Undergraduate Architecture Writing Portfolio

WRITING PORTFOLIO STUART PETTICREW- 40205440

Architecture does not change, it evolves. Architects do not create, they develop. They develop a better working community for us all. Architects must however understand that each

HISTORY & THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

community is unique. Unique in a way that allows its identity to mean something and to be like no other. An attempt to develop a society or technique must be a development which focuses on preservation of the meaning of what has already been conceived.

Effective architecture relies on a knowledgeable government

MANIFESTO

who recognises the public’s demands and heritage. Our forthcoming heritage relies on our new developments in architecture which will be our responsibility.

Compare and contrast two buildings of the same typology and from the same era and culture.

Title - The Laksmana Temple and the Mundesvari Temple of the Gupta Empire – Purpose over Durability?

Paragraph 1

HISTORY & THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE ESSAY OUTLINE

Both built temples were built in the same century during the later age of the Gupta Empire with one temple becoming so elegant due to the advancements made in the Gupta architecture whilst the other temple develops its design through specific features of other buildings built at that time.

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Both temples were built between the 6th and 7th century, by this time the Gupta Empire had completed its expansion throughout northern India.

The Gupta Empire when at its most power lasted approximately between the 4th to the 6th century.

The Gupta age was a very high point in the development of India through any progressions made in academic sections and a new found strong trade with other regions.

The Gupta empire is responsible for the advancements made to the Indian architecture. All buildings designed with relation to the religious leader. The religion was celebrated in each building through making wall carvings, sculptures and paintings.

The only existing forms of design left within the buildings are the sculptures which would most commonly have been made in resemblance for whom the temple would have been made to worship and celebrate.

The decline of the Gupta empire happened around the 6th century and was due to the empire failing to possess all its region and therefore relational links also being lost.

After the empire collapse the country was ruled by many different kingdoms in different areas of the country

Laksmana Temple Background •

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The Laksmana Temple is one of the first ever temples to be constructed out of brick and is considered to be best early brick temple to be constructed. The brick cladding used has also been taken advantage of in terms of making sculpture moulds on the exterior of the temple.

This temple was dedicated to the Lord Vishnu to which a wellpreserved statue can still be found on the inside. This temple is located in Sirpur which shows signs of both Hindu and Buddhist remains. The Lakshmana Temple is a Hindu based temple and at the time of it being built is was considered to be one of the finest and most honourable temple of that time. Hindu was the most common culture in the Gupta empire.

The Laksmana Temple is built upon an elevated platform, accessible by steps. From the 6th century it was common for a Gupta temple to be built on a platform.

The Laksmana Temple shows the first case example of a porch (known as a mandapa in Indian architecture) in Gupta architecture.

The porch is supported by two rows of exposed interior columns which run all the way to the back. The porch is the largest part of the temple and as the floor plan shows that it was taken up by mostly columns, this demonstrates and informs us that this temple was not designed for a congregation.

The back of the temple features a square sanctuary which I covered by a tower. The outside of this tower features mouldings and the inside is dedicated to Lord Vishnu through paintings and sculptures.

Mundesvari Temple Background •

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The Mundesvari Temple is constructed out of stone. The outer appearance has a smoother face to it and has no mouldings or carvings on it (unlike the Laksmana Temple). The temple is in an octagonal shape allowing for 4 different entrance, each at the different points on a compass.

The Mundesvari is one of the oldest temples in all of India and to this day is still a fully functional temple. The fact that it is still a functional temple makes it one of the oldest functioning Hindu temples in the world.

This temple was built in honour of Lord Shiva and Shakti and is also a Hindu temple.

The octagonal shape of the Mundesvari is centred with four columns.

The thickness of the walls means that in the centre of the temple there is very little room for any large events to happen in this temple.

Paragraph 2

Paragraph 3

The Laksmana Temple shows similarities to how the Gupta Empire had evolved to a certain stage and how the Laksmana temple also discovered new forms of architecture.

The Mundesvari Temple evolved from the other Temples which had been built in the Gupta Empire at that time which benefited it to become a more durable temple.

1. The outer elaborate porch at the time was uncommon in the architecture of the Gupta empire which then became a common feature of buildings in Kosala.

2. The use of columns was not a regular occurrence in shrine buildings at the time. There were only two buildings at the time which may have been supported by columns on the inside at the time however not to the same scale as the Laksmana. This shows that the Laksmana took previous ideas and improved them to become more useable.

3. Williams (1939, p. 163) tells us that some designs made in the carvings were already experimented with in India by mentioning that “The dramatic setback of the bands proceeding inward, the circular carving of several foliate borders and the carving on the lateral sides of the jambs are all features already seen in Tala.”

4. This temple was the first temple to be built with brick. This allowed for more mouldings to be made in to the exterior walls which when done previously it would have taken more time and precision with stone. The more mouldings on the exterior gives the impression of more power showing that Lord Vishnu was greater.

1. Williams (1939, p. 167) states that the columns in the centre of the temple are a reflection of the superstructure which is now missing from the Laksmana Temple of Sirpur. The fact that the columns are still standing in the Mundesvari temple shows how much stronger the Mundesvari temple is.

2. Just like in the Laksmana Temple in the garbhagriha is the innermost part of the temple. This is also a very confined space and by looking at the plan this is due to the use of columns and very thick walls. It is that by using such thick walls along with the temple is so strong and durable even to this day.

3. It is mentioned by Williams (1939, p. 167) that there are many other examples of octagonal temples. One example is the Sankaracarya Temple of Kashmir which also to this day is standing however not functional and incidentally also built in a mountain range.

4. The exterior of the Mundesvari is made of stone and does not have any stone carvings. By looking at other temples built at this time this would seem like a common feature however the precision of the stonework on this temple gives a large advantage to its strength.

5. The use of stone in the Gupta period was introduced in the 4th-5th century as written by Corda (2013, p. 183) and it was not until the 6th century that sculpturing emerged with high quality.

6. Corda (2013, p. 180-181) talks about the turning point created in the Indian architecture when stone evolved into the new material to replace brick. It is however implied that the Mundesvari Temple lacks carvings due to a lack of experience which is “acquired with wood architecture”

Mundesvari Temple Fig 1.

Paragraph 4 Despite both buildings being built for the same purpose, it is clear that by gaining inspiration from the evolution of architecture at that time is important. The comparable size of the two buildings at the time of being built would clearly show one building demonstrating more power than the other, but scale is not everything. Through taking strong inspirations from buildings previously built, the Mundesvari Temple became a much stronger building by simply choosing to build a temple that would last rather than a temple that would topple.

This shows that there are two key factors when designing a building in order for it to be the most successful. The structure must be relational to its purpose with a strong dependability to last. In order to fulfil this ambition, inspiration must be taken by what we have built around us.

Laksmana Temple Fig 2.

Mundesvari Temple plan Laksmana Temple plan

Mundesvari Temple Fig 3.

Bibliography Williams, J.G (1939) Art of Gupta India, USA: Princeton University Press Corda, P (2014) Signless Signification in Ancient India and Beyond, UK & USA: Anthem Press Fig 1. https://www.tripadvisor.co.uk/LocationPhotoDirectLink-g8547691d8539742-i144829081-Maa_Mundeshwari_MandirBhabhua_Kaimur_District_Bihar.html Fig 2. https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/final-exam/deck/9059866

Laksmana Temple Fig 4.

Fig 3.

These two images show the different materials used to build both temples. Notice how the brick work the Laksmana Temple (left) has a substantial amount of more mouldings in the exterior wall compared to the Mundesvari Temple (above). At the time this would have been clear that the Laksmana Temple was much more powerful however did the Mundesvari design work better and would the Laksmana Temple still to in use today if it was built to last longer?

https://topyaps.com/mundeshwari-temple-oldest-temple Fig 4. https://www.indiatoday.in/travel/destinations/story/offbeat-chhattisgarh-adrive-to-sirpur-and-barnawapara-wildlife-sanctuary-raipur-lakshmanatemple-teevardwo-buddhist-monastery-heritage-monuments-274523-201511-26

Technology: Same Sun, Different Light.

The Egyptian and Roman techniques used to introduce light into a space for a specific use, inspired the way Henri Labrouste introduced light into La Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve and La Bibliotheque Nationale however through different structural techniques. The Great Hypostyle Hall in the

HISTORY & THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

Temple of Amun and the Pantheon of Rome both produce light from above though clerestory windows and an oculus in the dome. Henri Labrouste used both these techniques in the design of his two libraries however the different techniques utilized in the structure of the buildings allowed for the light to be dispersed into a much larger space compared to that of the Great Hypostyle Hall and the Pantheon.

TECHNOLOGY

Egyptians and Romans introduced light into their very different spaces through skylights to allow light to be directed onto the ground and the functional space below. The Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun brings about light through clerestory windows to introduce light from above down into an area heavily congested with columns. Two centre rows of columns are constructed higher to allow for the clerestory windows as seen in Fig. 1.

Spaces such as hypostyle halls where there is such a high structure density, by providing a single light source is not something which should have little consideration. The light source must be bright enough to distribute light throughout the area. Badawy (1966, pp. 5) states that Egyptians used clerestory windows as this was enough to introduce light from the radiant The use of clerestory windows was very commonly used in Egypt especially sun in Egypt. With such a resplendent sun comes a high temperature in hypostyle halls where there is a dense column distribution. Murray (2002, pp. 79) implies that “The arrangement of the hall gives vistas in every

particularly in Egyptian areas and it was important that the atmosphere within must not be hot and humid. Providing shade in areas is important and

direction, the columns melting into the darkness, while shaft of sunlight from the clerestory windows cut the gloom with startling suddenness�. The Great Hypostyle Hall is made up of 134 columns over an area of over 4000 m2 as

more shade can be provided by a reduced number of openings. Baker and Steemers (2002, pp. 9) point out that the Temple of Amun used clerestory windows due to the high Egyptian heat climate. The hot air in the hypostyle

shown in Fig 2. As such, light struggled to penetrate deep into the building hall would rise up out of the clerestory windows; providing ventilation. however this was possibly the desired effect to create an atmosphere suited to the religious rituals performed in this space. The hypostyle hall had very

The Pantheon is seen as one of the most influential pieces of architectural

limited access for people and so it was unnecessary to have large open

history and MacDonald (1976, pp. 33) frequently mentions the Oculus which

spaces.

is the only light source provided to the space lying 130ft below it and the dome. The 30 feet in diameter circle at the apex of the dome shines a near perfect cylinder of light through the air onto the space below, with the projected circle luminous enough to light up the entire room.

Fig 2.

Hannah and Magil’s (1954, pp. 494) research informs us that this dimension

(Mark and Hutchinson, 1986, pp. 33). Including these structural techniques

was not chosen randomly and that it, in fact, coincides with the altitude of

into a building allows for fewer openings to have to be included in order for

the sun during the winter solstice; allowing light to enter at all times of the

there to be a good standard of lighting as the light entering through the

year. The coffering mouldings on the dome (seen in Fig 3.) cause the eye to

opening has more time to disperse before it is obstructed. This is a reason the

wander aimlessly in admiration of the heavy weight that rests above you.

Great Hypostyle Hall has an extensive row of clerestory openings; due to the

The Oculus being open to the sky results in lighting changes throughout the

high number of columns. The Pantheon would have been used by many

day as the sun travels its path in the sky altering the location where the light

people at the one time and it was important that light was passed around

under the dome.

there entire room. No light would have been blocked from the oculus is there

The invention of the dome and the circular arch in Rome became a

was a large number of people in the space.

“widespread use� at that time which allowed for larger open spaces in

Henri Labrouste adopted these techniques in La Bibliotheque Nationale and

buildings (evident in the sciagraphical section Fig 4.) and therefore made it

Sainte-Genevieve but the different approach to it allowed for the introduction

possible to have large openings in walls to introduce light into this space.

of more light into the large spaces below. Henri Labrouste was an iconic and key figure in architecture for his early work and experimentation with cast iron structuring. When Labrouste was asked to redesign the Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve, a requirement was for a large supply of natural light to the reading room. His response to this was an iron structure. (Lemoine, 2013, pp.

181).

Fig 4.

number of columns and with their slim structure, block hardly any light entering through the clerestory windows.

Fig 5.

His widespread use of iron in the structure of Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve allows for tall slender columns to support numerous iron arches which are visible in Fig 5. A central line of cast iron columns support arches either side for a double barrel vault roof design which extended the plan. Hanser (2006, pp. 37) mentions that the use of cast iron allowed for the large reading room to be “flooded� with light provided by the high clerestory windows on each side of the building. High clerestory windows perforate the thick exterior walls. The height of these windows was increased due to the extended height of the cast iron central plan columns. The higher the clerestory windows are off the ground, the more light that can be flooded deeper into the reading room. The clerestory windows continue in the row along all four exterior walls. This design is similar to the Great Hypostyle Hall with the difference being the depth in which the light can penetrate into the plan. The

Labrouste continued his work with cast iron columns and arches into his design for the Bibliotheque Nationale. He also carried his use of clerestory windows into the design of his second library. Originally the large clerestory windows would be the only source of natural light into the reading room, however, they were insufficient. More light needed to access the area and so Labrouste decided to introduce it from above. Le Coeur (2013, pp. 148-151) mentions that his first plan was to have a coffered ceiling design. The light would enter through a single glass opening. This design however sparked fear that shadows would be cast onto the readers and their books.

As methods to void this developed, the end result was the introduction of nine domes, each with an oculus at their centre. The circles of light from each dome would overlap and thus the entire floor plan would be lit. A four by four column grid plan allows the domes to be set higher off the ground.

The outer twelve columns are set very close to the wall however they are not attached or supported. Each dome rests on four pendentives which are supported by iron arches. Each arch supports two domes and each dome is supported by four arches. Just like in the Pantheon, the reading room would

Fig 7. have been used by many people. It was important for a large amount of light to be dispersed throughout the entire room which is done by the repetition of

When both techniques were combined in the Bibliotheque Nationale, it

the oculi. The repetition of the sources of light was important in covering the

meant that more light proceeded into the reading room. Armstrong (2013, pp.

entire area of the reading room which was not needed in the Pantheon as the

330) tells us that this allowed the light provided by the oculi and the

floor plan was smaller and the walls were closer to increase the reflection of

clerestory windows to be the only source of natural light in the reading room.

light down towards the ground. The use of clerestory windows along with

This was the intention of Labrouste’s design as one of the requirements

the oculi introduces an excessive amount of light to the readers. These

given to him when designing the reading room was for the readers and

clerestory windows are alike to those of the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve,

bookshelves to be flooded with natural light. In 1924 electric lighting was

however, their much larger dimensions mean that there are fewer and by

installed in Bibliotheque Nationale to allow the reading room to be open

only being on one wall mean that they do not lead as much light into the

longer as light would become very limited especially in winter months. The

space.

Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve was designed for gas lighting to be installed

for when the light entering through the clerestory windows was limited.

Labrouste gave permission for the installation because of his high consideration for students studying into the late hours and he also mentioned that the atmosphere within the reading room changes when it is lit by gaslights; forcing the readers to become more concentrated on their study.

The Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve, just like the Great Hypostyle Hall, is ventilated naturally. Bressani and Grignon (2013, pp. 115) explain how “The reading room behaves like a ventilation chamber, with hot air rising from grates at the foot of the bookcases in the central spine and circulating up to the roof trusses.”

slender iron columns produce the smallest blockages of light allowing the entire reading room to receive the light dispersing from through the windows. Introducing iron columns into the structure allowed the ceiling to be raised further off the ground which permitted the clerestory windows to be raised as well to shine the light more directly onto the readers.

Labrouste’s design for the Bibliotheque Nationale took vast amounts of inspiration from is previous work by repeating the use of the clerestory windows and the abundant use of cast iron columns and arches. The Romans led light into the Pantheon using a skylight known otherwise as the Oculus.

This method meant that the entire area has a good supply of light due to no obstructions of light. Labrouste adopted this technique however his replication of nine domes meant that hardly a dark patch was cast anywhere

In conclusion, it is clear that the way Egyptians and Roman introduced light

on the floor plan. The dispersion of light across the room was increased by

into their structures was effective and appropriate towards their different

the height the domes could extend off the ground by being supported by iron

uses. Henri Labrouste incorporated these successful techniques into the

columns.

design of both his libraries. By advancing on the main technological Henri Labrouste clearly demonstrates the impact historical buildings have on principles he could invite a remarkable amount of daylight into both reading the structure of new designs. His repeated use of these techniques shows how rooms. His use of clerestory windows in the Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve much faith he had in them and it allowed him to create two of the most was very different to those of the Great Hypostyle Hall in the sense that there admirable, recognizably inspiring buildings of all time through their is a much lower density of columns. His repeated use of the iron arch and ingenious use of light.

Bibliography

Le Coeur, M. (2013) 'The Bibliotheque Nationale: Between

Badawy, A. (1966) Architecture of Ancient Egypt and the Near East, USA:

Rationalism and Illusionism', in Le Coeur, M., Lemoine, B.,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Bressani, M. and Grignon, M. (ed.) Henri Labrouste: Structure

Baker, N. and Steemers, K. (2002) Daylight Design of Buildings, London: James & James (Science Publishers) Ltd. Hanser, D. (2006) Architecture of France, 1 edn., USA: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Brought to Light. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, pp. 135163.

Lemoine, B. (2013) 'Labrouste and Iron', in Le Coeur, M., Lemoine, B., Bressani, M. and Grignon, M. (ed.) Henri Labrouste: Structure Brought to Light. Ney York: The Museum of Modern Art, pp. 181-

Le Coeur, M., Lemoine, B., Bressani, M. and Grignon, M. (2013) Henri

191

Labrouste: Structure Brought to Light, 1 edn., New York: The Museum of Modern Art.

MacDonald, W. L. (1976) The Pantheon, Great Britain: Butler & Tanner Ltd. Frome and London.

Bressani, M & Grignon, M (2013) 'The Bibliotheque SainteGenevieve and "Healing Architecture"', in Le Coeur, M., Lemoine, B., Bressani, M. and Grignon, M. (ed.) Henri Labrouste: Structure Brought to Light. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, pp. 95122.

Murray, M. A. (2002) Egyptian Temples, 2nd edn., London: Dover Publications.

Journals Referenced Hannah, R. and Magil, G. (1954) 'The Role of the Sun in the Pantheon's Design and Meaning', Numen, 58(1), pp. 494.

Armstrong, C. (2013). Journal of Architectural Education. Reviews:

ARC 1024 - History and Theory of Architecture

Exhibitions. 67 (2), pp. 330.

Technology Essay Outline

Mark, R and Hutchinson, P. (1986). The Art Bulletin. On the Structure of the Roman Pantheon. 68 (1), p. 33.

Title - Technology: Same Sun, Different Light.

Image Sources

1st Paragraph

Fig 1. http://www.memphis.edu/hypostyle/about_hall/index.php

Thesis Statement

Fig 2. https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-great-hypostyle-hall-at-karnak-

The Egyptian and Roman techniques used to introduce light into a space for

architecture-facts.html

a specific use, inspired the way Henri Labrouste introduced light into La Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve and La Bibliotheque Nationale however

Fig 3. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pantheon_dome_oculus_ through different structural techniques. light_(5832357251).jpg Background information on how Egyptians and Romans would have used Fig 4. https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/ap-art-history-chapterlight in their buildings and introduce the examples of the buildings I will be 7/deck/8532753 using.

Fig 5. https://www.pinterest.com/pin/230246599673348594/ Background information the libraries designed by Henri Labrouste and how Fig 6. https://www.reddit.com/r/europe/comments/6w4cne/bibliothèque_n

the light introduced into these buildings is through a similar technique used

ationale_de_ france_salle_labrouste/

by the Egyptians and Romans but for a different use and therefore through

Fig 7. https://www.moma.org/calendar/exhibitions/1295?locale=en

different structural techniques.

2nd Paragraph

1. The invention of the dome and the circular arch in Rome became a “widespread use” allowing for larger open spaces in buildings and

Egyptians and Romans introduced light into their very different spaces therefore made it possible to have large openings in walls to through skylights to allow light to be directed onto the ground and the introduce light into this space. (Mark and Hutchinson, 1986, p. 33) functional space below.

At Least 3 pieces of evidence 3rd Paragraph 2. Egyptian clerestory windows were most commonly used in hypostyle halls where there is a dense column distribution. Murray (2002) implies that “The arrangement of the hall gives vistas in every direction, the columns melting into the darkness, while shaft of sunlight from the clerestory windows cut the gloom with startling suddenness”.

3. Badawy (1966) states that Egyptians used clerestory windows as this was enough to introduce light from the radiant sun in Egypt. Baker and Steemers (2002) point out that the Temple of Amun used clerestory windows due to the high Egyptian heat climate.

4. The Pantheon is seen as one of the most influential pieces of architectural history and MacDonald (1976) frequently mentions the oculus which is the only light source provided to the space lying 130ft below it and the dome. (highlight new term – coffering)

Henri Labrouste adopted these techniques in La Bibliotheque Nationale and Sainte-Genevieve but the different approach to it allowed for the introduction of more light into the large spaces below.

At Least 3 pieces of evidence 1. Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve is constructed from an extensive use of iron. This allowed for the large reading room to be “flooded” with light provided by the high clerestory windows on each side of the building. (Hanser, 2006, p. 37) 2. Bibliotheque Nationale, like Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve was originally only lit by large arched clerestory windows on both sides however this light was insufficient in this case. Light therefore could only be introduced from above. Originally the roof was meant to be coffered however there was fear of this casting shadows on the

readers below. Labrouste then adopted the idea of introducing nine

Answering the “so what?� question

domes each with an oculus at each apex meaning all light from each Henri Labrouste clearly demonstrates the impact historical buildings have on dome would overlap. (Structure brought to light) the structure of new designs. His repeated use of these techniques shows how 3. Armstrong (2013, p. 330) explains that more daylight was brought much faith he had in them and it allowed him to create two of the most into the Bibliotheque Nationale than Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve admirable, recognizably inspiring buildings of all time through their which allowed the light provided from the oculi and the clerestory ingenious use of light. windows to be the only source of light until in 1924 when electric lighting was installed. The Bibliotheque Sainte-Genevieve is also gas lit when the light entering through the clerestory windows is limited.

Paragraph 4 In conclusion, it is clear that the way Egyptians and Roman introduced light into their structures was effective and appropriate towards their different uses. Henri Labrouste incorporated these successful techniques into the design of both his libraries. By advancing on the main technological principles he could invite a remarkable amount of daylight into both reading rooms.

HISTORY & THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE POSTER

HISTORY & THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE READING WORKSHEETS

HISTORY & THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE TEXT OBJECT

“In France, in which architecture was taught side by side with engineering and industrial skills, only one subject was common to all the courses… mathematics”

Abstract Representing a finished project through a drawing can take upon many different approaches. It is a summary and conclusion to the development to all of the logical decisions and strategies. The drawing is of significance as it is to express and transmit the purpose and thought behind the form that a building takes and how this form determines the interior spaces. In order for these qualities to be effectively

HISTORY & THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

communicated, different techniques can be used in order to suit what is best to describe the uses and inhabitation of the building. In this essay I discuss and compare very different approaches to the sectional drawing techniques which are used by two architects; Peter Zumthor and Paul Rudolph and how they make a logical argument for the reasoning behind their representation.

Approaches towards a final drawing take on very little construction detail. The

REPRESENTATION

expression that they are to show must create a convincing argument as to why a design decision has been chosen and how that will impact the user experience. This writing will talk about the language a sectional drawing must communicate and how significant certain aspects of it are in order to broadcast the key elements of a design and why other aspects may not be so necessary.

The drawing styles brought about by Peter Zumthor and Paul Rudolph will be each

The Depiction of Space: Comparing the sectional drawing techniques

individually discussed and met together for a comparison as to how they take upon

used by Peter Zumthor and Paul Rudolph and the success both have of

different approaches and interpretation and the effect they have on the reader. Both

portraying an internal space.

these architects are well appreciated worldwide for the spaces they create, however, the way they express such environments through drawing is much different. Peter

The approaches to the style of an architectural section drawing taken up by

Zumthor is known to have a minimalistic approach to drawing, only showing the form

Peter Zumthor and Paul Rudolph, are very different, however, both

of the structure and very little rendering of the materials internally. He desires to focus

successfully serve the same intention of communicating their architectural

on what contributes to the internal environments through a technological approach

composition. Comparing their drawings to the architecture they are

which otherwise could not be perceived when inhabiting them. Paul Rudolph

imparting; a strong argument is created as to why both styles are specifically

however shows his interior spaces in perspective in order for the observer to be able

appropriate and successful in communicating the concepts of their design.

to feel what the space would be like. His rendering of the drawings also shows how his materials play a part in the experience of the building interior. Both styles create

Both architects have a similar approach to design but their attitude to what a drawing should represent is where they differentiate. The most obvious

a convincing argument as to how they portray the internal spaces however why one

contrast is in their details to sections when set side by side, however, both might be used above the other is the question at hand.

have a convincing logic.

The Importance of an Architectural Drawing In architecture, a drawing is the mechanism of communication between the architect and the bystander. Ackerman (2000, pp. 9) implies that an architectural drawing is only successful when it “means the same to the observer as it does to the maker�.

They are used as a device to convince the observer that the concepts of the design presented by the architect are exactly what is suited to their needs and are a response to their beforehand needs and requests. Sections are arguably the best containers of knowledge in any architectural drawings. Data such as ceiling heights, building circulation, floor and wall thicknesses and structural details can all be collected from sections. The main concepts of a design may be based around the structural technology the building uses or how the Fig. 1

interior spaces are inhabited. For either interpretation to be disclosed in a drawing, the format that it takes will vary and will strongly depend on the audience it is aimed for. For example, a detailed section is not shown to a client due to the excessive information which they may not be able to interpret. Detailed sectional drawings such as shown in fig. 1 are only used by a construction

Wood (2002, pp. 31) implies that architecture “depends on construction to complete a passage from an idea to a project� for which drawing plays a large facilitating role to. Drawings such as these are drawn with precise line weights and clarify important information states Dernie (2010, pp. 117).

worker where they are solely concentrated on how the building is structurally

In comparison to this, a sectional drawing to be shown to a client (known as

configured e.g. structure, material, opening details, etc. For such information

a presentational drawing) is to have the intention of showing spatial

to become readable and apparent to them in a drawing, a smaller scale is

organization and circulation. This information can be interoperated and

used, revealing more precise information which is commonly labeled with

blocks out details which are of no benefit to the viewer.

text for information on dimensions and materials.

Text is not required for this form of section as the drawing should communicate the spatial conditions clearly. Scale and dimensions of the interior ceiling heights are made clear when compared to the height of a human figure. The internals of a space is drawn in elevation to show the context of the room. Rendering can be applied to direct attention to key areas Fig. 2

of the section as demonstrated in fig. 3.

Fig. 2 shows how this technique is presented in a drawing and that instead of showing the construction layers such as in fig. 1, instead, the thickness of the walls and floors are more plainly apparent. This further makes it more Fig. 3

obvious where there is solid and where there is void in the walls and floors, which can, in turn, indicate a passage of light into a space or where there

Peter Zumthor

may be a form of vertical circulation. A section of this kind is taken through

Peter Zumthor, one of the most appreciated architects to perform in the 21 st

a line of the building which can describe a significant spatial quality. A

century, evolves his designs around the experiential qualities of the user. His

larger scale is used as finer detail does not need to become as apparent to the

close attention to technological detail works alongside his precise choice of

reader and will, therefore, allow them to see a larger proportion of the

materials to provide a unique, personal sense in each space. Zumthor, (2006,

building and how it comes together as one whole. Aswell as this,

pp. 13) says, “When I enter a building and I see a room, in that split second, I

surrounding context can be drawn into the background and neighbouring

have this feeling about it.� and he believes that in order to truly know a work

buildings sectioned through especially when situated within a built-up area.

of architecture, it must be experienced in person.

He, therefore, does not try to describe or translate an experience within his buildings through a drawing as this would not communicate the true feeling of being within. The drawing shown in fig. 4 (opposite, top) is a section of the Bregenz Art Museum, Austria, shown in fig. 5 and fig. 6 (opposite, bottom). The drawing shows minimal rendering and very little internal furniture. Materials such as concrete are slightly demonstrated in the drawing as the small circles representing the blow holes are visible within the concrete panel rectangular outlines. Other wall surfaces using panels are also shown with the outline however the material is not represented. Dimensions and scale are not made definite in comparison to a human figure. The use of a human figure would also communicate how each space is populated and how many people may use it at one time specifically in a public building.

Fig. 4

No technology or structure details are drawn within the floors as they are blacked out to highlight the thickness of the floor. In some cases, such the Fig. 5

blacking out of the floors highlights the angled cutaways of their mass to allow for an uninterrupted passage of light to filter through. The wall thickness is only highlighted on the internal leaf however the light plenum which was added to the design to disperse light evenly throughout each floor, has been left with lined details to show the supports of the external etched translucent glass faรงade (shown in fig. 6).

Fig. 6

Including this detail, works in hand with the dropped ceiling heights which

Zumthor has not included context to his section. He wants his drawing to

are used as a light cavity to spread natural daylight over each floor and also

embrace his building and the logic behind his design decisions. If context

using the etched translucent glass material for higher light dispersion;

does not play a part in the logic of his design (or if anything else for that

reducing the need for artificial lighting. Details such as these on a section

matter) he will simply not include it as it will be viewed as an unnecessary

drawing are included by Zumthor, as they pay a large contribution to the

distraction.

experience which occupying the internal spaces when the technology would

Paul Rudolph

not be able to be studied at that point. By leading the main focus of the Paul Rudolph is an architect recognised for his large contributions to drawing to this and not communicating how the internal environment is perceived once inside, it notifies the observer that this plays a contribution

architecture in the modernist era. He has his work described as “lightweight”

by Filler (2015, pp. 15) which showcased his “manipulation of space” and

and has major significance in how the spaces are operated and the exact choice of materials specific to the senses he wants and thinks a space experiences of being within them. should be felt and perceived as. His close attention to material choice did not The simple spatial configuration of the floors in the Bregenz Art Museum is

only lie in the selection of what material a plane should be, but also in what

shown with the long floor planes with no internal walls sectioned through.

he could uniquely do to that material to give his designs a personal sense.

Zumthor has chosen this specific cut line through the plan as it shows the Rudolph wanted his unique texturing style to be apparent and represented in large open floors on each exhibit space in the building. It also displays the his drawings and he recognises them primarily as adding to the experiential stacked floor plans and the simple massing of the architecture. Circulation is qualities of his spaces. The section shown in fig 7. (opposite) is of Paul not clear with this section however this may be Zumthor’s intention; to show

Rudolph’s Office, New York. This is a highly complex perspective drawing

that each floor is of separate interaction to another. showing rendering and a sense of spatial depth.

Materials such as bricked walls and tiled floors are given a distinctive hatch.

The scale of the spaces within the building are represented with the addition

The rendering of internal materials shows a sequence and divisions of one

of human shadow figures; representing scale and the inhabitability of each

space adjacent to the another. The passage of light through the building is

part of the building i.e. how many people would tend to use it at once most

shown using a darker/denser hatch to represent shadow and show an

often. In the past, Rudolph, (1974, pp. 8-10) has admitted to making spaces

argument for his choice of openings and the effect that has on the spaces to

seem larger by decreasing the size of a human figure; something which no

allow a flow of natural daylight into the plan. Rudolph, (1974, pp. 8) said

one realised until the actual building was built.

that he never used a rendering technique on showing the reflections of The thickness of the floor and roofing is shown by Rudolph and he decides windows as this would prevent “clearly indicating the penetrations of interior to hint at the structure of the building by showing beams running in the line and exterior spaces�. of the perspective. The level of detail to this is minimal and is only shown as a way to illustrate structural material choice and arrangement.

The level of detail to this is minimal and is only shown as a way to illustrate structural material choice and arrangement. This also works as a way to not distract the observer with large blacked out floors but draw their attention to the interior rendering instead.

Zumthor and Rudolph: A Comparison of Drawing Styles Both Peter Zumthor and Paul Rudolph share the same stance in what architecture should be about, in that the inhabitability of internal spaces is based on material choice and the careful organisation of separated spaces.

The spatial configuration is made clear with the cut of this section. The large

Their representation of this in drawing separates the two when put side by

open ground floor is shown and the perspective leads to the circulation

side. The perspective sectional drawings of Paul Rudolph certainly catch the

situated at the back of the building. The half floor levels are evidently

attention of the observer more so than the sections produced by Peter

displayed in the section cut and the vertical circulation is shown to not take

Zumthor however what they stand for and their overall need of detail in

place over one main stairwell and that they connect using the half levels.

architecture separates opinion.

Each upper floor level does not run the whole width of the building forming a double height space in the centre which is used for circulation and as a light source to the ground floor; shown by the use of shadow.

Ackerman (2000, pp. 16) points out that Vitruvius mentioned in his writing of architecture that he recommends perspective drawings for their language of communicating to the architect in a three-dimensional sense, the finished

This office building is situated within a built-up city area and for that reason,

renderings and elements of the design allowing them to visualise the finished

the context is key in how it sits and interacts with its surrounding structures.

project; creating an argument in favour of the techniques used by Paul

The context is also drawn in perspective; however, a render has not been

Rudolph. This theory was however opposed by some as a means of

added so that the attention is mainly affirmed on the interior of his building.

architectural representation due to the receding lines of the perspective not being to a measurable dimension; creating an argument in favour of the style used by Peter Zumthor.

Rudolph, (1974, pp. 6) says that his renderings “serve a point of reference”

Comparing this to Rudolph’s Office (fig. 7), the main technology used is the

and that therefore the materials chosen are much easier to visualise. He then

light coming from above, filtering down through the void which can be seen

goes on to state that this allowed him to be able to experiment with highly

from an interior view when residing the space, so he therefore represents, the

textured material surfaces such as that can be created with concrete resulting

effect that would have to the building, in the drawing. Matching the style of

in a better end product to the aesthetics of the design. Zumthor (2006, pp. 13-

the drawing to the principles of the design is seen as a key aspect to both

14) however says that the portrayal of material often underwhelms its true

architects.

characteristics. He mentions that rendered drawings lack in “open patches”

Conclusion

which would otherwise lead the mind to curiosity. “The portrayal no longer holds a promise. It refers only to itself.”

While Zumthor feels the true qualities of a building can only be experienced once inside, Rudolph feels more so that it can be represented on a page

The style and approach to their section drawings lies strongly with the key

which Zumthor will argue that will lead to disappointment once truly

mechanisms to the building. Taking Zumthor’s Bregenz Art Museum (fig. 3)

experienced for oneself as the reality it promises is too overwhelming. To

for example, the main component of the architecture which contributes to the

convey the important aspects of a design on a page, which would otherwise

internal environment is the light plenum. This cannot be seen and

not be known to someone occupying a space, may in turn lead to

appreciated as much when either inside or outside the building and so

photography being used to represent a building rather than the drawings

including it with more detail draws the attention of the observer to appreciate

produced, whereas such drawings produced by Paul Rudolph are famous and

its technology.

more commonly seen than an actual photograph of his buildings. The drawing styles taken up by both architects are still commonly used today but to establish what the fundamental attitudes are that the building takes and deciding how that should be represented on paper, regulate the success the drawing will have.

Bibliography

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Fig. 1 - https://architectureacademia.wordpress.com/

Representation and Misrepresentation, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University.

Fig. 2 - https://www.archdaily.com/916365/casa-delunna-reims

Dernie, D. (2010) Architectural Drawing, 2nd edn., London: Laurence King

502/5ccc75cc284dd1df76 00001f-casa-delunna-reims-502-

Publishing Ltd. Durisch, P. (2014) Peter Zumthor 1985-1989, Zurich, Switzerland: Verlag

Fig. 3 - http://www.beta-architecture.com/helsinki-central-library-cobe/

Scheidegger & Spiess AG. Filler, M. (2015) The Hard Case of Paul Rudolph, New York, USA: The

Fig. 4 - https://miesarch.com/work/381

New York Review.

Rohan, T. M. (2000) Rendering the Surface: Paul Rudolph's Art and Architecture, Massachusetts, USA: The MIT Press.

Fig. 5 - https://finn-wilkie.tumblr.com/post/101536659752/peter-zumthorkunsthaus-bregenz-1997

Rohan, T. M. (2014) The Architecture of Paul Rudolph, University of Massachusetts: Architectural History Foundation.

Fig. 6 - http://sp2017.thedude.oucreate.com/uncategorized/kunsthaus-

Rudolph, P. (1974) Paul Rudolph Architectural Drawings, London: Lund

bregenz/

Humpheries.

Wood, P. (2002) Drawing the Line: A Working Epistemology for the Study of

Fig. 7 - http://socks-studio.com/2016/05/22/a-selection-of-paul-rudolphs-

Architectural Drawing, New Zealand: University of Auckland.

perspective-sections

Zumthor, P. (2006) Atmospheres: Architectural Environments, Surrounding Objects, Basel, Switzerland: Springer Science + Business Media.

Zumthor, P. (2006) Thinking Architecture, 2nd edn., Basel: BirkhaĚˆuser.

Building an escape from traffic congestion: A comparison of the significance that road widening and pedestrianisation have as means of resolving traffic congestion.

The practice of using road-expansion or pedestrianisation in a city as means of reducing traffic congestion, display coherent reasonings for their implementation, however, their results contrast in respect to the urbanisation

HISTORY & THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

of the territories which they reshape and their overall outcome to congestion.

City growth has become quantified by the intensifying population density which inevitably brings a demand for the city to readapt and become accommodating to the increase of traffic on its roads. Solutions to city congestion have found many attempts at resolution to allow for a free-

STREETS & PLACE

flowing network of streets. Road widening and pedestrianisation, as separate approaches, have highly contrasting interests when resolving their aligned problem of congestion which brings varied results and influences to a city’s street network despite their preceding strong reasonings.

Streets and their importance to our cities Architecture, planning, urban design, private development and many other

Appreciation for wider context to the street is important in cohesion with the

professions, are all responsible for the production and organisation of our

direct interests of the society and that both are largely brought to the

streets. Despite this common authority, what they envisage a street to be can

attention of street management. For example, streets populated with retail

differ. A combination of their skillsets will potentially, in turn, bring together

will require traffic to be slow-moving and therefore pedestrian systems

the desired conditions of a neighbourhood. Subsequently, to this, a unified

should be prioritised to slow traffic down, however, the same street being

main goal is for streets to provide links to the services of a city in such a way

directly linked to a road with heavy traffic flow then requires that street be

as to provide efficiency to the manner of commuting. All methods of

able to carry more cars. This brings the question to whether the street should

commute (e.g. walking, cycling, driving etc.) are to be accommodated for in

continue to prioritise pedestrians to improve the liveability of the

a network of streets. This is known as “transit-friendly streets�, where all

community, or grant supremacy to auto-vehicles to reduce congestion and

modes of transport are permitted to use the street in a coherent procedure

better the traffic flow of that street itself and further to the other roads which

(Project for Public Spaces, 1998, pp.5). Tumlin (2012, pp.45) furthers this

lead onto it.

remark to say that if priority is to be given to each mode of transport, then pedestrians and cyclists should be able to compete with the speeds of autovehicles. Fig. 1 demonstrates an envisaged street design where all methods of commute are given opportunity with each segregated from the other to Pedestrian

provide safety and less interference. Priority, however, will depend on the context of the other linking roads. Street design is a location-response led

Cycle

Vehicle

Pedestrian

process which accounts for site-specific requirements.

Fig. 1

George Street, Edinburgh

Traffic congestion has increased in many towns and cities across all

the available capacity of what the roads can offer. Bull (2004, pp.19)

countries and with a predicted continuation for it to limitlessly rise, the

believes that the greater availability of motorised vehicles in recent times has

quality of urban life is under threat. The most evident repercussion to

been due to increases in the purchasing power of the middle-income classes,

congestion is the increase of travel times which Bull, (2003, pp. 19) states

the relative reduction in prices and the greater supply of used vehicles. The

“has reached levels well above those considered acceptable in most cities”.

increase of individual mobility is considered a positive, however, the more

In areas affected by congestion, urban life is deteriorated by noise and air

demanding use of circulation space on roads is increased by the transition

pollution and the sense of a neighbourhood is weakened and divided by high

from walking to motorised vehicles in relation to space occupied. Wisler

levels of traffic. The overpopulation of traffic also has harmful economic

(1989, pp.26) suggests that “our preference of private vehicles is an

effects, with increasing accidents and high fuel consumptions for short travel

expression of individualism” and that we are “conditioned to demand

distances becoming just some of the costs on the individual commuter. Gupta

freedom of mobility”. Attraction to the privatisation of our journeys

and Patel (2014 pp.111-112) mention how an area heavily populated with

outweighs the allure of our streets as places to walk thus ultimately

traffic can cause frustration to pedestrians as road signals will tend to

increasing the demand for road space.

prioritise motorised vehicles to travel with as little interruption as possible,

Road widening as a solution to congestion

which leads pedestrians to become impatient and use their own judgment when crossing roads.

Intensifying demand for roads that were once designed for their present time logistically calls for a redesign and allocation of more space for vehicles to

All roads and streets, when built, were designed for the demand of traffic capacity at that time. While traffic population in the past decades has increased drastically on the streets, road space has remained the same. The number of vehicles attempting to use the road at the same time is exceeding

relieve congestion. The widening of roads allows for more commuters to undertake the same route meaning that it is easier to access services for more travelling individuals. Many people value the ability of being able to drive on the roads of a city and this is a freedom that should be honoured and

given more of an opportunity. By increasing road space, this demand is

by the government’s acquisition of land to widen roads.

better served, states Saleh and Sammer (2009, pp.185). The widening of existing roads should be a strongly considered method explains Bull (2004, pp.14), as it will not only potentially ease congestion but can also expand to provide adequate space for pedestrians to travel. The need to reduce congestion is obvious and Hartgen (2006, pp.4) discusses provisionally that the additional capacity allows for better traffic flow which reduces accidents, lowers road emissions and reduces fuel use and operating costs.

Fig. 2

Bangalore

The Indian city, Bangalore, is statistically the most congested city worldwide, where, on average, drivers spend 71% of their journey times in traffic as reported by the 2019 TomTom Traffic Index study. Rapid and unexpected population growth in the city during the past decade has weakened the infrastructure functions which have failed to keep up. It was approved by the government in 2010 that 216 roads in Bangalore were to be widened (Roohi, 2013, pp.2), many of which are central to the city and pass through heavily retailed and residential areas where congestion has depleted urban life such as the example shown in Fig. 2. Many delays since then have slowed this development allowing congestion to yet still increase at a similar rate to this day. Major retaliation to the widening project is demonstrated by

The road widening protests in Bangalore are not only performed by possible victims of property loss, but also by organisations who question the stance that widening roads will result in city decongestion. Bangalore is a city which has seen a steep increase in the registration of new cars on the road.

The increase of road space can be seen as a statement by the government to indicate that there is no alternative method of transport in the city other than the car and reflects that there is a poor self-trust in the government-owned public transportation system. New car registrations will continue to grow at a faster rate for that reason.

The outcome of road widening is commonly met with traffic induction as a

increased travel time. During the peak hours, when traffic is at its densest

result of the reaction and change of behaviours by the public. An improving

capacity, the commute time increased by 50% due to induced demand. The

road network in a city will encourage more people to drive as people will

theory that increasing road width will generate demand was confirmed by the

reap the benefits of travel times being reduced (temporarily) and

UK government in the SACTRA Report (Department of Transport, 1994)

improvements to the overall quality of service. As Naranjo (2020, pp.2)

which conclusively stated (pp.205) that induced traffic is a real phenomenon

explains, motorists will receive relief from congestion in the short term,

and can outpace the expansion of a system where implemented, proceeding

however, the benefits will be lost due to their increasing demand and may

to investment failure.

indeed contribute to worse road congestion than before. It is explained by

Pedestrianisation as a solution to congestion

Knoflacher (2006, pp.389), that with the increase of road accessibility, the number of trips a person will be encouraged to make per day will also increase, persuading unnecessary traffic. Roohi (2013, pp.7) anticipates, that “if all the 200-odd roads in Bangalore are widened now, the exercise will have to be repeated in five years�. Cervero (2001, pp.1) compares traffic to act like a gas and its ability to expand will fill any available space through a suction.

Congestion diminishes the quality of urban space in cities and therefore brings the demand to reduce road traffic. Pedestrianisation, in its simplest terms, is the removal of all or a portion of traffic from the street. Vehicle access to the street is restricted to allow for the space to be exclusively used by pedestrians. Car dependency, therefore, is discouraged by the infrastructures becoming less accommodating to the motorised vehicle. As discussed previously, the access to cars in cities is becoming more

Many examples lead people to believe that these accusations are true. The most extreme examples are in cities in the American states of California and Texas which undertook road widening schemes. Between the two states, over $4billion was invested. Over time, the effects of the investments resulted in

straightforward and as a result, the attendance of pedestrians on streets is weakening. Prioritising pedestrians in city streets is becoming increasingly important in developing cities. The European Commission (2004, pp.15) states, that on roads facing congestion, “the only way to provide more space

space is to take that space away from private cars”. The report also goes on

growing use of transport. The response of the council was to convert the

to say that a decision such as that is a brave one for authorities to take as it

main city thoroughfare street, Stroget, into a temporarily pedestrianised zone.

relies on the concept of “traffic evaporation”. This concept assumes that traffic found in the area prior to the pedestrianisation, will change their travelling methods and behaviours and that the congestion will not shift to a neighbouring street. Pedestrianisation is seen as an exchange of congestion rather than its movement and that the urban environments become more liveable; influencing the community to favour the alternatives to driving.

The Danish capital city, Copenhagen, until 1962, faced an overabundance of Fig. 3

Stroget, Copenhagen, (1960)

cars occupying the streets of its city centre. The population of cars was at a steady and non-limited increase. Fig. 3 shows how this declined the urban environment for locals and pedestrians which forced city-life onto the narrow

growing use of transport. The response of the council was to convert the main city thoroughfare street, Stroget, into a temporarily pedestrianised zone.

footpaths. The streets prioritised space to the parking of cars, over the

The experiment of making the one street fully pedestrian was to test the

commute of pedestrians. The attendance of people walking the streets was a

trading strength of shops along the 1.1km street. Despite obligations by

neglected figure at the time as space for pedestrians (aswell as vehicles) was

minorities of the public, some of which Hoeven et al (2008, pp.136) reports

inadequate to allow for efficient mobility. It was then in 1962 that the City

to have said, “We are Danes, not Italians, and car-free public space is never

Council of Copenhagen decided to establish a car-free pedestrian zone. This

going to work in Scandinavian weather and culture”, the retails on

was after a strong public demand for a solution to the increase of fuel prices

neighbouring streets struggled to compete with those on Stroget as the

and car taxes which more people were beginning to face as cars became a

pedestrian street environment become favoured over those which allow car

access and parking. The success of this scheme came without any renovation of road surface which was later commissioned to begin in 1965 when the pedestrian status of Stroget became permanent. Fig. 4 shows the improvement of the connection between people and the overall street hospitability in comparison to Fig. 3. The 15,800m2 pedestrianised area of Stroget became a well-recognised success story of retail growth and by 1974, a car-free network had become established within the centre of Copenhagen Fig. 4

Stroget, Copenhagen, (1992)

2

which saw the pedestrianised area increase to 49,200m . As this car-free network gradually became recognised as the central system of mobility in the city centre, all 22 squares in Copenhagen were connected by pedestrian streets by 2005 with 99,000m2 of pedestrian ground occupying Copenhagen (Gehl and Svarre, 2013, pp.151-155). The European Commission (2004, pp.17) claims that 80% of all city centre journeys are now made by foot and that the car traffic has “evaporated” instead of the presumption that it would spill onto the outer roads of the city.

The success of Copenhagen’s transformation was acknowledged on a global scale. Many major cities attempted similar methods to reduce congestion in city centres. From late 1960s to early 1980s, when the success of Copenhagen was beginning to show, over 200 American cities had converted their centres to prioritise pedestrians. It was in the late 1980s that the projects were known to have been unsuccessful and estimated that only 30 still existed by the late 1990s as the residents of the cities still opted for the use of their cars. Pojani (2010, pp.174) claims that “it is not realistic to compare European pedestrian streets with American because European cities often have a higher [population] density”. This accusation could be true, however, the success of Copenhagen came from its much slower implementation and absence of a masterplan to guide it as one project. Its development over

several decades allowed the residents to slowly adapt to the change from

suburban areas will tend not to make the trip, diminishing the retail profit.

driving to walking which is what keeps congestion lower in surrounding

The SACTRA Report (1994, pp.7&130) published improvements to a road

areas of the city.

network “permits a greater level of social and individual activity” which lead to find that “induced traffic is a healthy commercial response to network

Comparison of both methods improvements”. Separately to this, a report in Hong Kong found that the It has shown that the success of each system, where implemented, has relied

restriction of vehicle access increased the attendance of local residents and

on the response and behaviours of the people it impacts. Both schemes face

retail shops found it to economically benefit them (Yim-Yiu, 2009, pp.14).

increased amounts of congestion, however, each at different stages after their The prime aim of neither of these methods is to increase retail trade but implementations. Pedestrianisation will immediately inflate congestion on rather to ultimately improve the quality of life for those who work, live and nearby streets, temporarily, as it takes time for the increased travel duration visit the built areas by creating efficient travel routes. In many cases, to become apparent to drivers when they will later elect the use of the new pedestrian schemes are implemented as a transport strategy whilst also pedestrian zone, resulting in a reduced car dependency and an overall enhancing the comfort and safety of pedestrians. This when compared to the reduction in travel time. Road-expansion has a contrasting effect by results of road-expansion, Gupta and Patel (2014, pp.111) states that this assuming traffic demand is a fixed sum. It does not seek to combat triggers disputes about the safety and comfort of pedestrians. Neither method congestion but rather facilitate the high demand of road space, encouraging has been known to conclusively improve people’s safety. A report from the more road users and motivating an increase of traffic, resulting in a later but UK Parliament (2001) detailed the unsafe environment of a pedestrian area, more permanent congestion and further increases to travel times. however, Iranmanesh (2008, pp.3) claims that the segregation of vehicles The ideology that reducing road space means less traffic has been proven in

from pedestrians is a far greater safety advancement, implying that increased

many situations, however, the reality of this may stand to be that the ordeal

traffic volume and proximity to pedestrians will call for much greater safety

of driving with insufficient road space is so unbearable that people in

concerns.

Conclusion

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