the origins of sociology with a focus on European sociologists writing about the Industrial Revolution and how sociology came to exist in the United States. It also explores the contributions and debates of sociologists within the United States, including the debate between pure sociology and social reform. The first half of the chapter explains three main perspectives of sociology—symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory. The importance of thinking about theory and research working together is also highlighted. The second half of the chapter demonstrates a basic understanding of sociological research methods, starting with why it is important to study social behaviors even though some people consider these topics to be common sense. The chapter demonstrates and explains the stages and different types of research designs that sociologists can use. The author then provides a brief discussion on the considerations for gender in research and research ethics. The chapter ends with a discussion of the contention between research and social reform and also the influence of globalization on the field of sociology and how the author believes these two ideas could shape sociology in the future.

Learning Objectives

LO 1.1: Explain why both history and biography are essential for the sociological perspective.

LO 1.2: Trace the origins of sociology, from tradition to Max Weber. 1.4

LO 1.3: Trace the development of sociology in North America, and explain the tension between objective analysis and social reform.

LO 1.4: Explain the basic ideas of symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory.

LO 1.5 Explain why common sense can’t replace sociological research.

LO 1.6 Know the eight steps of the research model.

LO 1.7 Know the main elements of the seven research methods.

LO 1.8 Explain how gender is significant in sociological research.

LO 1.9 Explain why it is vital for sociologists to protect the people they study and discuss the two cases that are presented.

LO 1.10: Explain how research versus social reform and globalization are likely to influence sociology.

Chapter Outline

A. The Sociological Perspective

1.1 Explain why both history and biography are essential for the sociological perspective.

1. This perspective is important because it opens a window onto unfamiliar worlds and offers a fresh look at familiar ones. It allows us to gain a new view of social life.

2. The sociological perspective is an approach to understanding human behavior by placing it within the social context that surrounds it.

a) The center of the sociological perspective examines how people are influenced by their society—or the group of people who share a culture and a territory.

b) The sociological perspective stresses the broader social context of behavior by looking at individuals’ social location—jobs, income, education, gender, race–ethnicity, health, and age—and by considering external influences—people’s experiences—which are internalized and become part of a person’s thinking and motivations.

c) The sociologist C. Wright Mills claimed that the sociological perspective enabled us to grasp the connection between history (the broad stream of events that each society is located in) and biography (your experiences within a specific historical setting).

3. This perspective enables us to analyze and understand both the forces that contribute to the emergence and growth of the global village and our unique experiences in our own smaller corners of this village.

B. Origins of Sociology

1.2 Trace the origins of sociology, from tradition to Max Weber.

1. Sociology developed in the middle of the nineteenth century when social observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas. The following three factors led to its development:

a) The social upheaval as a result of the Industrial Revolution, which led to changes in the way people lived their lives.

b) The political revolutions in America and France, which encouraged people to rethink their ideas about social life.

c) The development of imperialism—as Europeans conquered other nations, they came in contact with different cultures and began to ask why cultures differ.

d) These three factors led to a questioning of traditional answers, which created a desire to apply scientific methods to find answers to the questions being raised about the social world.

2. Auguste Comte coined the term “sociology” and suggested the use of positivism— applying the scientific approach to understand the social world—but he did not utilize this approach himself. Comte believed that this new science should not only discover sociological principles, but should then apply those principles to social reform.

3. Herbert Spencer viewed societies as evolutionary, coined the term “the survival of the fittest,” and became known for social Darwinism. Spencer was convinced that no one should intervene in the evolution of society and that attempts at social reform are wrong.

4. Karl Marx, whose ideas about social classes and class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat laid the foundation of the conflict perspective, believed that class

conflict is the key to human history. Marx believed that the conflict and struggle would end only with a revolution by the working class.

5. Emile Durkheim played an important role in the development of sociology. One of his primary goals was to get sociology recognized as a separate academic discipline. He was interested in understanding the social factors that influence individual behavior; he studied suicide rates among different groups and concluded that social integration—the degree to which people are tied to their social group—is a key social factor in suicide.

6. Max Weber was one of the most influential of all sociologists, raising issues that remain controversial even today. Disagreeing with Karl Marx, Weber defined religion as a central force in social change (i.e., Protestantism encourages greater economic development and was the central factor in the rise of capitalism in some countries).

a) The Protestant belief system encouraged its members to embrace change.

b) Protestants sought “signs” that they were in God’s will; financial success became a major sign. The more money they made, the more secure they were about their religious standing.

c) Weber called this behavior the Protestant ethic; he called their readiness to invest capital to make more money the spirit of capitalism.

C. Sociology in North America

1.3 Trace the development of sociology in North America, and explain the tension between objective analysis and social reform.

1. In the early years of sociology, men dominated the field because rigidly defined social roles prevented most women from pursuing an education.

a) Women were supposed to devote themselves to the four Ks: Kirche, Küche, Kinder, und Kleider (church, cooking, children, and clothes).

b) Few people, male or female, attained education beyond basic reading, writing, and math, but most higher education was reserved for men.

c) The few early female sociologists included Marion Talbot, an associate editor for the American Journal of Sociology for thirty years. Others went beyond sociology, such as Grace Abbott, the chief of the U.S. government’s Children’s Bureau, and Frances Perkins, the first woman to hold a cabinet position.

d) Most early female sociologists viewed sociology as a path for social reform. Academics who viewed it as the opposite distanced themselves from female sociologists.

e) Harriet Martineau studied social life in both Great Britain and the United States. While her original research has been largely ignored by the discipline, she is known for her translations of Comte’s ideas into English.

2. African American professionals also faced problems.

a) W. E. B. Du Bois was the first African American to earn a PhD from Harvard. He conducted extensive research on race relations in the United States, publishing one book a year on this subject between 1896 and 1914.

b) Despite his accomplishments, he encountered prejudice and discrimination in his professional and personal life. When he attended professional sociologists’ meetings, he was not permitted to eat or stay in the same hotels as the White sociologists.

c) Frustrated at the lack of improvements in race relations, he turned to social action, helping to found the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) along with Jane Addams and others from Hull-House.

3. Jane Addams is an example of a sociologist who was able to combine the role of sociologist with that of social reformer.

a) In 1889, she co-founded Hull-House, a settlement house for the poor, and worked to bridge the gap between the powerful and powerless.

b) Sociologists from nearby University of Chicago visited Hull-House frequently.

c) She is one of two sociologists (both of them women) to have won the Nobel Peace Prize; she was awarded this in 1931.

4. Many other early North American sociologists combined the role of sociologist with that of social reformer. For example, University of Chicago sociologists Park and Burgess studied many urban problems and offered suggestions on how to alleviate them. By the 1940s, as sociologists became more concerned with establishing sociology as an academic discipline, the emphasis shifted from social reform to social theory.

a) Talcott Parsons developed abstract models of society to show how the parts of society harmoniously work together.

b) Countering this development was C. Wright Mills, who urged sociologists to get back to social reform. He saw the emergence of the power elite as an imminent threat to freedom.

5. The debate over the proper goals of sociological analysis—analyzing society versus reforming society—continues today.

a) Some sociologists view the goal of sociology as understanding the social world without the goal of applying this knowledge to reform. This is referred to as basic (or pure) sociology.

b) Applied sociology aims to use sociology to solve problems. One of the first attempts at applied sociology was the founding of the NAACP.

i. Today, applied sociologists work in a variety of settings.

ii. Applied sociology goes back to the roots of sociology.

c) In an effort to pursue a social reform agenda, the American Sociological Association is now promoting public sociology with the goal of influencing politicians and policy makers. This is considered a middle ground between research and reform.

D. Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

1.4 Explain the basic ideas of symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory.

1. Central to the study of any science is the development of theory. A theory is a general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work. It is an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another. Sociologists use three major theories—symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory—to observe and interpret social contexts, relationships, and realities in distinct ways.

2. Symbolic interactionism views symbols, things to which we attach meaning, as the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another.

a) Through the use of symbols, people are able to define relationships to others; to coordinate actions with others, thereby making social life possible; and to develop a sense of themselves.

b) A symbolic interactionist studying divorce would focus on how the changing meanings of marriage, divorce, parenthood, and love have all contributed to the increase in the rate of divorce in U.S. society.

3. The central idea of functional analysis is that society is a whole unit, made up of interrelated parts that work together.

a) To understand society, we must look at both structure (how the parts of society fit together to make up the whole) and function (how each part contributes to society).

b) Robert Merton used the term “functions” to refer to the beneficial consequences of people’s actions to keep society stable, and “dysfunctions” to refer to consequences that undermine a system’s equilibrium. Functions can be either manifest (actions that are intended) or latent (unintended consequences).

c) In trying to explain divorce, a functionalist would look at how industrialization and urbanization both contributed to the changing function of marriage and the family.

4. According to conflict theory, society is composed of groups competing for scarce resources.

a) Karl Marx focused on struggles between the bourgeoisie (the small group of capitalists who own the means of production) and the proletariat (the masses of workers exploited by the capitalists).

i. Contemporary conflict theorists have expanded this perspective to include conflict in all relations of power and authority.

ii. Just as Marx examined conflict between capitalists and workers, many feminists analyze conflict between men and women.

iii. Divorce is seen as the outcome of the shifting balance of power within a family; as women have gained power and try to address inequalities in their relationships, men resist.

5. Each perspective provides a different and often sharply contrasting picture of the world. However, sociologists often use all three perspectives because no one theory or level of analysis encompasses all of reality.

6. The perspectives differ in their level of analysis. Functionalists and conflict theorists provide macro-level analysis because they examine the large-scale patterns of society. Symbolic interactionists carry out micro-level analysis because they focus on the smallscale patterns of social life.

7. Research cannot stand alone any more than theory can stand alone. Theories need to be tested, which requires research. And research findings need to be explained, which requires theory. Sociologists combine research and theory in different ways.

E. Doing Sociological Research

1.5 Explain why common sense can’t replace sociological research.

1. We cannot depend on common sense or “what everyone knows” because common-sense ideas may or may not be true, which is why we need research to test these ideas.

2. To understand social life, we need to move beyond common sense.

F. A Research Model

1.6 Know the eight steps of the research model.

1. Henslin identifies eight steps in the scientific research model. This is an ideal model, but in the real world of research, some of these steps may run together or may even be omitted.

a) Selecting a topic is guided by sociological curiosity, interest in a particular topic, research funding availability, and pressing social issues.

b) Defining the problem involves specifying what the researcher wants to learn about the topic.

c) Reviewing the literature uncovers existing knowledge about a topic. It helps narrow down the problem and identifies what areas are already known and what areas need to be researched, and it provides ideas about what questions to ask.

d) Formulating a hypothesis involves stating the expected relationship between variables based on predictions from a theory. Hypotheses need operational definitions, or precise ways to measure the variables.

e) Choosing a research method is influenced by the research topic and the questions that need to be answered.

f) Collecting the data involves concerns over validity, the extent to which operational definitions measure what was intended, and reliability, the extent to which data produce consistent results. Inadequate operational definitions hurt reliability.

g) Analyzing the results entails using specific techniques to test your hypothesis (if there is one).

h) Sharing the results involves writing a report and then sharing that report with the scientific community.

G. Research Methods (Designs)

1.7 Know the main elements of the seven research methods.

1. In conducting research, sociologists choose between seven research methods (or research designs):

a) Surveys involve collecting data by having people answer a series of questions.

i. The first step is to determine a population (the target group to be studied) and select a sample (individuals from within the target population who are intended to represent the population to be studied). Random samples are those in which everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study. A stratified random sample is a sample of specific subgroups (e.g., freshmen, sophomores, juniors) of the target population (a college or university) in which everyone in the subgroup has an equal chance of being included in the study.

ii. The respondents (people who respond to a survey) must be allowed to express their own opinions so the findings will not be biased.

iii. The researcher must consider whether to make the questions closed-ended (questions that are followed by a list of possible answers to be selected by the respondent) or open-ended (questions that respondents answer in their own words).

iv. It is important to establish rapport, or a feeling of trust between researchers and respondents.

b) In participant observation (also called fieldwork), the researcher participates in a research setting while observing what happens in that setting.

i. A dilemma of participant observation is determining how much participant observers should get involved in the lives of the people they are observing.

c) In case studies, researchers focus on a single event, situation, or individual. The purpose is to understand the dynamics of relationships and power or even the thinking that motivates people.

i. Generalizability is an issue for case studies since the researcher only focuses on one event, situation, or individual. Few sociologists use this method because of this.

d) Secondary analysis is the analysis of data already collected by other researchers. However, because the researcher did not directly carry out the research, they cannot be sure that the data were systematically gathered and accurately recorded.

e) Analysis of documents means that researchers obtain information from sources, including books, newspapers, diaries, bank records, police reports, immigration files, and records kept by various organizations. The term documents is used broadly and includes video and audio recordings and social media sites.

f) Experiments are especially useful for determining cause and effect.

i. Experiments involve independent variables (factors that cause a change in something) and dependent variables (factors that are changed).

ii. Experiments require an experimental group (subjects exposed to the independent variable) and a control group (subjects not exposed to the independent variable).

g) Unobtrusive measures involve observing social behaviors of people who do not know they are being studied.

H. Gender in Sociological Research

1.8 Explain how gender is significant in sociological research.

1. Because gender can be a significant factor in social research, researchers take steps to prevent it from biasing their findings.

2. Gender can also be an obstacle to doing research, particularly when the gender of the researcher is different from that of the research subjects and the topic under investigation is a sensitive one.

I. Ethics in Sociological Research

1.9 Explain why it is vital for sociologists to protect the people they study and discuss the two cases that are presented.

1. Ethics are of fundamental concern to sociologists when it comes to doing research. Although sociologists are expected to follow ethical guidelines that require openness, honesty, truth, and the protection of research subjects, their studies can occasionally elicit great controversies.

2. The Brajuha research created considerable controversy and legal complications over the protection of subjects. He had field notes that might have shed light on a criminal investigation, but due to the promise of confidentiality, he refused to turn the notes over.

3. Laud Humphreys generated a national controversy by misleading subjects when conducting sensitive research about bisexual men’s personal lives. He vigorously defended his research but eventually stated that he should have identified himself as a researcher.

J. Trends Shaping the Future of Sociology

1.10 Explain how research versus social reform and globalization are likely to influence sociology.

1. To understand the tension between social reform and social analysis, sociologists have found it useful to divide sociology into three phases.

a) In the first phase, which lasted until the 1920s, the primary concern of sociologists was to improve society.

b) During the second phase, from the 1920s until the 1960s, sociologists focused on developing abstract knowledge.

c) In the third (current) phase, sociologists seek ways to apply their research findings.

d) Despite being able to identify three phases, each of which has been characterized by a different position on reform versus analysis, consensus has never been complete on which approach is better.

2. Globalization is a second major trend destined to leave its mark on sociology.

a) Globalization is the breaking down of national boundaries because of advances in communications, trade, and travel.

b) Globalization is likely to broaden the scope of sociological analysis as sociologists look beyond the boundaries of the United States in considering global issues.

3. Globalization is one of the most significant events in world history. This book stresses the impact of globalization on our lives today.

Figures

1.1: Suicide of Americans Ages 18–24

1.2: The Forgotten Sociologists

1.3: Comparing Basic and Applied Sociology

1.4: Call-Back Rates by Race–Ethnicity and Criminal Record

1.5: U.S. Marriage, U.S. Divorce

1.6: Western Marriage

1.7: The Research Model

1.8: The Experiment

Tables

1.1: Three Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

1.2: How to Read a Table

1.3: Three Ways to Measure “Average”

1.4: Closed- and Open-Ended Questions

1.5: Cause, Effect, and Spurious Correlations

Journal Prompts/Shared Writing

J 1.1

Journal: Apply the Sociological Perspective: Gender Discrimination

How do you think relations between men and women have changed since Harriet Martineau did her research?

J 1.2

Journal: Apply the Sociological Perspective: Participant Observation

From Sudhir’s experiences, what do you see as the advantages of participant observation? Its disadvantages? Do you think that doing sociological research justifies being present at beatings? At the planning of drive-by shootings?

SW 1.1

Shared Writing: Theoretical Perspectives

Of the three theoretical perspectives, which one would you prefer to use if you were a sociologist? Why?

SW 1.2

Shared Writing: Misleading the Subject

Some sociologists think that researchers should be able to mislead subjects to get unbiased results as long as the subjects aren’t getting hurt. If the researchers can’t deceive them, the subjects are likely to perceive the purpose of the research and shape their behavior, leading to invalid results. For example, twelve female college freshmen and twelve male college freshmen are brought into a room to get their opinions about football. They discuss football. The sociologists really aren’t interested in their opinions about football. What they are doing is analyzing flirting behavior: the women’s and men’s facial expressions, their body language, and their words. If these subjects were told the real purpose of the research, it would change their behavior. What is your opinion? Why?

Special Features

 Down-to-Earth Sociology: W. E. B. Du Bois: The Souls of Black Folk

 Cultural Diversity in the United States: Unanticipated Public Sociology: Studying Job Discrimination

 Down-to-Earth Sociology: Enjoying a Sociology Quiz—Testing Your Common Sense

 Down-to-Earth Sociology: Testing Your Common Sense—Answers to the Sociology Quiz

 Down-to-Earth Sociology: Google and the Perversion of Science: How Not to Do Research

 Down-to-Earth Sociology: Gang Leader for a Day: Adventures of a Rogue Sociologist

Lecture Suggestions

 To understand peoples’ behavior, sociologists look at their social location in society. Ask students to identify the corners in life they occupy by describing their jobs, income, education, gender, race–ethnicity, health, and age. Have them explain how each of these elements influences their self-concept and behavior. Then have them select two or three elements to change (for example, gender and race–ethnicity) and describe what differences may exist in their self-concept and behavior if they occupied this social location.

 Using the symbolic interactionist perspective, have the students evaluate the sociology course and its instructor. They should identify the symbols that are a part of the course and the meanings that they each apply to those symbols. Initially, have the students make their own

lists that include symbols and meanings and then share them with the class in a group discussion.

 The introduction of sociology as “the study of society” created a social upheaval in the nineteenth century that destroyed many traditions and social norms. Among these were challenges to religion and the divine right of kings. During the 1960s, the feminist perspective challenged other traditions such as the family and the role of women. What traditions and social norms in today’s society are being challenged in a similar manner?

 Herbert Spencer is credited with developing the “survival of the fittest” concept and the philosophic approach known as social Darwinism. The idea behind this approach was that societies evolve from primitive to civilized and that helping primitive societies interferes with the natural process of either evolving or becoming extinct. As an example, nations like the United States have for decades intervened in sub-Saharan African countries in an attempt to fight AIDS and end poverty with little success. Have students discuss their thoughts on this subject and whether aid to poor societies actually helps them or simply creates dependency.

 Conduct a class exercise on selecting an appropriate research topic. Initially, have a student propose a general topic, and then have other students recommend changes to clarify and narrow the topic until it is an appropriate beginning point for a research project. Building on the selection made as an appropriate research topic, walk the class through the other seven stages of the research process, gathering student input on each step. This part of the exercise can include a homework assignment where teams of students are assigned to gather additional input on each stage of the process. Obviously, this assignment is only a familiarization exercise and does not qualify as fulfilling all aspects of the research process.

 Pointing out that sociologists conduct research on almost every conceivable area of human behavior, ask students to try to conceive of some areas of human behavior that may be beyond the reach of sociologists. Are there any such areas? If they cannot think of any such areas, ask them to consider and discuss the following question: “Is human behavior so predictable that all aspects of it are researchable?”

 Ask students to identify the operational definitions in the following statements and discuss what, if anything, may be wrong with them: (1) Smoking is bad for people’s health; (2) Poverty causes crime; (3) Children who watch more than three hours of television a day tend to be more hyperactive than other children; and (4) Alcohol consumption is related to spousal abuse. Afterward, ask students to try to transform each of the four statements into a testable hypothesis with precise operational definitions.

 Have students imagine they are conducting research about date rape on university campuses. Then ask them the following questions: Which research method or methods would be most conducive or least conducive to such a study? Why? If you were to use interviews in your study, what would be the advantages and disadvantages of employing closed-ended questions? How about open-ended questions? In conducting the interviews, what would you do to try to establish good rapport with your subjects? Finally, no matter which research

method you choose, what are some of the ways gender may affect the viability of your study? What, if anything, can you do to minimize its effects?

Suggested Assignments

 Have students attend a local conference to observe the field from within the sociological community. Afterward, students could write a reflection on what they experienced and if any particular elements sparked their interest.

 Assign students to choose a film that illustrates one of the three sociological perspectives and to write a brief report on how that film illustrated the perspective. A few examples of the film and the perspective(s) it illustrates include Shrek (symbolic interactionism), Antz (functionalism), Titanic (the conflict perspective), or Apollo 13 (a case can be made for this film as illustrating any of the three perspectives). Other films may also be used, depending on their subject matter and plots.

 W. E. B. Du Bois was a forerunner in promoting racial equality. Have students write a paper that reflects how they think Du Bois would respond to the current state of race relations and what his reaction would be to the current NAACP if he were still alive.

 Have students select a topic of personal interest. Then have them collect scholarly research articles on their topics. Be sure to review what constitutes “scholarly.” The students should write reports summarizing the major findings on their topics and discuss how common sense could not replace the sociological understandings provided by research.

 Assign a visit to the university library to come up with a list of journals that would accept articles devoted to sociological research. For each journal chosen, instruct the students to copy the submission requirements for the journal and to make an effort to determine if the journal accepts research articles authored by undergraduate students. Require each student to compile a list of five journals with the accompanying data on submission requirements. Lead a discussion on students’ findings. Collect the assignments, and ask for volunteers to separate the duplicate journals submitted and to develop a folder of the journals selected along with the criteria for submission. A one-page summary for each journal chosen should be prepared for this purpose.

 After refining an appropriate research topic, separate the class into two groups. Assign one group to conduct a literature review in the traditional manner by physically visiting the library and using library resources such as the author index and the subject index. Have the other group conduct a literature review using only the computer. Following the exercise, discuss the advantages of each method of conducting the review.

 After viewing Stanley Milgram’s research video Obedience, lead a class discussion on the ethical issues of this study. In small groups, have students develop research plans including an initial research question that would better protect the subjects. Each group should share its plan with the class and lead a discussion on the challenges in studying sociological phenomena while protecting subjects.

Instructor’s Manual for Henslin, Essentials of Sociology: A Down-to-Earth Approach, 14/e

Chapter 2: Culture

Chapter Summary

This chapter examines how culture shapes our orientation to life. Culture includes many components such as gestures, language, values, norms and sanctions, folkways, mores, and taboos. Sociologists promote cultural relativism to understand and appreciate cultures other than our own. Subcultures and countercultures exist within cultures. Subcultures have their own cultures, but do not push against the mainstream culture. For example, teenagers could be considered a subculture. Countercultures, however, go against the mainstream culture. This chapter also discusses sociobiology and examines the relationship between genes and human behavior; most sociologists consider genes to be an inadequate explanation of behavior. The chapter ends with a discussion of technology and how it plays a crucial role in changing culture across space. With the increased flow of technology, cultural diffusion has increased, shifting cultural norms from one country to another. On the other hand, cultural lag occurs when a cultural practice lags behind a technological change. Conversely, cultural leveling describes the process of countries becoming more similar to one another culturally.

Learning Objectives

LO 2.1 Explain what culture is, how culture provides orientations to life, and what practicing cultural relativism means.

LO 2.2 Know the components of symbolic culture: gestures, language, values, norms, sanctions, folkways, mores, and taboos; also explain the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.

LO 2.3 Distinguish between subcultures and countercultures.

LO 2.4 Discuss the major U.S. values and explain value clusters, value contradictions, value clashes, how values are lenses of perception, and ideal culture versus real culture.

LO 2.5 Explain why most sociologists consider genes to be an inadequate explanation of human behavior.

LO 2.6 Explain how technology changes culture and what cultural lag and cultural leveling are.

Chapter Outline

A. What Is Culture?

2.1 Explain what culture is, how culture provides orientations to life, and what practicing cultural relativism means.

1. The concept of culture is sometimes easier to grasp by description than by definition. All human groups possess culture, which consists of the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material objects passed from one generation to the next.

2. Culture can be subdivided into material culture and nonmaterial culture