The Kings School Institute - The Leader 2025

Editors

Associate Professor Dean Dudley, Macquarie University

Associate Professor David Hastie, Charles Sturt University, The King’s School Institute

Editorial Board

Associate Professor Paul Evans, University of NSW

Associate Professor Wayne Cotton, University of Sydney

Proofing

Di Laycock

Editorial Assistant

Kylie Sandilands

Contributors

Tony George

Peter Allison

Jen George

Alex Hone

Paul Jones

David Massingham

William Sandwell

Melanie Taylor

Access this journal online at: https://issuu.com/thekingsschool_official/docs/leader_2.1

The King’s School Institute (02) 9683 8555 | thekingsinstitute@kings.edu.au

ISSN 2982-0197 (Online) ISSN 2982-0189 (Print)

Introduction

Dean Dudley Featured Articles

Directing Attention Deficit Disorder

Tony George

Rationale and Study Protocol to Examine the Recreational Screen Device Habits of 5 to 12 Year Old Children at The King’s School Preparatory School

Peter Allison

Educational Communities and Australian Social Capital

Jen George

What is the Purpose of Music Education? A Comparison of Neoliberalism and Character Education

Alex Hone

Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming

Paul Jones

How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and it’s Environment (HSIE) Students??

David Massingham

“Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport

William Sandwell

Lifting the Load in Visual Arts Through Effective Instructional Design

Melanie Taylor

Introduction Dean Dudley - Macquarie University

The King’s School Institute is pleased to present the second issue of Leader for 2024, showcasing a selection of insightful and forward-thinking articles by senior staff, teachers, and research fellows affiliated with The King’s School. This edition features eight contributions that delve into diverse areas of educational theory and practice, providing a platform for the voices within The King’s School to engage with current and emerging conversations in education.

The articles in this issue collectively explore the role of education in shaping both the intellectual and moral character of students. Several contributions examine the importance of character development, not only as an explicit goal of schooling but also as an inherent outcome of various educational practices. From the structured teaching of virtues to the nuanced development of personal and social responsibility, these pieces highlight how educators can foster resilience, ethical reasoning, and civic engagement. Notably, the intersection between music education and character formation is explored, illustrating how artistic disciplines contribute to students’ moral and emotional growth.

Other contributions consider the evolving challenges and opportunities presented by contemporary education. The impact of children’s screen time is critically examined, with insights into how digital engagement affects cognitive and social development. Similarly, reflective journaling and video gaming are analysed for their potential in fostering self-awareness and metacognition, prompting important discussions on how educators might harness these tools for meaningful learning. In parallel, the article on instructional design in visual arts underscores the necessity of pedagogical intentionality in shaping students’ creative and critical capacities.

Beyond individual learning, this issue also highlights the broader social and political dimensions of education. One article examines how educational communities function as hubs of social capital, emphasising the role of relationships in student success. Another tackles the complexities of teaching political nuance, offering strategies for helping students navigate ideological divides with discernment and empathy. Together, these contributions reinforce the idea that schools are not just places of knowledge transmission but spaces where students develop the capacities to think, reflect, and contribute meaningfully to society.

By bringing together these diverse perspectives, Leader aims to foster an ongoing dialogue about the evolving role of education in shaping young minds and character. Whether through innovative teaching practices, reflections on digital culture, or explorations of community and civic engagement, this issue offers valuable insights for educators seeking to navigate the complexities of modern schooling with purpose and vision.

We invite members of The King’s School community and our colleagues in the wider field of education to read, reflect, and engage with the insights offered in this issue. It is our hope that these articles will inspire meaningful dialogue, ignite new ideas, and contribute to the ongoing development of educational practice and leadership.

Regards,

Associate Professor Dean Dudley, CF PhD (UW), M.Sc (Oxford), M.Ed – Research (UW), CAEL (Harvard), Grad Dip Ed – Secondary (UWS), B.HSc (UWS)

Directing Attention Deficit Disorder

Tony George - Headmaster, The King’s School

George T. (2024). Directing Attention Deficit Disorder. Leader (2)1. 1-12

Over the past year, we have seen an extraordinary bipartisan commitment across both State and Federal levels of Australian governments to ban social media access for children. The announcements have garnered significant support from various groups across society, especially parents. The motivation for addressing the social media rampage on our children has substantial statistical support. According to McCrindle Research (2024), 47% of Australians indicate that social media is having a negative impact on mental health, 56% of Australians admit they struggle with too much screentime, and 67% of Australians are trying to reduce the amount of time they spend on social media. Notably, 74% of students, our digital natives, want to get off social media.

Social media is just one of the digital phenomena that has transformed our world in the last couple of decades, along with newsfeeds, apps, and screen time more generally, all aided and abetted by the proliferation of a range of various devices, such as digital phones and tablets and laptops and watches. Meanwhile, increased screen time has been negatively associated with addiction, reduced physical activity, poor academic performance, disrupted sleep patterns, antisocial behaviour, loneliness, and depression (Gentile et al., 2011; Twenge & Campbell, 2018; Valkenburg & Peter, 2009).

These developments have outpaced school-based education, which has struggled to catch up and take the initiative to help students navigate the complexities of the technologies

and associated online offerings. At least two significant transformations have occurred. First, devices have moved from the public domain to the private domain (Bower, 2019) and second, content has moved from the generic to the tailored (Santiago et al., 2021). These developments have significantly impacted the efficacy of school-based education, as school environments are essentially public and generic, not private and tailored. Put another way: schools are responsible for teaching in classrooms, not bedrooms.

As students have increasingly moved towards the private and tailored realms of digital device use and content consumption, they have inevitably gone alone as schools and parents are excluded from going with them (Berriman & Thomson, 2015). This raises issues of critical importance for school leaders in how schools and parents best support children as they develop the wisdom, discernment, character and judgement (Selwyn & Aagaard, 2021) to be able to master the use of digital technologies and content, rather than be mastered by it (Livingstone & Helsper, 2010).

Understanding Human Attention

The fundamental issue is how we best help children develop the competence and inclination to direct their attention to what matters, to the significant and beneficial, rather than the frivolous and detrimental. This requires intentional wisdom. Intentional wisdom is not merely wisdom in how we best respond to life’s situations but the wisdom to influence and create better life situations for ourselves and others (Sternberg, 2019). This kind of wisdom draws on our human ability to direct our attention and the attention

of others towards that which is of interest, and we choose between different things of interest depending on what we value (Schwartz & Sharpe, 2006). Our values influence our choices and our behaviour (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Damon, 2008).

Understanding our anthropology and the rise of globalisation might help clarify how developing wisdom and character in our students might better support them in the private and bespoke worlds of digital technology.

Anthropology

Humans are unique amongst the animal kingdom in various ways, but especially in our ability to direct our attention towards what is important or significant to us (Tomasello, 2019). This proactive intentional activity of directing our attention enables us to effect better and more successful decision-making, especially problem-solving (Carruthers, 2015). This involves a proactive stance, not merely a reactive stance, in that we can choose what we need or want to set our minds to and commit our efforts and resources to addressing things that matter to us (Klein, 2008). Further, to the extent that leadership is concerned with effecting collective decision-making, this also entails effecting the collective directing of attention of groups, communities, organisations, and societies. And while humans, especially adolescent males, can direct attention by pointing or grunting, for example, the development and use of human language allows us to do so in more nuanced and sophisticated ways, with meaning and purpose, and with vision and commitment (Donald, 2001).

In many respects, this is our human super-power – the ability to bring together and motivate large groups of people to change our physical and social worlds, for better or worse.

Humans have been able to improve our ways and conditions of life, whether in things such as education, health, communications, travel, technology, or entertainment. Still, we have done so by creating significant problems as well. These include climate change, poverty, psychosocial disease, wars ,and famine, just to name a few. One of our most significant human limitations seems to be the ability to progress our knowledge and skills but not the wisdom and discernment necessary to use them well. This is the perspective of the philosopher Nicholas Maxwell in his book From Knowledge to Wisdom: A Revolution for Science and the Humanities (2007). While originally published in 1984, Maxwell’s call to wisdom is even more relevant and prescient today. With the recent rise of technology, the internet, social media, and newsfeeds, we are becoming increasingly reactive rather than proactive in directing our attention to what matters (Carr, 2011). This could be conceived as a kind of human disorder, a directing attention deficit disorder (DADD). An educational solution to this disorder requires developing in our children the competence and inclination to be able to proactively direct attention to what matters (Sternberg, 2013). The significance of this perspective is more pertinent when we consider the impact of globalisation.

globalisation (Baldwin, 2016). Increasing globalisation has brought benefits in trade, communication, travel, and education. It has also brought new opportunities for global corporations that, in turn, have created some challenges. These challenges include regulating markets, taxation, and employment across international boundaries by nation states that seek to hold global corporations accountable for the common good (Flew, 2021). Increasing tension and competition exists between nation states and global media corporations (Bloem et al, 2014). We now live in a time where the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and influence of some global corporations exceed the GDP and influence of nation states.

Recent commitments to ban social media use by children in Australia have brought to the fore the potential tension between Australia as a nation state and global media corporations such as MetaTM (Zuboff, 2019). Australia as a nation state has responsibilities to Australian citizens, while MetaTM seeks to attract Australian citizens as customers. This creates potentially unhelpful competition between nation states who vie for the attention of citizens and global media corporations who vie for the attention of consumers. Governments want votes and support, while media corporations want clicks and revenue (Napoli, 2019). This competition bears out in various ways, but particularly in the public sphere of opinions and ideologies. For example, while nation states benefit from ideological stability, global media corporations benefit more from instability (McChesney, 2015). When citizens are more stable and peaceful, governments can get on with governing more easily. However, when consumers

are less stable and more anxious, media clickbait generates greater financial benefits for global corporations (Pickard, 2020). Bad news is good news for monetising clickbait; war stories sell advertising (Tufekci, 2018).

Therefore, while increases in screen time by children is mainly due to increasing reactive attention responses to online stimuli, whether games, social media, or news feeds, globalisation brings the added influence of the competitive stance of nation/states and global media corporations. While this situation can be to our detriment, it is unlikely to abate anytime soon due to the significant financial drivers for global media corporations and the significant difficulties faced by nation/states wanting to regulate the global activities of these corporations. However, a commitment to the development of wisdom and character offers some hope.

Wisdom and Character

The King’s School is committed to producing graduates as global thought leaders through academic excellence with character development in the context of Christian community. King’s graduates, then, should be characterised as those who can direct their attention and the attention of others to what is important and significant rather than the merely frivolous and salacious (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999). At King’s, “character” is understood as the ability to exercise wisdom under pressure. This pressure includes the online pressure of clickbait, gaming, social media, and idiosyncratic newsfeeds (Greenfield, 2014). Further, character development is predicated on the understanding that we need to prepare

George T. (2024). Directing Attention Deficit Disorder. Leader (2)1. 1-12

our students for those times when decisions and outcomes are mainly dependent upon their ability to direct attention to things that matter, including the private and tailored context of the online world (Duckworth & Seligman, 2005). Importantly, it is the Anglican Christian community context of The King’s School that provides necessary context for the development of an Anglican Christian wisdom (King & Benson, 2006).

While the measures of success depend on outcomes occurring in the private and tailored contexts of students and graduates, the School’s indicators of influence are likely to be evidenced in less screen time, more balanced and critical newsfeeds, and more discerning, sophisticated, and nuanced engagement with social media (Orben & Przybylski, 2019; Radesky & Christakis, 2016). It is also anticipated that King’s students and graduates will be less anxious and more secure kinds of people (Chassiakos et al., 2016). These are desirable outcomes. However, the challenge facing schools such as The King’s School is how to influence and achieve outcomes in our students’ private and tailored worlds from a school context that is fundamentally public and generic.

Public and Generic Versus Private and Bespoke

School-based education is the public and generic approach to enculturating one generation to the next (Biesta, 2015; Green, 2013; Labaree, 1997). Schools are public spaces in that they are open and visible places of learning, where teachers and students engage together in classrooms and

George T. (2024). Directing Attention Deficit Disorder. Leader (2)1. 1-12

on sports fields, and where teaching and learning are visible. Schools are also places of generic teaching and learning programmes with formal curricula and publicly agreed learning outcomes, measures, and reporting (Apple, 2004; Levin, 2008). It is from this public and generic context of schools that we seek to influence the private and bespoke spaces of our students’ digital and online experiences.

With the development and introduction of digital devices and the online delivery of content, humans can learn in more private and bespoke ways (Clark & Luckin, 2013). Tablets, phones, and laptops have taken over from bigger and more visible desktops, allowing users to retreat from public and visible places to more private and intimate places (Livingstone, 2009). Computers, for example, used to be accessible only in specialist classrooms with teacher supervision, whereas they can now be replaced by personal devices used by a student in their bedroom, in the playground, or on a bus. These more private places are more easily hidden from parental or teacher supervision (Turkle, 2017).

Content has also become more bespoke, as online analytics with algorithms can tailor content to suit the interests and preferences of individual users (Pariser, 2011). Whereas news and media were provided more publicly in newspapers and on websites in a generic fashion, online media and newsfeeds are more highly customised to each user. This has the effect of an increase in the confirmation bias of users, where they continue to be “fed” with content that confirms the preference or prejudice of the user rather than providing alternative or more critical and diverse points of

view (Flaxman et al., 2016). Students are finding themselves more in the echo chambers of what they already think or value rather than being able to engage more broadly with different points of view (Sunstein, 2018). This phenomenon negates the purpose of formal curricula intended to educate and inform a broad-based and critical citizenry (Van Dijck & Poell, 2013). Instead, we are seeing the rise of extreme ideologies and particular interest groups (Munger & Phillips, 2022).

There are significant challenges for schools and parents in this space for the contested attention of students and children, particularly as the contested spaces are increasingly private and bespoke (Livingstone & Sefton-Green, 2016). The consequence of such contested spaces is increasing isolation and loneliness, both socially and ideologically (Twenge, 2017). Further, as schools and parents are less likely to be invited into these private and bespoke spaces, they need to be more influential in the public and generic spaces in supporting, encouraging, shaping, and equipping students and children to manage their private and bespoke spaces better (Aboujaoude et al., 2006; Halloway et al., 2013; cf. Vygotsky, 1978). Schools and parents need to be able to coach and mentor students and children to be ready, willing, and able to navigate their private and bespoke worlds more effectively and successfully (Twenge, 2017).

Conclusion

The increasing regulation of social media access for children under the age of 14 years by Australian governments reflects growing

T. (2024).

public concern, supported by a body of research linking early social media exposure to negative developmental outcomes (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2019; Livingstone & BlumRoss, 2020; Odgers & Jensen, 2020). Studies have shown that excessive screen time and unregulated media use can exacerbate conditions like anxiety, depression, and attention disorders in children (Twenge, et al., 2018). However, these issues are not confined to children alone; teenagers and adults are also deeply affected by the pervasive use of social media, as evidenced by research highlighting its impact on mental health and cognitive functioning (Keles, et al., 2020).

Prioritising child protection is crucial but addressing the broader societal implications of directing attention deficit disorder (DADD) requires more than simply delaying social media engagement until adolescence. Research points to the need for adult role models—parents, educators, and policymakers—to exhibit digital literacy and self-regulation as key to fostering healthier media habits in younger generations. Empirical studies have demonstrated that when adults actively engage in mentoring and modelling critical thinking and responsible media consumption, children are more likely to develop these competencies themselves.

Moreover, recent research underscores the importance of family and community environments in shaping children’s critical thinking and media literacy skills. By creating structured conversations around media and news consumption, adults can guide the development of these skills. The onus is on families, schools, and communities to set the social and behavioural standards needed to mitigate the effects of pervasive digital distractions. Evidence supports the idea that directing our collective attention to the things that matter—particularly the wellbeing and character of our children—can lead to healthier societal outcomes (Berkowitz & Bier, 2005; Heckman & Kautz, 2012; Lippman, et al., 2011; Oberle & Schonert-Reichl, 2017; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). This is a pivotal moment for reclaiming control over the digital landscape and ensuring that it supports, rather than detracts from, cognitive, and emotional development of our King’s School graduates.

George T. (2024). Directing Attention Deficit Disorder. Leader (2)1. 1-12

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Rationale and Study Protocol to Examine the Recreational Screen Device Habits of 5 to 12 Year Old Children at The King’s School Preparatory School

Peter Allison - Head of The King’s School, Preparatory School

Screen time activity is a widely discussed and debated topic amongst parents, educators and the community (Blum-Ross & Livingstone, 2016; Størup, & Lieberoth, 2023). The proliferation of recreational screen devices such as smartphones, iPads, laptops and gaming consoles offers children enticing options to absorb their focus within indoor home environments. The convenience of the devices and the independence with which they can be operated by children become very attractive options for parents as well.

Screen devices offer a multitude of benefits for children, including access to motivating educational and research tools, creative and problem-solving platforms, social connectivity, and entertainment. However, excessive use of recreational screen devices has raised significant concerns among health professionals, educators and parents (Charan et al, 2024; Throuvala et al, 2021). Most notably, issues such as reduced physical activity, an increase in childhood obesity, sleep disturbances, and potential impacts on mental health are increasingly associated with excessive screen time use.

A dual role exists between the school and the home environment to help shape the screen time habits of young children. Schools can educate and guide students on understanding the importance of balance for a healthy life, practices

for online safety and the promotion of models of proportionate digital habits. Likewise, parents guide and regulate their children’s screen time, fostering environments that either mitigate or exacerbate the risks associated with excessive device use.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the research on the impacts of excessive screen use for children between the ages of 5 to 12 years old as a background in preparation for a proposed study within The King’s School Preparatory School in 2025. Much has been written about in the areas of cognitive and physical impacts of excessive screen use. However, this literature review specifically focuses on understanding the implications for children’s psychological, emotional, and social development. It will also help inform recommendations for the development of healthy screen device habits of children within the 5 to12 year range.

The proposed research will provide a platform of understanding to guide the investigations into the digital screen time habits of children aged between 5 to 12 years of age at The King’s School Preparatory School. Tools will be examined to determine the approach to be adopted for gaining data on screen device usage of the students involved in the study. The literature review will also be beneficial in shaping communication to parents about the importance Allison P.

(2024).

of this study.

Accordingly, the proposed study has been directed by the following two overarching research questions:

• What are the current recreational screen device habits of 5-12 year-old children at The King’s School Preparatory School?

• What are the social implications of excessive recreational screen time on primary aged school children at The King’s School Preparatory School?

Screen Time and Australian Children

National Guidelines

Excessive screen time is the top health concern for children reported by parents. (Joshi & Hinkley 2021). The Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care (2021) advise that children aged between 5-17 years should be limited to two hours of sedentary recreational screen time per day. Increase beyond these recommended guidelines would be considered excessive. These recommendations are equally supported by the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology (CESP, 2021). For the purposes of this study, excessive screen time has been defined as screen use more than the suggested two-hour daily guideline.

Impacts of Excessive Screen Time on Digital Devices for Primary School-Aged Children

Understanding the impact of excessive screen time on children aged 5 to 12 years has

become crucial. Research conducted over the past ten years has identified the impacts that excessive screen time can have on cognitive, physical, psychological and emotional health, and social development (Liu et al, 2022; Wilkinson, 2021). Research into the areas of psychological and emotional health and the impact on social development is a growing area of study with societal concerns about the increase in childhood anxiety and depression.

Psychological and Emotional Impacts

A systematic scoping review into the psychological impacts of “screen time” and “green time” conducted by Oswald et al. (2020) focused on the psychological wellbeing of children. The study was divided into different age categories, including young children (less than 5 years), elementary school-aged children (5-11 years), early adolescents (12-14 years), and older adolescents (15-18 years). The researchers found that screen time is generally associated with negative psychological outcomes, while green time is associated with positive psychological outcomes. Some of the psychological and emotional impacts identified included indicators of poor mental health, cognitive control such as self-regulation, attention, executive functioning, and working memory. It should be noted that the ways that screen time and green time were conceptualised and measured were highly heterogeneous, limiting the ability to synthesise the literature. The study also found that young people from low socioeconomic backgrounds may be disproportionately affected by high screen time and low green time.

Allison P. (2024). Rationale and Study Protocol to Examine the Recreational Screen Device Habits of 5 to 12

Year Old Children at The King’s School Preparatory School. Leader (2)1. 13-22

The direct relationship between screen time and mental health was examined in a research study conducted by Twenge and Campbell (2018). This study found that higher screen time is associated with increased rates of depression, anxiety, and lower psychological wellbeing in children and adolescents. The study proposed that the content consumed, and the displacement of face-to-face social interactions play critical roles in these outcomes.

The concept of “digital screen time displacement” was examined in a study by Przybylski and Weinstein (2017). This study examined where screen time replaces activities that contribute to emotional wellbeing, such as outdoor play and social interactions. The findings indicated that moderate screen time, when managed appropriately, did not significantly impact children’s mental health. However, excessive screen time, particularly when it interfered with other essential activities, led to adverse psychological outcomes. High users of digital devices were found to demonstrate less curiosity, self-control, and emotional stability. The study also found that twice as many high users of screens had anxiety or depression diagnoses. Notable differences were found between the wellbeing for adolescents and young children, with adolescents indicating greater general wellbeing issues than their younger counterparts.

Conducting their research during the global pandemic, Hollenstein and Colasante (2020), explored the impact of digital technology on the socioemotional development of youth. They identify that emotional experiences in digital spaces are inherently social and reflect

interpersonal relationships. Digital devices were found to often mirror non-digital experiences fulfilling emotional needs such as play, validation and support.

One of the main concerns with youth digital experiences is the potential for symptoms of anxiety and depression, often caused through online social comparisons, decreased face-to-face contact, and incidents of relational aggression. Hollenstein and Colasante (2020) make the case that mental health symptoms encompass a range of characteristics that persist for weeks in order to meet diagnostic criteria, yet emerge as a result of more proximal mechanisms that occur on a moment-to-moment (or real-time) basis and may repeat over hours or days. Therefore, to connect real-time digital experiences to long term results of mood and symptoms over weeks or months, a focus must occur on the co-occurring, functional, real-time mechanisms.

Hollenstein and Colasante (2020) identify the emotion of shame as a candidate mechanism for understanding how youth digital experiences may elicit mental health challenges. Shame is examined as a critical emotional response that can exacerbate mental health issues like anxiety and depression, particularly when children are victims of online bullying or social comparison. Hollenstein and Colasante (2020) purport that digital environments offer new opportunities for practising emotional regulation, such as regulating emotions like shame. The differences in regulation strategies may determine whether digital experiences are harmful or beneficial. The research advocates for a balanced approach in understanding digital media’s role in youth

development. It stresses the importance of considering both the positive and negative emotional experiences that arise from digital interactions, while encouraging further research to understand the long-term developmental implications.

Impacts on Social Development

A great strength of digital experiences is the opportunities that these experiences allow people to connect with other human beings across the globe in various and sometimes novel ways. This is particularly appealing for children who are striving to explore their place in the world and their growing independence and desire for communion and integration. Although these social and emotional challenges are not new, within the digital world these experiences are enhanced in novel opportunities that allow them to break free of their immediate social domain.

The negative impact on the expected developmental levels of social skills was identified in a study executed by Madigan et al. (2020). This study found that children with high screen time had poorer social skills and experienced more difficulties in peer relationships. Additionally, excessive screen use, fast-paced content, and unsupervised screen exposure were disruptive to a child’s development. This research highlighted the importance of real-life social interactions for developing social competence and emotional regulation, recommending that screen use for young children should address unique family dynamics, needs, and daily life characteristics.

In an Australian study conducted by Monash University, Ye et al (2020) investigated

the differential impacts of various types of screen time (educational versus recreational) on children’s quality of life and participation in activities. It found that educational screen time had a neutral or positive effect, while recreational screen time was associated with lower quality of life and decreased participation in physical and social activities. Conversely, educational, social and passive screen time were positively correlated with increased participation in home, community and school activities.

The Gonski Growing Up Digital Report (2020) was conducted by the Australian Gonski Institute for Education. The report surveyed 1,876 Australian educators who indicated that the increase in screen time impacted readiness to learn, with the vast majority identifying the ability to focus on educational tasks has decreased. The report found that excessive screen time negatively impacts attention, learning outcomes, and social skills, recommending policies and practices to support balanced digital engagement.

In another wide-reaching Australian study conducted by the eSafety Commissioner entitled State of Play – Youth, Kids and Digital Dangers (2018), the report focused on social media usage by young people aged 8-17 years in Australia. The key findings noted that young people encounter a variety of online challenges, such as unwanted contact from strangers (25%), social exclusion (21%) bullying (19%), and access to negative content. These instances impacted the emotional and psychological state of users, with many reporting anger, fear, and helplessness, and indicating that girls and teens encountered these issues more frequently. Some positive

outcomes were reported, despite these challenges, including the increased awareness of online risks, a deeper understanding of genuine friendships and improved ways of managing difficult online encounters. The report highlighted the need for ongoing education and support to children and youth in navigating online experiences.

Recreational Screen Habits of Children in The King’s School Preparatory School

During my 12 years of leadership of the Preparatory School I have seen an increase in the number of children who exhibit high levels of anxiety. Within the classroom this may be evidenced through a reluctance to begin tasks for fear of failure, a lack of persistence with challenging tasks, an inability to remain focused on tasks, perfectionism, or the increased need for constant affirmation. Some children exhibit a heightened concern for how they are being perceived by their peers, which can result in social withdrawal or over-reactions to certain situations.

Coupled with an increase in anxiety, has been the growing number of children who experience difficulties with emotional regulation. This may occur within structured settings, such as when collaborating with peers on learning tasks or participating in physical activities during break times. These children quickly move from a state of calm into rage or distress. The response is often not proportionate to the situation. These responses can have an impact on the health of their relationships with peers.

Alongside these anecdotal observations has been the growing frequency in which parents are

seeking guidance and support from teachers and those in leadership roles around managing digital devices within the home with their children. Conversations with parents report regular conflict, fluctuating moods, and emotional outbursts, particularly when time limits are imposed. The impact on mood can also be influenced by levels of competition and the commentary of participants with whom they are involved during online gaming activities. The impact on mood and emotional regulation can linger well beyond the conclusion of the gaming session.

These observations, community commentary, and an examination of literature on the impact of excessive screen use for children, have sponsored the research proposal to examine the recreational screen habits of children at The King’s School Preparatory School.

Research Design and Data Collection Study Design

This study protocol will investigate the current recreational screen device habits of 5 to12 year-old children at The King’s School Preparatory School. Two research questionnaires will be utilised to gather data for analysis, targeting feedback from two sources within the Prep community – parents of children aged 5 to12 years of age and students in Stage 3 (10 to 12 years of age.)

Parent Reported Questionnaire

The study will utilise the SCREENS-Q Questionnaire (Klakk et al., 2020) to assess leisure time screen-based media use. The SCREENS-Q was developed through an iterative

process involving literature review, expert input, and feedback from parents. The process was guided by a socioecological model, ensuring the questionnaire covered a broad range of factors. The questionnaire was tested for reliability and validity through field tests with a sample of parents from the target population. In terms of reliability, the results showed moderate to substantial reliability, with Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC) ranging from 0.67 to 0.90 for continuous variables.

The tools were also assessed for internal consistency, showing good correlations between different measures of screen time, indicating that the questionnaire reliably captures the intended composition.

For ease of test implementation, the questionnaire is able to be completed by parents within a 15-minute period. As the time taken to complete the questionnaire is not onerous, it should assist with appeal amongst the parent body for involvement in the study.

The questionnaire contains 19 questions covering 92 items across 6 domains:

• Screen Media Environment: Assesses the types and number of devices available in the household, the frequency of use, and rules regarding screen time.

• Child’s Screen Media Use: Measures the amount of time spent on different types of screen activities, including TV, gaming, and social media, on both weekdays and weekends.

• Context of Screen Media Use: Examines

the situational aspects of media use, such as whether the child uses media alone or with others and whether multiple devices are used simultaneously.

• Early Exposure: Looks at the age at which children began using certain devices.

• Parental Perception of Child’s Media Use: Captures parents’ concerns and attitudes toward their child’s media use, including potential impacts on health and behaviour.

• Parental Media Use: Records the media habits of the parents, which could influence the child’s behaviour.

It is intended that the Questionnaire will be sent to parents to complete online, using the online survey tool, Qualtrics, to assist with presentation and scoring.

Student Reported Questionnaire

The second tool to be utilised to gain data is designed for primary aged children. For the purpose of this study, the children in Years 3 to 6 (8 to 12 year-olds) will be involved in the study.

Most student reported assessment tools for screen media use are bespoke tools developed by designers of the studies. In a systematic review of validated tools for screen media use conducted by Perez et al. (2023), the researchers conducted a thorough search covering literature up to June 2022 across multiple databases, including Medline, Embase, Web of Science, PsychInfo, Cochrane, Google Scholar, and IEEE. Allison P. (2024). Rationale and Study Protocol to Examine the Recreational Screen Device Habits of 5 to 12 Year Old Children at The King’s School Preparatory School. Leader (2)1. 13-22

The inclusion criteria focused on studies that described the validation of tools for measuring screen media use against an objective measure.

The study by Perez and colleagues (2023) concluded that technology-based validated tools and video observation are the most effective measures to evaluate screen use. While many tools are still in developmental phase, the study found that self-reports and parent report survey tools do illuminate indicative data, even if they are not as accurate as technology-based and video observation tools.

For the purposes of this study, a screen time questionnaire will be developed for younger children from the tool developed by Vizcaino et al. (2019) in the research project that examined modern screen time in adults.

Parent Focus Groups

To supplement the SCREENS-Q Questionnaire (Klakk et al., 2020) for parents and the child focused questionnaire, focus groups will be operated with volunteer parents to gather further information. This approach will add greater depth, context, and nuanced understanding to the data collected from student and parent questionnaires.

Focus groups will enable parents to expand on various areas examined in the questionnaires. They may reveal a range of experiences amongst families such as screen time rules, monitoring practices and perceptions on children’s health and behaviour. The discussions will help to identify common themes, areas of consensus, and variability. The qualitative data gained from the

focus groups can be used to triangulate findings from the questionnaires, providing a richer and more comprehensive understanding on the issue of screen time use.

Timeline for Study

It is the intention to implement the research study in the second half of the first academic term in March 2025. The questionnaires and focus groups will be conducted over a four-week period. Information and the necessary consent forms for involvement will be sent prior to the implementation of the questionnaires and focus groups.

The second academic term of 2025 will be utilised for data analysis and the development of the corresponding report.

Allison P. (2024). Rationale and Study Protocol to Examine the Recreational Screen Device Habits of 5 to 12 Year Old Children at The King’s School Preparatory School. Leader (2)1. 13-22

Figure1

Timeline for proposed research tasks, analysis and reporting

Preparation & Consent

Report Development Feb

Questionnaires & Focus Groups

Data Analysis

Discussion

The primary aim of this research study is to gain a clearer understanding of the current recreational screen device habits of 5 to12 year-old children at The King’s School Preparatory School. The data will be illuminating in the light of the literature review of research on the impacts of excessive screen use for children between the ages of 5 to 12 years on their physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development. For the purposes of this study, excessive screen time has been defined as screen use more than the suggested twohour daily guideline contained in the Australian Government Department of Health and Aged Care Report (Joshi & Hinkley 2021).

The collation and analysis of the research

data will be beneficial in gaining a tangible indication of the screen device habits of students at The King’s School, Preparatory School. These results will be communicated to The Preparatory School community. The results will inform next steps in educating students and parents on recreational screen device use, and the health and wellbeing implications of excessive exposure. The study will inform recommendations for the development of healthy screen device habits for 5 to 12 year-old boys at the School.

References

Blum-Ross, A. & S. Livingstone (2016). Families and screen time: Current advice and

emerging research. Media Policy Brief 17. Media Policy Project, London School of Economics and Political Science.

Charan, G. S., Kalia, R., Khurana, M. S., & Narang, G. S. (2024). From Screens to Sunshine: Rescuing Children’s Outdoor Playtime in the Digital Era. Journal of Indian Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 20(1), 11-17.

Department for Education South Australia (2024) Wellbeing and engagement collection overview and results https://www.education. sa.gov.au/department/research-andstatistics/statistics-and-data/wellbeingand-engagement-collection-survey/ about-wellbeing-and-engagement-collection Department of Health and Aged Care (2021) – Physical activity and exercise guidelines for all Australians May 2021 https://www.health.gov.au/topics/physicalactivity-and-exercise/physical-activity-andexercise-guidelines-for-all-australians/ for-children-and-young-people-5-to-17-years

Hollenstein, T., & Colasante, T. (2020). Socioemotional development in the digital age. Psychological Inquiry, 31(3), 250-257.

Klakk, H., Wester, C. T., Olesen, L. G., Rasmussen, M. G., Kristensen, P. L., Pedersen, J., & Grøntved, A. (2020). The development of a questionnaire to assess leisure time screenbased media use and its proximal correlates in children (SCREENS-Q). BMC Public Health, 20, 1-12.

Joshi, A., & Hinkley, T. (2021). Too much time on screens? Screen time effects and guidelines for children and young people. Australian Institute of Family Studies.

Oswald, T. K., Rumbold, A. R., Kedzior, S. G., & Moore, V. M. (2020). Psychological impacts of “screen time” and “green time” for children and adolescents: A systematic scoping review. PloS one, 15(9), e0237725.

Størup, J. O., & Lieberoth, A. (2023). What’s the problem with “screen time”? A content analysis of dominant voices and worries in three years of national print media. Convergence, 29(1), 201-224. https://doi. org/10.1177/13548565211065299

Throuvala, M. A., Griffiths, M. D., Rennoldson, M., & Kuss, D. J. (2021). Policy recommendations for preventing problematic internet use in schools: a qualitative study of parental perspectives. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4522.

Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2018). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a populationbased study. Preventive Medicine Reports, 12, 271-283.

Wilkinson, C., Low, F., & Gluckman, P. (2021). Screen time: The effects on children’s emotional, social, and cognitive development. The University of Auckland: The Centre for Informed Futures.

Ye, W., Brown, T., & Yu, M. L. (2023). The impact of different types of screen time on school-aged children’s quality of life and participation. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 86(1), 62-75.

Allison P. (2024). Rationale and Study Protocol to Examine the Recreational Screen Device Habits of 5 to 12 Year Old Children at The King’s School Preparatory School. Leader (2)1. 13-22

Educational Communities and Australian Social Capital

Dr Jen George - Honorary Research Fellow, The King’s School Institute

As Australia faces new social and economic challenges such as loneliness, mental health, and socio-economic inequity, as well as concerns around increasingly polarising public discourse and threats of civic unrest, many all wonder how it will progress.

It is increasingly common to see protests on the streets of Sydney and Melbourne about the rights of people suffering in wars on the other side of the world. The way we engage in any issue that we feel strongly about, especially in the public sphere, is dependent on agreed societal norms and behaviours. Our personal, family, and close community norms may need to compromise at times to accommodate the needs of others and especially agreed societal norms. This is what living with others in a cohesive society requires. Close or thick bonds of trust with our own people—those we share much in common with and from whom we get our identity and sense of belonging—and thin, yet still important, bonds of trust with other people and groups different to us (Putnam, 1993). The research and policy work into social cohesion show a need for social capacity to be developed in, and between, individuals, communities, and institutions (Foncesa et al., 2018).

This paper presents a case for the role of educational communities across Australia to

engage in leading the way towards social cohesion, through building social capital, community by community, and between communities, that are different from our own. Social capital can provide a theoretical context to contextualise schools as key community building organisations. Social capital can help us understand how to address the increasing demand to build a sense of belonging in school communities and give a sociological context to existing school practices, such as promoting the common good, service learning, and peer mentoring. Finally, school educational leaders need to be intentional and inclusive of all their community stakeholders to grow good citizens that are productive, prosocial, and proactive contributors towards social cohesion.

Community and Social Cohesion

We often talk of community and recognise that it is associated with human success, as individuals have a need for connection to others and this improves wellbeing (Lieberman, 2013). However, there is a need for greater understanding of the value of community or social capital. Social cohesion theory helps us understand the relationship between community and social capital in framing social cohesion as a basic building block of a functioning democratic western society.

Early observations of social cohesion included Emile Durkheim’s (1897, as cited

in Foncesa et al., 2018) reflection on the interdependence between individuals of a society, with respect to two characteristics: first, the absence of latent social conflict, and second, the presence of strong social bonds (e.g. civic society, responsive democracy, and impartial law enforcement). With reference to Durkheim, Foncesa et al. developed our understanding of social cohesion and the various contributing factors such as identity, social safety, volunteering, associations, and physical environments. They provide a revised definition of social cohesion as:

The ongoing process of developing wellbeing, sense of belonging, and voluntary social participation of the members of society, while developing communities that tolerate and promote a multiplicity of values and cultures and granting at the same time equal rights and opportunities in society. (Foncesa et al., 2018, p.246)

At the turn of the millennium, the idea of community was rebadged by sociologists as social capital. This was influenced by the rise of the economic rationalism of neoliberalism. Social capital is a term we use to measure the value of social interactions in our economy. The origins of this modern framing of social cohesion as social capital goes back to thinkers like Marx and Dewey. Bourdieu (1986) conceived of three broad types of capital: physical (buildings and physical resources), human (knowledge and skills), and social (positive other centre personal skills). Social capital uses economic language to increase its use and consideration in capitalist societies, although it is essentially an unseen and difficult-to-measure

component of a functioning society.

Robert Putnam (2000), a leading American sociologist, presents the case of the gradual decline in social capital over the last fifty years in his book, Bowling Alone. This includes declines in social trust, positive reciprocation, and connections. Andrew Leigh (2010) followed this up by examining at Australian social capital and found similar trends. For Putnam and Leigh, social capital is divided into three types: bridging, bonding, and linking. These concepts provide another lens through which to consider the wellbeing of individuals and communities and their contribution to society. Putnam (1993) observes:

Stocks of social capital, such as trust, norms, and networks, tend to be selfreinforcing and cumulative. Virtuous circles result in social equilibria with high levels of cooperation, trust, reciprocity, civic engagement, and collective wellbeing. These traits define the civic community. (p.177).

Essentially, all types of social capital— bonding, bridging and linking, are understood to have positive effects. However, bonding capital can be both positive and negative if it builds social barriers of exclusion against connecting with other groups (Putnam, 2000). Putnam places emphasis on bridging forms of networks and social capital, especially in multicultural countries. This is due to their role to “enable the creation of new forms of community and provide individuals from marginalized communities with access to a broader spectrum of resources than those

available in bonding forms of networks” (Vannebo & ljunggren, 2021, p.3).

The impact of social capital as an indicator for a functioning community is clear. Putnam (2000) defines community as individuals who are connected to each other with trusted networks and common values. While all individuals have an inner need to connect to others with trusted networks, there is also a mutually reinforcing requirement that all people are of equal value, valuing the rights of others and sharing responsibility for maintaining the common good for the benefit of others. Cuthill & Fien (2005), remind us of Freire’s (1970) great work and the need to build a “critical consciousness” of the individual’s responsibility for the common good. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2024) has broadened its understanding of common good to include a philosophical reflection on the relationship of mutual concern and what it requires of us beyond what we owe to each other as a matter of justice.

A healthy modern society depends on the social capital of individuals and communities contributing to the common good for all. Schools are significant communities committed to the common good as they build and develop social capital. Education for the common good is oriented towards the cultivation of character and commitment in the hearts and minds of students (Cheng & Iselin, 2020).

Schools as Communities of Social Capital

Since the 19th century, schools have primarily been social environments. John Dewey

(1899) suggested that when individuals connected to others in meaningful ways this was developing a valuable resource, that of social capital. Dewey posited that there is a need to create an environment, and education is necessary to bring out the best in any individual and that without this, society would lose its essential social capital. A century later, West-Burnham & Otero (2004) in the UK rallied the issue due to observing this loss. They argue that rather than continuing the emphasis on the technology of teaching, there is a need to develop the relationships across the educational and broader community through expanding the social environment of the learner. Research has also established a strong positive link between social capital and educational outcomes: “What is clear is that high social capital enhances academic success” (West-Burnham & Otero, 2004, p.3). In the case of educational communities, a central narrative can pull stakeholders together to assist in the development of social capital. “Students, teachers, school leaders, parents, and other school employees – are brought and linked together by the common focus and aim of education and learning” (Simmons, n.d., p. 1).

Strong norms underpinning social capital in schools have emerged based on faith-based understandings of human responsibility for each other and those in need. Common good motivations have been underpinned by religious obligations as well. The Catholic Church holds strongly to the practice of the common good in its religious and educational communities honouring notions of service and charity. The Anglican Church holds to the concept of church

(2024).

and state operating as complements for the good of the whole in provision of community needs and services. This includes schools practising inclusivity and an emphasis on equipping students as community leaders.

Schools as Cohesive Communities

The role of schools in building cohesive communities and providing community members with a sense of belonging is growing. Stakeholder groups in a school community include students, staff, volunteers, parents, and families. All stakeholder groups that are associated with an educational community understand and value their school connection. Regarding sense of community, McCrindle Research (2020) showed that:

Many parents believe the greatest strength of their child’s school is in fact the community. Almost nine in ten parents (88%) agree the school community has a positive impact on their child’s education, and the community provides good role models for their children (87%)”. And that “three quarters of parents (75%) agree the school community provides them with the opportunity to make good friends and they feel known by the school community” (71%). (para.2)

School communities are mostly “closed system” communities, and, over the years, a child at school can develop strong bonding capital in the student body. Principals and school leaders already recognise their significant role in building social capital, including acknowledging

the need to build thick trust in the increasingly diverse communities that they lead (Independent Schools Australia [ISA] & McCrindle, 2023). Principals also reported on engaging actively in inter-school collaborations, school competitions, global connections, and building inclusive communities through scholarships that welcome children from Aboriginal and migrant families (ISA & McCrindle, 2023). Through inter-school collaborations, schools are building networks and bridging capital with other communities and institutions, and especially with other schools. School community hubs are also emerging as places that include an expanded range of opportunities and reach a broader community membership. Increasingly, schools are also places that operate as places of community connection and belonging where all the stakeholders from educational communities—students, parents, and staff—are seeking meaningful connection.

While a key role for schools is to impart knowledge through approved state curriculum, school leaders understand that there is also a growing role to build social capital by creating productive, proactive, and prosocial citizens.

Productive

A productive citizen will lighten the load on others through being builders of all three capitals: economic, physical, and social. They have a positive self-image and are community contributors through hard work and the development and application of their skills and expertise. This is enhanced through developing a positive attitude of growing, learning, and partnering in a collaborative educational

George J. (2024). Educational Communities and Australian Social Capital. Leader (2)1. 23-32

village (George, 2017) that recognises the interdependence between schools, other organisations and communities (O’Leary & Craig, 2006).

Prosocial

For children and adolescents, social capital is an important contributor to identity and wellbeing. There are strong links between identity and pro-social behaviours, and identity and civic engagement. Crocetti et al. (2011) refer to the virtuous cycle that can be developed in adolescents:

Using a person-centered approach, we found that achieved adolescents were more involved in volunteer activities, reported higher civic efficacy, and stronger aspirations to contribute to their communities than their diffused counterparts. Second, by means of a variable-centered approach, we demonstrated that the link between identity processes (i.e., commitment and in-depth exploration) and past and future volunteer and political volunteering was mediated by social responsibility. (p. 521)

Proactive

The role of parents is essential in growing social capital in children. Research children are more likely to volunteer if their parents volunteer in community organisations. Research by White (2021) reinforces previous findings that “suggest that parent values and civic participation, and children’s own beliefs about social responsibility contribute to children’s civic participation”. (p.521)

George J. (2024). Educational Communities and Australian Social Capital. Leader (2)1. 23-32

In addition to parents, government and local community organisations all play a role in promoting social cohesion. Local clubs play a role with close to 50% of Australian teenager involved in sport and 10% involved in church clubs (ANU Centre for Social Research and Methods, 2023). Schools have significant impact on nearly all Australian children and their families to empower proactive social capital behaviours. Through daily practise and proactive programs, school communities can advocate for the common good, service learning, social action, experiential learning, and social advocacy. Partnering with parents and students in volunteering initiatives, both internal and externally, in educational communities may also multiply the benefits associated with building social capital.

Intentionality of Building Social Capital in Schools

The research and evidence suggest there is a need to lay out the challenge to all the stakeholders in our educational communities to endorse the intentional building of social capital in schools. There is an immediate need and a growing demand for belonging. The “Thriving Schools Index” (McCrindle, 2024) was a survey of a mix of government and non-government schools. The index is measured out of 100. The results for “connection and belonging” showed the teachers scored 59, the parents 54 and the students only 41. The data suggest that highly engaged parents, students, and teachers feel a greater sense of belonging. Parents believe strong partnership between parents, students, and teachers will result in better student outcomes and are more likely to feel that they belong in

the school community. Characteristics of highly engaged school communities. Simply put, what you put in is what you get out.

Schools and school leaders can be enabled in their work to build communities of belonging by understanding community building through the lens of social capital. Understanding the types of capital, primarily bonding capital and bridging capital, can assist greatly to provide a deeper understanding of sociological practice. Bonding capital involves horizontal ties between individuals with a relatively high degree of network closure – homogeneous groups have strong norms, conventions, and trust which can create a strong sense of identity and belonging. High levels of bonding capital can also have both positive and negative expressions for social exclusion. The context for bonding capital is more likely locally oriented (Wallis, 1998). Burt (2001) points out that network closure creates a less risky context for people in the network to trust each other; examples including families, schools, faith groups, special interest clubs, sport teams and clubs, advocacy groups, and charities.

Bridging capital refers to social capital with vertical ties between individuals which cross social divides. It also includes bridging between different social groups filling social structural holes. Groups do not share norms but do develop reciprocity and thin trust. Burt (2001) identifies a brokering function of social capital across disconnected segments; examples including programs that work across socio economic, geographic, and cultural divides. Not dissimilar to bridging capital, a third social capital is linking social capital. Linking capital emerged later and refers to the connections

between institutional networks, and can apply at the institutional and sectorial connection and allegiances. Inter-school and cross-sector school partnerships and incentives can also have a significant impact on social capital at a societal level.

This paper seeks to highlight the increasing relevance of bonding and bridging capital and its understanding and practice in, and between, schools. All schools provide a regular gathering place of a community, both children and adults. They operate both as an educational institution and as a community. In Australia, a variety of school sectors exist including government, independent, and Catholic not-for-profit schools. Within those broad categories, are a wide range of schools with differences that include religious affiliations, values and allegiances, philosophies, inclusions, and operational models (size, rules, governance arrangement and residential).

Generally, schools operate as “closed systems,” which suggests they are environments with bonding social capital as a key component of daily practice. Given this, there is an expectation and understanding that they learn and grow in skills, capacities, relationships, and practices (including for some schools, faith-based practices) to be competent practitioners of bonding capital across leadership, staff, students, parents, boards, and volunteers. It can extend to denominations, systems, and groups of schools. Bridging capital happens between individuals and communities that are different from each other socioeconomically, geographically, religiously, and culturally. In Australia, with growing diversity, there is a need to be deliberate and inclusive to

engage in bridging activities across schools and especially across school types or sectors. This is a significant area for attention in and between our schools, especially to break unnecessary sector divides. Australia has fallen for culture wars between school sectors rather than unifying programs addressing the need for bridging capital.

Conclusion

This paper reinforces that social capital is a key measure of community cohesion. It discusses the growing need to implement a thought through approach to social capital building in community organisations. Schools are community organisations that hold strategic potential for maintaining social cohesion. It is time to take community development seriously in schools. Starting with the enrolment process, schools need to craft a narrative that resonates internally with their own community and externally with society. Reinforcing an understanding of social capital in school leaders will fill an important gap. Intentionally building social capital in school communities can address an important issue across generations and improve understanding, implementation, and practice of the common good. It will contribute to future-proof a harmonious Australia.

School leaders and their communities acting in partnership hold the key to developing children into good citizens. Good citizens are productive, prosocial, and proactive. They feel safe, secure, and are kind and generous towards other Australians, even those different from themselves. In the face of growing diversity and uncertainty, and confronted by polarizing

George J. (2024). Educational Communities and Australian Social Capital. Leader (2)1. 23-32

dialogues and expressive individualism, young people need a compelling counter narrative. An intentional approach to social cohesion in school communities through promoting and prioritizing social capital is timely.

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What is the Purpose of Music Education? A Comparison of Neoliberalism and Character Education

Alexander Hone - Teacher, The King’s School

Music education, the teaching and learning of music, has been present in all cultures in human history, since every society has developed some form of music (Darwin as cited in Ball, 2010; Elliott & Silverman, 2014;). The purpose of music education, by extension, has reflected the needs of those societies: to accompany war and ritual; to strengthen the mind, morality, or sense of cultural belonging; to affirm and challenge cultural norms alongside dance, drama and speech; or simply for its own joy and pleasure. The purpose of this essay is not to summarise or develop these general perspectives, which are too numerous to convey here. Instead, this essay will examine the purpose of music education within formal schooling through two framing perspectives.

The first perspective, neoliberalism, is a dominant and influential paradigm that has significantly shaped educational discourse and practices over the last 30 to 40 years (Harvey, 2005; Sahlberg, 2021). The second perspective, character education, is one of the three core pillars of The King’s School (TKS), alongside academic excellence and Christian community. Given that music ensembles form one of the largest voluntary co-curricular activities in the school, it is crucial to consider the purpose of music education within a character education framework. After considering how these two perspectives shape the focus and purpose of music education, this essay will then

compare how these perspectives complement and conflict with one another.

The Purpose of Music Education: Neoliberalism

Neoliberalism is a complex and contested phenomenon that has profoundly shaped the world since the 1970s. One often cited definition describes neoliberalism as “a theory of political economic practices that proposes that human well-being can best be advanced by liberating individual entrepreneurial freedoms and skills within an institutional framework characterised by strong private property rights, free markets and free trade” (Harvey, 2005, p. 2). Gerstle (2022) argues that neoliberalism can be considered as a political order because it encompasses a wide range of institutions, networks, ideas and practices. Neoliberalism, as described, can be understood as the intellectual framework through which major global economic changes were enacted in the 1980s and 1990s, particularly by the governments of Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the US. This new paradigm replaced the older norm of the social contract with a new emphasis on personal freedom and responsibility, as well as carrying the idea of the market into every sphere of human life (Bockman, 2013; Brown, 2016; Stilwell, 2007).

The use of the term “neoliberalism” is widely disputed (Gibson, 2019) and some scholars

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challenge its effectiveness in explaining the purported phenomena under its scope (see Boas & Gans-Morse, 2009; Rodgers, 2018; Venugopal, 2015; Weller & O’Neill, 2014). Maher (2022) argues that there is a recent “global trend” to use neoliberalism as an epithet to explain government and corporate policies, from business tax cuts (Mason, 2022), to deteriorating public services (Jones, 2017). The validity of the term is additionally complicated by the fact that few “neoliberals” use the term to describe themselves, preferring to champion concepts such as laissez faire capitalism, finance capitalism, small government, and economic rationalism (Rodgers, 2018; Venugopal, 2015; Weller & O’Neil, 2014). One of the few exceptions to this is the Adam Smith Institute, which openly identifies as a neoliberal think tank (Bowman, 2016). Similarly, the International Monetary Fund’s Finance and Development publication hailed the effectiveness of neoliberal policies at lifting millions out of poverty, while acknowledging the increased inequality resulting from these same policies (Ostry et al. 2016).

In the Australian context, Weller and O’Neill (2014) reject the overly broad and mutually incompatible definitions of neoliberalism that exist in academic literature, summarising the concept as being “driven by an overarching imaginary that promotes market-oriented logics wherever possible, distinguishable from classical liberalism by an aggressive political rationality that insists on the penetration of an ever-widening range of economic and social domains” (p. 110). They conclude that Australian governments of the 1970s–2000s cannot be called neoliberal

in an all-encompassing sense, but in areas such as globalisation, trade liberalisation, industry competition, privatisation, and labour relations, policy reforms have been undertaken in this period that fit into the schema of neoliberalism. The authors resist describing these changes as part of a uniform system or political agenda.

Given the thorny, complex, and potentially partisan nature of the term “neoliberalism,” what is the value of using it as an analytical framework to discuss the purpose of music education? Even accepting Weller and O’Neil’s (2014) issues with how the term is (mis)applied widely, it still retains value because it recognises that the large-scale macroeconomic changes of the last 30 to 40 years that emphasise the supremacy of free markets and personal responsibility over social welfare have had deep and lasting impacts on the way that education is conceptualised and organised in Australia. Denniss (2018) encapsulates this shift with the pithy observation that in Australia, “we no longer talk about the inherent value of educating our children, but of the increase in skills and productivity that their education will provide to the economy” (p. 14). The following section will demonstrate some of the ways in which this has occurred.

Neoliberalism and GERM

A key manifestation of neoliberalism in education is the Global Education Reform Movement (GERM), a term coined by Sahlberg (2006, 2007, 2021) to describe an “unofficial educational agenda that relies on a certain set of assumptions to improve education systems” (2021, p. 177). These assumptions are built into

the five primary features of GERM policies, which are competition among schools, standardisation in education, focus on core subjects, test-based accountability and school choice (Sahlberg, 2021). In the Australian context, prominent examples of GERM policies include the political pressure on teachers because of declining Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) scores, the creation of the National Assessment Program Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN), and the associated MySchools website. Neoliberalism’s impact is evident in the privatisation of the Victorian Technical and Further Education (TAFE) sector from 2012–2017, which, instead of increasing student choice, resulted in wasted taxpayer money, unnecessary competition and lower course quality (Rodd, 2021). Campbell, Proctor and Sherington (2009) argue that, in Sydney specifically, parents’ decisions about where to send their children to high school are characterised by the dual forces of aspiration and anxiety. They contend that neoliberalism has played an essential role in shifting parents’ expectations away from the state as the provider of quality education for all children and towards a focus on self-sufficiency and competition.

GERM policies also inform the Evidence Based Practice (EBP) movement in education, which has arrived in education discourse via medicine (Hammersley, 2000). The NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) formed a body called the Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation (CESE) in 2013 and this body has published two editions of What Works Best (CESE, 2014, 2020), documents built on EBP. Fuller (2022) argues that these documents

are embedded with an assumption that they are simply providing evidence, which is a set of neutral, uncontested facts that will lead to improved learning outcomes for every student in any context across NSW. Given the burgeoning field of the neuroscience of learning and the expanding body of quantitative education research about EBP, most famously articulated through meta-studies such as that by Hattie (2008), it would appear that CESE are giving teachers the silver bullet that will finally enable all students to reach their maximum potential and also conveniently help Australia climb up the PISA rankings. Apart from the fact that educational outcomes in NSW have not improved since the 2014 edition of What Works Best, prompting the need for a 2020 update, Fuller’s concern is that the over-emphasis on EBP naturally devalues three other crucial factors in creating high-quality learning environments: “context; the values, needs and circumstances of students; and the knowledge and expertise of CMTs [classroom music teachers]” (2023, p. 6).

When considering the eight objects on NESA’s list of What Works Best, each of the items on their own are excellent and laudable teaching strategies that seem benign in their intent and obviously beneficial to students. Raising objections to this list and other examples of EBP is not an invitation for teachers to ignore contemporary research. Rather, the purpose of questioning EBP is to point out its neoliberal underpinnings while re-affirming that it is incumbent upon each teacher to work out the best way to critically synthesise educational research with their professional experience, teacher values,

and, most importantly, their students’ needs. By extension, school leaders should empower teachers to trust their own instincts and to adopt a cautious approach to implementing new pedagogies, rather than upending their practice every time the consensus on “what works best” shifts.

Neoliberalism and Music Education

How might neoliberalism, through Sahlberg’s (2021) five-pronged GERM framework and NESA’s What Works Best documents, explain the purpose of music education? A teleological approach to education—one in which knowledge and skills are only valuable in the movement

towards clearly defined outcomes such as a job— may render the whole concept of music education as unimportant. Given that a vanishingly small number of people are capable of making a living performing or composing music, why not leave music education to specialist music schools and instead have most students focus on the “core skills” of literacy and numeracy? This argument frequently becomes a victim of its own success, for why should history, geography, visual arts, sportspecific training, or English literature feature in an education which is solely focused on workforce preparation?

To the extent that music education fits into this marketised framework, it serves as a

Hone A. (2024). What is the Purpose of Music Education? A Comparison of Neoliberalism and Character Education. Leader (2)1. 33-48

competitive advantage for students wishing to demonstrate attainment of high-level domainspecific skills, potentially giving them an edge in portfolio-based university entrance programs. In this approach, music education becomes a form of social capital that is strongly tied to wealth, making it primarily accessible to the rich (Cuadrado-Garcia et al., 2023). This means that the focus of music education programs should be to help elite soloists maximise their performance outputs to increase their marketability to universities and employers. Using Sahlberg’s (2021) GERM framework, schools could boost their success in this version of music education through focusing on high-stakes practical examinations and solo competitions. Teacher performance might additionally be incentivised by offering students choices about their teachers each year and adjusting teacher pay according to their students’ results.

If the paragraph above represents a caricature of the worst possible version of GERM-informed music education, what could a more positive vision look like? One idea that is emphasised in contemporary educational literature is “core skills” or competences, reflecting the perspective that secondary and tertiary education should focus on the skills that students need for future jobs. While it is difficult to predict which skills will be the most important across the entire spectrum of employment that our current students will have in an unknown future, there is a kernel of wisdom in attempting to create a flexible list of essential skills and knowledge for each subject area or discipline. This approach contrasts with a monolithic focus on reading and

writing skills. Within music education, Webb (2008) posits the idea of expanding musical competences, arguing that being a “multicode” (p.15) musician (one who is fluent in multiple styles) has become more essential than ever. Webb’s 21 habits of 21st century musicians include varying one’s sound or style to fit with other music styles or “feels”, improvising, composing your own music, transposing, using musical terminology across multiple genres or styles, listening widely, being musically curious, and using computers for music-making.

Expanding on the notion of core skills, one positive application of a marketfocused approach to music education could be the creation of key performance indicators (KPIs) for skill in different musical domains. Differentiating KPIs would acknowledge that while some key skills overlap across classical, jazz, theatre, and popular music, others differ significantly. The skills required for success in classical examinations run by the Australian Music Examinations Board (AMEB) and Trinity College London offer ready-made pathways for classical musicians. Similarly, Richardson (2020) has written a sequenced jazz-specific skill development pathway and has recommended creating exams to test these competences. In these ways, although most GERM educational policies would lead to a significant decline in the vitality of music education, the concepts of core skills and KPIs could offer a useful framework for helping students track their development in their chosen musical field(s).

The Purpose of Music Education: Character Education

The first section of this essay unpacked the contested and contradictory landscape surrounding neoliberalism, referencing a wide range of academic sources. This aimed to provide an informed and nuanced framing of the discussion, recognising how the term “neoliberalism” has been widely applied and sometimes used as an ideological dog whistle. Character, like neoliberalism, is a contested concept, but this essay will refrain from a robust discussion of academic definitions or issues within character education literature. Additionally, this essay will not explore “critical” perspectives, although it acknowledges the view that character education is fundamentally flawed because it emphasises individual actions while overlooking structural inequalities that constrain personal choices (Jerome & Kisby, 2020).

Instead, this essay will use the oft-quoted definition given at TKS, that character is “wisdom exerted under pressure.” This definition contains dual notions: first, that character is distinct from intelligence or knowledge and relies upon a set of moral or ethical virtues that are termed “wisdom” (although this absents a discussion about the precise meaning of wisdom) and second, that character is demonstrated when it is “tested” under pressure. Additionally, character is developed for something; at TKS the education that students receive is often described as producing leadership. Although leadership is also a contested concept, it is easy to understand how a young person who has developed strong character through their education will be a leader in the future by virtue of their exemplary conduct, regardless of any formal title or position they may or may not hold.

Describing character in terms of “exemplary conduct” highlights another issue: while character is often understood as something residing “within” a person, the primary indicator of character that is available to outside observers is that person’s behaviour, which only sometimes fits within the umbrella term “virtues.” In this sense, the maxim that “writing about music is like dancing about architecture” could be repurposed as a statement about character: it is foolish to write about something that can never be made logocentric. Character education should emphasise action and activity over pontification and theoretical approaches, but a well-structured character education framework within the school will serve the community by enabling staff to be intentional and purposeful in developing the character of students at TKS. Without a clear

Hone A. (2024). What is the Purpose of Music Education? A Comparison of Neoliberalism and Character Education. Leader (2)1. 33-48

understanding of the meaning of character education and how to implement it, any number of contradictory programs, activities, and events could all be construed as building character without any way to measure their effectiveness. This section will not attempt to provide a systematic definition of character education or to outline a comprehensive school-wide program but will instead focus specifically on music education.

Music education as character education

If music education is framed as an aspect of character education, what is its purpose?

Quite obviously, the purpose of music education as character education is to place students in situations that foster character development. Music education encompasses an enormous range of activities, including private instrumental

and theory tuition, community ensembles, professional masterclasses, after-school clubs, and curricular lessons. For the purposes of this discussion, however, the focus will be on schoolbased co-curricular music ensembles. The King’s School’s three pillars (see Figure 1) align character development with co-curricular activities, making it prudent to consider how co-curricular ensembles contribute to character building. This focus allows music education as character education to be examined within specific parameters: students voluntarily attending weekly rehearsals with peers, in groups ranging from 4 to 70 people, led by one or two staff members at a consistent time and place. With these specific parameters, it becomes more feasible to discuss a purpose for music education as character education.

Figure 1

TKS Three Pillars

Hone A. (2024). What is the Purpose of Music Education? A Comparison of Neoliberalism and Character Education. Leader (2)1. 33-48

Music ensembles, in their most general sense, involve groups of students collaborating to master pieces of music, usually with the goal of performing these in public settings such as concerts, assemblies, functions, public eisteddfods, and music festivals. Often, although not always, much of the musical information contained in a piece is notated using Western staff notation, which allows students to practise their parts individually, both before and after rehearsals. Despite the availability and necessity of personal practice, a successful music ensemble must rehearse regularly to synchronise not only the pitches and rhythms of a piece but also elements such as breathing, phrasing, pronunciation (for choirs), physical gestures, cues, and expressive devices.

There are many aspects of character education in music ensembles that could be applied to other co-curricular activities or clubs at TKS. Students develop character through their yearly commitment to an ensemble, with the expectation that they attend rehearsals each week and the knowledge that lateness or absence without cause affects the morale of the entire group. During rehearsals, students must maintain focus and discipline because the music requires their full attention, and they must also be ready to accept correction when their playing hinders the group’s progress. Students engage in teamwork by watching their conductor (if relevant) and by listening closely to the other players, seeking to match their sound with that of those around them. In some smaller ensembles, such as contemporary bands, jazz combos and string quartets, there is more room for individual freedom and the

character and personality of specific musicians may form an integral part of the musical identity and success of these groups. Through these activities, students not only practise music but also cultivate behaviours and attitudes that are widely recognised as constituent parts of good character: commitment, resilience, discipline, teamwork, humility, patience, and integrity.

One additional area to consider is the aspects of music ensembles that will enable students to develop their character most effectively. At this point, it is essential to recognise that music education as character education is a complex process, where students’ broader life experiences dynamically interact with their musical experiences. Consequently, a student who is described by teachers as having “weak” character will not necessarily emerge from a music ensemble (or any other co-curricular activity) with “strong” character in a mechanistic manner. Several key factors will impact the effectiveness of musical ensembles in fostering character development.

The first key factor influencing character development is the culture of the ensemble. Students with a history of poor attendance or low commitment often improve when they perceive that there is a unified culture of strong attendance and high levels of focus. Attendance and focus closely relate to the enjoyment that students gain from an ensemble and their sense of belonging, especially since these are voluntary commitments. Students who experience community in ensembles, believe in the value of what they are doing, and who find pleasure and satisfaction in these experiences will reflect this in

their behaviour. This, in turn, reinforces a strong ensemble culture that new students can easily fall into. Depending on the ensemble’s history, a positive culture may initially need to be fostered by teachers, but it reaches its peak when senior students embrace it and then this filters down to the whole group.

Another key factor in the success of musical ensembles as vehicles for character education is the extent to which students view themselves as part of a team, which is intricately linked to ensemble culture. For students who pursue music primarily as a means of personal achievement, this necessitates a shift in focus from “me” to “us.” The culture of personal achievement in music emphasises individual skill, often through performing graded repertoire for examinations and recitals. This is expressed colloquially through students asking each other, “What grade are you on the trombone?”, and it forms its zenith through honour boards and coats that are given to students who have passed highlevel examinations. This personal achievement culture should be viewed in a nuanced manner because the skills required to master challenging repertoire and to perform it in an examination or competition undeniably requires character traits such as focus, determination, resilience, and discipline. Students also earn their colours and honours in part through commitment to ensembles. Some students who have significant personal achievements easily transition into ensemble settings and can work in a team environment, uplifting their peers by modelling skills and mentoring less experienced players. Others struggle with this shift, viewing musical

ensembles primarily as a platform for displaying their personal skills. Ensembles that emphasise teamwork, often through unified expectations for all members, are more likely to foster character development among students.

Comparing Neoliberalism and Character Education

Neoliberalism and character education offer contrasting visions of the purpose of music education, shaping the way educational goals are defined and pursued. Before exploring these contrasts within co-curricular music ensembles specifically, it is essential to understand how they interact within the broader context of formal education.

Within a neoliberal framework, character education may be leveraged as a market advantage that gives schools a superior educational “product” compared to their competitors. This is one example of Sahlberg’s (2021) GERM model, which includes competition amongst schools. In this context, the discussion, promotion, and dissemination of a school’s character education program may inadvertently reduce it to a mere product or output of education, undermining the actual process of character formation. A neoliberal framework also emphasises measurable and quantifiable data points because this enables systems, schools, and people to be efficiently ranked and sorted. One example of this in character education is Melbourne University’s New Metrics (Melbourne University, n.d.), which defines a range of “complex competencies” including “acting ethically.” These competencies are then tabulated as elements of character; for

example, acting with integrity, with behaviours indicative of novice, proficient, and mastery levels listed under each column. Although there may be benefits in identifying explicit behaviours that would constitute acting ethically, using a table to determine that a high school student has mastered acting with integrity seems questionably efficacious at best and potentially harmful at worst. Handsman (2021) also points out that, in an American context, advocates of character education have justified its existence as a means of improving academic achievement since around 2003, again underscoring the ways in which neoliberalism can bend existing practices towards a focus on easily measurable outcomes.

Additionally, neoliberalism and its attendant need for data and measurable criteria may have influenced the development of documents such as The Jubilee Centre Framework for Character Education in Schools (Jubilee Centre, 2023). This document, rich in detail and inclusive of ancient Greek concepts like phronesis (practical wisdom), asserts that “progress can be measured holistically, not only through self-reports but also more objective research methods” (p. 7), highlighting its engagement with contemporary data collection methods.

With these more general principles in mind, how might neoliberalism and character education interact when considering the purpose of music education? One way to explore this interaction is by comparing the private and public facets of music ensembles, represented as rehearsals and performances, respectively. In the private facet, weekly rehearsals contain the slow and essential work of character formation as students continue

to practise virtues in their behaviour and attitudes. Rehearsals are “private” in the sense that most of the school community are not present, and many people are only vaguely aware that these rehearsals even occur. Missed rehearsals or a persistent lack of focus provide opportunities for teachers to address these issues with students and reinforce the collective goals of the ensemble. In this setting, the “quality” of the musical sounds is important as a goal or ideal to strive towards, but the character of the staff member directing the rehearsal is even more crucial, as the teacher “births” the character of their ensemble through their own modelling. By contrast, the public facet of a music ensemble is in performance, when those outside the group listen and enjoy or judge the music that is presented to them. Members of the ensemble may feel pressure to perform well to receive the respect of their peers or community, who may comment on the “quality” of the music played rather than the character of the ensemble members. If the performance is in a competition, the entire experience of performing can be subsumed by a rank, mark or prize that may be sought by the group or conductor. Conversely, when a performance is framed as the culmination of months of hard work and dedication or as an opportunity to share music with the school community for their enjoyment, it shifts the emphasis away from musical “results” and towards the overall experience of rehearsal and performance. This approach underscores the role of music in unifying and uplifting the school community.

Considering the scenario above, a neoliberal music education program focuses primarily on

Hone

(2024).

the public facet of musical performances because this can be quantified through metrics such as concert attendance, competition results, perceived musical “quality,” and reputational enhancement. In this framework, rehearsals are viewed merely as units of time to maximise the ensemble’s musical outputs, while the character of the teacher and students is irrelevant if the desired results are achieved. Data collection methods aimed at enhancing rehearsal efficiency may include audio or video recordings, which offer an “objective” perspective on the whole ensemble’s performance. The culture of these ensembles may be marked by a focus on the individual achievements of key members, since metrics like exam grades or competition results can bolster the credibility and reputation of the group. In contrast, music ensembles that prioritise character education give greater emphasis to the weekly discipline of rehearsals and the virtues that enable students to flourish in all aspects of life. They will still participate in concerts and even competitions, but with the primary goal of testing and refining the character of the ensemble members, rather than achieving a certain result. While character education-focused music ensembles may utilise data collection methods, they will prioritise reflection and student agency to build a selfreflective culture. These ensembles will emphasise the value, skill, and culture of the group over individual accomplishments, recognising that their collective sound and achievements are more important than those of skilled soloists.

Conclusion

This essay has examined the purpose of music education when considered through the

lenses of neoliberalism and character education. The neoliberal vision for education, particularly as articulated through GERM, emphasises standardised approaches that can be easily measured, including individual and ensemble grades as well as prizes. Within music education, a neoliberal approach emphasises public, highstakes performances and is therefore likely to devalue participation in music for enjoyment or leisure. Conversely, an emphasis on data collection and standardisation could enable a music program to establish KPIs for a wide range of musical styles or a list of core skills that would help students understand how to progress in their chosen musical area.

Within the framework of character education, music ensembles represent one of many ways that students can cultivate virtues that will enable them to lead fruitful and successful lives beyond school. When creating ensembles, teachers who are deliberate in fostering a positive culture and prioritising the team over individual achievements are more likely to succeed in cultivating strong character within their programs. Given that both neoliberal and character education frameworks operate within TKS, educators should strive to balance these contrasting perspectives in a way that is most beneficial for students and the wider school community.

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Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming

Paul Jones - Teacher, The King’s School, Preparatory School

The advent of video gaming has profoundly influenced the social (Xu et al., 2023) and emotional (Jones et al., 2014) development of young boys, particularly in how they engage with peers and manage their behaviours. This action research project aimed to explore the impact of reflective journaling on the self-regulation skills of Year 6 boys in relation to their gaming habits. The study aimed to explore the role reflective journaling plays after video gaming and if this developed the boys’ self-regulation in the gaming space. Discussions surrounding masculinity in video gaming are often fraught with controversy. Ferguson (2021) highlights the challenges in this space, particularly regarding claims made by the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media (GDI). Ferguson’s article critiques the 2021 GDI report for perpetuating debunked claims about video games fostering “toxic masculinity” and other negative social tropes and stereotypes. Ferguson argues that such reports may enforce progressive gender norms on men by shaming those with more traditional values and that the link between video games and negative behaviours, such as violence, has been robustly debunked. This critique underscores the need for nuanced research that avoids overgeneralizing the impacts of gaming on boys’ development and instead focuses on practical interventions, such as reflective journaling, to foster healthy emotional and social skills.

In recent years, the discourse around healthy masculinity and well-being has gained momentum, emphasising the need for boys to develop emotional intelligence, resilience, and self-regulation. Video gaming, a ubiquitous aspect of many young boys’ lives, presents unique challenges and opportunities for developing these qualities. By examining how reflective journaling can enhance self-regulation in the context of gaming, this action research contributes to a broader understanding of how structured reflective practices can support the development of healthy masculinity. Specifically, it investigates whether reflective journaling can help boys balance their gaming habits with other aspects of life and ultimately promote better emotional and social well-being.

Literature Review

Self-regulation is a crucial aspect of human development, encompassing the management of both physical and emotional needs. It involves the ability to control one’s impulses, make sound decisions, and adapt to internal states and external circumstances. Successful self-regulation indicates an individual’s capacity to navigate through various challenges, while difficulties in self-regulation may manifest as impulsivity, emotional dysregulation, or paralysis in stressful situations (Murphy, 2021).

As individuals mature, their neurobiological

Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming. Leader (2)1. 49-66

systems undergo development, leading to improvements in self-regulation skills over time (Murphy, 2021). However, the advent of digital technologies, particularly video games, has introduced new dynamics into the realm of self-regulation, especially among young people. Research suggests that video games can serve as a platform for learning and social interaction, particularly among adolescents. Lenhart (2015) highlights the significant role of video games in fostering and maintaining friendships, particularly among teenage boys. The immersive nature of gaming environments facilitates daily recreational connections and enables adolescents to engage with their peers both online and offline. This social aspect of gaming is particularly salient, with a substantial portion of young people, especially boys, participating in gaming activities as a means of socializing and bonding (Lenhart, 2015; Australian Government, 2018).

Despite the positive social aspects of gaming, concerns have been raised regarding its potential negative impact, particularly concerning issues such as in-game bullying and excessive gaming habits. The State of Play report (Australian Government, 2018) underscores the prevalence of in-game bullying and the need to explore young people’s responses to such experiences. Moreover, research highlights the potential association between excessive gaming and impulsive behaviours, leading to concerns about pathological video game use (Liau et al., 2015).

Donati et al. (2021) underscore the significant ramifications of the COVID-19 pandemic and the corresponding implementation

of “stay-at-home” directives on various aspects of society, notably the surge in video gaming engagement across diverse age groups, with a particular emphasis on children. Citing data from The Nielsen Company (2022), it was reported that during the lockdown phase, a substantial 82% of individuals worldwide engaged in either playing or viewing gaming content.

Additionally, many parents find themselves challenged in providing sufficient support to their children in navigating the digital tech space, despite acknowledging its numerous advantages (Phyfer et al., 2016). This dilemma underscores the growing complexity parents encounter as they attempt to meet the demands of parenting successfully, often without the requisite confidence or perceived competence (Nielsen & Kardefelt-Winther, 2018).

Excessive gaming, as highlighted by Rinaldi (2023), can lead to severe consequences, such as neglect of basic needs and adverse health effects. The case of a child accumulating nearly 1,000 hours of gameplay and subsequently experiencing migraines, back pain, and panic attacks underscores the potential risks associated with prolonged gaming. Moreover, the resistance shown by the children to parental intervention signals a concerning lack of control and suggests the need for greater awareness and regulation of gaming habits among young individuals.

The relationship between video games and the concept of masculinity is another area of interest in the literature. Blackburn and Scharrer (2019) examine how video games influence perceptions of masculinity among

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young adults. Their study reveals that frequent exposure to violent video games correlates with the endorsement of aggressive and dominant masculine traits. This finding underscores the potential role of video games in shaping gender norms and attitudes, particularly among impressionable young individuals.

It is essential to acknowledge, however, that video games offer more than just entertainment; they also provide various cognitive and social benefits. Granic, et al. (2014) emphasise the positive aspects of gaming, including improvements in cognitive skills, such as attention, spatial reasoning, and problem-solving. Furthermore, video games offer a unique platform for social interaction and collaboration, fostering

friendships and social connections among players (Nguyen & Bavelier, 2023).

The phenomenon of video gaming among boys presents a complex interplay of social, cognitive, and behavioural dynamics. While video games offer opportunities for socialisation and skill development, concerns about their potential negative effects, such as in-game bullying and reinforcement of traditional gender norms, cannot be ignored. It is crucial for researchers, educators, and policymakers to adopt a balanced approach, acknowledging both the benefits and risks associated with video gaming among boys, and promoting responsible gaming habits among young individuals.

Collaborating with young boys to develop self-awareness around gaming and encourage selfregulation skills appears to be key to developing responsible gaming habits. The importance of self-regulation is identified by Kraut & Seay (2007) as a key factor in mitigating and even preventing problematic online gaming. Less negative consequences are likely to be the case for gamers who can monitor, reflect, and control their gaming habits and behaviours.

Research Context and Participants

Established in 1831 by King William IV of England, The King’s School is Australia’s oldest independent day and boarding institution. The School’s foundational mission is to nurture future leaders Fortiter et Fideliter (bravely and faithfully). The school occupies a sprawling 320-acre campus, accommodating over 2100 students, with approximately 440 in the Preparatory School.

Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming. Leader (2)1. 49-66

The project involved 26 Year 6 students in my class (6J), exploring student reflection through journaling during and after school time, and explicit teaching within the Unit of Inquiry, “Who We Are.” The research unfolded during September and December 2023, punctuating the academic year and the end of the boys’ time as Preparatory students. As their classroom teacher, I had established meaningful connections with the boys throughout the year.

The study was an integral part of our tailored Year 6 “Who We Are” program, specifically examining the boys’ perspectives on gaming and its impact on their well-being and self-regulation. Whilst the teaching was introduced in the classroom, I had the participants reflecting and journaling post-gaming sessions at home or, for some, as they travelled to and from school. The reality of gaming for many

boys is that it happens not only in bedrooms but on buses, trains, and whilst waiting to be picked up after a sports session, such is the prevalence of device-based video gaming. The pervasiveness of video gaming, coupled with accessibility to the gaming world creates a pseudo-co-curricular option for the boys in our care. Seldom “officially” in the classroom, video gaming and the time spent gaming certainly impact the disposable time available to boys in such a busy setting as The King’s School, Preparatory School.

Parents granted permission for their sons to participate, with the option to withdraw. Both students and parents were assured of complete anonymity in all project-related reports and publications. It was emphasised that opting out would have no bearing on their relationship with King’s, present or future. Three boys opted out, resulting in a total of 23 participants from 6J. Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating

Acknowledged potential limitations to the generalisability of the research findings included the small sample size, bias in self-reported grades, lack of parental voice, and difficulties in collecting data from the boys outside school time (i.e., postgaming journaling).

The Action

The fundamental approach in this action research project involved a dual strategy: in-class sessions during our “Who We Are” inquiry in Term 4, and post-gaming reflective journaling at home, which occurred throughout the action research.

Commencing with a comprehensive survey to gauge the Year 6 boys’ perspectives on gaming, particularly their beliefs surrounding video gaming, the project unfolded with my Year 6 class undergoing eight 30-45 minute in-class sessions. These sessions, integrated into the “Who We Are” inquiry, employed video gaming as a unique avenue to delve into self-regulation and the cultivation of balanced habits among the boys. Through dynamic interactions with the boys, the sessions aimed to unravel gaming behaviours and concurrently explore strategies and techniques for maintaining equilibrium while engaging in video games.

Examples of prompts used:

• Discussion: Belonging, Being and Becoming. How do these three things connect to your understanding of well-being and gaming? (Session 1: Introducing Wellbeing and Gaming)

• Debates: Video gaming schedules are helpful. (Session 3: Gaming Boundaries)

• Reflections: What kind of “alarm bells” would make you think someone (or yourself) is not managing their video gaming habits? (Session 6: Problematic Gaming)

Each session concluded with the boys having the chance to play a game, followed by a journal reflection on their gaming, which incorporated the use of the zones of regulation terminology to support reflection and selfregulation. The opportunity to game in class as part of the learning was a strategy used to promote participant engagement both in and out of the classroom.

Beyond the classroom, the project extended its reach by promoting post-gaming reflective journaling. This home-based journaling process prompted the boys to contemplate their gaming engagements. The reflective prompts encompassed the duration of gameplay, the identified emotional “zone” based on the zones of regulation, and an open-ended query about the overall gaming experience.

Throughout Term 4, the boys convened weekly for in-class sessions, which were complemented by their consistent engagement in reflective journaling at home. This comprehensive approach not only facilitated a holistic understanding of the boys’ gaming behaviours and attitudes but also encouraged the cultivation of self-awareness and balanced perspectives in the classroom setting and beyond; for example,

Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming. Leader (2)1. 49-66

by explicitly engaging the boys with research such as the work of Dr. Shimi Kang (2020) who outlines game developers’ tactics in creating “carefully curated hits of dopamine that keep boys playing for hours on end” (p.16). Through this multifaceted strategy, the action equipped the boys with critical insights and strategies to navigate the digital world of gaming mindfully.

Data Collection

The data collection phase of the action research project played a pivotal role in its success, particularly in the initial stage focused on comprehending the phenomenon of video gaming among Year 6 boys. Although one class was designated as the action research group, establishing a shared understanding of gaming behaviours and beliefs was key in developing an understanding of the phenomenon of gaming in cohort of Year 6 learners. This was achieved through a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative survey data with qualitative insights drawn from the boys’ open responses. The survey encompassed 44 items, utilising a Likert scale format, and garnered responses from the boys in Year 6. To foster candid responses, the survey maintained anonymity, with the sole identifier being the boys’ class, facilitating targeted actions for the focus group—my class, 6J.

The survey, administered at the project’s outset, was repeated at its conclusion to enable a comparative assessment. Additionally, the focus group, consisting of 23 participants, completed a Self-Regulation Short Form Questionnaire (31 items) to establish a baseline for their perceived ability to self-regulate gaming behaviours. This

(2024).

quantitative survey provided further insights into the boys’ self-management skills and laid the groundwork for discussions on balance, one of the PYP Learner Profile Attributes (Appendix B), and maintaining the focus of the action research on well-being and self-regulation.

Reflective journaling responses served as both a distinct action and a data collection method, which enriched the dataset following each gaming session (both in the classroom setting and at home). These reflections were linked to gaming experiences and provided valuable glimpses into the boys’ lives beyond the classroom, delving into their digital worlds.

A crucial component of the data collection process stemmed from observational evidence during in-class gaming sessions. Attentively listening to individual responses to discussion prompts and the sharing of gaming challenges played a pivotal role in deepening the understanding of the phenomenon. This observational approach contributed significantly to unravelling how gaming influences the boys’ self-perceptions and overall well-being.

Quantitative survey data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while qualitative insights from journal entries were subjected to thematic analysis. Observational evidence contributed to a nuanced understanding of participants’ experiences and behaviours to enhance the validity and reliability of the findings. This polyangulated approach was employed to integrate several data sources, providing a more comprehensive perspective, and reinforcing the credibility of the action research (Mertler, 2020).

Data Analysis

In this action research project, a comprehensive exploration of data was undertaken using a mixed-methods sequential exploratory approach. The analysis was synthesized across three distinct stages, ensuring that identified observations were representative of the combined insights from all data collection methods.

Preliminary Survey and SSRQ

A comparative analysis of the quantitative data collected with the Short Form SelfRegulation Questionnaire (SSRQ) pre- and

post-action offered a glimpse into the potential impact of the sessions. The initial student survey and the Short Form Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SSRQ) provided a baseline understanding of the boys’ gaming habits, preferences, and selfregulation capabilities. Key observations included:

Gaming Habits: Predominantly focused on preferred gaming devices and the amount of time spent gaming.

Perceived Impact: Boys reported both positive and negative impacts of gaming on their lives, with notable mentions of enhanced enjoyment and occasional negative experiences such as disrupted sleep (see Table 1).

Table 1

Sample Question and Responses from the SSRQ

Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming. Leader (2)1. 49-66

Reflective Journaling

The journal data were subjected to rigorous coding, which involved grouping themes and identifying patterns within the boys’ responses. This was coupled with a quantitative analysis of the boys’ response regarding which of the four coloured zones they found themselves in following a gaming session. Post-gaming journal entries revealed nuanced insights into the boys’ emotional states and self-regulation following gaming sessions. Themes that emerged from this qualitative data included:

Emotional Responses. Most boys reported being in the Green Zone, indicating balanced and positive emotions. Instances of being in the Orange Zone highlighted occasional challenges or heightened alertness.

Self-Regulation. Responses varied in terms of difficulty stopping gaming sessions, with a majority indicating ease, suggesting good self-regulation practices. However, a minority faced challenges, indicating areas for further development.

Observational Data

In-class gaming sessions and subsequent discussions provided additional layers of understanding. These notes not only documented the unfolding process but also contributed to a better understanding of the boys’ engagement and developmental trajectories. Key observations included:

Social Interactions. Positive social interactions were frequently noted, with gaming serving as a platform for building friendships and

teamwork.

Behavioural Patterns. Observations indicated that gaming often led to increased engagement and focus during sessions.

On completion of the initial gaming survey and prior to launching into the action research, one student who presented as a disengaged learner, enthusiastically quipped “I live for gaming! Game is life.” This participant’s engagement throughout the study continued to improve, as did our teacher-pupil relationship. In this world of gaming, this boy became more confident and communicated with enthusiasm.

In another focus group discussion, one student remarked “Parents are not worried about addiction. They are more jealous that we have video games that they don’t,” when discussing how the gaming phenomenon has changed over time.

The data analysis revealed that video gaming positively influenced Year 6 boys’ selfregulation and social interactions when guided by structured reflection and supportive discussions. The mixed-methods approach provided a holistic understanding, emphasizing the importance of integrating various data sources to form a cohesive narrative on the impact of gaming.

Discussion of Results

Understanding the Gaming Phenomenon

The initial survey included collecting data from the cohort of Year 6 boys, allowing an exploration of the gaming phenomenon of the

cohort as well as being able to examine the action research group (Class 6J) trends alongside their peers.

According to self-reported data, the average weekly gaming duration among Year 6 boys was 9.7 hours, whereas the 6J focus group reported an average of 7.3 hours per week. These figures contrast with findings from a national study by Gentile (2009), which identified an average gaming duration ranging between 11.3 and 13.2 hours per week.

Much of the data for the cohort, interestingly, echoed trends seen in the 6J class. Most boys in Year 6 (n=48), for example, played games several times a week with a minority playing a few times a week (n=5). 6J’s responses closely resembled that of the cohort (see Figure 1).

Figure 1

Boys’ Responses to Pre-Action Survey Question: How Often do You Engage in Video Gaming at Home?

Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming. Leader (2)1. 49-66

Similarly, when focusing on the duration of gameplay throughout the week, the majority of boys from both 6J and the cohort in general, played for between 1 and 5 hours per week. A small minority (n=5) reportedly played more than 20 hours of video games per week, none of whom were in 6J.

Year 6 boys predominantly favoured PCs and gaming consoles, with mobile devices also holding a significant presence. While virtual reality (VR) and certain handheld devices had a presence, they were not as widely adopted among this group of boys. The boys’ gaming landscape appeared dynamic and diverse, reflecting a mix of traditional (PC) and modern gaming (mobile devices) preferences.

The clear prevalence of unscheduled gaming, coupled with the distinct presence of those who do schedule their gaming, creates an interesting narrative. This dichotomy suggests that, while many Year 6 boys prefer the flexibility of spontaneous gaming, a noteworthy portion found value in planning and structuring their gaming activities.

Within each session, I took notes of the boys’ work together as well as the boys’ responses to questions and stimuli. Using the boys’ work and words, I was able to collate and group their reflections and ideas, coding and identifying themes in their own voices.

The boys expressed a range of perspectives on gaming, highlighting its multifaceted influence. One boy remarked that gaming helped him “understand other people,” emphasising the social and empathetic aspects of gaming. This sentiment

P. (2024).

resonated with Boy B, who saw gaming as a means of relaxation, noting its potential to “positively impact my mental well-being.”

Upon reading, re-reading and reflecting on conversations with the boys, the two main themes that were identified in the boys’ reflections were “gaming facilitates positive social interactions” and gaming impacts boys’ emotions.” Boy C, in a thoughtful reflection, spoke about the transformative nature of gaming. He saw it as a platform where one could be inspired to pursue real-life aspirations, drawing parallels between virtual experiences, such as being a firefighter in SIMS, and potential career choices. The boys also acknowledged the social dimensions of gaming; for example, Boy D pointed out that happiness in gaming often stems from connecting with others: “When you’re happy, you’re with people so that’s good for your wellbeing right?” However, the 6J boys were not blind to the challenges. Boy F raised concerns about potential impacts on eyesight from extended gaming, reflecting a balanced perspective that considered both the positive and potential negative consequences.

Combining data from surveys, reflective journaling, and observations, the following overarching themes emerged:

Gaming Facilitates Positive Social Interactions

Across all data collection points, boys consistently highlighted the social benefits of gaming, including improved friendships and collaborative skills.

Gaming Promotes Positive Emotions and Behaviours

Gaming was associated with positive emotional states (Green Zone) and enhanced focus. Instances of Orange Zone responses and difficulty stopping sessions highlighted areas needing attention.

Connecting the boys’ learning about the zones of regulation, one of the reflective prompts in the journal was to identify the zone they were in following a gaming session. The boys’ reflections on their gaming sessions reveal a predominant pattern of being in a balanced and focused state. It is noteworthy that most responses consistently highlighted a positive and balanced experience after gaming. Occasional challenges or heightened alertness during the sessions were also noted, but these moments appeared to be infrequent. Instances of overstimulation or distress were rare, indicating that the boys generally avoided such states during or after their gaming activities. There were also occasional mentions of feelings of calm and relaxation post-gaming. Overall, the prevalence of positive and balanced responses indicates that the boys generally experience engaging emotions after their gaming sessions, contributing to an overall sense of well-being.

The boys expressed a diverse range of emotions during their gaming sessions. Happiness, frustration, boredom, satisfaction, confusion, and annoyance were commonly mentioned. The emotional impact of gaming, both positive and negative, played a significant role in shaping the boys’ overall experiences with different games. Most journal responses

(96%) indicated the boys were in the Green Zone following their gaming sessions suggesting a calm, alert, and engaged state. From the gaming journal over a period of weeks, Blue Zone (n=8) and Red Zone (n=12) accounted for the minority of the boys’ responses to the survey. Further research into the boys expressing red and blue zones over time, and in group responses, may be avenues for further exploration.

Gaming Enhances Self-Regulation Skills

The boys demonstrated a growing ability to self-regulate their gaming habits, with reflective journaling and in-class discussions contributing significantly to this development.

The boys also delved into issues of balance and self-awareness. Boy G admitted to a heavy gaming weekend but believed he maintained balance throughout the week. Boy H recognised the possibility of doing too much after school but felt his gaming was balanced compared to other school activities. Boy I approached the question of balance by considering a 3:1 ratio in studies versus video gaming.

As the boys navigated the gaming landscape, they displayed mindfulness about their choices. Discussions revolved around introspection—the awareness of whether they even wanted to game. Some acknowledged the potential impact on relationships, with a recognition that excessive disturbances could strain relationships with siblings. In essence, the narrative that emerges from these sessions reflects a group of Year 6 boys who approached gaming with a mix of introspection, social awareness, and a keen sense

of balance. Their reflections demonstrate not only the enjoyment derived from gaming but also a growing understanding of its broader implications on their lives, relationships, and aspirations.

A personal observation, following each of these sessions with the boys was their honest and often insightful reflections. These sessions with the boys became a highlight in the boys’ schedule, where they were given the “green light” as such to listen to others’ gaming lives, as well as share their own very real experiences. Whilst very few boys had the same experiences, it was evident that themes of independence, parental connection (sometimes conflict), community, and an awareness of wellbeing, were strong.

The boys’ responses to the question, “How easy was it for you to stop this gaming session?” exhibited considerable variability, ranging from 1 to 10 on the Likert scale. A majority of reflections (n=8) rated their ability to stop the gaming session as very easy. This suggests a prevalent trend of self-regulation and disciplined adherence to planned time limits. On the other hand, a subset of reflections (n=3), rated their difficulty in stopping the session with a score greater than 5, indicating challenges in adhering to planned limits. The instances of higher scores (6 to 10) may imply a struggle to disengage from gaming, potentially reflecting a lack of self-control or a strong pull of engagement. It is notable that while the majority indicated ease in stopping, the presence of higher scores highlights individual differences in the boys’ ability to manage and conclude their gaming sessions within the set periods.

Themes, patterns, and trends in the boys’ responses over time and following gaming sessions (at school and at home), and the openended response section (“Reflect on the gaming session”) held a wealth of highlights (see Figure 2). Noticeably, as time went on, the boys’ reflections increased both in quality and quantity, hinting at a growth in confidence when reflecting and/or a familiarity with the terminology associated with self-reflection and self-regulation. Kraut & Seay (2007) posit that to promote personal agency for players, self-regulation skills offer an avenue for gamers to enjoy themselves whilst gaming responsibly.

Figure 2

List of Boy’s Reflection Responses to the Gaming Session

1. Varied Emotions

2. Social Interactions

3. Preference for Specific Games

4. Goals and Achievements

5. Impact on Emotions and Wellbeing

6. Learning and Skill Development

7. Influence of Game Quality

8. Impact on Relationships

9. Time Management

10. Reflection and Self-awareness

As shown in Figure 2, positive social interactions, including playing with friends and classmates, collaborating in multiplayer games,

and experiencing positive moments with peers, were frequently mentioned by the boys as positive social interactions that the boys valued. Social aspects of gaming, such as “teamwork” and “friendly competitions,” were highlighted in many responses.

The data analysis revealed a nuanced understanding of the phenomenon within the 6J class. The initial survey provided insights into the prevalence and patterns of gaming, indicating a commonality with the broader Year 6 cohort. The observations and annotations during gaming sessions highlighted the multifaceted influence of gaming on the boys, highlighting their social awareness, introspection, and emphasis on balance. The self-regulation questionnaire and post-gaming journal entries further supported these findings, indicating that the boys generally experienced positive, balanced emotions after gaming, with a focus on positive social interactions and emotional impact. Overall, the data analysis led to a holistic comprehension of the 6J boys’ gaming experiences, shedding light on the broader implications on their lives, relationships, and well-being.

Conclusion and Implications

The findings of this action research project reveal a positive outlook among most of the boys towards their experiences with video gaming. Through the implementation of the zones of regulation framework, the boys demonstrated improvement in their ability to reflect on, and manage, their emotions over time, indicating a growing familiarity with the terminology and expectations established during the in-class

sessions. Surprisingly, there was an unexpected openness and enthusiasm among the boys to discuss their digital worlds, a response that surpassed my initial expectations. Remarkably, the impact of the video gaming sessions extended beyond the classroom, with boys incorporating lessons learned into other contexts, such as managing frustration during challenging academic tasks. For instance, Boy F’s reflection on a challenging math lesson highlights the practical application of self-regulation skills acquired through the action research process. His ability to identify and navigate through different emotional zones during the lesson underscores the effectiveness of integrating gaming experiences with strategies for emotional regulation and well-being. Moreover, I noted the unanticipated opportunity for rapport-building that emerged from exploring the boys’ digital lives. By sensitively addressing the “what” and “why” of the action research, namely supporting self-regulation and well-being while gaming, a more authentic connection was fostered between the boys and me.

This project raises intriguing possibilities for future research. The impact of the video gaming phenomenon on boys and their interpersonal relationships emerges as a promising area for further investigation, drawing insights from the State of Play report (Australian Government, 2018). Additionally, employing a case study model to examine the effects of problematic gaming behaviours on individuals could provide valuable insights into intervention strategies and support mechanisms.

Both practical and ethical implications

Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming. Leader (2)1. 49-66

can be gleaned from research conducted by Chiu et al. (2004), and more recently by Su et al. (2018), which emphasise the importance of parental involvement in implementing monitoring strategies for children’s engagement with video games. One potential course of action could involve engaging parents of boys attending King’s Preparatory School to collaboratively regulate their sons’ gaming activities. Urgent attention is needed for parents of children and adolescents to acquire and implement effective monitoring strategies aimed at preventing the onset of addictive behaviours associated with video gaming. Developing parental training programs could serve as an initial step toward enhancing parental capacity to regulate their children’s gaming behaviour. This underscores the critical role of parenting practices, as evidenced by existing research demonstrating that parental monitoring serves as a protective factor against the development of pathological gaming.

As a direct result of this research, the Preparatory School’s next step is to explore eSports as a co-curricular offering in the Preparatory School. Exploring the feasibility of such an option will involve liaising closely with the Senior School eSports coordinators and identifying potential Senior School boys to act as mentors to the Prep boys. Sculpting a clearly defined purpose for the co-curricular option to align with both our school values and, more broadly, to encourage balanced video game-playing behaviours, including a focus on self-regulation.

In many respects, this action research project addressed initial concerns and achieved

its objectives. However, it also revealed complex and multifaceted aspects of boys’ experiences with video gaming, signalling the need for continued exploration and inquiry, as well as parental engagement in this space. As we venture into the next phase of research, it is evident that there are still many levels to uncover and understand in the dynamic realm of video gaming and its implications for the well-being and development of adolescent boys. Are we ready to level up?

References

Australian Government (eSafety Commissioner). (2018). State of play – Youth and online gaming in Australia. https:// www.esafety.gov.au/research/ youth-online-gaming-state-of-play Blackburn, G., & Scharrer, E. (2019). Video game playing and beliefs about masculinity among male and female emerging adults. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 80(5), 310–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0934-4

Chiu, S. I., Lee, J. Z., & Huang, D. H. (2004). Video game addiction in children and teenagers in Taiwan. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7(5), 571–581. https://doi. org/10.1089/cpb.2004.7.571

Donati, M. A., Guido, C. A., De Meo, G., Spalice, A., Sanson, F., Beccari, C., & Primi, C. (2021). Gaming among children and adolescents during the COVID-19 lockdown: The role of parents in time spent on video games and gaming disorder symptoms. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 6642. https://doi. org/10.3390/ijerph18126642

Ferguson, C. J. (2021, September 13).

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Video games and masculinity. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday. com/au/blog/checkpoints/202109/ video-games-and-masculinity

Gentile, D. (2009). Pathological video-game use among youth ages 8 to 18: A national study. Psychological Science, 20(5), 594-602. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02340.x

Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, Promundo, and Oak Foundation. (2021). The double-edged sword of online gaming - an analysis of masculinity in video games and the gaming community. Technical Report. https://seejane. org/research-informs-empowers/ double-edged-sword-of-online-gaming/ Granic, I., Lobel, A., & Engels, R. C. (2014). The benefits of playing video games. American Psychologist, 69(1), 66. https:// www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/ amp-a0034857.pdf

Jones, C., Scholes, L., Johnson, D., Katsikitis, M., & Carras, M. C. (2014). Gaming well: Links between videogames and flourishing mental health. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 76833. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2014.00260

Kang, S. (2020). The tech solution: Creating healthy habits for kids growing up in a digital world. Penguin.

Lenhart, A. (2015). Video games are key elements in friendships for many boys. Teens, Technology and Friendships, 31–52. http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/08/06/ teens-technology-and-friendships/ Liau, A. K., Neo, E. C., Gentile, D. A., Choo, H.,

Sim, T., Li, D., & Khoo, A. (2015).

Impulsivity, self-regulation, and pathological video gaming among youth: Testing a mediation model. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 27(2), NP2188-NP2196. https://doi.org/10.1177/1010539511429369

Mertler, C. A. (2020). Action research: Improving schools and empowering educators (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.

Murphy, L. K. (2021). Co-Regulation handbook: Creating competent, authentic roles for kids with social learning differences. Linda K. Murphy.

Nguyen, A., & Bavelier, D. (2023). Play in video games. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 105386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. neubiorev.2023.105386

Nielsen. (2020). 3, 2, 1 Go! Video gaming is at an all-time high during COVID-19. (June 3). https://www.nielsen.com/insights/2020/32-1-go-video-gaming-is-at-an-all-time-highduring-covid-19/

Nielsen, R. K., & Kardefelt-Winther, D. (2018). Helping parents make sense of video game addiction. In C.J. Ferguson (Ed.), Video game influences on aggression, cognition, and attention, (pp. 59–69). https://doi. org/10.1007/978-3-319-95495-0_5

Phyfer, J., Burton, P., & Leoschut, L. (2016). Global kids online South Africa: Barriers, opportunities and risks. A glimpse into South African children’s internet use and online activities. https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/71267/2/ GKO_Country-Report_South-Africa_CJCP_ upload.pdf

Rinaldi, L. (2023, July 18). They lost their kids to Fortnite. Macleans. https://

Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming. Leader (2)1. 49-66

macleans.ca/longforms/fortnite-addictionvideo-games-mental-health/ Su, B., Yu, C., Zhang, W., Su, Q., Zhu, J., & Jiang, Y. (2018). Father–child longitudinal relationship: Parental monitoring and Internet gaming disorder in Chinese adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00095

Xu, K., Geng, S., Dou, D., & Liu, X. (2023). Relations between video game engagement and social development in children: The mediating role of executive function and age-related moderation. Behavorial Sciences, 13(10), 833. https://doi.org/10.3390/ bs13100833

Appendix A

Zones of Regulation

Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys Through Reflective Journaling on Video Gaming. Leader (2)1. 49-66

Appendix B

IB LEARNER PROFILE

The aim of all IB programmes is to develop internationally minded people who, recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful world.

As IB learners we strive to be:

INQUIRERS

We nurture our curiosity, developing skills for inquiry and research. We know how to learn independently and with others. We learn with enthusiasm and sustain our love of learning throughout life.

KNOWLEDGEABLE

We develop and use conceptual understanding, exploring knowledge across a range of disciplines. We engage with issues and ideas that have local and global significance.

THINKERS

We use critical and creative thinking skills to analyse and take responsible action on complex problems. We exercise initiative in making reasoned, ethical decisions.

COMMUNICATORS

We express ourselves confidently and creatively in more than one language and in many ways. We collaborate effectively, listening carefully to the perspectives of other individuals and groups.

PRINCIPLED

We act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness and justice, and with respect for the dignity and rights of people everywhere. We take responsibility for our actions and their consequences.

OPEN-MINDED

We critically appreciate our own cultures and personal histories, as well as the values and traditions of others. We seek and evaluate a range of points of view, and we are willing to grow from the experience.

CARING

We show empathy, compassion and respect. We have a commitment to service, and we act to make a positive difference in the lives of others and in the world around us.

RISK-TAKERS

We approach uncertainty with forethought and determination; we work independently and cooperatively to explore new ideas and innovative strategies. We are resourceful and resilient in the face of challenges and change.

BALANCED

We understand the importance of balancing different aspects of our lives—intellectual, physical, and emotional—to achieve wellbeing for ourselves and others. We recognize our interdependence with other people and with the world in which we live.

REFLECTIVE

We thoughtfully consider the world and our own ideas and experience. We work to understand our strengths and weaknesses in order to support our learning and personal development.

The IB learner profile represents 10 attributes valued by IB World Schools. We believe these attributes, and others like them, can help individuals and groups become responsible members of local, national and global communities.

IB Learner Profile Jones P. (2024). Game Changer: Cultivating Self-Regulation in Year 6 Boys

How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?

David Massingham - Teacher, The King’s School

TIntroduction

he skill of political nuance can be taught to Year 10 Human Society and it’s Environment (HSIE) students through immersive and engaging teaching strategies such as political simulations. According to the English Language and Usage online dictionary “nuance” is a subtle difference in meaning or opinion or attitude (Stack Exchange, 2017). The investigative journalists from Denmark’s Constructive Institute define political nuance as the ability to view politics and reality in colours other than black and white. It can be grey and must have multiple layers to be real (Constructive Institute, 2017). The latter definition above ties in closely with one of the main focusses of this paper, namely the benefit of role plays and digital simulation scenarios on student learning and geopolitical understanding.

Geopolitics is defined as the study of the relationship of political power and geography; and the belief that if a nation controls key geographical areas (heartland) it will be able to dominate the surrounding territory (Hill, 2001). Another definition is that geopolitics is largely concerned with international relations and international interactions, as influenced by geographical factors. Many socio-cultural and historical factors also shape and influence the world of geopolitics. The understanding that the world isn’t just shaped

and influenced by greats of history such as Julius Caesar or Napoleon Bonaparte, but by real people, can help to give students greater contextualisation of the world.

Political Simulations and the Teaching of Nuance and Geopolitics?

Political simulations are a vehicle that can provide an opportunity for students to communicate and understand the motives of nation states and their actions in a regional and international context. Political nuance is a by-product of this communication and understanding. Political simulations provide a forum for students to engage and demonstrate in a practical sense, historical skills such as significance and contestability (Board of Studies NSW, 2012), which other than in the context of submitting a formal assessment task for a teacher, are skills that may otherwise not be given a chance to be flexed by students. Possibly, the most direct link of political simulations to the HSIE curriculum can be made to the Stage 5 Geography Elective Syllabus (Board of Studies NSW, 2019), most specifically the syllabus dot point of “investigating the roles of individuals, groups and governments in conflict resolution”, which is tied to the Political Geography topic. The simulation players best equipped to have the most authentic learning experience are the ones who stay most in character and dedicate their player

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

actions to meaningful conflict resolution. Student understanding of their player role in the political simulation is key and is crafted by the humanities skills they have developed from the humanities curriculums linked to their courses of study. Social science education should prepare students for alternative viewpoints and give students the skills to argue, debate, and discuss the merits of public policy, cultural mores, and their own experiences in a thoughtful and non-violent way (Bittman, 2020).

Foucault (1997) called on educators to open space for resistance in the classroom, where students are allowed to challenge and be challenged. The political simulation fits into

what Foucault refers to as “resistance in the classroom”, as it provides an environment that while academically and emotionally safe, is also one that requires creative learning, or using one’s imagination in confronting new situations (Spady, 2001). The environment of empathy, competition, and responsibility that the political simulation provides students would seemingly more closely emulate that of a professional workplace environment, rather than the often rigid, yet safe confines of schools. What Killen (2005) would describe as “value beyond school”, with learners having to produce performances and discourse that have personal, aesthetic, or social significance beyond just demonstration of success to a teacher, is a strength of the political simulation experience for students.

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

Methods

Demographics and Structure

Figure 1 details the sequence of recommended pre-requisite geo-political knowledge as student prior learning, before engaging with the political simulation experience. The lesson totals outlined in Figure 1 are a suggested sequence for teachers, as is the method of assessment type for the political simulation.

Figure 1

Teaching and Learning of Political Simulation Lesson Sequence

Source: TKS (2024)

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

Teaching Instrument

The “Ukraine Conflict Political Simulation”, a formative task that builds on the students’ knowledge and skills acquired throughout the study of the Political Geography topic in the Year 10 Geography Elective Course, was inspired by a formal assessment task during my study at Macquarie University. The Macquarie University Simulation, which was an assessable component of the POL844 The Asia-Pacific and Australia –Australian Foreign Policy course, required pairs of students to role-play for two and a half weeks, a person or organisation relevant to Australian foreign policy, e.g., the Australian Prime Minister or The Sydney Morning Herald.

The simulation was an interactive roleplaying exercise conducted online to provide hands-on experience in politics and diplomacy. The scenario was loosely linked to Australia’s foreign policy goals and policies in the Asia-Pacific region, against the backdrop of a world still very much reeling from the fallout of the September 11 terrorist attacks of 2001 (the simulation occurring in August 2003). Some of the academic literature on the benefits of political simulations indicates that simulations promote soft skills, such as public speaking, negotiation and/or improved empathy (Clark & Scherpereel, 2024).

The Ukraine Conflict Political Simulation, which was conducted via the Canvas digital learning platform, as part of the Year 10 Geography Elective Course (Political Geography topic) was created as my vision for promoting and encouraging student learning and understanding

of the geopolitical world. The Ukraine Conflict Political Simulation has advanced technology options (at least very advanced compared with the 2003 incarnation I was involved with) that allow the students to experience the simulation as it was intended…with a multitude of visual stimulus, video, and multi-media platforms and functions. The logistics of the political simulation included students being assigned a role (one nation or organisation per student player) and they needed to create original posts AND respond/reply to posts from other simulation players that directly impacted the interests/provided opportunities/ posed threats to their player. Students needed to reply and create posts based on the historical political behaviours/traits of their player (or to put it another way, stay in character and behave in a predictable way that the real nation state or organisation might behave). Detailed simulation components, such as maps of Europe (ground zero for Ukraine Conflict); glossary of key geopolitical terms; player roles; and player alliances (who is friends with who and which players are clearly identified enemies of other players) were fundamental ingredients of the simulation that needed to be engaged with, in some depth, before simulation posts could be created.

Despite their role being so abstract from their inexperienced knowledge of the world, students are expected and indeed held to account by other players in terms of simulation parameters. For example, if Student A who has been assigned the role of Germany [see Figure 2 below] were to make a simulation post stating that they will act unilaterally to pre-emptively strike at

Russia with nuclear weapons to eradicate a great military threat, then they have clearly missed the brief and not acted within the geopolitical constraints that define how their player would normally behave or their economic and military capabilities. The acquisition of deep knowledge, which comprises the central ideas that form the basis of a topic; coupled with the web of relationships among those central ideas; and how these relationships link to other knowledge

associated with the discipline (Killen, 2005), is necessary for simulation players to fully embrace their assigned simulation roles and also to help students have the knowledge to hold fellow simulation players accountable within the game confines.

Figure 2

Russia-Ukraine Political Simulation (Individual Player Profile, 2024)

Source: TKS (2024)

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

Disciplined Inquiry and Problematic Knowledge Related to Political Nuance

Disciplined inquiry is a quality teaching approach that ties in terrifically well with the teaching of political nuance, as teachers can help students to focus on gaining in-depth understanding of limited yet specific topics, such as geopolitics and varying political viewpoints (Killen, 2005). The digital discussion board that the political simulation is conducted through, allows for, and encourages, student communication, such as video posts, annotated visual stimulus, and creative and humorous posts to help to learn and to express their understanding (Killen, 2005).

It is also important to impress upon students that the willingness to open one-self to be able to authentically engage with and understand political nuance, is itself to be celebrated, as it is a challenging and often divisive skill and knowledge sub-set. To embrace and best understand and indeed empathise with political nuance/s is to engage with controversial political issues that can often trigger specific elements of one’s identity and one’s connection to the collective that involve intense emotions (Ron & Gindi, 2023). Controversial political issues can be very divisive, so it is imperative that educators open up space for resistance in the classroom, where students are allowed to challenge and be challenged in a safe and supportive environment (Foucault, 1997).

Problematic knowledge, which is knowledge that can be open to question and debate, which is the basis of political nuance and political understanding is a way of thinking that needs to

be increasingly fostered amongst our students (Killen, 2005). A student that can investigate the political, social and cultural influences that shape knowledge is demonstrating a growth mindset, with a lack of pre-determined and rigid ideas on how things are and should be, which can be very refreshing (Killen, 2005). For example, a student on the political simulation who is not hand-tied by absolutes of knowledge, may provide simulation output in their role as a Republican American President that might be far more progressive and liberal than what historical Republican party policy would normally manifest itself as.

The political simulation is a platform for creating a foundational understanding of the many nuances of the geopolitical world. The political simulation also helps to shine a light on “hard power” and “soft power”, which is an excellent way to showcase problematic knowledge (Scappatura, 2019). Hard power most commonly refers to the possession (by a nation state) of hardware or military capability to launch large scale war, or, at the very least, have formidable weapons at their disposal to act as a deterrent threat (Scappatura, 2019). For example, Russia is a nation universally recognised as possessing hard power, due to its possession of more nuclear warheads than any other country (Russia has 5,889 of the world’s nuclear warheads, see Figure 3 below).

Soft power often refers to the use of soft skills such as diplomacy, negotiation, and alliancebuilding that creates co-operation amongst nations and international organisations. Soft power can also refer to political influence through ideas and principles such as democracy, freedom

and economic prosperity (Scappatura, 2019). A country like the Netherlands, which is neutral in its stance on military conflicts, is a nation that springs to mind when thinking about soft power. The understanding and identification of hard and

soft power being used by players in the political simulation, allows students to apply their own political nuances in decision-making and to anticipate how nuance can be applied in varying geopolitical scenarios.

The nuances of power highlight to the students that politics is rarely black and white.

Countries possessing nuclear weapons

Source: ICAN (2023)

Figure 3

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

USA – A case study in Geopolitical Ambiguity

The Global Case Study on the USA as World Super Power is an important prior learning in the Political Geography unit, before attempting the political simulation. The study of the USA is a conduit through which the ambiguity of geopolitics and the contrasts of hard and soft power can be demonstrated. America is often portrayed as the global defender of freedom, democracy and capitalism. Despite this altruistic exterior, the United States has almost as many nuclear weapons as Russia (with 5,224 – see Figure 3) and easily has the greatest military arsenal in the world. The proof is in the statistics as well, with hard power being no certainty of the overall success of a nation. Russia, while possessing the world’s greatest number of nuclear weapons, falls well short in key development areas such as health and wealth. Russia’s life expectancy is 72.3 years and GDP per capita (per person) is $27,500, which ranks 76th in the world; whereas the USA has a life expectancy of 80.9 years and a GDP that dwarfs that of Russia with $64,600 per capita (per person) which ranks 14th in the world for GDP (CIA, 2024).

One could argue that the United States’ ability to win “hearts and minds” through ideals (soft power), has given it the economic might and influence to become the most dominant military force in the world - hard power - (Scappatura, 2019). An understanding of the significance of the superpowers in the world of geopolitics and indeed the political simulation, is important for students. Even the most seemingly subtle actions and decisions by superpowers, such as the USA

and Russia, can have wide-reaching impacts on all simulation players within the game confines, in much the same way as the world of global geopolitics.

Results

10 Geography Elective Simulation and Student Exemplars

The level of nuance and grasp of complex soft skills required to meaningfully engage with this task is clearly illustrated via the very divergent events, topics and issues to respond to across social, economic and military/ defence perspectives. Much like the dynamic and constantly changing world of politics and geopolitics (think changing borders/political regimes/military and defence alliances), students need to respond in a timely fashion to volatile political relationships, uncertain levels of economic and social stability, complex alliance systems that may commit nations to military conflicts, and ambiguous political perceptions and realities. In a task that involves such deep understanding of complex issues, not to mention the cultural empathy necessary to successfully negotiate with opposition players, the incorporation of humour into the education setting to boost student interest in the subject matter is beneficial (Gaufman, 2023). The ability to be creative and pivot when challenges/ curve balls occurred in the simulation was a characteristic of the best performing students in the 2024 simulation.

Figure 4 illustrates an original student post by the Finland simulation player, which was a reply thread to a humorous, yet narrative

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

driving post from a King’s staff member. The Figure 4 student exemplar piggy-backed very successfully off a rather preposterous teacher created post (again a demonstration of modelling creativity!) of the super alliance of Western Europe (NATOAHOFF) creating a super robot called ‘Voltron’ (taken from a 1980s cartoon series) to be the shield and ultimate weapon to defeat tyranny in the form of a super Russian empire called GRBC (Russia, Belarus, Canada, China and Ireland). The allocation of prominent roles in the simulation to dedicated teaching staff, such as CNN World News and the President of the Russian Federation, allowed staff to help drive the narrative and create many different avenues

4 Ukraine-Russia Political Simulation (Student exemplar, 2024)

Source: TKS (2024)

and tangents that all students could engage with, which opened greater access to meaningful student learning. It also allowed staff to model how humour could be successfully integrated into the simulation. The incorporation of humour into the education setting (by both students and staff simulation players) not only boosted selfmotivation and enhanced students’ interest in the subject matter, but also played a crucial role in reducing anxiety and stress levels (Gaufman, 2023). The use of humour can also foster greater student engagement, encourage “deeper” research investigation and possibly help to draw out cause and effect within the simulation.

Figure

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

The simulation data also indicated that the humorous nature of many of the posts led to greater than expected student involvement, on the whole, with students spending a total of 125 hours and generating 968 posts whilst, engaging in political simulation discussion activities over the six-day duration of the simulation (TKS, 2024). The jump from 180 posts in the 2022 political simulation to 968 posts in the equivalent 2024 simulation, both running for six days, shows that humour infused into the learning process led to greatly increased student involvement (TKS, 2022). A perfect example of humour being injected into a professional learning environment was the student that utilised Voltron (see Figure 4) as a weapons delivery system that helped to take back territories conquered by GRBC, eventually encircling Russia with NATOAHOFF signatory nation-states. The Figure 4 simulation posting shows a multitude of geopolitical knowledge and nuance as well as geographical skills, such as annotating maps (arrows showing the advancement of military forces). Figure 4 is a concrete example of successfully checking for student understanding, as the post demonstrates the communication of geographical information, which is a skill that underpins the Stage 5 Elective Geography Syllabus (Board of Studies NSW, 2019).

In 2022, the political simulation was the major culminating assessment task (summative task) for the Political Geography topic. This impacted the formality of student posts and responses. In 2024, the political simulation was conducted as a formative task, which resulted in student posts that employed greater levels of

experimentation and humour than their 2022 counterparts. Class teachers and support teachers were also more adventurous in their posts in the 2024 version of the political simulation, which created more tangents and avenues of political enquiry for students to engage with. The 2022 and 2024 political simulations were both conducted over 6- day periods, including class time, homework, and weekend periods. The brief, but heavily concentrated, focus of the political simulation, hard up against the teaching of geopolitical content, led to positive consolidation of student learning in both 2022 and 2024 and is a tangible method to gauge student learning and understanding.

Discussion

The political simulation cultivates critical thinking to the point that students are not only aware of the many nuances and machinations of global geopolitics, but also have the nous to detect “double speak” and accurately determine trustworthy sources. An example of the nuance required to fully understand geopolitical decision making is the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, that was signed between Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Soviet Russia on August 23, 1939. The pact paved the way for Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union to invade and occupy Poland in September 1939. It permitted Germany and Russia to carve up spheres of influence in eastern Europe, while pledging not to attack each other for 10 years (Christian, 2002). While it may have looked to the casual observer as though this pact was a coming together of two great dictators as a new alliance, the reality was far different. Stalin knew all too well that Hitler was a great

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

threat and in 1939 Soviet Russia was powerless to oppose the might of Germany. The pact bought Stalin a reprieve from invasion and bought him more time to better prepare Russia for an inevitable war with Germany. The complexities of political brinkmanship and the ambiguous truths of the narratives fed to the public by national governments are important lessons for our students to learn and highlight why a strong understanding of political nuance is critical in the world beyond school.

Spatial Distributions (Global Variations)

An understanding of spatial distribution and global variations in levels of development, is another nuance that is helpful for students to have a grasp of. For example, the Cold war classifications of first and second world countries (now antiquated terms), tied in nicely to an understanding of the world when there were the two mighty ideological power blocs that held the fate of the world in the palm of their hand due to the “MAD” principle. MAD or Mutually Assured Destruction was the viewpoint that neither side (NATO backed or Warsaw Pact backed) would send a first strike nuclear attack, as the reprisal attack would be guaranteed and millions of citizens in Russia and/or the USA would return to the dust instantly (Hill, 2001). With the end of the Cold War ideological struggle and no less than ten nation states in the world possessing thermo-nuclear weapons (See Figure 3), the “MAD” principle is just as important in 2024 as it was during October 1962, when the world held it’s breath over the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

The political simulation also lends itself very nicely to the Cold War topic covered in Stage 5 Mandatory History (Board of Studies NSW, 2012). The existence of nuclear weapons in the world, is a controversial political issue, with many opposing views in the public sphere (Ron & Gindi, 2023). The ability of our students to possess the nuance to understand how countries differ in their perception of defence and security is another skill that goes beyond the value of school (Killen, 2005).

Spatial Distributions (Attitudes Towards Humanity)

The last global variation that students can learn through the multi-faceted focus of the political simulation is that the importance placed on human life and equality can vary greatly from nation to nation and culture to culture. An example that may challenge the viewpoint that all human life is precious is the famous adage often attributed to Stalin that “one death is a tragedy…a million deaths is just a statistic” (Ratcliffe, 2016). Stalin acknowledges that one death is tragic and regrettable, but millions of deaths and tragedies are sometimes necessary to achieve ends and goals of society. An understanding of the complexities of global geopolitics, combined with the complexities of the human beings that make the decisions that impact our world, will ideally provide our students with the ability to examine and debate issues of public importance (Hess & McAvoy, 2015).

Conclusion

The teaching and cultivating of political nuance in our students can not only help them understand the realities of the world, but also

help socialise them as active citizens and critical thinkers about complex political issues. On the surface, the intersection of history, geopolitics and the spatial variations of human development would mean very little to most teenage Geography or History students. European dictators, American foreign policy and western cultural influence would seemingly have zero impact on most school students. A deeper analysis would show us that these complex interconnections between history, geopolitics and cultural ties mean a great deal and whether we acknowledge it or not, shape and create the world that we live in today and the world that our younger generations will live in tomorrow.

The political simulation is a way to expand and grow the geopolitical knowledge base of our HSIE students. The technological advancement of digital school learning platforms, particularly the use of discussion boards in the case of the political simulation, could be embraced as a teaching and learning opportunity that could help hone the skills that students will take with them into the world outside of school.

References

Bittman, B. (2020). Social Science Teachers’ Comfort Teaching a variety of controversial Issues. [Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Florida]. University of Florida e-Repository. Board of Studies NSW. (2019). Geography Elective Years 7-10 NSW Syllabus. https:// educationstandards.nsw.edu.au/wps/ portal/nesa/k-10/learning-areas/hsie/ geography-elective-7-10-2019

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

Board of Studies NSW. (2012). History K-10 NSW Syllabus. https://educationstandards. nsw.edu.au/wps/portal/nesa/k-10/ learning-areas/hsie/history-k-10

Christian, D. (2002). Power and privilege: Russia and the Soviet Union in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Longman.

Clark, N., & Scherpereel, J.A. (2024). Do Political Science Simulations promote knowledge, engagement, skills and empathy? Journal of Political Science Education 20(1), 133-152. Collins, D. (Ed.). (2016). Insight Geography –Stage 5. Oxford University Press.

Constructive Institute. (2017). How to Embrace Nuance in Political Coverage. https://constructiveinstitute.org/how/ contributions/how-to-embrace-nuance-inpolitical-coverage/ Foucault, M. (1997). Society must be defended. Picador.

Gaufman, E., Abel, N., & Andela, E. (2023). Electoral Politics in the Classroom: Reflections on the Sociology of Simulated Characters. Journal of Political Science Education, 715-721. https://doi. org/-10.1080/15512169.2023.2168195

Hess, D.E. & McAvoy, P. (2015). The political classroom: Evidence and ethics in democratic education. Routledge. Hill, K.T. (2001). The Facts on File Dictionary of American politics. Checkmark Books ICAN. (2023). Which countries have nuclear weapons? https://www.icanw.org/ nuclear_arsenals

Killen, R. (2005). Programming and Assessment for Quality Teaching and Learning. Cengage Learning.

Ratcliffe, S. (Ed.). (2016). Oxford Essential Quotations (4th ed.). Oxford University Press

Ron, R.E. & Gindi, S. (2023). Teaching Controversial Political issues in the age of Social Media – Research from Israel. Taylor and Francis.

Scappatura, V. (2019). The US Lobby and Australian Defence Policy. Monash University Publishing. Stack Exchange. (2017, January 31). English Language and Usage. https://english. stackexchange.com/questions/371059/theword-nuance-used-in-context-of-politicspoliticans

The World Factbook. (2024). Explore All Countries – Russia. https://www.cia.gov/ the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ The King’s School. (2024). Geography Elective Overview. Kingsnet. https://kingsnet.kings. edu.au/academics/senior-school/geography/ geography-elective

Macquarie University. (2003). POL844: The Asia-Pacific and Australia – Australian Foreign Policy Unit Guide. Humanities Faculty: Macquarie University.

Massingham D. (2024). How can teaching political nuance benefit Year 10 Human Society and its Environment (HSIE) Students?. Leader (2)1. 67-80

“Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport

William Sandwell - Teacher, The King’s School, Preparatory School

The paradigm of what it means to be a man in today’s world can involve teaching young boys that relying on others is unmasculine (Flood, 2020; Heilman et al., 2017; The Men’s Project & Flood, 2018). In this context, to be a “man” means being selfsufficient, suppressing emotions, and leading at all costs, regardless of whether this impacts the wellbeing of others, particularly if those others are also male. Whilst this paradigm is not as widespread as it once was, it is something that can prevail in sport among boys of an upper primary age. Boys easily get caught up in competitiveness during sport, more than any other area of learning.

When discussing behavioural consequences for inappropriate behaviour, an easy solution that schools often turn to, is to sit boys out of sport. However, this is merely a band-aid solution to a larger problem. Boys are not born with the knowledge of how to successfully and respectfully compete, and teachers rarely explicitly teach them how to, as they might do in a mathematics lesson.

Teaching personal and social responsibility (TPSR) (Hellison, 2011) explicitly teaches and models what respectful, responsible behaviour looks like in sport sessions. The TPSR program targets boys’ personal and social responsibility before the session starts and consistently returns to its principles throughout, whilst also asking

(2024). “Calm

boys to reflect personally. As a result, TPSR can serve as a positive intervention into a troubling set of social norms.

By equipping pre-adolescent boys with skills to be personally and socially responsible, it is possible to develop their understanding of healthy masculinity and the role they must play in practising it. Instead of fighting back and feeling a need to assert dominance, a boy can learn to empathetically recognise the views of others. Instead of assuming, for example, that a household chore is a “female” job or that expressing emotion is not “manly,” a boy can develop skills to take on whatever personal responsibility is required of them. Sport has an opportunity to develop these skills in ways that other aspects of school, such as classroomdelivered instruction, do not always have. By tapping into an area where some boys have a deep passion, TPSR can use the sport platform to teach boys skills that can be transferred to all aspects of their schooling.

Boys are being surrounded by negative influences at an exponentially increasing rate. Critics of The Man Box concept (Flood, 2020; Heilman et al., 2017; The Men’s Project & Flood, 2018) hypothesise that there is a paradigm of seven stereotypical pillars for how men should act: self-sufficiency, acting tough, physical attractiveness, rigid gender roles, relationships,

risk taking, and use of physical force if needed. The fact that self-sufficiency is first on that list is not a coincidence: a study of Australian participants found that 54% of Australian men felt the need to solve their own personal problems without asking for help (The Men’s Project & Flood, 2018).

Hellison (2011) outlines that when he started teaching, he was met with students who were “unmotivated and hostile” (p. 5). Nielson et al. (2022) further posit that the issue of hostility in school-based environments is exacerbated with boys. They cite Hill and Lynch (1983), who outline the gender intensification hypothesis; a hypothesis that posits that boys feel increased pressure to act “masculine” as they begin to assume adult roles and responsibilities around the age they hit puberty. Nielson and colleagues also cite a study by Hine and Leman (2013) that found that boys aged 12–13 years old, without intervention, would forgo appearing kind in order to appear “manly,” as opposed to boys aged 14–15 years old, who were able to emphasise prosociality successfully. Despite these apparent inherent obstacles, when Filiz and Demirhan (2019) implemented TPSR, they found that boys demonstrated higher responsibility behaviours than girls and that primary-age students demonstrated these behaviours more than their secondary counterparts.

TPSR aims to counteract dangerous social norms with a progression through five levels (Hellison, 2011):

• Level 1: Respect for the Rights and Feelings of Others

• Level 2: Effort and Cooperation

• Level 3: Self-Direction

• Level 4: Helping Others and Leadership

• Level 5: Transfer

Feith (2021) outlines that Hellison’s (2011) levels provide a framework to help guide students to a deeper understanding of what it means to be personally and socially responsible. However, a systematic, yet adaptable, approach is needed for TPSR to be successful. Beaudoin et al. (2015) conducted a comparison of two teachers, both of whom implemented the same model in similar settings. They found that one teacher attempted to use TPSR as a behaviour management strategy, whereas the other teacher regularly questioned himself and adapted his teaching strategies. The latter teacher’s ability to relinquish control when making responsibility-based decisions was key to his success; students became able to act responsibly without guidance.

Baptista et al. (2020) agree with Beaudoin and colleagues’ findings, citing a systematic approach as being key to the success of TPSR. They similarly outline that a successful TPSR approach involves a “psychologically and physically secure environment” (p. 21). Pozo et al. (2018) outline that the eventual aim of TPSR should be to reach the fifth level of transfer.

TPSR is inherently values laden. Hellison (2011) acknowledges that values-based programs might be seen as an indoctrination and take on a parenting, rather than teaching, role. Hellison also posits that “teaching life skills addresses the emotional and social dimensions of being a whole

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader (2)1. 81-100

person” (p. 6). To this end, Cüceloglu (1999, as cited in Filiz and Demirhan (2019), outlines that environment is key if students are going to be able to become responsible citizens. Cüceloglu also explains that a school setting, such as the one used in the TPSR model, can provide the opportunities necessary for all children to meet this goal.

A natural extension of a values-based program is to use sport, and specifically team sport, as the vessel to teach personal and social responsibility. Cecchini et al. (2007) mention that sport has the potential to have negative effects on childhood behaviour, especially if it becomes overly competitive. However, Domínguez et al. (2021) state that sport in educational contexts can promote knowledge and respect for ethical values, which are the basis for civil coexistence and are essential elements of positive citizenship. In addition, Landkammer et al. (2019) believe that team athletes represent the relationship between competition and cooperation better than most. TPSR can use the sport setting to develop two key objectives: personal well-being— including effort and self-direction—and social well-being—including respect for others’ rights, as well as feeling and caring for, and about, others (Martinek & Hellison, 2016).

To understand why teaching personal and social responsibility can have an impact, it must be defined. Ruyter (2002) defines personal responsibility as being accountable to oneself and to the needs and well-being of others. However, Parker and Stiehl (2015) explain that responsibility is a nuanced term. They explain that teaching responsibility involves guiding youth to be accountable for their obligations, actions,

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader (2)1. 81-100

and values. To achieve such accountability, Hellison (2011) notes that students can be responsible by “adopting, modifying, or rejecting” (p. 13) important values. Furthermore, Filiz and Demirhan (2019) highlight that a sense of responsibility does not develop automatically; rather, teachers must provide an environment that allows for responsibility to flourish.

The literature suggests there is a need for targeted intervention when it comes to counteracting the unhealthy masculinity that surrounds boys in the twenty-first century. Despite some recent positive paradigm shifts, other aspects of unhealthy masculinity are being exacerbated in this age of easy access to negative influences. Research has shown that TPSR is a model that can have a beneficial impact for boys if it is done well.

To explore the impact of participation in a TPSR program on boys’ development of healthy masculinity, this action research project, conducted within the International Boys’ Schools (IBSC) Action Research Program, posed the question: How can participating in a personal and social responsibility program foster a positive, healthy environment amongst a squad of 11 and 12 year-old cricketers?

Research Methods

The research participants in this study were 30 cricket players at The King’s School, Preparatory School. There were twenty-seven boys in Year 6 and three boys in Year 5. All boys were aged either 11 or 12 years old at the time of the action.

Permission to participate was gained from students’ parents through a consent letter. When distributing the letter, the process was explained to students thoroughly and I read the information page and the letter with them. In addition, prior to recording student interviews, it was explained that I would be filming the interviews to review responses and any answers would be de-identified. It was noted that some interview recordings and training session videos might be used in the presentation of findings at the IBSC Annual Conference at Harrow School, London, in July 2024.

The Action

The action took place within the context of half a cricket season, from early September to late November 2023. As proposed by Hellison (2011), each session had a teaching personal and social responsibility (TPSR) goal. These goals started at Level 1 and ended up at Level 4, with some sessions overlapping and encapsulating multiple levels. In addition to specific goals, Hellison (2011) posits five different interventions that happen within the TPSR model:

• In Relational Time, coaches and teachers find one-on-one time with students. Whilst this is acknowledged best practice, the coaches all adopted a more intentional approach to Relational Time for the cricket season.

• An Awareness Talk is a short conversation at the start of each session, where students are reminded about their responsibilities for the session. Such talks were used to discuss our

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”:

TPSR goals and involved specifically mentioning the TPSR aim of the session and a brainstorm among the boys on how they would go about meeting the goal of the session.

• The Physical Action Plan takes up most of the session time. Its aim is to modify the session to allow for the TPSR model to be taught. For example, boys split into teams and conducted a net session, specifically working on batting and bowling. Coaches could work oneon-one with students at either end of the net. In addition, downtime was integrated into the activities to allow boys to have conversations with each other.

• The Group Meeting is held towards the end of the session. This is designed as a discussion amongst the whole squad that asks them to reflect collectively about what they have achieved during the session. Such meetings were held to discuss the progress the boys had made in each activity, both from a skill and a TPSR perspective.

• The final stage is Reflection Time. Whereas the Group Meeting is a group reflection session, Reflection Time is aimed at self-evaluation and allowing students to understand what they did or did not achieve. Throughout the action research process, reflection time was inbuilt as boys were asked to think about how the session changes were

impacting on their personal and social responsibility.

Given the context of The King’s School and the fact that we were often pushed for time during sessions, an Awareness Talk was prioritised in every session and Relational Time was built into the Physical Action Plan. The Physical Action Plan was not always explicitly geared towards the TPSR aim for the session; however, it did allow for integration of the aim. The Group Meetings occurred when time and the structure of the session allowed. Reflection Time would take place when boys completed their pre-, mid, and post-season self-assessments, as well as in conversations during Relational Time (see Appendix A).

Data Collection

Several data collection methods were utilised during the research. Prior to commencing the action phase, all the boys completed a survey, where they rated themselves out of five (using a Likert scale) on 12 different criteria. Boys completed the same survey at a midpoint and again at the end of the research period. The surveys at the mid- and endpoints also had some long answer questions, where boys were able to reflect on the action’s progress. In addition, all students were interviewed at the start of the process, and a selection of ten students were interviewed at the end of the session.

At the beginning and end of the action research, staff were surveyed from several different departments at the school, including each of the three cricket coaches, along with the Year 6 teachers, the music teacher, and Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”:

the teacher librarian. Whereas the boys rated themselves on a Likert scale, the teachers merely chose whether they believed each student could achieve each criterion. They were given the same 12 criteria as the boys. To ensure the survey and interview data were credible and trustworthy, all boys were given the same instruction prior to completing the survey, as were the staff. Additionally, all boys were asked the same interview questions, although the wording was modified on occasion to allow for some boys to better understand the question.

During the action, a recording sheet was used to note observations during each session. Video recordings during some sessions were captured to show TPSR in action. Keeping the session data credible was a little more difficult.

The aim with the data collection was to collect as much meaningful data as possible. The data collection needed to take place over time, hence collecting information along the way, rather than at one single point. Additionally, this assisted in demonstrating that the boys were fulfilling their brief during sessions, not just making progress that was “natural” and unprompted by the intervention.

Data Analysis

The data analysis was conducted with an open-minded and inductive approach. Whilst the data were tracked throughout the process and, in some instances, allowing the results to inform next steps, most of the analysis took place once the action phase was complete. I had hypothesised what the data might present; however, my analysis was not impacted by expected results.

The quantitative data were compiled from the student and teacher surveys in a spreadsheet to determine what was statistically significant. Additionally, all written and verbal responses were categorised according to their relevance and relation to what the overall data were showing. The observational data were sorted so that they could be used to support the quantitative, written, and verbal responses that had been recorded.

Discussion of Results

Throughout the action phase of the research, the goal was to establish and enhance a positive environment among the students participating in the TPSR program. It was hoped that by using this program as a starting point, boys could understand what it meant to be personally and socially responsible and thereby could activate that knowledge to foster a positive, healthy environment.

The following thematic discussion highlights the boys’ understanding of the TPSR model, their ability to demonstrate the values posited by the model, and the transfer of the TPSR model to other aspects of school life.

A Personal and Social Responsibility Program Helps Build a Positive and Healthy Environment

Students rated themselves three times on a Likert scale on the same 12 attributes of personal and social responsibility: pre-action, at a midpoint, and on conclusion. Interestingly, over half of the students surveyed rated themselves lower at the midpoint than they had pre-action (see Appendix B). Their written responses,

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering

however, provided in the same midpoint survey, did not indicate a backward step.

Prior to the action starting, students were asked, “What do you think personal and social responsibility means?” The students found the personal aspect to be the element that was most challenging to define, and most boys referred to something like “looking after my things” or “trying my best.” Whilst this is not an inaccurate interpretation, Parker and Stiehl (2015) explain that it can be much more than that. They posit that whilst obligations, such as effort and looking after belongings, are one part, actions and values are essential elements as well. It was fascinating to watch this understanding change throughout the program. At the end of the program, when the boys were asked the question “What do you think personal and social responsibility looks like in everyday life?”, the responses contained much more detail. For example, Student Q noted, “Personal responsibilities are looking after yourself, setting goals.… Social responsibilities are being kind, showing leadership and collaborating.” Student DD simply stated, “Persistence, responsibility and respect.”

The research findings suggest that previously the boys thought they understood what it meant to be personally and socially responsible. The TPSR intervention helped them develop a more thorough understanding of what these concepts entail, and they thus realised they needed to rate themselves lower midway through the program. At the end of the program, most students who had rated themselves lower at the midpoint had bounced back to the same or higher score as where they thought they were at the start.

Escartí et al. (2010) highlight a similar discovery in their implementation of TPSR. They found that participating in the program “induces students to be more conscious of doing something well or badly” (p. 396).

A Personal and Social Responsibility Program Fosters a Positive and Healthy Environment

The teachers’ responses provided an interesting insight into the boys’ growth in the program and showed whether the boys had acted with more personal and social responsibility. I asked teachers about the same 12 criteria given to the students. However, they did not complete questions on a Likert scale. Rather, they were asked whether the boys demonstrated that attribute. Teachers responded that, from pre- to post-surveys, the boys showed growth in eleven of the 12 criteria, with some being particularly notable (see Appendix C). Interestingly, by far the biggest improvements were in the categories of “demonstrates leadership that benefits the group over themselves,” “resolves conflict peacefully,” and “resists external pressure from peers”—all of which are attributes that demonstrate strong social responsibility. Regarding the leadership point, the student self-assessment for this dropped significantly from pre-action to postaction. Thus, it can be deduced that as teachers recognised the boys demonstrating leadership qualities, the boys’ perception of what it meant to be a good leader changed.

The boys reported similar results to those of the teachers. When they were asked at the midpoint, “Have you noticed a difference in

atmosphere among the cricket squad/your team?”, all except four boys responded in the affirmative. Student W described the atmosphere as being “calm and happy,” and contrasted it with a Term 1 atmosphere, which he said, can feel “tense.”

Others cited an additional degree of focus in the squad and an overall sense of supportiveness. In addition, students were asked what they had noticed to be the biggest change this term. Student I referred to the TPSR goal that was given to the squad at the start of each session as being helpful. The sense of teamwork was a common theme as well. Teacher D noted, “The more they saw it, the better they got at it.” Such comments are evidence of an improved atmosphere among the squad.

Cecchini et al. (2007) outline that in their intervention they observed an increased level of fairness in the games that were played, with students focusing on teamwork and cooperation, rather than a “win at all costs” mentality. Martinek

and Hellison (2016) agree, citing “relational learning” as a positive side-effect of TPSR, where student–student and teacher–student cooperation is increased.

Observational data provided additional insight into the progress of the TPSR program. After being encouraged to show leadership skills as part of the “team meeting” phase of the TPSR, Student T was observed giving specific and helpful individual feedback to Student X during a fielding session. In a later session, Student H mentioned that he had observed a flaw in Student U’s batting that he thought he could help him improve. Coaches encouraged Student H to pass on the information himself. What was observed was a respectful interaction between two cricketers who were learning from each other. These interactions were just two of many that demonstrated the healthy, positive environment that had now been created in the squad.

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader (2)1. 81-100

A Personal and Social Responsibility Program Helps Transfer a Positive and Healthy Environment to Other Aspects of School Life

The final stage of Hellison’s (2011) TPSR model is transfer, which prompted the question, “Could the 30 participants in this program transfer the skills they attained into other elements of school and, by extension, into their everyday lives and the lives of those around them?” The qualitative data revealed some transference. When asked, “Have you noticed a difference in the grade as a whole?”, some students noted less bullying and a more positive atmosphere. Similarly, when asked, “Have you noticed a difference in the boys that were part of the cricket squad vs boys that were not?”, 15 out of 30 boys explicitly replied that they had seen differences, noting additional amounts of encouragement and kindness. Others stated they were unsure or had not paid attention to it.

Student E found there to be a calmness amongst the cricketers, whereas Student P reported, “They are a lot more positive and kinder.” Five out of six teachers witnessed similar changes. For example, Teacher B described the grade as “generally more positive.”

Not everyone saw such progress, however. In response to the question, “Have you noticed a difference in the grade as a whole?”, Student Y summed up some views by saying, “I think the grade still needs some work.” Similarly, about half of the squad responded in the negative to the question, “Have you noticed a difference between the boys that were part of the cricket squad versus boys that were not?” Teacher C noted that the

grade as a whole “struggled to meet the standards of the school.” Thus, I deduced that despite the success of the program within the squad, the short timeframe of the implemented program made it difficult for transfer to be fully achieved.

Baptista et al. (2020) explain that at least nine sessions of a TPSR program are required to fulfil transfer, whereas my action contained only eight. Pozo et al. (2018) suggest that for a TPSR program to be successful, a period of at least one year is needed. However, Bulca (2022) suggests that a program with a ten-week time frame could still achieve significant results with primary-age students. In a school that already has a heavily value-based approach with its teaching practices, a six-week intensive program is more likely to be successful than it would be in an environment that was starting from a “lower” base. Escartí et al. (2010) agree, saying that those students who have less experience with personal and social responsibility when starting TPSR-type programs are always going to show more improvement. If additional cycles of the program were to be implemented, one could assume the transfer would be more significant.

When reflecting on the growth they saw in themselves, Student B wrote, “I can demonstrate control when I need to. I have been trying to work on what to do when failures arise, and this term has helped me reset my mind every time.” Student P reflected, “The aspect I have improved at is always being responsive to the needs of others over my own.” On the other hand, Student R said, “The aspect I am not as good at is ‘I can resolve conflicts peacefully when they arise,’ because lots of conflicts arise from multiple things not just

cricket so it becomes harder to resolve.” Similarly, Student L reported, “I thought I was good at sticking to my goals, but I have realised I am not that good at it.”

Staff provided positive insight. Teacher D stated there was “huge improvement with positive behaviour, comments, and attitude towards the games.” Furthermore, Teacher E noted, “Over the course of the year, there was a more positive approach (improved) and a positive atmosphere among the Year 6 boys in respect to their training and game play.”

As outlined in the discussion, a six-week program may not have allowed for complete transfer of the TPSR principles to other aspects of school life. Whilst teacher surveys showed a marked improvement in 11 out of 12 aspects surveyed, their comments only touched briefly on the transfer of these skills. Teacher B described the grade as “generally more positive,” and Teacher A said, “The dynamic is a constantly changing one and therefore hard to really pinpoint any long-term changes. If I was to pick a word that best describes the atmosphere now, it would be ‘settled.’”

Conclusions

When seeking to address the impact that TPSR had on creating a positive, healthy environment, the answer is two-fold.

Overall, the impact of TPSR was positive. Boys were able to better recognise their personal and social responsibility factors and, in most cases, also demonstrate these. Whilst some students were at the stage where they could

become more personally and socially responsible through the program, for others the success came in the power of realisation. In addition, the teachers and coaches feedback noted that the behavioural outcomes amongst the boys who were part of the program was positive when compared to those who weren’t. Internally, within cricket training sessions and matches, the atmosphere was one of calmness and cooperation by the end of the intervention.

Additionally, the aim of the program was to create an atmosphere of healthy masculinity that transferred to all elements of a school setting. As aforementioned, the length of the program was a limitation in students’ ability to reach transfer and Level 5. However, what has been achieved are students with skills. Whilst these skills may not have been transferred in the six-week length of this implementation, they may be utilised as they move forward into their secondary school journeys.

In future iterations of this program, implementing two changes would potentially be key to its success. Firstly, staff need to be better professionally developed to both understand what is being asked of them in surveys and written responses, as well as in their implementation of the TPSR program itself. Whilst some information was provided to them in the form of email communication regarding the background to the program, adding face-to-face explanations and occasional meetings would ensure that staff are more aware of the purpose of TPSR. Secondly, allowing students to be a part of TPSR in different settings would provide them with the ability to better understand how others can affect one’s

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive,

ability to interact in a personally and socially responsible way. For example, if the program was extended to physical education lessons, in addition to the boys’ chosen sport, the boys would be able to experience the TPSR model in two different contexts and with two different groups of students: their sports team or squad and their class. By providing different contexts, the notion that some boys had in their survey responses that the TPSR model was purely something they did at cricket training and stayed at cricket training, could be negated.

Reflection

For the boys involved, the realisation was either “I can do this, and now I’ll use it for the benefit of others” or “I now realise I can’t do this, but now I know how.” For the staff, the realisation came in seeing the benefits of physical education. What this action research showed was that the exclusion approach, mentioned in my introduction, was not the answer. Staff who were involved were able to see the internal improvements in the squad and began to see the benefits of transfer. Distribution of this research, and implementation of future cycles is something that they have seen to be tangible and useful.

For me, the biggest realisation came in the success of a systematic approach that also allowed for the human element of teaching to shine through. There were challenges along the way. The King’s School is a busy place and there were constant interruptions, excursions on training days, students and staff illness, and unpredictable weather. Despite this, I was able to see the benefits of action research and how being able to distribute

WT. (2024).

such data to colleagues has been invaluable in their understanding of the solutions I proposed to help with the issues we had with behaviour.

This action research project demonstrated the power that using boys’ passions can have on improving soft skills and demonstrating healthy masculinity in all aspects of school life. Particularly in sport, which is an area where boys’ masculinity is often most toxic. It is the explicit teaching of these skills that breeds positive personal and social responsibility.

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Parker, M., & Stiehl, J. (2015). Personal and social responsibility. In J. Lund & D. Tannehill (Eds.), Standards-based physical education

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader (2)1. 81-100

curriculum development (pp.173–204). Jones & Bartlett Publishers.

Pozo, P., Grao-Cruces, A., & Pérez-Ordás, R. (2018). Teaching personal and social responsibility model-based programmes in physical education: A systematic review. European Physical Education Review, 24(1), 56–75.

Ruyter, D. (2002). The virtue of taking responsibility. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 34(1), 25–35.

Steinfeldt, J. A., Vaughan, E. L., LaFollette, J. R., & Steinfeldt, M. C. (2012). Bullying among adolescent football players: Role of masculinity and moral atmosphere. American Psychological Association, 13(4), 340–353.

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader (2)1. 81-100

Appendix A TPSR Action Plan

Focus Area TPSR Phase Action Plan

Consistently highlight the following (see Hellison 2011, Chapter 4):

• Boys’ strengths

Relational Time

Respect

Awareness Talk

Physical Activity Plan

WT.

Group Meeting

Self-Reflection

• Boys’ individuality (pay attention to individuals and spend time having short conversations)

• Allow students to have a voice and have them solve a situation first

• Boys making good decisions

Boys are posed the following questions at the start of the session:

• What does respect mean?

• How can we show respect in cricket?

Aim to do two respectful things in the session. Students should have already heard some examples from the previous conversation.

Boys share their thoughts on today’s action as a group:

• What did you observe?

• What was difficult to do?

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Sandwell

(2024). “Calm

Conflict and Conflict Resolution

Relational Time

Awareness Talk

Physical Activity Plan

Group Meeting

Self-Reflection Time

Consistently highlight the following (see Hellison, 2011, Chapter 4):

• Boys’ strengths

• Especially if they resolve conflicts using initiative

• Boys’ individuality

• Individual chats when students are bowling

• Allow students to have a voice and have them solve a situation first

• Boys making good decisions

Boys are posed the following questions at the start of the session:

• What conflict may arise in a cricket training session?

• How do we resolve conflict?

• Whose responsibility is conflict? If it’s not your conflict, when does it become your conflict?

Conflict and conflict resolution / Participation

Boys are encouraged to step in if need be

None

Individual students are asked the following questions at the end of the session:

• Did you observe conflict?

• Did you resolve the conflict?

• Who else did you see in conflict / resolving conflict?

Relational Time

Persisting through Challenges

Awareness Talk

Researcher circulates to all activities

Conversation about what we learned last week, especially regarding conflict and respect.

Persisting through challenges is this week’s aim. What challenges might we encounter in a game of cricket or a training session?

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader (2)1. 81-100

Physical Activity Plan

Group Meeting

Self-Reflection Time

Activities are designed to be challenging for boys. They include:

• A running between the wicket drill that doesn’t stop, lots of running.

• A boundary catching game with high catches and low ground fielding that is difficult.

• A straight drive game where boys have a very restricted area to hit

Boys are posed the following questions.

• What challenges did you encounter?

• How did you overcome them?

Boys have a moment to reflect at the end on how they went in that activity.

Relational Time

Awareness Talk

Physical Activity Plan

Goal Setting and Leadership

Group Meeting

As boys are leading the activities, staff are circulating and asking boys about their satisfaction levels with whomever is leading. They are also providing encouragement and building up.

Boys are asked the following questions:

• What do you think the goal of each drill is?

• What makes a good leader within a drill?

• If no teacher is leading, what does the focus need to be?

Today is about taking responsibility and working and leading independently. Three drills will be set up and after they are explained to the boys how they work, the boys themselves will need to take ownership of what they are doing.

Discussion at the end where boys compliment another squad member on how they made the drill run smoothly

Self-Reflection Time None

Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through

(2)1. 81-100

Goal Setting and Building Up Teammates

Relational Time

Awareness Talk

Physical Activity Plan

Group Meeting

Self-Reflection Time

Relational Time

Awareness Talk

The Needs of Those around You

Physical Activity Plan

Group Meeting

Self-Reflection Time

Relational Time

Awareness Talk

Leadership and Giving Feedback to Others

Physical Activity Plan

Group Meeting

Self-Reflection Time

This is the big focus of today’s session with more coaches present. Researcher has individual chats with all students.

Building each other up, setting yourself goals for the session.

Boys self-diagnose areas of focus and have conversations with coaches throughout.

Boys are posed the following question:

• How did you go achieving your goal?

Boys are given a chance to reflect personally

Individual conversations with boys in nets

Getting away from the “me-centric” approach. Consider the needs of others. The focus is on the good of the team.

Three rotation drills which all have opportunities for boys to put others before themselves

Asking boys to name opportunities where the topic of the awareness talk took place.

Boys reflect on their experiences so far with TPSR in a mid-assessment survey

Coaches encourage students to give feedback to each other

Focus on leadership and giving each other feedback. Helping each other out with our strengths.

Net session, where boys have downtime opportunities to chat to teammates

Boys reflect on a teammate who was helpful

Remind boys that they will be given a chance to reflect after next week’s session

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader (2)1. 81-100

Relational Time

Awareness Talk

Conclusion

Physical Activity Plan

Group Meeting

Self-Reflection Time

Appendix B

Student Survey Data

Level 1 Basic Self-Regulation & Inclusion

A Student demonstrates self-control.

B Student resolves conflicts peacefully.

Coaches have chats with students that review the success they have had as cricketers and as people

Using our skills. Boys are reminded this is the final training session of the year and thus, should be fun and a culmination of this term’s progress as cricketers and members of the community.

Activities that allow a high level of involvement

Boys reflect on the things they have learned this term and will put into practice moving forward

Students complete a final reflection, with some interviews conducted

C Student recognises everyone has the right to be included.

Level 2 Motivation & Growth Mindset

A Student self-motivates to complete tasks.

B Student moves outside their comfort zone and tries new things.

C Student persists through challenges.

Level 3 Independence & Goal Setting

A Student stays on task without direct adult supervision.

B Student sets achievable goals.

C Student resists external peer pressure.

Level 4 Leadership & Empathy

A Student showcases caring and compassion.

B Student is consistently sensitive and responsive to others’ needs.

C Student demonstrates leadership that benefits the group over themselves.

Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Sport. Leader (2)1. 81-100

Sandwell WT. (2024). “Calm and Happy”: Fostering a Positive, Healthy Environment for Year 5 and 6 Boys Through

Appendix C

Teacher Survey Data

Lifting the Load in Visual Arts Through Effective Instructional Design

Melanie Taylor - Dean of Professional Practice, The King’s School

There are many factors that contribute to a student achieving academic success in their learning. According to the Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation [CESE] (2020), high expectations, explicit teaching, effective feedback, use of data to inform practice, assessment, classroom management, wellbeing, and collaboration are the key evidence-based practices found in high-performing schools. The current discourse in education focuses heavily on the value of explicit teaching as the key to effective teaching practices (Australian Education Research Organisation [AERO], 2024; CESE, 2020). When discussing visual arts education and the study or creation of artworks, however, there is often the misconception among non-visual arts teachers that it prioritises student-centred learning over explicit instruction.

Visual arts education plays a vital role in preparing students for the future, providing them with the knowledge, understanding, and skills to be active and engaged citizens (BoS, 2016). By utilising explicit instruction and independent practice in teaching students about the properties and meanings of artworks, teachers may guide their students to a high level of academic achievement, develop their quality of mind, and equip them to become global thought leaders in our contemporary society. Visual arts rewards student dispositions centred around aspects

of subjective reasoning, such as, intellectual autonomy, innovation, risk-taking, and critical thinking. However, it also demands discipline, as artistic (Brown, 2000) and critical performance requires a deep knowledge of the field and the images/ artworks throughout Art History.

Images are “central to communication and meaning-making” (Felten, 2008, p. 60) and are also the fundamental ingredient of both the content in the Stage 6 NSW Visual Arts Syllabus (BoS, 2016) and a student’s artistic and critical performance. In Years 11 and 12, students develop essential knowledge, skills, and understanding in artmaking and in critical and historical accounts (BoS, p. 6). Whilst this discussion focuses on the written component of the HSC course, it is important to note that effectively developing students’ artmaking practice so that the body of work demonstrates expressive resolution also requires explicit instruction and independent practice. In Art Criticism and Art History, this subject provides the opportunity for students to critically analyse the techniques and meaning of artworks from any given point in our cultural evolution. The breadth of domain-specific knowledge required, combined with the necessary problem-solving skills, places a large demand on a student’s working memory.

Cognitive Load Theory

Cognitive load theory (CLT) provides a

framework for teachers to design instructional materials (Rourke & Sweller, 2009) that enable students to process new knowledge through their working memory, thereby developing schemas in art history and its analysis. Felten (2008) argues that image analysis is an ill-defined problem requiring “the ability to understand, produce, and use culturally significant images, objects, and visible actions” (p. 60) to arrive to a solution. Critical analysis is often also seen as an ill-defined problem because, when students take on the role of art critics and respond to artworks, they encounter multiple potential solutions to each question or problem.

CLT proposes that, through explicitly teaching background knowledge and using worked examples when solving ill-defined problems, the level of working memory required can be reduced and information can be more easily borrowed and reorganised into the learners longterm visual arts schemas. To this end, this paper provides guidance for teachers to implement effective instructional design based on the principles of cognitive load theory and explores various teaching and learning strategies aimed at enhancing students’ image analysis skills in the NSW Stage 6 Visual Arts course.

NSW Stage 6 HSC Visual Arts

The NSW Stage 6 Visual Arts Syllabus (BoS, 2016) requires a student to be able to research “interests in art criticism and art history, plan investigations and arguments that involve the organisation of written information and examples of artworks, artists and audiences to use in their explanations and evaluations” (p.11). The role

of the visual arts teacher is to take these various elements of the syllabus and select content and instructional activities to maximise students’ learning opportunities. It is imperative to note that acquiring critical and analytical writing skills in visual arts is vital for students as it empowers them to effectively communicate their thoughts, develop logical arguments, and engage deeply with complex subjects. Furthermore, these skills foster intellectual growth, encouraging curiosity, creativity, and the ability to assess different perspectives. Such attributes are crucial for shaping students of character who are prepared to participate in the wider world as global thought leaders.

Teaching analytical writing in visual arts is complex, and understanding CLT ensures visual arts teachers understand the cognitive architecture of their students. Cognitive architecture, states Sweller (2011), is the “knowledge of how we learn, think, and solve problems” (p. iv). CLT focuses on the effective use of working memory to turn new knowledge into long-term memory. Whereas biologically primary knowledge can be considered innate, biological secondary knowledge requires mental effort on the part of the novice learner and is acquired with effective, direct, and explicit instruction. Two effective learning architectural devices, in the context of the study of visual arts, are direct vocabulary instruction, and the use of worked examples.

Direct Vocabulary Instruction

Marzano’s (2004) perspective on building academic background knowledge in the form

of direct vocabulary instruction is supported by the key principles of CLT. It must be first established what the student already knows about the content area and then strategically build on this prior knowledge with new content to have it effectively become part of the student’s longerterm/ permanent memory. The type and quality of instruction will shape the processing that occurs in a student’s working memory (Marzano) and affect whether the new content makes its way into the permanent memory of the student. The teacher’s role is to ensure the instructional activities successfully facilitate effective processing.

There are several key instructional features of direct vocabulary instruction (Marzano, 2004). These features include (1) not solely relying on the definitions of key terms, (2) students communicating in linguistic and nonlinguistic ways, (3) a student being exposed to and learning about a word several times, (4) explaining the key word in its parts, (5) using different methods of instruction depending on the type of word, (6) various forms of teacher and student led discussion, (7) word games, and (8) a focus on key words needed for successful completion of the problem. By effectively utilising these characteristics and drawing on the concept of germane cognitive load, teachers can enable students to successfully build upon prior knowledge and acquire new, domain-specific academic vocabulary.

When analysing artworks, visual arts teachers need to ensure that their students understand visual arts metalanguage before the analysis of the artworks material and conceptual

practice can begin. This is supported by the key characteristics of Marzano’s (2004) explicit teaching of background information and Felten’s (2008) idea that, “with training and practise, people can develop the ability to recognise, interpret, and employ the distinct syntax and semantics of different visual forms” (p. 60).

Worked Examples

Rourke and Sweller (2009) advocate for worked examples as a major instructional method when considering CLT in instructional design, wherein a worked example demonstrates the steps required to solve a problem. Well-designed instruction using worked examples can reduce cognitive load, especially when dealing with welland ill-defined problems. Allaire and Marsiske (2002) stress that, “well-structured problems are those that contain a clear specification of three elements, including the problem situation, the means or the solution to solve the problem and the desired outcome” (p.2). An ill-defined problem is seen as missing one of the above three categories, and the resulting missing step in this sequence makes it difficult for the student to solve the problem. An ill-defined problem means that the student may not know the means or the solution (Allaire & Marsiske) to solve the problem, or the perceived desired response required by the teacher. As supported by Sweller et al. (2009), learners are better able to move information into long-term memory using the borrowing and reorganising principle that worked examples facilitates. A novice learner’s problem-solving skills are supported and developed by observing

worked solutions.

Cognitive Load Considerations in Visual Arts

Understanding how the brain builds schemas and moves new information into longterm memory is essential to designing effective learning activities. In this context several factors need to be incorporated into the teaching of visual arts, such as, but not limited to:

• backward mapping scope and sequences and programs – mapping the Year 12 course content and outcomes to the Year 7 course content and outcomes,

• a gradual progression of the complexity of written response scaffolds provided for students from Years 7 to 12,

• a staged approach to the teaching of art history,

• a staged approach to explicit vocabulary activities, and

• the provision and discussion of staged student analytical writing exemplars.

The three content areas of the NSW Stage 6 Visual Arts Syllabus (BoS, 2016) are “Practice,” the “Conceptual Framework” and the “Frames.” In narrowing the scope of this paper, the focus of this discussion is on the impact of developing direct key vocabulary instruction and worked examples on one aspect of the NSW Stage 6 Visual Arts Syllabus—the Frames1

1As part of the NSW Curriculum Reform, the term ‘Frames’ has been updated to ‘Viewpoints’. This change will be implemented in 2027 for Years 7-10 and in 2028 for Years 11-12.”

The Frames are designed as an interpretive framework to shape discussion about the student’s artmaking or the artmaking of artists throughout time. Understanding these visual arts concepts and vocabulary terms begins in Stage 4 Visual Arts, with the depth and breadth of understanding increasing throughout the learning continuum. In Stage 6, a student must have a highly developed understanding of this metalanguage and be able to write a sophisticated analysis of an artwork that effectively applies the concepts, terms, and definitions in a concise and well-reasoned way, to the written analysis of an artwork from any period within the world’s history. This can be a complex task for what many people would consider a novice in the study of the evolution of cultural artefacts.

This written analysis requirement of the course can be supported with the previous discussion on cognitive load implications of well- and ill-defined problems. The problem that is posed and the breadth of information that a student can be examined on, within the image analysis component of the Visual Arts course, is vast. The problem in this instance, is the application of the appropriate metalanguage, syllabus, and art history terms, to the written interpretation of an unseen artwork. This task demands of the student, “the ability to produce a diversity of responses to an open-ended problem” (Guildford as cited in Van de Kamp et al., 2015, p. 48) and, as a result, careful instructional design is required to avoid cognitive overload in the learner. Students need to be able to draw on a range of features of the image to be able to discern the artist’s intent, the techniques used, and the

resulting meaning of the artwork, and provide their own solutions to questions on specific art examples. (Rourke & Sweller, 2009).

Rourke and Sweller (2009) state that the range of possible answers and solutions to the problem (the analysis of the image) produces an emphasis on the as genesis principle rather than the borrowing and reorganising principle and, therefore, imposes a heavy extraneous cognitive load. By using worked examples of image analysis, students will not necessarily need to test their own theories but will be able to examine a worked solution of the problem and then borrow and reorganise the information from this solution into their own existing schemas for future use when confronted with similar problems.

Unseen analysis questions make up half of the external written examination for Year 12 HSC Visual Arts students. A student is expected to be able to analyse artworks they have not seen before using:

• the three content areas of the NSW Stage 6 Visual Arts Syllabus,

• art history vocabulary,

• visual literacy skills,

• physical evidence from the artwork, citation and extracts,

• concise and well-reasoned written expression, and

• an informed point of view.

The other key area of background knowledge required for this image analysis is understanding

key art history terms and concepts. These terms and concepts sit within, but are not limited to, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories; Western art history—the many traditional, modern, and postmodern art movements; ancient civilisations; art from across the world e.g. China, Africa and India; and Architecture and Design. Students are then required to draw on citations, extracts, and visual literacy, noticing physical evidence in the artwork to support their interpretation of the meaning of the provided plate and answer the question.

Instructional Design Practices

Given the breadth of this content, teachers need to develop effective instructional activities to reduce their students’ intrinsic cognitive load. The common errors students make in terms of vocabulary are varied and dependent on a student’s background knowledge. Some of the common errors are incorrect use of the syllabus or art history term, a superficial discussion of the syllabus terms, placing art history terms in incorrect time periods/ movements/contexts, minimal use of art history terms in the analysis of the artwork and citation, focusing on the art history or syllabus terms in their discussion with little or basic evidence and justification from the artwork, and not addressing the citation— title, date, size, materials, location of the artwork.

Visual arts teachers can draw on the instructional design practices in Table 1 when addressing the above critical analysis errors and the intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load in Visual Arts analytical writing. (NB: The Frames is used as a content area example.)

Taylor M. (2024). Lifting the Load in Visual Arts Through Effective Instructional Design. Leader (2)1. 101-112

Table 1

Art Criticism Explicit Instruction Practices

Instructional Design

Direct Vocabulary Instruction

• Diagnostic testing to assess prior knowledge of Visual Arts metalanguage.

• Provide explicit definitions of the Frames and the key words within the definition.

• Regular fluency and retrieval practise of key art history and Visual Arts Syllabus terms.

• Narrowing the focus per term on the explicit teaching of one area of the syllabus in depth e.g. The Frames (Nuthall, 2004). Nuthall also notes that these exposures should be no more than two days apart.

• Students writing their own definitions and descriptions of the Frame with teacher and peer feedback.

• Students researching and documenting their critical investigations of artworks that align with their understanding of the Frames.

• Students using the Frames to analyse artists and artworks they have previously researched and have prior knowledge of.

• Students applying the Frames in the analysis and evaluation of their own artmaking.

Student Exemplars and Worked Examples

• Identification and discussion of the language of the question.

• Deconstructing the question’s marking criteria.

• Identifying the language of the question within the worked example.

• Explicitly model how to identify relevant syllabus and art history terms for the problem.

• Clearly identifying the strengths of the worked example’s structure.

• Explicitly identifying the worked example’s use and application of vocabulary when drawing conclusions about meaning.

• Explicitly identifying the critical reasoning that makes the worked example an A and aligning this with the marking criteria.

• Including a range of exemplars for student analysis.

Taylor M. (2024). Lifting

• Gamification of applying the Frames language in critical reasoning.

• repetitive use of the words in increased face to face teaching time. As suggested in Marzano’s (2004) literature, each time a student encounters a key art term, they adjust their understanding of the term, further developing their art syllabus and art history schemas.

• Class debate and discussions of the Frames as useful frameworks for the analysis of an artwork’s role as artefacts, beliefs and language (Maras, 2018).

• Well sequenced lesson structures –content dense lessons also focusing on pace, retrieval, guided and independent practise of key terms.

• Strategic lesson timetabling, balancing the Artmaking and Art Criticism and Art History components of the course to provide enough time to develop vocabulary.

• Asynchronous lesson recaps and summaries recorded for students to revisit at their own discretion.

• Annotate practise questions with the required syllabus terms, art history vocabulary, highlight key art terms and narratives evident within the plate and break down the citations.

• Provide a teacher-written, accurate A-range worked example that addresses all the required information from the annotated practise questions.

• Identifying critical judgements within the A Grade worked example.

• Give students a similar question and artwork (problem) as the teacher’s A Grade worked example to model, followed by feedback on their responses.

• Include a teacher-written B and C response that incorporates common errors made by students in their analytical writing responses.

• Utilise the modality effect by recording a QuickTime video summary of the complete solution, including relevant resources.

• Apply the variability effect by presenting similar problems and worked examples from different art periods and genres.

Discussion

The pedagogical practices of direct vocabulary instruction and worked examples outlined in Table 1, are supported by the CESE (2017) as an effective way to explicitly teach new content and skills to novices. This, combined with student practise and teacher feedback, are an effective way to help novices develop their skills in image analysis. Careful instructional design of academic background knowledge and worked examples makes complex material easier to learn (CESE, 2017), reduces the cognitive load on the learner, and ensures that the process for solving the problem is cemented in the novice’s long-term memory.

The strategies provided in Table 1 are based on the five principles that form the cognitive architectural core of CLT. When considering the information store principle, teachers must ensure that students develop the ability to accurately solve image analysis problems by helping them store key art vocabulary in their long-term memory and guide them through the stages of solving problems effectively. By effectively teaching students vocabulary, in accordance with the borrowing and reorganising principle, students will build on their art history and image analysis schemas. As well, by providing worked examples, teachers will avoid the randomness as genesis principle and prevent cognitive overload.

The randomness as genesis principle indicates that students lacking domain specific knowledge need to test key vocabulary and solutions, generating “novel information if knowledge is unavailable” (Rourke & Sweller,

2009, p. 197). The staggered delivery of new content uses the narrow limits of change principle, ensuring that new information is introduced in small amounts so it can be effectively stored in long-term memory. A well-sequenced approach within image analysis worked examples aligns with the environmental and organising principle, preventing cognitive overload and allowing the brain to effectively organise and apply the information.

As evidenced in studies by Bokosmaty et al. (2015) and Sweller and Cooper (1985), there have been extensive discussions of the value and success of worked examples in well-defined problems for subjects such as maths, science, and technology. Rourke and Sweller (2009) hypothesise that worked examples are also effective instructional tools for non-scientific subjects considered to have ill-defined problems, such as art and design. Their study used worked examples to solve ill-defined problems with first- and second-year university design students. The first experiment consisted of two groups of 51 first-year university students, with little background knowledge of design or university style instruction. One group used a worked example approach to learning about the key characteristics of a range of designers, and the other group independently answered the problem without the use of worked examples.

Stage 1 of the study, which all students accessed, consisted of a set lecture about each designer, their set characteristics, and analytical strategies that supported identifying key characteristics of design. Stage 2 of the study consisted of different practice activities for each

group. The worked example group studied worked examples of a chair design, with the name of the designer and its key characteristics. This was then followed by an “unworked” practice exercise, modelled on the worked example. The problem-solving group was presented with two problem-solving exercises, whereby they had to list the name of the designer and the chair’s characteristics. Stage 3 of the study, which all students from each group completed, consisted of several questions in an exam format. One part of the test also attempted to examine “far transfer” by using objects other than chairs, to see if students could take their new knowledge and transfer it to different problems.

In this initial experiment, Rourke and Sweller (2009) found that the worked example group performed considerably better in Stage 2, with their mean score significantly higher than that of the problem-solving group. Interestingly, both groups performed poorly on the open-ended questions of the exam. Rourke and Sweller suggest that this result was due to the students being firstyear design students, whose limited vocabulary and background knowledge restricted their ability to answer this part of the exam successfully.

Rourke and Sweller’s (2009) findings align with the experience of Visual Arts students, who, due to limited background knowledge, have fewer schemas to draw upon when solving image analysis problems. This finding is made even more significant when Rourke and Sweller’s second experiment applied the same method to second-year art education students. Worked examples had the same significant benefit to the worked example test group at Stage 2 and then

had an equally significant benefit on the Stage 3 exam results and “also demonstrated that they had acquired the far transfer skills needed to successfully answer questions concerning non chair designs” (p. 197).

Results of the second experiment clearly showed the benefit of visual literacy background knowledge when solving art and design ill-defined problems. Rourke and Sweller’s (2009) study clearly demonstrate the benefits of using worked examples, where students apply the borrowing and reorganising principle to efficiently develop schemas in specific domains.

Considerations for the Future

Trialling various approaches to worked examples shows that, while “product-oriented worked-out examples” (Sweller et al., 2019, p. 265) are helpful, they are not always explicit enough for students to successfully model all aspects of the solution in future responses. Therefore, a future focus could be on the exploration of “process orientated examples” (Sweller et al., p. 265) to ensure students can further deconstruct each part of the solution to replicate it for future problems. It is also worth acknowledging that incorporating errors into worked examples as an instructional strategy needs to be done carefully as issues can arise for learners when finding and fixing errors in worked examples (Große et al., 2007).

Sweller’s reflection on cognitive architecture and instructional design opens possibilities for future instructional design improvements. One example of these learning tools could be drawing on the “completion problem effect” and providing

partially worked examples so students can then determine what is yet to be said about the artwork within the analysis. This approach will ensure students thoroughly analyse previous worked examples and encourage them to look deeper into the qualities of the worked examples, enabling them to accurately complete the response. This strategy could also involve removing either the beginning or the end of the response, allowing students to complete the answer. Another learning opportunity is to thoroughly draw on the “collective working memory effect,” where students can work in groups to analyse worked examples and then collectively work to build their own solution to similar problems.

Whilst the student is a novice in the specific domain, it is necessary to carefully consider instructional design to avoid cognitive overload. As students’ experience and knowledge increases, it is noted that worked examples are less effective for high-expertise learners Bokosmaty et al. (2015). The expertise reversal effect encourages a staged approach to the use of worked examples in problem solving. Once learners have increased their knowledge, the practise of solving problems is important and has a positive, rather than a negative effect on their working memory (Sweller et al., 2019).

This discussion has highlighted two key pedagogical approaches that could significantly enhance the teaching of Art Criticism in the NSW Stage 6 Visual Arts course—direct vocabulary instruction and the use of worked examples. These strategies, when integrated as foundational elements of instructional design, can be rigorously

tested across a diverse student cohort to assess their effectiveness.

Conclusion

The goal of effective instructional design is to develop a student who can independently apply accurate and relevant knowledge to successfully solve problems. Therefore, incorporating direct vocabulary instruction and worked examples in Visual Arts instructional design enables Visual Arts students to successfully solve the problem of analysing unseen artworks and develop critical agency and reasoning. Cognitive load theory details the implications of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads, and can be used to guide instructional practices in NSW Stage 6 Visual Arts. Explicit instruction in visual arts analytical writing ensures that students have the skills and knowledge to demonstrate an understanding and appreciation of diverse perspectives, recognising the qualities of artworks as a fundamental aspect of human expression and cultural identity.

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