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@ @åí‰b’n½a@ò÷îç ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /إﺑﺮاهـ ـﻴﻢ أﺣﻤـــــــ ـﺪ ﻋﻤ ـﺮ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /أﺣﻤ ﺪ ﻋﻠـــــــــــ ـﻲ اﻹ ﻡـــــ ـﺎم ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /زآــ ـﺮیﺎ ﺑﺸــــ ـﻴﺮ إﻡـــــ ـﺎم ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /ﻡﺒـ ـﺎرك ﻡ ـﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻠ ـﻲ ﻡﺠ ﺬوب ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /اﻝﺰﺑﻴ ـﺮ ﺑﺸـ ـﻴﺮ ﻃـــــــــــــ ـﻪ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴﻮر /ﻋﺒﺪ اﻝﻮهﺎب ﺱـﺮ اﻝﺨﺘـﻢ أﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /ﻃـ ـﻪ ﺝــ ـﺎﺑﺮ اﻝـﻌﻠـــــ ـﻮاﻧﻲ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /ﺕﺠ ﺎﻧﻲ ﺣﺴــ ـﻦ اﻷﻡﻴـــــــــ ـﻦ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴ ـﺴﻮر /أﺣﻤ ـﺪ اﻝﻄﻴـــ ـﺐ ﻡﺤﻤـــ ـﺪ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /اﻝﻄﻴ ﺐ زیـ ـﻦ اﻝﻌﺎﺑــــــــــ ـﺪیﻦ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /ﻋﻤ ﺮ ﻋﺒ ـﺪ اﻝﻌﺰی ـﺰ ﻡﻮﺱ ﻰ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /ﻋﻠ ﻲ اﻝﻄﺎه ـﺮ ﺵـ ـﺮف اﻝﺪیـــ ـﻦ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /إﺱ ﻤﺎﻋﻴﻞ ﺣﺴ ﻦ ﺣﺴــﻴــ ـﻦ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /اﻝﺘﺠـﺎﻧ ـﻲ ﻋﺒ ـﺪ اﻝﻘ ـﺎدر ﺣﺎﻡـ ـﺪ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /إﺑﺮاهـﻴ ـﻢ ﻡـﺤﻤـ ـﺪ زیـــــ ـﻦ ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /ﺣﺴـ ـﻦ ﻡﺤ ـﻤﺪ اﻝﺰیـــــــ ـﻦ د .ﻓﺘــﺤــــ د .زآـــ
ـﻲ اﻝﻤﻠــﻜــــ ـﻲ اﻝﻤﻴـــــــــــــ
ـﺎوي ﺑﺮوﻓﻴﺴ ﻮر /أﺣﻤ ﺪ ﻡﺤﻤ ﺪ اﻝﺤﺴ ﻦ ﺵﻨـــــ ـﺎن ـﻼد د .ﻝــــــ
ـﺆي ﺻــــ
ـﺎﻓﻲ
א ﻡ ﺍ ﻌﺮ ﺔ ) ﻣﺎﻡ( ﲜﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍ ﺮ )ﺍﻟﺴﻮ ﺍ ( ﻠﺔ ﻣ ﺍ ﻠﻔﺎ ﺍ ﺔ :ﻠﺴ ﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠ ﻮﻡ ﺮ ﺍﻟ ﻌ ﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺍ ﺍ ﻌﺮ ﺍ ﺳ ﻣ ﺍﻟﺘ ﺎﺭ ﺮ ﺍ ﺮﺍ ﻌﺎ . ﺎ ﺍﻟ ﺎ ﺍ ﺔ : ﻣ ﺎ ﺭ ﺍ ﻌﺮ ﺔ ﺍ ﺳ ﻣ ﺔ. ﻣ .
ﺳ ﻮ ﺔ ﺭ ﻣﻌ ﺳ ﺔ " ﻔ ﺮ" ﻠﺔ ﺘﻢ ﺎ ﺎ ﺳ ﻡ ﺍ ﻌﺮ ﺔ ﺍﻟ ﺮ ﺔ ﺍﻟﺘ ﺔ .ﺘ ﻮ ﺍ ﺍﻟ ﺎ ﺮ ﺍ ﺘ ﺎ ﺔ ﺍﻟ ﺎ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ ﺎ ﺮ ﺍﻟﻮ ﺍﻟﻔ ﺮ ﺍ ﺴﺎ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗ ﺍ ﺳ ﻣ ﺍﻟﻌﻮ ﺔ ﺃ ﺭﺍ ﻟﻠ ﺎ ﺎ ﻢ ﺍ ﻠﺔ ﺍﺳﺘ ﺍﻟ ﺘ ﻣﻮ ﺮ ﻣ ﺍ ﻌﺮ ﻣﺔ ﻗ ﺔ ﺍﻟﺘ ﺍﻟﻌﻠ ﺃ ﺘﻢ ﺍﻟﺎﺔ ﺍ ﺔ ﺍﻮ ﻮ ﺍ ﺭ ﻡ ﺍﻟ ﺃﺃﺳﻠﻮ ﺍﻟ ﺎﺭ ﺍ ﻌﺎ ﺮ . ﺃ ﺎﺳ ﺍﻟﺍﻟﻌﻠ ﺍ ﺘﻌﺎﺭ ﻠ ﺎ . ﺮ ﺍﻟ ﺸﺘﺮ ﺍ ﻟﺘ ﺍﻡ ﻮﺍ. ﺸﺘﺮ ﺘﺎ ﺔ ﺃﺭﻗﺎﻡ ﺍ ﺎ ﺳﻮﺭ ﺎ ﺮ ﺍ ﺎ ﺍﻟ ﻮ ﺔ ﺃ ﺍﻟﺃ ﻠ ﻣﻔ ﺍ ﺳﺎﺳ ﺔ ﺮ ﺍ ﻠﻮ ﺍ ﻌﺎ ﺎ ﺍﻟﺮ ﺎ ﺔ ﺍ ﺍ ﻌﺎ ) ﺸﺮ( . ﺍﻟ . ﻗﺎ ﺔ ﻣ ﺎ ﺭ ﺍﻟ ﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﺮ ﺔ ﺎ ﺔ ﺍﻟ 95ﺃ ﺃ ﻮ ﺮ ) ﺎﻡ ﻣ ﻮ ﺎ ﺴ ﺔ ﺭﻗ ﺔ ﻔﻮ ﺎ ﻗﺮ ﺮﺳ ﺍﻟ. (95 ﺮﺍﻣ ﺃ ﺮ ﻗﺎ ﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘ ﻮ ﻗ ﺸﺮ ﻣ ﻗ ﺃ ﻣ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻠ ﺸﺮ ﻣ ﺎ ﺮ. ﻮ ﺍﻟ ﺃ ﺭﻗﺔ ﻣﺴﺘ ﻠﺔ ﺍ ﻟ ﺘﺮ ﺭﻗﻢ ﺎ ﻔ ﺎ ﺴ ﻮﺍ ﺍﻟ ﺘ ﺍﺳﻢ ﺍﻟ ﺎ . ﺍﻟ ﺮﺮﺔ ﺮﺍ ﻌ ﺘﺎﺭ ﻢ ﺔ ﺍﻟﺘ ﺮ ﺮ ﻟﻠ ﺔ ﺍ ﻌﺮ ﺍﻟ ﻮ ﻠ. ﻮ ﺮ ﺍﻟ ﺍﻟ ﺎ . ﻟ ﺃ ﺎ ﺍ ﺍ ﺭﺳﺎ ﺍﻟ ﺍ ﺔ ﺍﺳﻢ ﺍﻟ ﺎ ﻢ (A4ﺮ ﻔ ﺔ) ﻔ ﺎ ﺍﻟ ﺃ ﻣﺎ ﻠ ﺔ . ﺔ ﻣ ﻔ ﻠﺔ ﻟ ﺔ ﺍﻟﺘ ﺮ ﺮ . ﻣ ﻗ ﺴ ﺍ ﻠﻔﺎ ﺍ ﺮ ﺍ ﺎ ﺎ ﻠﺔﺍ ﻢ ﺍ ﺸﻮﺭ ﻣ ﺎ ﻣﺎﻟ ﺔ. ﺍ ﺔ ﺎ ﺍﻟ -
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أﻡ ﺎﻧﻲ ﺣﺴ ﻦ ﺣﻤ ﺪ أﺣﻤ ﺪ هﺎﺝـﺮ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻝﻮهـــــــــــﺎب ﺱــــــــــــــﺎﻝﻢ א
א
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ﺮ ﺮ ﻠﺔ ﻔ ﺮ ﺍﻟﺴ ﺭ - 526ﺍ ﻣ – ﺍﻟﺴﻮ ﺍ . ﻣﻌ ﺳ ﻡ ﺍ ﻌﺮ ﺔ ) ﻣﺎﻡ( - ﺎ 00 249 -511 /843399 -20428 : ﻠﻔﻮ ﺎ 00 249 -511 /0120880278 -0120881390 -0120887135:
E-mail : tafakkur2009@gmail.com
א آﻠﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ א
6 J1
מא א
اﻟﻘﻴﻢ اﻟﺨﻠﻘﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮرة ﻟﻘﻤﺎن א
Nد /د.ﺻﺎﻟﺢ ﻧﻮرﻳﻦ إﺑﺮاهﻴﻢ
28 -7
א
اﻟﺘﻨﺸﺌﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻃﻔﻴﺔ ﻟﻸﻃﻔﺎل ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺮة اﻟﺴﻮداﻧﻴﺔ א
א
Nد.ﻋﺼﻤﺖ ﻡﺤﻤﻮد أﺡﻤﺪ
:
Nد/ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﺴﻦ ﺑﺪوي ﻡﺤﻤﺪ أﺡﻤﺪ أﺳﺲ اﻻﺕﺼﺎل اﻟﺪﻋﻮي ﺑﺬوي اﻻﺡﺘﻴﺎﺝﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ Nد /ﺿﺮار اﻟﻤﺎﺡﻲ اﻟﻌﺒﻴﺪ اﻟﻔﺮوع واﻟﻨﻮاﻓﺬ اﻹﺳﻼﻡﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﻨﻮك اﻟﺘﻘﻠﻴﺪﻳﺔ Nد .ﻡﺤﻤﺪ ﻋﻮض اﻟﻜﺮﻳﻢ اﻟﺤﺴﻴﻦ
54-29 78 - 55 102- 79
א ﺕﺠـﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﺴـﻮدان ﻓﻲ ﺕﺄﺻـﻴﻞ اﻟﻤـﻨﺎهـﺞ اﻟﺠﺎﻡـﻌﻴﺔ "ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻡﺞ ﻡﺎﺝﺴﺘﻴﺮ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻﺝﺘﻤﺎع ﺑﻤﻌﻬﺪ إﺳﻼم اﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ ﻧﻤﻮذﺝﺎ"
א
א
Nد .ﻃﺎرق اﻟﺼﺎدق ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺴﻼم
:
آﺘﺎب ﻡﻦ اﻻﻧﺘﻔﺎﺿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺡﺮب اﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺮ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﻴﺮي א
Nأ .ﻡﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﺎﺑﻜﺮ اﻟﻌﻮض
128 - 103 138 -129
:
ﻡﻨﺎﻇﺮات ﺡﻮل ﺕﻄﺒﻴﻖ اﻟﺸﺮﻳﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻓﺮﻳﻘﻴﺎ
Nأ .ﻡﺤﻤﺪ ﺡﻤﺪ ﻡﺤﻤﺪ أﺡﻤﺪ
152– 139
ﺕﻘﺮﻳﺮ ورﺵﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﻳﻞ اﻷﺻﻐﺮ
Nد .ﺿﺮار اﻟﻤﺎﺡﻲ اﻟﻌﺒﻴﺪ
172 – 153
ﺕﻘﺮﻳﺮ ورﺵﺔ ﻡﻄﻠﻮﺑﺎت اﻟﺘﺄﺻﻴﻞ
Nأ .ﻗﺎﺳﻢ ﻋﻤﺮ أﺑﻮ اﻟﺨﻴﺮ ﺁدم
176 - 173
ﻡﻠﻒ وراﻗﻴﺎت Nﻋﻼء اﻟﺪﻳﻦ ﺡﺴﻦ ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺒﺎﻗﻲ
ﺕﻜﺸﻴﻒ ﻡﺠﻠﺔ ﺕﻔﻜﺮ
Nهﻨﺎء ﺡﻴﺪر ﻋﺒﺪ اﷲ א
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Poverty From an Islamic Economics Perspective: Concept, Measurement, and Treatment Elzein Abd Alla Yousif
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16
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17
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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20
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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22
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23
א
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
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א א א א אאאא אא א א א א א ، א א ،אאא K1 א אאא אא א א אz K2 x א א א א א ،אzאא K3 xא، אא א א א א א א،אא אאא Kאאא א א Kא אאא אאאאא ، Kאאא،אא
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24
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25
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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27
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
،
Zòîjäuþa@ÉuaŠ½a@Zb rÛbq 1.
Halstread, J. Values and Values Education in schools, London: The Falmer Pross, 1996.
2.
Kreech, D, and Ballachey, E Individual Society, Comp, C. migrant Hill Book, 1962.
3.
Raths, L, Harmin, M. and Simon, S. Values and Teaching: Working with Values in the Classroom, Columbus, OH, Charles E. Menill, 1966.
4.
Shaver, J. and Strong, W. Facing Value Necisions; Rationale-building for Teachers, Belmont, CA, Wadsworth, 1976.
28
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אאא אאאאאא، ،אאא؛אא אאא א א ،א א א א א אא א Kאא؛א .* ﺃﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﻣﺸﺎﺭﻙ ﲜﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﳋﺮﻃﻮﻡ – ﻗﺴﻢ ﺍﻟﻔﻠﺴﻔﺔ
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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אאאאW Wאאאאאא Wאא אאאאא W אW אאzW אאאא،אא K1 x Wא،א אW Wאא WאאKא،א ، אא א، א א ،،א، ،אאW K2 אאאאWא K אאאאאEאF אאאאאא،אאא א،אאא Kאאא אאאאאא
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30
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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32
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מ א
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
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34
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35
מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
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36
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אא א KKK אאא אאא،אאא Kאא، א،אאאאא אאאאאאא אא אאא אא Kא אאאא אא ؛אאא אאאא،אאאאאא א אאאאאאא אאא، Kאא אאאאאא ؛א ،א אאאא ،אא אאאאא K אאאאאא אא،אאאא אאאאאאא
37
מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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؛אאאא Kאאאאאאאא א ،1 xאאzW FW ،אאאא א א،2 Eא אאאאאא Kא אאאאאא ،אאא،א א؛אא א،، א،א Kאא אאאא א،א Kא ،אאא אאאא אאא، אאא Kאאאאאאא אאאאאא אK אא،אאא א K35L2،1986EFא،אאא،،אאאאWאא1 K35L2،אא2
38
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א؛ אא ،אאאאאא Kאאאא אאאאאא אא؛אאאא אאאאאא אאאאא؛ Kאא אאאא ،אאאאא ،אאאאאאא ؛אא؛אא Kאא
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מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
،
אאא،אא Kאאאא،א ،אאאאא ،אאא אאא،אאא Kאא אא، א ؛אאאא،א אאא אאא Kאאאאאא،א אאאא אא ،אאאא אאאא אאאאא ؛אא ،אא אאא Kאא אאא א אא،אאא،א אא،אאאא אאאא؛ Kאאאא אאא א،אאא 40
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41
מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
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אאאאאאא אאא אאאא אא K Wאא א W א،אאא אאאאאא،x4Wאz אאאKKKאאאאאא אא،אא ،אאאאא، א אאאאאאW אא،א Kאאא א،אאאאא א،אא،אא אאא Kא א،אאאא ،אאאאא אאאא،אא ،אאאא،אאא Kאא
42
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43
מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
،
אאאא KKKאWא،אא ،אא K אW K،؟ אא אא ،אאא، K אאאא א ،אאאא אאא،אא Kאאאא אאאאא א،אאאא אא؛אWאאא ،אאא،אאא אא،אאאא אא،א אאאא،אאאאא אאאא،אא K
44
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אאאא ،א אאא Kאאאא אאאאאא אאאא א؛ אא א אאא א،א אאא Kאאאא אא، אא א،א אא، Kאא Wאאאאא אW ،אWא،W؟ Kא ،אאאא ،א Kאאא אאאא،א Kא אאא،אא אא،אא 45
מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
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אא،א א אאאאא Kא א،אאא אא،א ،אאא Kאאאא
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46
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מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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،
אאאאא אא ،אאא ،אאאאאא Kאא א אאא א، ، א،אאאא Kאאאא אאאאא אאא،אא א אאא،אאאאא ؛אאאא ،אא Wאאאא אאא،אאאאא אא؟אא ؟אאאא אאאאא אאאא،א א،אא אא אאאאא א אאאא אא Kאא،אא
48
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אאאא Kאאא Wא אK2 א،א אאא،אא،א אא ،א אאאא، אאא؛א א א ،א Kא א،אאאא א אאאא Kאאא،א ،אאאא Kאא،אאא ،אאא אאא א،אאאאא ،،אאאא אאאאא Kא Wאא אK3 א؛א א אאא Kאאאא Kא 49
מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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אאא אא K א Kאאא ؟אאא א אא؟א א؟אאאא א؟אאאא KKKאאאא Wאאאא אK4 ،אאא א אאאאאא אאא،אאאאאאאא Kאאאאאא אאאא ،אאאאא א،אאא Kא אאאאאאא א ، אא Kאאא Wא אK5 אאאאאאא א 50
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מ א
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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52
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53
מ א
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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1430/מ2990 ، (1)
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1430/מ2990 ، (1)
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204
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K91
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205
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1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
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،
Main Index 1- a1-Saaid, Abd elrhman Elzahi Allocative and Technical Inefficiency in Sudanese Islamic Banks using Cost Functions Vol .8 , No. 2 (2008).- pp:182-198 (Islamic Banks) (Islamic Economics) 2- Abdelbagi ,Ala-Addin Hassan Bibliography of Islamic Economics Vol. 6 , No. 1 (2004).- pp:1-18 (Islamic Economics – Bibliography) 3- Abdelbagi ,Ala-Addin Hassan Bibliography of Islamic Studies Vol. 5 , No. 1 (2003).- pp:31-60 (Islamic Studies – Bibliography) 4- Badi,Jamal Ahmed Creative Thinking Among Today's Muslim Vol .8 , No1 (2007).- pp:1-36 (Philosophy of Islam) 5- Khaleefa, Omer Ibn al-Haytham 11th Century test of Visual Illusions Vol. 5 , No. 1 (2003).- pp:1-30 ( Ibn al-Haytham ) 6- Shannan,Ahmed M. El Hassan The Islamic Religious Observance Scale Vol. 4 , No. 1(2002).- pp:1-29 (sociology ) (Psychology) 7- Imam, Zakaria Bashir Knowledge and Belief
206
א
/
א
א
Vol.( 1/2) , No.( 2/1) (2000).- pp:1-42 (philosophy of Science) 8- Abdullah,N aziruddin Measuring the Sudanese Islamic Banks' scale Efficiency,Technological Change and TEP Growth using Translog Cost Function Vol. 5 , No. 2 (2003).- pp:1-37 Saaid, Abd elrhman Elzahi (Author ) (Islamic Banks) 9- Abu El Kheir,Gasim Omer The Need to Teach Thinking from an Islamic Perspective Vol. 3 , No. 2 (2001).- pp:1-42 (Philosophy of Education) 10-Khan,Israr Ahmed Qur'Enic Diction: A Reflection and Evaluation Vol .9 , No.1- 2 (2008).- pp:1-26 (Qur'anic Studied) (Sunnah Studies) 11-Shannan,Ahmed M. El Hassan The Sudanese Sufis' View of Normal and Abnormal Development of children Vol .6 , No. 2 (2005).- pp:1-24 (Psychology) (children) 12-Badi,Jamal Ahmed Tafakkur from Qur'anic Perspective Vol. 3 , No. 1 (2001).- pp:1-38 (Philosophy) 13-Ragab, Ibrahim Abdel Rahman Towards a New Paradigm for Social Science Research Vol. 1 , No. 1 (1999).- pp:3-50 (philosophy of Science)
207
א
1430 / מ2009 ، (1)
א، (10)
Outhor Index 1- abdelbagi, Ala – Addin
2,3
2- Abdulla, N aziruddin
8
3- Badi, Jamal Ahmed
12
4- Imam, Zakaria Bashir
7
5- Khaleefa, Omer
5
6- Khan , Israr Ahmed
10
7- Abu El Kheir , Gasim Omer
9
8- Ragab, Ibrahim Abdel Rahman Ragab
13
9- Saaid Abd elrhman Elzahi
1,8
10- Shannan , Ahmed M, El Hassan
1,11
Subject Index 1- Children
11
2-
Ibn al-Haytham
5
3-
Islamic Banks
1,8
4-
Islamic Economics
1
5- Islamic Economics – Bibliography
2
6- Islamic Studies – Bibliography
3
7- Philosophy
12
8- Philosophy of Education
9
9-
4
Philosophy of Islam
10- philosophy of Science
7, 13
11- Psychology
6,11
12- Qur'an Studies
10
13-
sociology
6
14- Sunnah Studies
10
208
،
א
/
א
א
Title index 1-Allocative and Technical Inefficiency in Sudanese
Islamic Banks
using Cost Functions 2- Bibliography of Islamic Economics 3- Bibliography of Islamic Studies
45678-
Creative Thinking Among Today's Muslim Ibn al-Haytham 11th Century test of Visual Illusions The Islamic Religious Observance Scale Knowledge and Belief Measuring the Sudanese Islamic Banks' scale Efficiency,Technological Change and TEP Growth using Translog Cost Function
9- The Need to Teach Thinking from an Islamic Perspective 10- Qur'Enic Diction: A Reflection and Evaluation 11- The Sudanese Sufis' View of Normal and Abnormal Development of children
12- Tafakkur from Qur'anic Perspective 13- Towards a New Paradigm for Social Science Research
209
Poverty From an Islamic Economics Perspective: Concept, Measurement, and Treatment Elzein Abd Alla Yousif
*°
ABSTRACT: The Problem of poverty has been a dilemma in capitalism. On the very concept scholars widely differed as to what poverty is all about. Following this difficulty in the concept is, of course, the difficulty involving measurement and eradication. On the other hand, Islamic Economics challenges this problem. However, the writings on this topic have been taken partially or handled by scholars most of whom are not trained in Economics. This research paper aims at shedding light on the problem of poverty from an Islamic perspective; by discussing its concept, measurement, and treatment. In this endeavor the main departure from traditional Economics is that poverty is conceived as a hindrance to the practice of Ibada. Its measurement can be taken by considering the Nisab of Zakat as an index representing the best of all indices as Zakat is a transfer from wealthy to poor people, therefore, directly reducing poverty. Although there are different zakatable items, 85 grams of gold or its money equivalent is considered the poverty line. The treatment of poverty is undertaken at all levels of human existence, i.e., individually, socially, and at the state and Ummah levels.
*
°
Lecturer/researcher, Department of Economics The Institute for Islamization of Knowledge, University of Gezira, Sudan . E- mail: elzeinaay@gmail.com. The author would like to thank Prof. Ataul Haq Pramanik (UIA) for invaluable comments on the paper.
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1. Introduction The issue of poverty is as old as human history itself. However, confining ourselves to the field of Economics, we find that classical Economists like Adam Smith, Robert Malthus, and others approached the issue of poverty in the context of mainstream traditional Economic theory. But the fallacy of interpreting poverty in the capitalistic way has fallen short of providing the suitable solution. Rather, the common policy packages for eradicating the problem ended up in worsening conditions for the poor i.e., the ultimate consequence has been abject poverty with its correlates of illiteracy, disease, high rates of infant and under five mortalities, and low life expectancy. It is worth mentioning that out of the world’s 6.83 billion people (according to 2008 estimates), 5.63 billion – 81.9 per cent lives in developing countries (UN, 2009). However, the vast majority of the world population earns only 15% of the world’s income resulting in a pervasive poverty of about 1.2 billion poor people in the developing countries alone (World Bank, 1993). As for illiteracy over one billion adults are still illiterate in the developing countries, and 300 million children are not in primary or secondary schools. Regarding diseases, the situation is still obliterated as 1.5 billion people still lack basic health care in
Less
Developing Countries (LDCs), over 1 .5 billion people do not have safe water, and over two billion people lack safe sanitation. Furthermore, child mortality, as one of the basic indicators of development, is still showing alarming rates in LDCs (World Bank, 1993). In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, mortality of children under five is estimated (2005-2009) to be 148 per 1.000 live births, which is more than 20 times higher than the rate in the United States. Moreover according to the World Bank (2008), by the year 2005 more than three billion people in the developing world
2
Poverty From an Islamic Economics Perspective
Elzein Abd Alla Yousif
(including China) fell below the poverty line of $2.5 a day (using 2005 purchasing power parity). The developed world, on the other hand, witnesses worsening conditions, too. For example, in the U.S, where the capitalist system is much-trumpeted, it is argued that in 2007 around 18 per cent of American children lived in poverty (PRB, 2009). Therefore, in this context, we can argue that the whole of the capitalist theorization fails to explain poverty. On the other hand, from an Islamic Economics perspective, poverty concerns emerged with the emergence of Islam itself when the then new religion rose up to call for justice and equity among all individuals in the society irrespective of any categorization. This resulted in an ever unleashing of energies to build the most influential state in human history. Therefore, it is not uncommon to comprehend the uniqueness of Islam in its realism, comprehensiveness, and suitability (in terms of both time and space). This is evident when we contemplate history, for example, when it witnesses that during the reign of the successor Omar ibn Abdul Aziz no person, within the precincts of some regions in the state, was willing to accept Zakat. Hence apart from the soaring idealism with which capitalism defines, and therefore, tries to solve the problem of poverty, Islam puts its definition of poverty into the play of actual action. However, being an emerging discipline, Islamic economics corpus is fragmented with regard to its topics. In the area of poverty, in particular, not only the written literature is little, but also it is sometimes made by scholars who are not trained in economics (Al-Qaradawi, 1987), (Abdel Rahman, 1990), ‌, etc. Some Islamic scholars differentiated between spiritual and other aspects of poverty (Al- Ghazali, 1980). Even, these writings which are made by economists take one or two aspects of the problem rather than being comprehensive. This study aims at presenting a picture of the issue of poverty by approaching its concept, measurement, and treatment to help 3
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provoke further understanding and treatment of the problem. As such the main difficulty has been the hard task of putting that picture in a compact form. Questions such as: How Islam perceives poverty? How we measure poverty? And, how unique is Islam in solving the problem? Will, be the interest of the paper. Section two of the paper presents some important concepts serving the purpose of laying down the foundations for the rest sections to follow. For example, the principle of justice in Islam maintains the rights of both the poor and the rich and serves to exclude the likelihood that poverty in an Islamic state emerges as a result of inequality in income distribution. Further, this section tries to provide a definition of poverty from an Islamic perspective. In section three the paper attempts to find a way towards a measurement of poverty from an Islamic Economics perspective. Section four of the paper reviews the Islamic policy package for poverty treatment. Lastly, the paper draws a conclusion in section five. To carry out the study, reference has been made to conventional Economics' views on the subject so as to grasp the departures of Islamic Economics. Emphatic arguments will be supported by means of texts quoted from the Holy Quran and Sunnah (sayings and actions of the prophet Mohammed - PBUH - in additions to whatever he approved of his companions sayings and actions), as well as, the Sira (the chronological records of the life of the prophet –PBUH- and that of his successors).
2. Conceptual Framework Ever since the dawn of history poverty has come to hang in the horizon of human existence. Yet, before the emergence and formation of the new nation-state people of a particular grouping shared the same standard of living, so to speak. Hence to experience opulence or poverty, a particular group or segment of society has to, with the passage of time,
4
Poverty From an Islamic Economics Perspective
Elzein Abd Alla Yousif
undergo some changes in the state of poverty incidence, as well as in reactions taken against. However, the perception of poverty, also, continues to change when considering cultural and social factors in society. That perception, generally, ranged from glorification to acceptance to censure. These can be intermingled and divided into two main categories. As such, we have poverty as an evil which must be eradicated, or taken as inevitable; and, poverty as sacred. This generally, has been the stand in the west being influenced by political, social, religious, industrial, and economic changes. As an evil, poverty is looked upon in a fatalistic way, as a due punishment for the sin of being immoral and non–industrious. Consequently, the society is not responsible for support of the poor. The protagonist of this view has been Adam smith, who called for the principle of “laissez- faire “, according to which the poor and the laboring classes are expected to destine for their own salvation from poverty. Accordingly, the living standard of the working class, who represented the majority of cities' dwellers, deteriorated. In this regard, Hunt (1979) argues: And what cities! It was not merely that smoke hung over them and filth impregnated them, that the elementary public services – water supply, sanitation, street cleaning, open spaces, etc, - could not keep pace with the mass migration of men into cities, thus producing, especially after 1830, epidemics of cholera, typhoid and appalling constant toll of the two great groups of nineteenth- century urban killers – air pollution and water pollution, or respiratory and intestinal diseases … The new city population … [ were] pressed into overcrowded and bleak slums, whose very sight froze the heart of the observer. 5
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(Civilization works its miracles) wrote the great French liberal de Tocqueville of Manchester, and the civilized is turned back almost into a savage1. An even extreme line of thought has been drawn by Malthus who considered the destiny of the laboring class and the poor to be a natural result of the working of (The law of Population Growth). Therefore, it is not uncommon for him to argue that the ultimate difference between the rich and the poor was the high moral character of the former and the moral flair ties of the latter2. Moreover, Malthus was well- known for his opposition to suggesting any form of relief for the suffering of the poor. According to him, the poor laws of England tend to increase population without increasing the food for its support. In addition, the quantity of provisions consumed in workhouses upon a part of the society that cannot in general, be considered as the most valuable part, diminishes the shares that would otherwise belong to more industrious and more worthy members3. In this regard, Malthus suggested three kinds of check to command the excessive increase in population. These are: the positive checks; the preventive checks; and the moral restraint checks. Holding a closer view to Malthus, David Ricardo explained the poverty of the working class in economic rather than in religious terms. To this extent, Ricardo suggested the so-called "Iron law of wages" which states that "wages always tend towards the level of subsistence, providing barely enough money for food for the working family to live on. Any
1
2 3
Quoted in E .K. Hunt. 1979 .History of Economic Thought: A Critical Perspective. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co. pp. 59 -60. Ibid, p. 67 Ibid, p. 68
6
Poverty From an Islamic Economics Perspective
Elzein Abd Alla Yousif
increase in wage will produce a corresponding rise in the birth rate. This, in turn, swells the available working force beyond demand, thus producing a wage downturn" 1. Another view of poverty is that it is the necessary price for social progress and welfare of the society. Accordingly, the poor were to undergo the state of poverty i.e. inevitable sacrifice. Spencer, for example, argues that "the defender of poor laws is like one who would like to see a surgeon let his patient’s disease progress to a fatal issue, rather than inflict pain by an operation2. Similar views on poverty were raised by other classical thinkers such as Graham Sumner. However, another extreme thought among classical economists called for blaming the environment and the cultural causes of poverty instead of focusing on the properties of the poor. The protagonist of this line of thought has been John Stuart Mill who maintains that “poverty within the capitalist society was not the result of forces working outside men's control; rather, it was the product of the way the society exercised the allocation of its wealth and property3. In the same manner, Marx and his disciples maintained that the problem of poverty is not only the by-product of the capitalist system but, actually, an inherent element to it. For, the market forces could not achieve a just distribution of wealth. Coupled with alienation of workers and their exploitation by the capitalists, the failure of the market force would undermine the capitalist system and the army of the proletariat class would establish its rational socialist state. However, the central planning for the allocation of resources by the state to command the poverty and suffering of the working class,
1
2 3
Quoted in Nasseri Taib. 1988. Islam and Eradication of Poverty : An Ethical Dimension of Development with Special Reference to Malaysia’s Five Year Plans, University of Temple , (unpublished), p. 32. Ibid, p. 33. Ibid, p. 36
7
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could only lead to the devastation of the socialist system through the killing of individual incentive and inefficiency in productivity. On the other hand, the view that deems poverty as a sacred element emerged as an action either to the unjust way in which a few people controlled the bulk of wealth. Therefore, those people were sinful. Or, that poverty has a positive role to play in society. In this connection, Gans enumerates fifteen sets of positive functions of poverty covering economic, social, cultural, and political aspects1 . Notwithstanding, the religious, social, economic, industrial, and political changes in the eighteenth and the nineteenth century Europe, as well as, the role of political advisory played by economists of that era have come to draw the line of attitudes towards poverty which, in turn, came to influence the conceptual as well as the policy reaction towards it in contemporary economic literature. Accordingly, there are two different approaches to the definition of poverty: the culture of poverty approach and the economic approach. The focus of the cultural concept of poverty has been on the internal attitudes and behavior patterns of the poor with respect to the set of circumstances they experience. The pioneer of this approach is Oskar Lewis who defines the culture of poverty as a permanent way of life that develops among the poor people under the following set of conditions2: (1) A cash economy, with waged labor and production for profit. (2) A persistently high rate of unemployment and underemployment for unskilled labor.
1 2
Ibid, p. 39. Adapted from Aroon Sharma. 1990. Concept and Measurement of Poverty. New Delhi. Anmol Publications. pp. 3 – 4.
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(3) Low wages. (4) The failure to provide social, political and economic organization, either on a voluntary basis, or by government imposition, for the low income population. (5) The existence of a bilateral kinship system rather than unilateral one. (6) The existence, within the dominant class, a set of values that stresses the accumulation of wealth and property, the possibility of upward mobility and thrift and that explains low economic status as the result of personal inadequacy or inferiority. With this characterization of the poor Lewis, (Sharma, 1990) went on to assign some seventy interrelated social, economic and psychological traits. Rossi and Blum in their identification of the poor maintain that there is “a sense of helplessness and low sense of personal efficacy, dogmatism and authoritarianism in political ideology, fundamentalist religious views with some strong inclinations towards belief in magical practices, low need achievement, and low levels of aspiration for the self"1. As it is clear the culture of poverty approach rests on the earlier attitude that condemns the victim (poor) and shoulders them with their responsibility for their own destiny because it is claimed that the poor maintain efforts to cope with feelings of hopelessness and despair that develop from the realization of the improbability of achieving success in terms of values and goals of the larger society. The implication of this is abandonment and discard of any effort by the government to aid the poor. Hence, the lack of any ethical, social, or religious regards and that market mechanism is the be all and end all and the fittest is to survive. 1
Ibid, p. 5.
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The economic concept, on the other hand, highlights the external circumstances that condition a person’s behavior towards economic transactions. The core element of the economic definition is that poverty is a property of the individual’s situation rather than a characteristic of the individual or of his pattern of behavior. According to many authors (Pramanik, 1993), in Economics absolute poverty can be defined as "the standard of living below that of subsistence1.", or as the inadequate command over resources relative to needs2". These definitions are based on economic factors because they focus on the objective attributes of an individual’s economic status. To others, it may mean not only the resultant material deprivation but the inability to play a role in society. Thus, according to Gillin, poverty may result from either inadequate income or unwise expenditure3. To Sen, however, "poverty is not just a matter of being relatively poorer than others in society, but not having some basic opportunities of material well–being; the failure to have certain minimum capabilities …. poverty in this view, is not ultimately a matter of incomes at all4 ". From the aforementioned definitions, it is clear that the profundity of the issue of poverty led social scientists to come out with different concepts about poverty. Even economists are not unanimous about what poverty is all about. In this connection, the economic concept of poverty is approached in two ways; the absolute approach and the relative approach. The former is a static concept which deals with a fixed poverty line that does not change with the standard of living in society, whereas the latter being dynamic considers an individual’s income relative to the average income of others 1
Ataul Haq. 1993. Development and Distribution in Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Pelanduk Publications. P. 5. 2 Sharon M. Oster, etal in Taib, op. cit. , p. 18. 3 Ibid, p. 18. 4 Amartya k. Sen “Capabilities and Entitlements" in Gerad M. Meir. 1989. Leading Issues in Economic Development. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 28.
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in society. That is to say, being poor means having less than others in the same society. However, both concepts have been censured and new terms supplanted them. For example, the 'minimal–living standard’ in place of absolute poverty and 'income distribution standard' in place of relative poverty. Being so intermingled, a concept that is both absolute and relative should, be developed. This is based on the argument that man is two– dimensional. Individually, wherein the person is unique, independent and self-determining. The other dimension is sociality wherein he is akin to others, dependent and conditioned by the environment. To accommodate this duality of human nature, the definition should take both dimensions into consideration. Accordingly, a person is poor if: (1) '' he\she cannot afford the minimum market basket of goods and services and; (2) ''He\she is separated from the company of others by a wide gap in income'' 1. In recent economic literature, however, the inclination has been to the basic needs approach to poverty. But there are conflicts as far as the nature, the range of basic needs as well as the issues of absoluteness and relativity of the approach are concerned.2 Hitherto, we have acquainted ourselves with how poverty is seen in secular thought. In this juncture we would like to throw some light beyond the scene: 1. That there is no unanimity about the concept of poverty. 1
2
See Edward J. O'Boyle, 1990. '' Poverty: A Concept that is both absolute and relative because human beings are at once individual and '' in review of social economy. Spring. For further details on relative and absolute poverty see Zubair Hassan and M. Arif, ' the basic need fulfillment guarantee in Islam and a measure of its financial dimension in some selected Muslim countries; Nassir Taib. 1988. 'Islam and eradication of poverty; an ethical dimension of development'. A dissertation submitted to Temple University graduate board (unpublished).
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2. That there is no religious dimension, especially, in contemporary conceptualization of the problem. To come to understand another aspect of the issue, we will use an Islamic approach. This will help us ask questions like: Who are the poor in Islam? What is poverty in Islam? How unique is the Islamic view on poverty? These questions will be the interest of the following sub-section. To start with, we will review some, important concepts serving the purpose of laying down the foundation for conceptualizing poverty in Islam. 2.1 Important Concepts 2.1.1 Justice
Different economic systems call for different mechanisms for the distribution of wealth and income. However, the issue of the trade-off between equitable distribution and growth has been a dilemma inherent in the capitalist paradigm of development. Indeed, they could not escape the dictates of the philosophy of laissez–faire and putting an end to it (the dilemma of equitable distribution). Consequently, capitalism often trod the way of growth, therefore the widening income gaps, and social injustice could not be escaped. To ensure justice, their policies must join all other reforms such as social, political, economic, moral and spiritual1. Although they employ some corrective measures such as social security funds to help mitigate the problems, their efforts are far less than what is required to remedy the situation. On the other hand, being regarded an antithesis to capitalism, socialism delved into central planning to rectify the situation. However, its approach of killing the incentive to produce stands, among others, as one of the major factors behind the disintegration of the system. 1
See Ataul Haq, op. cit,. p. 6.
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In contrast, the Islamic system is founded, among other things, on the principle of justice. Therefore, sharia’h demarcated the lines of justice by explaining the permissible (Halal) and impermissible (Haram) and urging people to do good deeds and abandon bad ones. However, it can be argued that justice as required by Islam is unlimited i.e. it is not only confined to law and the judiciary but encompasses all other aspects of mankind activities let it be economic, social, or political. In contemporary Islamic thought justice is interpreted in terms of the need of the time or the interest of certain groups. Thus the concept changed into being relative. However, both the Quran and Sunnah demonstrated the purpose of justice. Thus, it cannot be argued to be relative (Othman, 1993). In doing so it gave due consideration to the individual's insatiable desire for possessing wealth. Accordingly, each individual can have whatever amount of wealth he desires as long as it can be acquired through the rules and injunctions of sharia’h. Actually, Islam urges people to make wealth but on condition that its circulation is made nation-wide rather than among a handful of people in society. At the same time, there is a social responsibility to be performed, by the wealth holder, as an obligation running basically in line with justice. Not to underscore it, the role of the state is an integral part to ensure societal justice in order for the system to operate smoothly whenever there emerge undesirable forces. 2.1.2 Wealth Economics was once defined as a science of wealth. This definition didn’t come in vacuum. It has implications for the substantial influence of wealth on our entire life; from the dawn of history up to now and will continue till the end of human existence on the earth. This is because man has been inculcated with strong innate desire to accumulate and possess wealth. This situation has been the will of Allah (S.W.T) to create a continuous human activity on earth and therefore, the carrying out of the 13
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function of vicegerency and worship of Allah (S.W.T) “I have only created jinns and men, that they may serve me1”. Thus as we have mentioned above, Islam urges people to make wealth because of its religious as well as its worldly benefits (Abi Al- Dunia, 1990) such as: it (wealth) supports people to obey Allah (S.W.T); toiling to acquire wealth is considered jihad (sacred war); and poverty is considered the twin of disbelief. Notwithstanding, that tendency to accumulate wealth has often been the underlying force behind human misery and suffering. For, sometimes, people give rein to their passions in pursuit of wealth. This has become the norm of capitalism which from the very meaning of the word reveals the greed for wealth2. Therefore, each individual is free to compete with others under the principle that "survival is for the fittest". On the other hand, socialism suppressed the instinctive motive of individuals to possess wealth, in excess of their actual needs. Thus it calls for the communal ownership. In contrast, Islam acknowledges the inner drives that are inherent in the human-self for possessing wealth. Allah (S.W.T) in the Holy Quran says "And ye love wealth with inordinate love!3. However, Islam diverges from both extremes of capitalism and socialism. Hence, in the first place it asserts that the ultimate owner of wealth is Allah (S.W.T)" Believe in Allah and His messenger, and spend (in charity) out of the (substance) whereof He has made you heirs4." Man is a trustee responsible for running the affairs of the trust in the way of Allah (S.W.T)5 . 1
(51: 56). One of the tenets of capitalism is the individualistic acquisitive maximizing behavior. 3 (89: 20). 4 (57: 7). 5 The Quran talks about wealth (maal) in eighty six situations 2
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2.1.3 Moderation Both capitalism and socialism put a thrust on materialistic way of explaining, understanding, predicting, and controlling human behavior. Thus, religious, ethical and moral considerations have been overlooked. In secular Economics, for example, the economist’s role is only to analyze and describe and not to pass judgments about good or bad things. Given his wealth, an individual is deemed rational if he can derive the maximum material welfare. This materialist view led to frantic efforts on the part of individuals. For, material satisfaction is the ultimate end. This, in turn, led to a state of alienation and depression ending up in mounting social ills and chaos. On the other hand, Islam recognizes the triad components of man1, therefore, it strikes a benevolent balance between them in a way that puts them in an affinity and homogeneity to create a dynamic person strong enough to undertake the vicegerency of Allah (S.W.T) on earth. In many verses the Quran urges people to spend their wealth in a moderate way i.e. not spending too much or too little. Hence, wealth and distributional matters are to be run within the precincts of “sharia’h" for the betterment of individual’s live not only in this world but also in the hereafter. The Holy Quran maintains that "know ye (all), that the life of this world is but play and a pastime, adornment and mutual boasting and multiplying (in rivalry) among yourselves, riches and children"2. Therefore, Islamic Economics is said to be a normative science with the economist playing a substantial role for reform in society by passing Islamicaly rational judgments on issues of what to produce, how to produce and for whom to produce.
1 2
Being the physique, the intellect and the spirit. (57: 20).
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2.1.4 Necessities The Holy Quran emphasized that the human being is the best creation of Allah. Therefore, man’s life must be decent. This decent life should encompass every one in society regardless of differences such as age, sex, education,…, etc. In this connection, there is a minimum level of needs which is guaranteed by Sharia’h as implicated by the objectives of sharia’h which, according to Al- Shatibi, comprise of necessities (Daruriat), requirements (Hajiat), and ameliorators (Tahsiniat). Thus the domain of needs in Islam may be said to be encompassing both necessities (Darurat) and requirements (Hajiat). Necessities, in turn, relate to protection of faith (Din), protection of life (Nafs), protection of (Nasl), protection of property (Mal), and protection of intellect (Aql)1 . That guarantee is a must and it should be carried out as individual, social as well as state responsibility. For example, sharia’h requires every individual to strive for the fulfillment of the basic needs so as to live 2 The concept of minimum or basic needs has been an issue of debate among Islamic economists (Pramanik, 1995) with regard to the content "of basic needs", though the principle per se is vital to Islam because by fulfilling the basic needs man is placed in a position where the duties of the vicegerency can best be carried out. This is one of the beauties and advantages of Islamic Economics over secular Economics, where the world 1
2
See M. Fahim Khan, Noor Muhammad Ghitari. 1985. Objectives of Sharia’h as Discussed by Shatibi and Some Economic Implications. Pakistan: International Institute of Islamic Economics. See Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi. 1988. " The Guarantee of a Minimum level of Living in an Islamic State” in Munawwar Iqbal, ed. Distributive: Justice and Need Fulfillment in an Islamic economy. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation. Also, see Pramanik, Ataul Haq ‘’ based development and its Implications for Sustainability’’ – A paper presented at the fourth international conference on ‘’ Ethico Economics: Values, Self-reliance and Sustainability’’ – organized by the department of Economics, University College of Cape Breton, Sydney, Canada, 7 th – 8 th October, 1995.
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affairs are not divorced from the next one’s. Therefore, material achievements are mere means for achieving spiritual aspirations. 2.2 Towards a Definition The West appears to be biased in terms of underscoring the scientific contribution made by Islam. Centuries before the west, Islam had put its clear thumbs on the area of poverty and its eradication. Actually, the emergence of Islam was in Arabia where the society was then termed as ignorance (Jahiliyyah) due to the existence of many distortions and exploitation through the monstrous injustice in the distribution of wealth. For example, rampant civil wars; burying of live daughters; and the existence of the well-known institution of slavery, were typical phenomena as a result of poverty (Al-Nadawi, 1984). Having come for the emancipation and salvation of humanity, Islam called for the rights and duties of the poor and rich, respectively. To begin with, Islam distinguishes between two kinds of needy persons, namely, faqir and miskin. Muslim jurists differed in their interpretations of the two words concerning the identification of the more needy. However, the two have been included in the top list of zakat (alms) distribution with the word faqir being given precedence. The Holy Quran says "Alms are for the poor and the needy1 ". However, Islam is neutral as far as the position of the poor and the rich is concerned i.e. it does not praise rich people nor does it condemn poor ones. Man’s dignity and superiority in Islam is determined by one’s devotion (Taqwa) because differences in sustenance are ordained by Allah (S.W.T) "Allah has bestowed His gifts of sustenance more freely on some of you than on others "2 . Notwithstanding, the prophet (S.A.W) is reported to have said "Oh God I seek refuge with you from disbelief and poverty ". 1 2
(9: 60). (16: 71).
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In another incidence the prophet (S.A.W) has been reported to have said "poverty leads to disbelief ". This is because poverty is deemed pestilence against both an individual and the society. For, it is a source of danger against creed and belief; morals and behavior; and thought and culture. Therefore, Islamic Shari’ah ensures the basic needs of everyone on the basis of the revelation that "It is Who hath created for you all things that are on earth"
1
. This and other revelations (ayahs) inspired the great
companion of the prophet (S.A.W) – Abu Thar al–Ghifari to take the position that the muslim individual should not be allowed to possess things beyond one's actual food needs with the exception that the excess is to be distributed in the way of Allah (S.W.T). In his book Al – filaka wa Al – Maflukun (Disasters and People Inflicted by Them), the Islamic scholar Ahmed Ibn Ali Al – Dulji considered poverty as not only material deprivation but ultimately one of the hindrances of practicing Ibada (worship) and spiritual development2. Contemporary Islamic economists, also, emphasize this point. Ataul Haq, for example, maintains that: "poverty sows the seeds of disbelief in human beings towards the creator. This states the seriousness with which this problem should be treated. Poverty in Islam is considered as the greatest evil in society simply because it lies at the heart of many crimes and misdeeds, not the least of which is its satanic role in preventing humans from following Allah’s commandments" 3 . Hence, by adding the spiritual and religious dimension to the problem, we have been able to disentangle the following issues: 1
(2: 29). Ahmed Ibn Ali Al- Dulji . 1993. Alfilaka wa Al – Maflukun (Disasters and People Affected by Them). Beruit : Dar- al- kutub Al –Imia. 3 Ataul Haq, op. cit, p. 5. 2
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Firstly, poverty will be taken as a whole according to the totality of Islam, i.e., it will be a multi-faceted issue. Secondly, the poverty line will be easier to identify. Thirdly, there will be clear demarcation of rights and duties of the poor, the rich, and the state. Fourthly, persistence of poverty is likely to have an implication for malfunctioning of the system as a whole. Based on what has been discussed above, poverty in Islam can be defined as the lack of command over resources required to fulfill the nisab of zakat (the minimum level of resources subject to Zakat in Sharia’h)
3. Measurement of Poverty The ambiguity inherent in secular economic thought, with regard to the concept of poverty and the rekindled conflict over it, has led to difficulties in designing an accurate index for measurement. In this connection, the most widely used measures are those of income inequality1. The Lorenz curve, for example, is a graphical representation for the distribution of a group of data on poverty incidence. Thus, it is used to show the concentration of ownership of economic quantities such as income and wealth. If the cumulative distribution of the amount of the variable of income is plotted as the ordinate against the cumulative frequency distribution of the individuals possessing the amount plotted as the abscissa, the resultant curve is a Lorenz curve. The curve is, basically, based on the assumption that if there is equal distribution the curve will be a straight line (see the figure below). The curve shows the percentage of
1
Such as the range, the relative mean of deviation, the variance and coefficient of variation, the standard deviation of logarithms, the Gini coefficient, Lorenz curve, Theil’s Entropy measure, Dalton’s measure, …, Atkinson’s measure, Head count measure, income – gap ratio, …, etc- for details of problems in the measurement of Poverty see Aroon Sharma. 1990. Concept and Measurement of poverty. New Delhi: Anomal Publications.
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income received by the bottom X per cent of the population; with X varying from 0 to 100. The main advantage of the curve is that it tells something about the comparative levels of social welfare without specifying anything very particular about the extent of the welfare function (Sharma, 1990). In the figure above the straight line shows the assumed 100 per cent equal distribution of income If the distribution is unequal, Lorenz curve will lie a way from the line - depending on the extent of inequality. Thus, a further curve such as C shows high inequality relative to curve B which, in turn, shows greater inequality relative to curve A. In Islam, these measures can be used, especially, Lorenz curve which will then be reduced (the curve will be closer to the inequality line than that in the non-Islamic system as shown in the dotted fashion as C', B', and A', respectively). However, in Islam the emphasis is more on equality in social opportunities than it on the equality of incomes1. This is definitely, a more realistic way of dealing with poverty. Most important is the emphasis that Islam gives due consideration to the satisfaction of basic needs of all individuals. It is worth mentioning that these needs differ depending on the different economic and social conditions, as well as, with the passage of time.
1
Ataul Haq, loc,cit.
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80 60
A\
40
B\ C\
Lorenz Curves
Cumulative % of Income
100
A B C
20 0
20
40
60
80
100
Cumulative % of population However, according to Al – Qaradawi, some Hanafi jurists interpret basic needs as those needs that ward–off man's extinction either directly such as expenditure on consumption, shelter, war equipment, and cloth or indirectly, such as debt where the person will be in need to pay it back lest he may be imprisoned; means of transportation; house furniture; equipment for the profession and books1. However, the quantity and quality of these needs are to be determined by the head of state of a particular country depending on the overall economic conditions and stage of development. This is how it differs from the unlimited needs in capitalism where individuals are left to their discretion in pursuing their needs. This has been emphasized by Adam Smith who argues that '' by necessaries I understand not only the commodities which are indispensable for the support of life 1
Yousif Al–Qaradawi. 1986. Fiqh al–Zakat. Beruit: Muasasat Al–Risala, v. 1. pp.152153.
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but whatever the custom of the country renders it indecent for creditable people even of the lowest order to be without1 . 3.1 An Index of poverty line in Islam In secular economic theory there has been a continuous debate about the nature of the poverty index. That is to say, whether it is to be taken as absolute or relative2. In Islam, however, the concept of poverty line is made clear by the clear identification of the poor. The Holy Quran says ''Alms are for the poor and the needy …''3. According to Al- Qaradawi the faqir and miskin who are eligible for zakat are the ones who satisfy these conditions (according to the Hanafi jurist)4 : (1) One who possesses nothing i.e. the miskin. (2) One who possesses a house, household effects, furniture, and whatever necessary for his life regardless of their value – but no nisab of zakatable item. (3) One who possesses less than the nisab money of 200 dirham of silver. (4) One who possesses less than the nisab of non- money items, for example, less than five of camels or less than forty of sheep on condition that their values are less than the money equivalent of 85 grams of gold.
1
Quoted in Victor R. Fuchs. 1992. '' Poverty and Health: Asking the Right Questions'', in the American Economist No. 2: p. 13. 2 See Buhong zheng. 1994. '' Can Poverty Index both Relative and Absolute'' in Econometrica, vol. 62, no. 6,(November): 1453- 1458 3 (9:60) 4 Al – Qaradawi , op. cit. , pp. 547- 548.
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Whereas, faqir and miskin according to Maliki, Shafi, and Hanbali jurists are the ones who satisfy one of the following conditions: (1) One who possesses no money or does not earn any income. (2) One who has money or income but insufficient to maintain him and his dependents i.e. less than 50% of their sufficiency. (3) One who has money or income satisfying 50% or more of his sufficiency and that of his dependants. But not perfect sufficiency. Accordingly, Nisab – the minimum limit of resources subject to Zakat in Sharia’h – is the poverty line in Islam. The Nisab has been determined by sunnah for all zakatable items including, gold, silver, merchandise, livestock, fruits and seeds, …, etc. But the question is: Which one of these is to be considered for determining the poverty line? The answer to this question has been tacitly provided by the justification that the nisabs of the different items have been equivalent in their purpose, for example, five ounces of silver can provide for the subsistence of a nuclear family (consisting of three persons) for the whole year (Al – qaradawi, 1986). Likewise, is the case for 85 grams of gold. Therefore, there has been a consensus that 85 grams of gold or its value (in the case of money) is to be considered the poverty line. In Sudan, for example, this poverty line would be around £s 425 per month per Family having only one earning memberwhich is then termed hard core poverty. (Its calculation is based on the average price of gold during the past six months, i. e., £s 60 for one 21carats gram of gold). What is to be noted with this index is the quality of the nature of transfer that has, in turns, emerged from the nature of zakat itself i.e. zakat being both an act of worship (right of Allah (S.W.T) and right of poor in the wealth of rich, represents direct transfer from the rich to the poor in 23
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which case poverty will be directly reduced. Consequently the Nisab of zakat can be described as distribution-sensitive index of poverty satisfying even international standards of poverty indices1.
4. Treatment of Poverty To start with, by the very title we deliberately want to diverge from the conventional use of poverty eradication. For this word carries a connotation of a once and for all dealing with the problem of poverty without recurring again. This conceptualization has been continuously held in conventional economic thought. Astonished by the glaring inequality in the world development, some Western economists have, recently, pointed to the fact that poverty is there as long as there is lavish consumption in the developed word. Therefore, "people in the rich countries should be challenged to bring down their lavish food consumption. It is estimated that if the average American were to reduce his consumption of beef, pork and poultry by 10 per cent, 12 million tons or more of grain would be saved2 ". Thus, it is a matter of changing the present consumption pattern in rich countries in favor of poor countries to release some resources for development in the latter if poverty is to be mitigated. In Islam, on the other hand, the problem of poverty will be there so long as there is a defect in one or in some parts of the whole system. The absence of the institution of zakat, for example is direct indication for the existence of poverty, even if it is non- observable. The plea that growth and development will produce trickle–down effects to tackle the issue of poverty should be refuted. Therefore, Islam emphasizes individual, social,
1
See Buhong zheng. 1994. ‘’ Can the Poverty Index be both Relative and Absolute’’ in Econometrica, vol. 62, no. 6, (November): 1453 – 1458 . 2 Gunnar Myrdal’s Nobel Memorial Lecture, March 17, 1975. 1989. ‘’ the equality issue in World Development in The American Economic Review – Dec.
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political (state), and Ummatic efforts to create an ever dynamic assault on poverty. Individually, Islam urges people to be active, dynamic, strong and productive. The prophet (S.A.W) says "The strong believer is better and more favoured by Allah than the weak one". Also, an able man should provide for his needs and those of his dependants. Thus the assault against poverty starts by creating that kind of person. Socially, the Islamic way of life demands social coalition by taking care of each other; by helping each other; and by consulting and advising each other. In every society there are widow, orphans, handicapped people, and laboring breadwinners who need to be supported. Islam never turns away from these categories but, to stress their help, it orders wealthy people to aid them by what Allah (S.W.T) has made them (wealthy people) in charge with "Believe in Allah and messenger, and spend (in charity) out of the (substance) whereof he has made you heirs1." and " And in their wealth there is a due share for the beggar and the deprived2". However, the exertion of wealth for help is to start with family members, then the orphans, then the deprived (masakin) "To spend of your substance, out of love for him, for your kin, for the orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer3�. If this principle has been put into practice we can imagine how effectively poverty can be eliminated. For, the most knowledgeable of the poor and the most close to them are their kin. At the state level, responsibility for the people, including provision of basic needs and decent life, is the foremost priority in Islam. The state means peace and order, legislation, assessment of extent of poverty, and the course of action against it. Thus its role is pivotal to the extent of 1
( 57: 7). ( 51 : 19). 3 (2: 177). 2
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making any program, on poverty treatment, a success or failure. Perhaps the most inspiring and influential role of the state, after the demise of the prophet (S.A.W), can be seen during the reign of the four rightly-guided successors and the reign of Umar ibn abd al-Aziz where, for example, there were instances when no one was willing to accept zakat1. Finally, all Muslims are ordered to remain united (Ummah) regardless of race color, time or space. With this understanding there will be wider chance for resource mobilization and inter country cross- subsidization. For, whenever there is destitution as a result of natural calamity, catastrophe or lack of resources, the thrust for help becomes a duty rather than solely seeking worldly benefit. The above efforts although look intermingled in nature, can be subsumed into three kinds of measures – involving formulation and implementation of policies through positive, preventive, and corrective measures2. 4.1 Positive Measures Positive measures relate to factors that lead to the betterment of the general welfare of the people such as economic development and human resource development. The underdevelopment of most of Muslim countries had led non-Muslims to be skeptical about Islam i.e that Islam as a value system, injunctions, and a way of life, is unconducive to development. Parkinson, for example, argues that "Malay’s retardation is to be blamed on certain Islamic beliefs that tend to make them fatalistic in their approach
1
See Ibn Abd Al- Hakam . 1954. Syrat Umar ibn Abd al- Aziz. Damascus: Dar al- Fikr. P. 59. 2 See Abul Hasan M. Sadeq. 1993. Eradication of Poverty from an Islamic (unpublished paper) in the Conference on Globalism and the Muslim Ummah 16-17 October 1993, International Islamic University Malaysia and UMMI Foundation.
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1
to life ". Actually, the opposite is true. For, when Muslims loosened their grip of the complete Islamic system their situation worsened. Not only that the applied economic patterns of development are alien to the actual structure of these Islamic countries because of concentrating on the material aspect overlooking the social and ethical one which is part and parcel of the concept of development in Islam2. Development in Islam aims at actualizing the will of Allah (S.W.T) for the rehabilitation, construction, and habitation of earth. Thus development is a sacred ordinance which goes beyond this world to the hereafter. In this connection, the top priority should be given to production processes that lead to the satisfaction of basic needs of all people rather than a few people. Further, distributive justice should be understood on the basis of ‘to each his due’. This principle must be made consistent with the attainment of efficiency. Another dimension of the positive measures is human resource development. It is well known in Islam that man is the vicegerent of Allah (S.W.T) on earth. This vicegerency demands a fairly equipped person to handle his productive activities properly. For, the work we do is a form of worship that is why the Holy prophet (S.A.W) says ‘Allah likes if you undertake a job, you do it perfectly’. Therefore, both the individuals and the state should make their best to educate and train people. In this context, equal opportunity should be provided for all and all should be urged to work. 4.2 Preventive Measures These are measures which relate to the prohibition of practices that lead to the concentration of wealth in a handful of people and the deprivation of 1
2
B. K. Parkinson . 1967. ‘’ Non–economic Factors in the Economic Retardation of the Rural Malays’’, in Modern Asian Studies Vol. 1. See Mohammad Fuad al-Sarraf. 1980. The Challenging Problems of Development and Responsibilities of Islamic Banks, translated by Feisal Abdel Lateef, International Institute of Islamic Banking and Economics.
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the majority. It is worth mentioning that Islam has no objection to private business so long as this business is initiated and run on fair bases. Several Quranic teachings emphasize this point, for example, ‘O ye who believe! Eat not up your property among yourselves in vanities: But there be amongst you traffic and trade by mutual good-will”1. Consequently, business fraud, unjust prices, monopoly, and exploitation of one party by another are completely prohibited in Islam. In addition many illegal contracts are prohibited such as speculative sale (bay’ al- gharar), the sale of the non-existent at the time of selling, sale- at-a- touch (mulamasah), sale-at-a-toss (munabasah), and the sale of the najash (one who pretend to be buying, whereas he is actually trying to bid up the price). Market imperfections are, also, prohibited in Islam, for example, the interception of the goods before they get to the market, because of the risk involved with regard to their value; and the deception of the mustarsil – one who does not bargain; and the hoarding of necessities (Ibn Taymiyah, 1982). Accordingly, Islamic teachings emphasize the role of the state in promoting and ensuring fair business practices. The prophetic state of Madinah witnessed the innovation of a vital institution that maintains a fair business game; the institution of hisba (public duty) of which the person in charge plays the role of an inspector entrusted with observance of business ethics2. Not least important is the prohibition of interest having pervasive social and economic chaos. 4.3 Corrective Measures Corrective measures involve the transfer of wealth from wealthy people to the needy and the poor. This transfer takes the form of
1 2
(4: 29). Ziauddin Ahmed. 1991. Islam, Poverty and Income Distribution, Leicester, U.K: The Islamic Foundation. P.30.
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Poverty From an Islamic Economics Perspective
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compulsion (zakat) and recommendation (charities and waqf). Zakat represents a unique institution in the Islamic system. It is a fixed mandatory payment made by wealthy people to the poor without any benefit in return. Thus it can be cited as the most effective means for poverty treatment1. This uniqueness is no surprise since Islam has placed zakat among its five basic pillars, ranking immediately after salat (prayer) which shows the high concern for poor. As Islamic teachings call for the provision of basic needs to all people, the state is charged with complete responsibility of the collection and distribution of zakat. Both collection and distribution are designated by the Quran in a way that tells but unmatchable social security system. Among the categories eligible for zakat the faqir and miskin come first though some poor Muslims can hardly be known. This is clarified by Quran which says ‘(charity is) for those in need, who, in Allah’s cause are restricted (from travel) and cannot move about in the land, seeking (for trade or work): The ignorant man thinks, because of their modesty, that they are free from want2 ‘. So, how can we know them? Here, comes the role of the state where the needy and the poor should be separated from the non-needy through surveying observable zakatable funds such as merchandise, livestock, fruits and seeds, mineral and marine wealth, and estates or a stock of money equivalent of 85 grams of gold (£s 5100) and saved for a period of one year. In this regard, the specified rates and zakatable minimum of the above items can be used as destitution reference indicators for and the prevalence of poverty3. Accordingly, zakat (and other funds) can be either
1
For more insights see Ataul Haq, op. cit, pp. 11-12. ( 2: 273). 3 Some Islamic jurists argue that the zakatable of each item is the minimum value sufficient Muslim maintaining a nuclear family (defined as a family consisting of a husband, a wife, and a third individual – housemaid or son i.e three persons). Hence this survey is a proxy for surveying on the basis of the equivalent of 85 grams of gold. 2
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distributed or invested for the cause of the needy. If in a particular region there are no needy people, zakat can be transferred to other regions where the incidence of poverty is most dominating. Thus, the treatment of poverty is made nation-wide and could be made Ummah-wide if we consider it in a framework of borderless Islamic world or states. In addition to that, another form of compulsory transfer takes place through the obligatory maintenance of the kins, where there may be orphans, widows, aged or handicapped people, or laboring breadwinners. Inheritance is another form of compulsory transfer, as well, where the poor may not only have access to resources enough to satisfy the basic needs but may become rich enough to operate their own businesses. Non-compulsory transfers, on the other hand, are highly recommended in Islam, especially, when a person possesses wealth that is beyond his needs or when a poor is in an urgent need.
5. Conclusion In secular Economics there has been a profound difficulty of conceptualizing poverty. For, it involves a lot of ethical and moral aspects, which breed an element of normative judgment which is deemed alien to the methodology of the science, therefore, the process of policy formulation and implementation often falls short of dealing with the issue of poverty. Islam, on the other hand, is comprehensive with all aspects of life being highly intermingled. Thus, it is unique in its understanding and the course of action it takes when it deals with any problem including poverty issues. As far as poverty is concerned, there are some important concepts to be taken as basic pillars in the blue-print of both conceptualizing and treating poverty. These concepts deals with issues such as the just distribution of income, that wealth ultimately belongs to Allah (S.W.T) that Islam strikes a middle way, and that there are basic
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Poverty From an Islamic Economics Perspective
Elzein Abd Alla Yousif
needs or necessities which should be provided for all. With this background, the concept of poverty in Islam transgresses the limit of being mere lack of sufficient material needs but a need that hinders the sacred role of worship, i.e., a hindrance to actualizing the concept of man vicegerency on earth. With regard to poverty measurement, the issue has been tackled with fixing the nisab of zakat as a poverty line, the most beautiful aspect of which is the quality of the nature of transfer inherent in zakat i.e the transfer being, directly, from the rich to the poor which , in turn, directly reduces the incidence of poverty. Therefore, this poverty line is distribution-sensitive index satisfying social justice standards. Most important with poverty treatment is the Islamic understanding that there will be a problem of poverty so long as there is a defect in one or some parts of the whole system. The absence of the institution of zakat, for example, is an indication of the incidence of poverty, even if not observable. The assault against poverty, therefore, starts with the individual who is supposed to maintain himself and his dependents. Socially, there must be a coordination of surveying the widows, orphans, handicapped, and laboring breadwinners for ensuring their financial assistance. At the level of the state, the provision of basic needs to all is imposed by the very clear injunctions of sharia'h. Finally, the unity of the Ummah is part and parcel of poverty treatment through inter-country cross subsidization and resources mobilization. Although these efforts are inextricably intermingled, they are subsumed under positive, preventive and corrective measures. Positive measures lead to the betterment of the general welfare of the people; preventive measures relate to practices that lead to the concentration of wealth in a handful of people and the deprivation of the majority; and corrective measures relate to the ease of channeling transfers from wealthy to needy people. 31
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REFERENCES 1- Ahmed, Ziauddin. 1991. Islam, Poverty and Income Distribution. Leicester, U.K: the Islamic foundation. 2- Al- Ghzali, Abu Hamid. 1980. Ihya’ U’ lum al-din. Vol. 5. Berut: Dar Al-fikr. 3- Al- Qaradawi, Yousif. 1986. Fiqh Al-zakat: Dirasah Muqarinah, 2 vol; Beruit: Muasat Al- risalah. 4- Al- Qaradawi, Yousif. 1987. Mushkilat Al- faqr wa kayfa ‘ alajaha AlIslam. Berut: Muasasat Al- risalah. 5- Ali Al-dulji, Ahmed. 1993. Al- filaka Wa Al- Maflukun (poverty and the poor). Berut: Dar Al- kutub Al- I’Imia. 6- Al- Nadawi, Abu Al- hasan. 1984. Al- siyra Al-nabawiyyah. Jiddah: Dar Al- shuruq. 7- Al- Sarraf, Mohammad Fuad. 1980. The Challenging Problems of Development and Responsibilities of Islamic Banks, trans. Faisal Abde- latif. Pakistan: International Institute of Islamic Banking and Economics. 8- Al- saud, Abdel Rahman. 1990. Mushkilat Al- faqr wa supul I’lajaha Fi Dau Al- Islam. Al- riyad: Al- Markaz Al- ‘arabi Lildrasat Alamniyyah Wa Al- tadrib. 9- Fuch, victor R. 1992. "poverty and Health: Asking the Right Questions" in the American Economist. 10- Hasan, Zubair and Arif, Mohammad. 1993. The Basic Need Fulfilment Guarantee in Islam and A Measure of Its Financial Dimension of Development (unpublished). Kulliah of Economics and Management, International Islamic University, Malaysia. 11- Hunt, E.K. 1979. History of Economic Thought: A critical perspective. Belmont, California: wadsworth publishing co.
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12- Ibn Abd Al- Hakam. Syrat Umar ibn Abd Al- Aziz. Damascus:Dar alFikr. 13- Ibn Abi Al-dunia, Abi Bakr. 1990. Islah Al- mal. ed. Al- qadat, Mustapha Muflih. Al- mansura: Dar Al- wafa. 14- Ibn Taymiya, Ahmed. 1984. Public Duties in Islam (The Institution of Hisba). edi, Muhtar Holland. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation. 15- Iqbal, Munwar, ed. 1988. Distribution Justice and Need Fulfilment in An Islamic Economy. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation. 16- Khan, M. Fahim and Ghifari, Muhammad. 1985. Objectives of Shari’ah as Discussed by Shatibi and Some Economic Implications. Pakistan: International Institute of Islamic Economics. 17- Myrdal, Gunnar. Dec. 1989. "Equality Issue World Development" in American Economic Review. 18- O’Boyle, Edward J. Spring 1990. "Poverty: A Concept that is Both Absolute and Relative Because Human Beings Are At Once Individual and Social" in Review of Social Economy. 19- Pramanik, Ataul Haq. 1995. "Need Based Development And Its Implications for Sustainability" – A paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on "Ethico-Economics: values, self-Reliance and Sustainability"- Organized by the Department of Economics, University College of Cape Breton, Sydney, Canada, 7th – 8th Oct. 20- Pramanik, Ataul Haq, 1993. Development and Distribution in Islam Kuala Lumpur: Pelanduk publications. 21- Sadeq, Abul Hassan M. 1993. Eradication of poverty from An Islamic perspective (unpublished paper), Conference on Globalism and the Muslim Ummah 16-17 October, International Islamic University, Malaysia and UMMI Foundation.
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22- Sen, Amartya k. 1989. "Capabilities and Entitlement" in Meir, Gerald M. Leading Issues in Economic Development. New York: Oxford University press. 23- Sharma, Aroon. 1990. Concept and Measurement of poverty. New Delhi: Anomal publications. 24- Patkinson, B.K. 1980. "Non- Economic Factors in the Economic Retardation of the Rural Malays" in Modern Asian Studies quoted in Ragab, Ibrahim A "Islam and Development" in world Development. Great Britain: pergamon. 25- Population Reference Bureau (PRB). 2009. World Data Sheet. 26- Taib, Nassri. 1988. Islam and Eradication of Poverty: An Ethical Dimension of Development with Special Reference to Malaysia’s Five year plans. A dissertation submitted to the University of Temple (unpublished). 27- UN. 2009. World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revisions, New York. 28- UNDP.1991. Human Development Report 1991. New York: Oxford University Press. 29- World Bank. 2008. The Developing World Is Poorer Than We Thought, But No Less Successful In The Fight Against Poverty. New York. 30- World Bank. 1993. Social Indicators of Development 1993. London: John Hopkins University Press. 31- The World Resource Institute. 1993. World Resource 1992- 93. New York: Oxford University press. 32- Zheng Buhong. 1994. "Can Poverty be Both Relative and Absolute" in Econometrica, vol. 62, No. 6, (November).
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Notes to Contributors
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