THE SOCIETY FOR EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY - SEB Autumn Magazine 2016

HIGH FLYERS

The SEB Bulletin is published biannually –Spring and Autumn (hard copy and online) by the Society for Experimental Biology and is distributed to all SEB members.

Editor: Sarah Blackford

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Issue: Spring 2017

Deadline: 31 December 2016

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SEB Honorary Officers:

President

Patrick Hussey (p.j.hussey@durham.ac.uk)

Vice President

Christine Raines (j.exp.bot@lancaster.ac.uk)

Treasurer

Martin Watson (martin.watson@durham.ac.uk)

Publications Officer

Martin Parry (martin.parry@bbsrc.ac.uk)

Plant Section Chair

Vicky Buchanan-Wollaston (Vicky.B-Wollaston@warwick.ac.uk)

Cell Section Chair

John Love (j.love@exeter.ac.uk)

Animal Section Chair

Craig Franklin (c.franklin@uq.edu.au)

Education & Public Affairs Section Chair

George Littlejohn (g.r.littlejohn@exeter.ac.uk)

SEB Journal Editors:

Journal of Experimental Botany

Christine Raines (j.exp.bot@lancaster.ac.uk)

The Plant Journal

Christoph Benning (benning@msu.edu)

Plant Biotechnology Journal

Henry Daniell (Henry.Daniell@ucf.edu)

Conservation Physiology

Steven Cooke (Steven_Cooke@carleton.ca)

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IFOCUSING ON THE POSITIVE CAN HELP YOU THROUGH THE DARK DAYS WHEN YOUR EXPERIMENTS

AREN’T

WORKING OR YOUR PAPER HAS JUST BEEN REJECTED

HIGH FLYERS

AN INTRODUCTION FROM EDITOR SARAH BLACKFORD

t’s hard to believe that this will be my 50th SEB bulletin since becoming its editor in 1999. Even after almost 20 years, I still get a sense of achievement when I see it in print; I hope you, as members, enjoy reading it (even those who have been around as long as I have!). This issue’s theme is “High Flyers” and features lots of research stories on all things avian but, of course, for those of us with a liking for double meanings, it also implies success and achievement.

As research scientists, you will know the excitement of success, not least of all the moment when you passed your PhD defence. For our more seasoned academics, that may be some considerable time ago in the past; for our student members, it’s a future pleasure to look forward to. However, staying in the present, see if you can recall your most recent achievement. It can be anything that makes you feel a sense of pride and accomplishment. It doesn’t have to be a paper in Nature, an international collaboration or successful funding bid. These revered equivalents of Olympic gold, silver and bronze represent some of the most recognised attainments amongst the research community. However, as the sports teacher of double-gold medal winner, Mo Farah, pointed out in an interview during the Olympic games in Rio this Summer, it’s easy for us to become obsessed with medals and distracted by league tables, whilst neglecting all those who have managed to qualify and take part, an outstanding achievement in itself.

So, think again. What is your most recent achievement? It can be anything that makes you feel good about yourself, something that provokes a sense of satisfaction when you think about it. It could be a professional or personal accomplishment, something major or relatively small. It has taken a lot of talent and effort to get this far in your career, so whether you’ve recently generated some new results, completed your analysis, started to write your thesis, given a great lecture, written a blog or even juggled a family event or run your personal best, take some time to reflect and revel in your achievement. Focusing on the positive can help you through the dark days when your experiments aren’t working or your paper has just been rejected. Recall something that you have done well and look to the future to boost your confidence, then get on with working

on your next achievement.

The recent SEB meeting in Brighton hosted over 600 delegates, the majority of whom presented their research to their peers in some form or other. Perhaps you were one such delegate, or maybe you were presenting at another meeting? Many of our members have the opportunity to secure a competitive travel grant and each year we recognise four early career leaders in our specialist fields of education, plant, cell and animal biology through our president’s medal awards. The SEB provides a platform to recognise high flyers, but is also an inclusive community in which experimental biologists at all career stages, can gain a sense of achievement. It might be an academic witnessing their student deliver a great talk, an informal chat that has opened up a new line of thinking, or perhaps it was simply the novelty of experiencing an international scientific meeting for the first time.

My own recent personal achievements include the SEB+ Section career sessions at the annual meeting in Brighton, being invited to write a paper for an international journal and, of course, playing a key role in putting this publication together. I hope you enjoy reading about our SEB members’ latest accomplishments, perhaps yours are being featured in this issue.

PRESIDENT’S LETTER

PATRICK J. HUSSEY, UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM, HONORARY PRESIDENT

Welcome to the autumn edition of the SEB bulletin. What has happened since my last message? Just UK BREXIT and the STERN green paper!

BREXIT: I feel a Monty Python moment coming on here (https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9foi342LXQE). What has the EU ever done for us? Well, without starting with just the Romans i.e. aqueducts, sanitation, roads (and you only have to cross to Ireland in particular to see the effect here), irrigation, baths etc., I will concentrate on science and what passes through my mind is 'integration', 'cooperation' 'communication','free movement' and a 'wide accessible talent pool' , all facilitated by the RTNs, which I benefited enormously from, the ITNs, the ERC and ERC fellowships with all the accompanying initiatives and the list goes on. Did you know that over a six year period, the UK benefited from 8.8 billion euros worth of science funding over and above what we put in? (data from CaSE). In July I had the opportunity in my current role to meet with other University Leaders and the Minister for Universities, Science, Research and Innovation. The message from government was that 'the UK is open for business' and the pressing question was whether the UK would guarantee funding for existing EU research projects and fortunately, over the last month, the government has promised this.

environment across the University sector. The result is a league table for UK Universities and for each subject (or Unit of Assessment) within those Universities. Its outcome has a financial impact on the institution hence it is imperative to do very well. Stern's green paper (a paper that goes out for consultation that after amendment will turn into a white (policy) paper), was published on July 28th 2016. The report can be accessed on the link above. I do not have the space here to go through it all, but a striking feature is the nonportable publications between institutions following an Academic's move to another institution. Essentially, the publications stay and only count with the University that is listed on the front page of the output/paper.

It is a sad time though personally for me. My father-in-law was part of the Irish cabinet working for the EEC in Brussels in the early 1970s. With this as part of the culture of my family I have been engrained with the belief in a European Union. I am not indicating that I believe that there are no issues between the UK and other European countries, but that there are similar issues between all countries. Perhaps we didn't have the government that was capable of working them through; certainly the electorate would have us believe that this is the case. Let's hope we can salvage what we can for Science anyway and that our existing and future partners in continental Europe understand that this was not my choice and also not the choice of the vast majority of the UK academic community.

STERN Review: "Research Excellence Framework (REF) review: Building on success and learning from experience" (https://www. gov.uk/government/publications/researchexcellence-framework-review)

The Research Excellence Framework process is a UK exercise that evaluates the quality of research and the research

I BELIEVE THAT THERE ARE NO ISSUES BETWEEN THE UK AND OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, BUT THAT THERE ARE SIMILAR ISSUES BETWEEN ALL COUNTRIES

The implication and the intention is that there will be less 'buying' of research stars prior to the census date for REF 2021; buying their outputs as well as the individual that is. But what impact will this have on early career researchers and research fellows? Often chosen for permanent positions based on their fresh track records, these outputs will not be portable so the decision as to where a fellowship should be hosted may depend on the ability of the host to offer an appropriate career track; an issue that all Universities/Institutes will have to consider if they are not to lose out on upcoming and independent talent.

On these two notes I will close. Just to say that I had a really enjoyable time in Brighton and I hope those of you who attended did also. I am very much looking forward to seeing you in Gothenburg next year.

SEB NEWS

HELLO...AND GOODBYE

Goodbye to...

Vicky Buchanan-Wollaston , our Plant Section Chair, Vicky Buchanan-Wollaston, will be stepping down from her role this November. Vicky has been a member of the SEB for over 20 years and Plant Section Chair for the past 3 years. She has had many achievements in her role at the SEB, including co-organising the SEB/ Global Plant Council “Stress Resilience” Plant Symposium in Brazil. The first SEB meeting to be held outside of Europe.

‘I have enjoyed being the Plant Section Chair and would like to thank the members of the Plant Section committee for their loyal contribution and support. I also appreciate the enthusiastic participation from the SEB plant members for session organisation at the SEB annual meetings as well as suggestions for prize winners, additional activities and outputs.’ - Vicky Buchanan-Wollaston

Vicky will still be involved with plant science policy as she takes up her new position as Honorary Treasurer of the Global Plant Council. We would like to thank Vicky for her hard work and contribution to the SEB.

Hello to...

Conor Geoghegan, after completing his journalism studies at Griffith University, Australia, Conor flew across the globe to join the SEB team in January as the administrative assistant. Conor is the man behind the SEB news pages and social media and helps us keep things afloat. A very warm welcome from us all!

BRIGHTON 2016

Our 2016 Annual Meeting in Brighton, UK proved to be great success! There was outstanding research on display and the SEB extends huge congratulations to delegates who were awarded prizes for their work. The fantastic week of sun, sea and science ended with a wonderful conference dinner at the Brighton Dome, where our delegates were able to let their hair down and showcase their dance moves.

Conference pictures

The full Brighton picture gallery is now available on our Facebook page.

Meeting Archive

The Brighton Meeting archive is now available on our website – access the programme, abstracts, see our prize winners, plenary lecturers and more.

SEB ANNUAL MEETING 2017 - GOTHENBURG SITE VISIT

The SEB recently completed their site visit to Gothenburg, Sweden. The team got a chance to visit the Swedish Exhibition & Congress Centre, the base for the meeting, and get a feel for the culture of the vibrant coastal city. With its famous seafood cuisine, charming streets and world class conference facilities, Gothenburg promises to be a fantastic location for our 2017 Scientific Smörgåsbord.

Registration and abstract submissions for the meeting open in November.

SEB WEBSITE LAUNCH

After a lot of hard work and much anticipation, we are happy to announce the new SEB website has now been launched.

The SEB Team have been working hard behind the scenes to create the new website. You will notice many changes including improvements in the functionality and design, quirky new features such as the live twitter stream and ‘news & updates’ section on the homepage, plus many more. All to help mark the final milestone in the launch of the SEB re-brand. If you have any feedback please get in touch. We hope you enjoy it!

Left Conor Geoghegan

Right Gothenburg

MEMBERSHIP

BY SABINA BABA AND CONOR GEOGHEGAN

THE ART OF COMMUNICATING

The past year has been all about communications here at the SEB. From re-branding to better communicate who we are, to improving our communication platforms and the information we provide members. Here are some of the things we have improved in the past year.

NEWS PAGE ON OUR WEBSITE

You wanted more news and now we’ve got it. The SEB is working hard to open up communications with our members and we now have a one stop shop for all of the latest, journal, grant, member and science news. Want to contribute to SEB news with a blog or article? E-mail info@sebiology.org.

MONTHLY NEWSLETTER MAKEOVER

We re-designed our monthly newsletter. After taking in your suggestions from our communications survey, we worked hard to improve the newsletter’s design and functionality, as well as ensuring the information you want makes its way to your inbox.

SEB MEMBER MAGAZINE

The member magazine has a brand new dedicated webpage on our website where you can access the latest magazine articles but also browse past issues. You are also now able to choose if you want to receive the magazine in hard copy, digital format or both. To select your preferred option, log into your member profile and update the Subscriptions choices under your profile information.

MEMBER NEWS

A SWIMMING SUCCESS

Marine Biologist and SEB member, Dr Jodie Rummer (James Cook University), was recently chosen as one of ‘Australia’s top 5 scientists under 40’. “Top 5 under 40” is a project run by the ABC, Radio National, and the University of New South Wales. It is an exciting initiative to discover Australia’s next generation of science communicators and give them a voice, with the winners being chosen to undertake media residency at ABC Radio National.

As a scientist-in-residence at the ABC in Sydney, Jodie shared her expertise in

coral reefs and fish athletes and produced several radio programs and online articles. Congratulations Jodie!

ON THE RADIO

SEB Animal Section Chair, Prof. Craig Franklin (University of Queensland), recently featured on Australia’s most downloaded podcast, the ABC’s (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) Conversations with Richard Fidler. Craig gives listeners an insight into his field research on Antarctic fish and saltwater crocodiles. Search for the podcast at abc.net.au.

CROSSING THE FINISH LINE

Inaugural SEB sponsored PhD Student, Angie White, has completed her thesis. Angie’s research has been split between the UK and the USA where she has been using a combination of techniques to analyse carbon and nitrogen source-sink interactions in two species of barley. Angie has worked on a number of projects during her PhD including, exploring her passion for science communication by writing for “The Conversation”, representing the SEB at “Voice of the Future” parliamentary events and completing a 3 month internship with the United Nations in Rome. The SEB would like to congratulate Angie on her wonderful achievements.

Has your research been featured in the press? Have you been interviewed by a TV programme or radio station? Have you received an award?

Send us your news to info@sebiology.org together with links to any articles, videos or recordings and you could be featured either in the SEB magazine or on our website.

JOURNALS

HEAT WAVE

The effects of global warming and ocean acidification on marine ectotherms: a meta-analysis

Lefevre, S. (2016). Are global warming and ocean acidification conspiring against marine ectotherms? A meta-analysis of the respiratory effects of elevated temperature, high CO2 and their interaction.

Conservation Physiology 4: cow009. doi:10.1093/conphys/cow009

Climate change has been at the core of science for the past few decades. The predicted global increase in temperature will also be accompanied by ocean acidification. Research on the subject has largely focused on aerobic scope which is linked to whole-animal performance (including growth, reproduction and overall fitness). In addition, special attention has been given to marine ectotherms as they do not regulate their body temperature, but we still lack a unifying pattern to predict the effects that elevated temperature and high CO2 will have on these organisms. A newly published paper by Sjannie Lefevre (University of Oslo) presents a meta-analysis on the topic, which included 395 data sets on a variety of species, revealing that we still lack an overall correlation between resting metabolic rate (MO2rest) and temperature or CO2 regime. In 18 out of 125 data sets, CO2 caused a significant rise in MO2rest, though a decrease in MO2rest was observed in 25 of the 125 analysed data sets. An important aspect of global climate change often discussed in studies on the subject is the potential synergistic effects that temperature and CO2 may have on physiological mechanisms. However, Lefevre’s meta-analysis showed that when CO2 had an effect, additive interactions were most common, with several antagonistic interactions on MO2rest and absolute aerobic scope. The important take home message from this meta-analysis is the variation in responses to elevated temperature and CO2, and the lack of a unifying pattern to predict the impacts

of global warming and ocean acidification on marine ectotherms.

Kim Birnie-Gauvin, MSc student, Carleton University.

FLOWER POWER

Cold chain and virus-free chloroplastmade booster vaccine to confer immunity against different poliovirus serotypes

Plant Biotechnology Journal, Vol 86, pages 363–375, Hui-Ting Chan; Yuhong Xiao; William C. Weldon; Steven M. Oberste; Konstantin Chumakov and Henry Daniell

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ pbi.12575/abstract

In this article Chan et al. address an as yet unmet urgent need in polio eradication. The WHO’s Strategic Advisory Group of Experts recommended the complete global withdrawal of oral polio vaccine (OPV) type 2 by April 2016, replacing it with inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV). The high cost, limited supply of IPV, persistent circulating vaccine-derived poliovirus transmission and the need for subsequent boosters remained unresolved. In order to meet this need, the Daniell lab at the University of Pennsylvania in collaboration with the Chumakov’s laboratoru at US Food and Drug Administration developed a novel strategy using a low cost cold-chain free plant-made viral protein 1 (VP1) subunit booster vaccine, after single IPV priming. Sera collected from immunized animals were evaluated at the US Centers for Disease Control for protection against different poliovirus serotypes. Oral boosting with chloroplast-derived VP1 induced strong immune responses and conferred protective immunity against all three poliovirus serotypes. Most importantly oral boosting resulted in both serum and fecal IgA titers that play a pivotal role in polio eradication because of its transmission through contaminated water or sewer systems. Lyophilized plant cells expressing VP1 maintained their efficacy indefinitely when

IT’S VERY IMPORTANT TO ME THAT I STILL GET ENJOYMENT OUT OF MY RESEARCH, EVEN THOUGH IT’S INEVITABLE THAT, AS A SENIOR ACADEMIC, I’M MORE OCCUPIED WITH MANAGEMENT, ADMINISTRATION AND UNIVERSITY POLICY MATTERS.

stored at ambient temperature, eliminating cold chain requirement. Unlike significant advances in plant-made biopharmaceuticals, clinical advances in plant-made vaccines have been elusive for decades. Replacing OPV by enhancing IPV efficacy offers a unique opportunity to advance this platform to meet an urgent challenge in global infectious diseases. Jim Ruddock, Managing Editor.

EXPOSING ENZYMES

Shedding light on the role of caffeoyl shikimate esterase (CSE) in lignin biosynthesis in different plants

An essential role of caffeoyl shikimate esterase in monolignol biosynthesis in Medicago truncatula The Plant Journal, Vol 86, pages 363–375, Ha, Chan Man; EscamillaTresino, Luis; Serrani Yarce, Juan Carlos ; Kim, Hoon; Ralph, John; Chen, Fang; Dixon, Richard

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ tpj.13177/abstract

It was proposed that CSE functioned in the monolignol pathway in Arabidopsis thaliana in 2014, indicating that loss of function of CSE leads to a reduction in lignin content and a small decrease in plant growth, although the phenotypes are much less severe than in those observed with loss of function of the two preceding enzymes in the lignin pathway in Arabidopsis. Since then, the role of CSE in lignin biosynthesis has been questioned in several species, in part through the inability to demonstrate the activity of the enzyme. The pathway via CSE is certainly counter-intuitive, as it involves the cleavage of a thioester linkage and its subsequent re-formation, involving the hydrolysis of an extra molecule of ATP. In this manuscript Ha et al. showed the presence of CSE genes and associated enzyme activity in barrel medic (Medicago truncatula, dicot, Leguminosae), poplar (Populus deltoides, dicot, Salicaceae), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum, monocot, Poaceae), shedding important insight into monolignol biosythesis in the context of CSE function and how its role in lignification differs significantly among species. By examining the presence of CSE genes in the genomes of 61 plant species, both monocot and dicot, they showed that its role in lignification differs from totally dispensable (Brachypodium) through significantly involved (Arabidopsis) to critically involved (Medicago). These results provide clarity to the role of an enzyme whose function has not been previously universally accepted.

Jim

Ruddock, Managing Editor.

MODEL FIGURE

Modelling and technology are helping identify traits for plant breeding

Raphaël P.A. Perez , Benoît Pallas , Gilles Le Moguédec , Hervé Rey, Sébastien Griffon, Jean-Pierre Caliman, Evelyne Costes and Jean Dauzat

J Exp Bot 67 (15), 4507–4521 doi:10.1093/ jxb/ erw203

John T. Christopher, Mandy J. Christopher, Andrew K. Borrell, Susan Fletcher and Karine Chenu

J Exp Bot first published online July 21, 2016 doi:10.1093/jxb/erw276

A major challenge for crop improvement strategies is the development of robust approaches to study plant morphology and architecture. These are complex traits that change during development and in response to the prevailing environment. A raft of new technologies is being developed to enable detailed analysis of these complex traits. Perez et al have started tackling the structural complexity of plant architecture by looking at 3D architecture of oil palm. The ‘classic’ palm form with a single stem and massive, pinnate leaves might appear relatively simple – and this does make it a good model – but there is still deep complexity. They used an allometry-based approach, meaning that plant architectures at different stages of development could be reconstructed from fewer field data – a clever way forward. This was coupled with mixed-effect modelling to examine genotypic variability in the palm’s architecture. Paul Struik (67/15) puts the research into context in his Insight piece, and it’s clear that such detailed and painstaking work can lead to more effective breeding, and application to other species. Phenotyping technology can also help us approach other complex traits in crop improvement. Christopher et al measured the stay-green phenotype using optical sensing and, taking this as a cue, the Insight by Rebetzke et al (67/17) explains how high-throughput tools now offer a step-change in field monitoring.

Jonathan Ingram and Christine Raines Senior commissioning editor and Editor-in chief.

His many friends in the SEB and elsewhere will have been greatly saddened to hear of the death of R. McNeill Alexander on March 21st, aged 81. Neill, as he was universally known, was born in Lisburn, near Belfast. He read Natural Sciences at Cambridge and continued to a PhD under Sir James Gray. From 1958 he lectured at the University College of North Wales, Bangor, and was appointed Professor of Zoology at Leeds in 1969 where he remained for the rest of his career.

IN REMEMERANCE OF

R. MCNEILL ALEXANDER FRS, CBE

1934–2016

Neill was a legend in his time. If he didn’t actually invent animal biomechanics as a coherent and rigorous discipline (and some might claim he did), he was certainly its most inspirational advocate. His published output was prodigious – over 280 papers, ranging from anemone mesoglea to dinosaur locomotion; the latter being the most widely publicised component of the superb sequence of experimental and theoretical studies on vertebrate terrestrial locomotion by which he is best known. His flair for lateral thinking is particularly illustrated by his realisation that the Froude Number, developed in the 19th century to analyse the motion of ships, could be applied to land vertebrate locomotion over a huge size range and used to predict gaits and speeds of extinct forms.

Nonetheless Neill will probably be most widely remembered by his long series of lucid, entertaining textbooks. A high spot in my own career was the chance to participate in the two day meeting organised in Edinburgh by the SEB in 1999 to mark his retirement. It was an extraordinary occasion: an international gathering of the greats of contemporary biomechanics alongside a horde of respectful younger workers and of awed graduate students, meeting for the first time not just Neill but the authors of most of the standard works on which their own research would build. Speaker after speaker had as their first slide a montage of their battered, much-read copies of Neill’s books, and acknowledged these as the starting point for their own careers. His second, Animal Mechanics (1968), written when he was still at Bangor, was perhaps his most influential: a landmark in biomechanics, and indeed in the history of zoology. By examining animal design and functioning in terms of structural and mechanical engineering, materials science, hydrostatics, surface forces, fluid dynamics and vibration physics, it was in complete contrast to the descriptive morphological and physiological approaches that had previously dominated

the literature. Around sixteen other books followed. He was a natural communicator, with a particular flair for finding valid simplifications to complex problems, often illustrating them with models and delightful diagrams. Each new volume brought new insight into some aspects of the field, and was a gift to low-altitude biomechanicists like myself; I felt my teaching undergoing stepwise improvement as every Alexander book appeared.

Neill was widely honoured in the UK and abroad, gaining his FRS in 1987 and a CBE in 2000, as well as various awards. He was President of the SEB from 1995 to 1997 and of the International Society of Vertebrate Morphologists from 1997 to 2001; a valued Secretary of the Zoological Society from 1992 to 1999, and Editor of the Royal Society’s Proceedings (B) from 1998 to 2004. A wise, gentle, unassuming, brilliant man, he will be greatly missed.

Robin Wootton, University of Exeter

A well-known and cherished member of the SEB community, Roger Woledge was thrilled to be invited to give the Bidder Lecture at the 2016 meeting in Brighton. Tragically, just after accepting the invitation, he died in a riding accident on 13 March 2015 at the age of 76. Three of his closest colleagues – Nancy Curtin, Chris Barclay and Di Newham – spoke in his stead to give us an insight into the diverse career and personal qualities of this extraordinary scientist.

IN REMEMERANCE OF ROGER

WOLEDGE 1938–2015

Roger’s academic journey began with a BSc in Physiology from University College London, which was to be his ‘academic home’ for life. This was followed by a MRC Scholarship for research training, supervised by the NobelPrize winning physiologist A.V. Hill. It is clear that this work – measuring heat production by frog muscle ex vivo – set the tone for the rest of his career. “Roger’s lifelong work on the energetics of muscle contraction grew out of the seeds shown by his training with A.V. but these branched out in all sorts of directions” said Nancy Curtin (Imperial College London and Royal Veterinary College, United Kingdom). His PhD (under Doug Wilkie) on tortoises was “a muscle classic” demonstrating that this species has the most efficient muscles known. Following this, he progressed through the academic ranks at UCL, becoming Head of the Department of Physiology in 1988, then serving as Director of the newly-formed Institute of Human Performance from 1994 – 2003.

A single lecture cannot fully do justice to the output of Roger’s published works, which span 54 years, hence keynote discoveries were selected to illustrate his particular attributes. Nancy described how his rigorously precise quantitative approach played a dominant role in establishing the modern field of muscle physiology. “When muscles contract, they produce heat, and we used this as a quantitative measure of energy turnover” explained Nancy. But Roger wasn’t content with traditional contraction protocols for isolated muscles: “What was new was his interest in the energetics of contractions mimicking those during locomotion” says Nancy. “From this, we found that the patterns of stimulation and movement that give maximum power output differ from those that give maximum efficiency, showing that there is scope for individual muscles to be used in different ways”.

Later in his career, Roger worked with Chris Barclay (Griffith University, Australia) investigating the cellular underpinnings of

muscle efficiency using different models of muscle contraction, extending the work of his PhD on tortoise muscle. From this, “Roger started the idea that muscles can only have high efficiency at the expense of the ability to generate power – there is a trade-off” says Chris.

Roger also had a distinct versatility; as Chris said “it is certainly rare for someone based in cellular physiology to turn his attention so successfully to human movement and physiotherapy research”. Di Newham (Kings College London, United Kingdom) described how during his ‘retirement years’ Roger became interested in how aging affects muscle movement and in particular, why the elderly are prone to falling. Roger’s “outstanding intellectual ability combined with his programming and mathematical skills” enabled him to comprehend data from 3D-Motion tracking experiments and uncouple the separate roles of strength and balance in postural control. “Roger demonstrated that, in older people, variability in step width is the main cause of sway when walking” said Di. “People who don’t fall tend to keep a very fixed distance between their feet”.

Aside from his research, Roger was a gifted teacher whose legacy lives on in the many students he taught and mentored. “He had a complete absence of arrogance or ego, and a genuine desire to help people with their research” said Di. As such, Roger is greatly missed both as a pioneering researcher and a mentor. It is no surprise then, that, as Nancy said, “when Roger died, a lot of people felt like they had lost their best friend”.

By his own admission, Peter Aerts, professor of Biology at the University of Antwerp, is a self-made biomechanicist. “Simple is beautiful,” he says. “If you can reduce the complex to the essentials then you can start to answer the basic questions and address the fundamental principles.”

EDITOR, SARAH

BLACKFORD, IN CONVERSATION WITH...

PETER AERTS

SB: How did you first get interested in biomechanics?

PA: During my degree at the University of Ghent I started to take an interest in developmental biology. Then, during my PhD I developed this interest further by studying the mechanics of the feeding habits in fishes. At the time, our lab was not equipped for biomechanics research, so I focused on morphology and evolved more towards simple modelling, rather than doing experimental work. However, that all changed when I moved to Antwerp.

SB: Tell me more about this turning point in your career.

PA: Just at the time a postdoctoral mandate at Ghent ended, the Belgium National Science Foundation was offering a few permanent research associate positions for people who wanted to move to another university. Antwerp is only 60 kilometres from Ghent, but luckily it still counted!

SB: And you’re still there now.

PA: Yes, I’ve been here for 27 years now. One of the most positive things about the move to Antwerp was being able to conduct kinematical and dynamical analyses – leading me to become an experimentalist, as well as a modeller. In addition to my research, I also began to take on quite a lot of teaching; not many staff in the department could deliver zoology courses, so this side of my career developed quite rapidly. Nowadays, currently with a lab of 15 members, I have taken on a greater teaching load and many more administrative and management duties. I probably take on too much, but I like to free up more research time for younger colleagues to enable them to make progress and develop their careers.

SB: You’ve been very supportive of students and early career researchers during your time as the SEB’s biomechanics session organiser and group convenor.

PA: What I like about the SEB Meeting is it provides an audience for young researchers. Our prizes for the best poster and paper presentations are now in their 11th year and still going strong. In fact, we have just renamed the awards the Ralph McNeill Alexander awards for Biomechanics, in honour of one of the heroes of the biomechanics era, who recently passed

away. Neill was a huge source of inspiration to me during my early years as a researcher, and it was at an SEB Meeting in the 1990s that we initiated our collaborative research on heel pad mechanics, from which we published several co-authored papers. I always encourage my PhD students to attend the meeting, in particular the biomechanics sessions, even 1st years (as long as they have something to present). If they look at the programme and say there’s nothing on their topic, I say “Everything is on your topic!”

IT’S VERY IMPORTANT TO ME THAT I STILL GET ENJOYMENT OUT OF MY RESEARCH, EVEN THOUGH IT’S INEVITABLE THAT, AS A SENIOR ACADEMIC, I’M MORE OCCUPIED WITH MANAGEMENT, ADMINISTRATION AND UNIVERSITY POLICY MATTERS.

SB: Biomechanics lends itself very well to media interest with its weird and wonderful examples of animal movement. How do you choose which species to study?

PA: I’m a functional morphologist with an interest in the muscular skeletal system - I have great respect for all species that exhibit extraordinary behaviour. Following my PhD, I continued for a while to work on feeding in fishes, but my interest started to rapidly move towards other animals and also towards locomotion. Together with a colleague, I initially started studying lizard locomotion and feeding, but also swimming in eels and salamanders, and swimming and jumping in frogs. Since then, my research interests have developed to include

vertebrates such as birds, horses, primates and humans, although I do occasionally divert my attention to invertebrates.

SB: What’s the basis of your experimental measurements? What type of equipment do you use?

PA: For my research work on the development of walking, we use multi-camera set ups and also measure ground reaction forces. With this information you can do inverse dynamics modelling which tells you what (and to what extent) muscle groups are being used to generate the movement patterns observed. Electromyography (EMG) further dissects this information to identify the activity of specific muscles. We’ve been working with the physical education department in Ghent using runways, inclines and stairs to measure the development of human locomotion. It takes time to build the set up, but you can ask your test people to do what you want so it’s under your control. In contrast, the research we conducted on bonobos and gibbons at Antwerp zoo was more tricky, as we were not allowed to have any direct interaction with the animals; once they had become accustomed to a ‘catwalk’ in the outdoor enclosure, we had to build in the equipment (force plates, pressure mats, etc.) overnight and hope that the bonobos didn’t notice a difference or try to sabotage the set-up. You can only hope they will do what you want them to do – it’s challenging but always interesting!

SB: Tell me something about your current research.

PA: The evolution of bipedal locomotion in humans is a fascinating area of study. For instance, it seems that we still exhibit a remnant of our quadrupedal locomotion, known as ‘bipedal galloping’ or, more commonly, skipping. Everyone can do it, and early walking development in children shows a skipping gait. This skipping is equivalent to the action of the hindquarter of a galloping horse or dog – we humans tend to revert to it when we are less in control of our movement, such as running downhill fast.

SB: With the Olympics games taking place in Rio at the moment, it begs the question whether you have ever worked with athletes to improve their performance.

PA: About 10 years ago we (Physical Education Department at Ghent University) collaborated with the Federation of Athletics to study the action of Belgian high jumper, Tia Hellebaut, who went on to win the gold medal at the Beijing Olympics in 2008. I’m not sure whether we played a part in her success, but it was very pleasing for us as you can imagine. In some ways, working with athletes during competitions is comparable to that of working with primates in zoos – that is, we are not allowed any direct interaction with them, so we have to find ingenious ways to record them. It’s fun to do!

SB: I get the sense that you very much enjoy your work and even your Skype name is “Funmorphpa”.

PA: It’s very important to me that I still get enjoyment out of my research, even though it’s inevitable that, as a senior academic, I’m more occupied with management, administration and university policy matters. The “pa” part of “Funmorphpa” relates to my initials but, in fact, could be construed as being “father”. Some people might find that a bit ambitious, but at this stage of my career I’m becoming more or less a “pa” in the field and some might say, the silverback of my lab! As for the “fun part”, having attended the annual SEB meeting since the 1980s and not missed a single year after 1990, I can say, for sure, that these few days in my working life are always highly informative, stimulating and, above all else, fun.

“I’ve always liked working as part of a large team,” says Katherine Denby, recently appointed professor at the University of York (UK) and Academic director of the N8 AgriFood programme1 . Katherine is also a long standing member of the SEB and sits on its Plant Section committee as the plant biotic interactions group convenor.

EDITOR, SARAH BLACKFORD, IN CONVERSATION WITH...

KATHERINE DENBY

SB: You recently relocated from Warwick University to take up these new roles. How are you settling in to your new life at York University?

KD: I can’t deny things have been hectic! Half my time is allocated to running my own research team, with the other half focussing on overseeing the newly established N8 AgriFfood programme. York has been fantastic and very supportive. The department has an Athena SWAN Gold award2 and it shows; there are lots of women in high profile positions here such as the PVC for Research, Head of External Relations and three of our Research Champions.

SB: Tell me more about the N8 AgriFood programme3.

KD: This is one of the research themes of the N8 Research Partnership, an association of eight research intensive universities based in the north of England. Within the programme, working to ensure sustainable, resilient and healthy food supply for all, we have approximately 370 researchers from a range of disciplines including the biological sciences, chemistry, engineering, geography and social sciences. In addition to our researcher base, the programme actively engages with industry and other agri-food organisations with a team of knowledge exchange fellows and business development capacity.

SB: What have been the main highlights and challenges so far in your role as director?

KD: Rather than just talking about research, this role allows me to engage with a lot of external stakeholders on the broader aspects of the agri-food sector. We’re not going to solve or improve the food system without looking at and integrating different aspects of it. What I find exciting is understanding some of the complexity of the food system and seeing where the complementarities lie between the different universities and external stakeholders. I’m discovering all sorts of potential research collaborations and linkages with companies and NGOs and can see opportunities for real multi-disciplinary approaches to a problem.

SB: How does your own research contribute to the Agri-food N8 strategy?

KD: My research forms a very tiny part of the whole programme, which is looking at the whole

agri-food sector including crops, livestock, precision agriculture, supply chains, nutrition and consumer behaviour. Being part of the N8 partnership gives me a broader perspective and offers opportunities to link into bigger projects.

SB: Tell me something about your research career.

KD: After completing my PhD with Chris Leaver at Oxford University, I did a 4-year postdoc with Rob Last at the Boyce Thompson Institute at Cornell University. This led on to

IN TERMS OF WHAT I’VE ENJOYED MOST SO FAR, IT’S BEEN WORKING AS PART OF LARGE INTERDISCIPLINARY TEAMS. THE SIX-YEAR LONG PRESTA6 PROJECT AT WARWICK INCLUDED COMPUTATIONAL RESEARCHERS, MATHEMATICIANS AND BIOLOGISTS.

a permanent lectureship at the University of Cape Town, where I was able to set up my first research group. It was a fantastic place to live and work. The university is quite small, so you knew everyone and could interact with people in many different departments. With a relatively low level of bureaucracy it meant that it was easier to get things done; if you had a good idea it could happen! I managed to secure funding for a facility to start doing early transcriptome profiling experiments, which might not have been possible for a ‘lowly’ lecturer in the UK.

SB: What brought you back to the UK?

KD: Whilst it was great in many ways, the limited number of researchers in molecular

plant science and the restricted funding availability in South Africa, meant I didn’t have access to the resources needed to conduct the kinds of exciting large-scale experiments I would hear about from others, when I attended international conferences. I also had a growing interest in systems biology and the opportunity of a joint position between Warwick HRI (as it was then) and Warwick Systems Biology Centre was too good to turn down. I had also started a family and thought it might be quite nice to have grandparents slightly closer!

SB: What have been your research highlights?

KD: In terms of what I’ve enjoyed most so far, it’s been working as part of large interdisciplinary teams. The six-year long PRESTA6 project at Warwick included computational researchers, mathematicians and biologists. We met every other week and so built personal relationships as well as a science relationship. Whilst at Warwick I developed into a systems biologist, focussing on elucidating models of the regulatory networks controlling the plant defence response, and then progressed to synthetic biology, looking at how we can re-wire those networks to engineer enhanced disease resistance. I was an Arabidopsis researcher - it’s a great tool but I wanted to use my research to make advances in crop breeding. Working in collaboration with the vegetable breeders, A. L. Tozer, as part of the BBSRC HAPI5 initiative, we are translating our systems network approach

in Arabidopsis into lettuce to facilitate breeding of improved varieties.

SB: What else have you particularly enjoyed during your career so far?

KD: I’ve really enjoyed teaching undergraduate and postgraduate students; it was particularly challenging (but also rewarding) when I worked at the University of Cape Town where some of the students had done very little science at school and English wasn’t always their first language. I learnt a lot from the people there and courses on effective teaching and really enjoyed my experience. I like supporting students and encouraging them to take opportunities. At Warwick, I ran the Midlands Integrative Biosciences Training Partnership, MIBTP 4 , a BBSRC doctoral training programme with Birmingham and Leicester universities. It’s an exciting time to be a PhD student with the broader training that such DTPs provide and opportunities to develop additional skills such as entrepreneurship and funded internships.

SB: What are you looking forward to right now?

KD: I like new technologies and working with people who think different ways. I perform best in brainstorming sessions when you can bat ideas off each other. I also like being part of a big project which has the potential to have economic and social impact. The excitement of the N8 AgriFood programme and working as part of an interdisciplinary team means you challenge

each other’s thinking and create opportunities to make discoveries that, as individuals, you wouldn’t necessarily have made on your own.

SB: Do you miss not being in the lab?

KD: No, not at all! As the head of the lab, I enjoy thinking about and interpreting the results generated by my research group. I love seeing connections between the work of different members of the group – I get far more insights and make new discoveries from looking at their results than just generating my own data.

SB: Your business is food – what’s your favourite cuisine?

KD: I guess I should say I’m an aspiring vegetarian looking to eat food that’s nutritious and grown sustainably. I’ve been invited to an upcoming Royal Society of Biology event called “Come dine with the future”, and these are two of the qualities on which I’ll be drawing up my three-course menu!

1. N8 AgriFood programme http://n8agrifood.ac.uk/

2. Athena SWAN http://www.ecu.ac.uk/equality-charters/ athena-swan/

3. N8 Research Partnership http://www.n8research.org.uk/

4. MIBTP Programme http://warwick.ac.uk/mibtp/

5. HAPI Projects http://www.bbsrc.ac.uk/innovation/ collaboration/collaborative-programmes/hapi/

6. PRESTA Project http://warwick.ac.uk/presta/

ANIMAL SYMPOSIUM

DO YOU KNOW YOUR 3RS?

Whether you work on zebrafish, mice or frogs, it has never been so important for scientists to demonstrate ethical practices when using animals in research. Between 29 June-1st July, over 60 delegates met in London at the SEB Animal Symposium, “Improving experimental approaches in animal biology: Implementing the 3Rs” to share ideas and best practice for reduction, refinement and replacement in animal experiments.

“Using animals in experiments is really scrutinised now and we are expected to justify it quite clearly,” said Lynne Sneddon (University of Liverpool) who co-chaired the event. “Grant applications often have a specific section on how you will implement the 3Rs and you can be rejected if it isn’t filled in properly”. As such, the first two days of the meeting gave a broad showcase of the ‘state of the art’ for each of the 3Rs. For refining experiments, better ways to assess animal welfare were discussed alongside methods that reduce the invasiveness of techniques. Johnny Roughan (Newcastle University, United Kingdom), for example, talked about how inflammation, which is a likely source of post-surgical pain, can be quantified by imaging. “This has shown that certain analgesics which prevent inflammation do not ease pain in mice, suggesting that more effective drugs need to be identified,” he said. As for replacement, “we heard how cell lines and invertebrate models can give you an advantage over complicated mammalian systems – simple systems can give a lot of insight,” said Lynne. Statistical packages meanwhile, can help researchers reduce the number of animals used by calculating the minimum amount required to test a hypothesis effectively.

Bringing together speakers from a diverse range of animal systems - including snakes, amphibians, fish and mammals - proved fruitful in opening discussions and exchanging ideas. “I have since been sent some videos of snails from George and Ildiko Kemenes’ lab at the University of Sussex to see if my behaviouraltracking system for fish would work on them,” says Lynne. “The atmosphere was very open, honest and supportive. It was very successful in terms of networking and we had some really

GIVEN THAT ANIMAL ETHICS SHOULD BE DISCUSSED THE MOMENT WHEN STUDENTS BEGIN PLANNING EXPERIMENTS, THE SEB+ SECTION SPONSORED A SESSION THAT HIGHLIGHTED INNOVATIVE WAYS TO TEACH THE 3RS PRINCIPLE

good feedback from the delegates”.

The focus on the final day was on the training, grants and resources available to help researchers implement the 3Rs. This included representatives from the BBSRC, the Laboratory Animal Science Association (LASA) and the National Centre for the 3Rs (NC3Rs). Afterwards, Understanding Animal Research gave a session on the importance of engaging the public with any animal-based research. “The public don’t want to be misled – they don’t want you to hide the fact you are using animals,” said Lynne. “What they want to know is that what you are doing is beneficial and that you are doing it in the best possible way”.

Given that animal ethics should be discussed the moment when students begin planning experiments, the SEB+ Section sponsored a session that highlighted innovative ways to teach the 3Rs principle. “We should really be teaching ethical thinking from undergraduate days so that the 3Rs becomes embedded in their psyche and eventually becomes instinctive,” said Lynne. After all, practicing ethical science is the best approach for both researchers and their subjects. “Ethical science is good science,” concluded Lynne. “If you improve the welfare of your animals, you have better quality data with less variation, and your science is much better”.

To view the SEB Code of Conduct for Animal Welfare, please visit the website.

SEB BRIGHTON 2016

This year’s Annual Meeting in Brighton on 3-6 July 2016 promised “Sun, Sea and Science” and it didn’t disappoint! A ‘cracking’ egg satellite meeting and Careers day kicked off the meeting which was then followed by 4 days packed with exciting science and research.

Over 670 attendees gathered in the vibrant British seaside town of Brighton to immerse themselves in the variety of science on offer at the Annual Meeting. Over the course of the 4 days, the programme covered a diverse range of topics including ‘The role of individual variation in the behaviour of animal groups’, ‘The Plant Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Dynamic Multitasking Organelle’, ‘Dynamic Organisation of the Nucleus’ and ‘enhancing biology education’. This year’s Bidder Lecture was also dedicated to the late Prof Roger Woledge and it was a fitting tribute to his achievements and research.

There were talks from renowned invited and keynote speakers and great research on display through accepted talks, pecha kuchas and posters which gave the attendees food for thought. The networking opportunities gave attendees the perfect opportunity to catch up with colleagues, discuss their research and establish new collaborations. The Conference Dinner on the last evening at the Brighton Dome was a memorable evening and a great way to end the Annual Meeting.

On behalf of the SEB, I would like to thank the session organisers for their hard work putting their sessions together and to all those who attended to make this an unforgettable meeting.

Next year’s meeting will be in Gothenburg, Sweden on 3-6 July 2017 so I hope you can join us for what promises to be a scientific smorgasbord!

Oliver Kingham, Events Manager, SEB.

THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN THE BEHAVIOUR OF ANIMAL GROUPS

The last year has seen a shift toward understanding individual variation in animal behaviour and physiology within the context of social interactions. Depending on the situation, social forces appear capable of overriding or

even amplifying existing variation among individuals. Our exciting session explored the role of individual variability in the functioning of animal groups, including maternal effects on social behaviours, the mechanics of leadership and movement within animal collectives, social conformity and individual habitat selection, spatial and temporal heterogeneity in animal groups, interspecific social interactions, and relationships between individual energy demand and group behaviours. An emerging theme is that we are only beginning to scratch the surface of our understanding of how individual physiology in particular may modulate links between individuals and their social environment. The recent research focus on intraspecific variability has revealed important insights into physiological and behavioural ecology, but we expect a surge in work that will extend the paradigm to include the behaviour of animal groups. Given that nearly all animals live within social groups at some point during their lives, the interplay between individual variation and group dynamics will be key for understanding the responses of wild animals to factors such as climate change.

Dr Shaun Killen, University of Glasgow and Dr Stefano Marras, IAMC-CNR, Italy

DYNAMIC

ORGANISATION OF THE NUCLEUS

The “Dynamic Organisation of the Nucleus” session was the first meeting of the SEB cell section special interest group “Nuclear Dynamics”. The focus of the 3-day session was to showcase the development of nucleus research in a wide variety of model organisms such as Arabidopsis, yeast, C. elegans, Dictyostelium, snails, trypanosomes, maize and mouse. Various presentations detailed how changes in nuclear structure and chromatin organisation underlie physiological and developmental defects such as muscle development, ageing and pollen tube growth. Other research highlights included elucidation of molecular mechanisms that determine mechanical properties of nuclei.

New methodologies to study nuclear organisation were also presented. Other talks introduced newly characterized components of nuclei, particularly in plants. In addition to the poster session, a discussion session involving most speakers and poster presenters was held. With overwhelmingly positive feedback the participants agreed that this opportunity of networking and dialogue for researchers approaching the field via different model systems was very much welcome. Ideas for the future direction of the special interest group were also suggested. In addition to all the brilliant contributions made by the talk and poster presenters, we also would like to thank our sponsors, the SEB, Nucleus and Frontiers in Plant Sciences, who generously supported our session. We are very much looking forward to the contributions to Nucleus and Journal of Experimental Botany, which are going to be published in due course.

Dr Katja Graumann, Oxford Brookes University.

The ER sessions focused on most relevant topics in current ER research. In addition to understanding of ER morphology-to-function relations and visualisation of ER ultrastructure and dynamics, latest news on ER function in plant stress adaptions was presented.

Prof Eija Jokitalo from the University of Helsinki kick-started the first part of the conference session on the ER structure session with a keynote lecture on ER structure in mammalian cells, which included some amazing 3-D microscopy images. This was followed by talks on ER lipidomics and enzyme metabolons and ER in stress signalling with outstanding presentations from our invited speakers Prof Birger Lindberg Moller, Prof Barbara Halkier, Dr Nozomu Koizumi, and Prof Eva Stöger. The final afternoon was reserved for two workshops on membrane lipid analysis (Dr Patrick Moreau) and computational analysis of cellular structures (Dr Mark Fricker).

In addition to cutting edge science, great discussions, fruitful networking and blossoming collaborations, the participants enjoyed sun, beach, vast amounts of coffee, the infamous SEB “wine trail” and a late night Mexican feast with mojitos for all the session speakers.

Dr Verena Kriechbaumer, University of Oxford.

THE PLANT ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: A DYNAMIC MULTITASKING ORGANELLE

Researchers from Oxford Brookes University and the University of Warwick teamed up to organise a 2-day session on the plant endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER is a network-forming organelle present in all cells from plants to humans and plays a vital role in protein production, protein folding, and quality control. As such, the plant ER is responsible for the production and storage of a great proportion of our edible proteins and lipids.

WITH OVERWHELMINGLY POSITIVE FEEDBACK THE PARTICIPANTS AGREED THAT THIS OPPORTUNITY OF NETWORKING AND DIALOGUE FOR RESEARCHERS APPROACHING THE FIELD VIA DIFFERENT MODEL SYSTEMS WAS VERY MUCH WELCOME

GENERAL

BIOMECHANICS

IN BRIGHTON: WINNERS OF THE POSTER AND ORAL CONTRIBUTION

AWARDS

The 1.5 days session of ‘General Biomechanics’ in Brighton, with 60 contributions (29 oral presentations and 31 posters) was definitely successful again. As usual, these contributions covered a wide diversity of topics (biomaterials, terrestrial locomotion, flight and swimming, adhesion, feeding mechanics, muscle mechanics, scaling...) presented by young, as well as more experienced and senior researchers. The Brighton meeting also brought us the 11th edition of the ‘General Biomechanics’ awards: three poster awards and three prizes for the best talks. In memory of Prof. R.Mc.Neill Alexander, who passed away earlier this year and who was a ‘true hero’ for our biomechanics group (the biomechanical scientific community in general), it was suggested to rename the awards from this year onwards as the ‘R.McNeill Alexander awards for Biomechanics’. This proposal was approved by the AGM with a lengthy round of applause. Traditionally, all 60 presenters were candidate-winners but unfortunately, only three winners per category could be awarded.

POSTER PRESENTATIONS

First prize: Sam Van Wassenbergh (Musée National d’Histoire Naturelle, France) – ‘Dynamics of the beak during singing in finches’.

Second prize: Pauline Provini (Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil) – ‘Walking or hopping? Evolutionary trends in terrestrial locomotion of Neotropical birds’.

Third prize: Sebastian Kruppert (Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany) – ‘Push or pull? The light-weight architecture of the Daphnia pulex carapace is adapted to withstand tension, not compression’.

ORAL PRESENTATIONS

First prize: Katharina Bunk (Plant Biomechanics Group and Botanic Garden University of Freiburg, Germany) – ‘Functional morphology, biomechanics and Finite Element simulation of Schefflera ramifications for biomimetic applications in civil engineering’.

Second prize: Florian Muijers (Wageningen University, Netherlands) – ‘Wing damage control in flying fruit flies’.

Third prize: Tina Steinbrecher (Royal Holloway University London, UK) – ‘Do fungi release mechanical dormancy conferred by the seed coverings in Lepidium didymum?’.

Congratulations to all the prizewinners. I hope to meet you all again next summer in Göteborg. Prof Peter Aerts, University Antwerp.

SUPER RESOLUTION MICROSCOPY HELPING TO SOLVE BIOLOGICAL QUESTIONS

The profile of super resolution microscopy rose rapidly at the end of 2015 with the award of the Nobel prize for chemistry to several pioneers in the field. The techniques available for super resolution imaging are now very broad and the main focus of this session was to illustrate how these methods can move on to actually help answer real biological questions. The presentations illustrated that this process is now on going with illustrations of the use of these methods to a wide range of biological samples ranging from intact blood vessels through to viruses and plants.

A clear direction for the future of this field is to enable the imaging of more intact samples and crucially to improve the speed of imaging so that more dynamic processes can be viewed. A crucial feature here being both the development of new fluorphores and technological solutions but the integration of this with advanced data-processing is becoming an increasingly important aspect of super resolution applications to biology. Future advances in the field are likely to occur where data from different scales of imaging, chemical specificity and 3D dynamic images are combined.

Prof

John Girkin, Durham University

A CLEAR DIRECTION FOR THE FUTURE OF THIS FIELD IS TO ENABLE THE IMAGING OF MORE INTACT SAMPLES AND CRUCIALLY TO IMPROVE THE SPEED OF IMAGING SO THAT MORE DYNAMIC PROCESSES CAN BE VIEWED

SEBASTIAN

KATHARINA

FLORIAN

PAULINA

TINA

YSAS WINNERS

Each year, SEB invites its early career delegates to submit their abstract to the YSAS session during the SEB Meeting, to compete for the award of “Best research presentation”. Our science writers, Caroline Wood and Jonathan Smith, have summarised the winners’ research below.

LOST IN TRANSPIRATION

Given that up to 95% of the water used to irrigate crops is lost in transpiration, understanding how stomata (tiny pores on the underside of plant leaves) are regulated could help to develop more crops that are wateruse efficient. Jordan Brown (University of Sheffield) has been investigating how light and carbon dioxide interact to regulate stomatal density and aperture. So far, she has identified a key light receptor which integrates signals relating to carbon dioxide levels. “In the long term, I hope to understand how plants regulate core responses to a range of environmental cues,” said Jordan. “This will enable us to produce crop lines that grow optimally in our increasingly extreme world”. Despite the SEB Brighton meeting being the largest audience to which she had ever presented, Jordan overcame her nerves to win the Young Scientist’s Award and would recommend the experience. “The application was a great means to reflect on my work to make it as communicable as possible, and the audience’s questions have encouraged me to think about new areas of research,” she said. “It was a fantastic experience for me and I would highly encourage those eligible to apply next year”.

SAFETY IN NUMBERS

Humans are not alone in their need to chill out with friends; some shoaling fish species also are less stressed when they are together. Young Scientist Award Winner Miss Lauren Nadler (James Cook University, Australia) studies this ‘calming effect’ of shoaling on individual fishes, saying: “Many species practice safety in numbers in the animal kingdom, as having “many eyes” helps them detect looming predators. Therefore, gregarious fishes like the blue-green puller (Chromis viridis) might feel safer and less stressed when in a

shoal.” Using a novel respirometry method to measure metabolic rates – commonly used as an indicator of stress – Lauren found that individuals exposed to cues of shoal-mates had lower metabolic rates, and hence stress, than individuals tested by themselves. “This supports the idea of a calming effect of shoaling,” said Lauren. Another part of Lauren’s prize-winning research was finding that this calming shoal effect is maintained even under projected climate change conditions. “Atmospheric and ocean levels of carbon dioxide are on the rise largely due to human activities,” explained Lauren. “As the calming effect of shoaling will likely be maintained into the future, group living may become even more important, possibly as a behavioural mechanism to counteract stress and increasing energy needs.”

THE ACID TEST

Greenhouse gases are certainly nothing to be sniffed at. Increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are disrupting ecosystems around the world and the oceans are no exception. “The oceans do us a big favour by absorbing 20 per cent of the carbon dioxide humans are producing,” explained Dr Cosima Porteus (University of Exeter, UK). “However, oceans are now growing dangerously more acidic as a result of this absorption.” To help predict the ecological impact of ocean acidification, Cosima’s research investigates the effects of increased carbon dioxide on the olfactory system in European sea bass – a vital organism for Europe’s fishing industry. “My experiments reveal that the fish’s olfactory sensory neurons are less sensitive under high carbon dioxide conditions,” said Cosima. “This is such a strong effect that sea bass would need to be a staggering 60 per cent closer to the source to detect the same smell under normal conditions.” Cosima has also identified the potential genes behind these effects, including ion channels and olfactory receptors. “This work has big implications for European sea bass and their ability to survive ocean acidification,” she concluded. “It was an honour being able to present my work at the SEB annual meeting this year.”

For more information on this year’s award winners see http://www.sebiology.org/events/ meetings_archive/SEB_Brighton_2016

WOOLHOUSE LECTURE

BY CAROLINE WOOD

The Woolhouse lecture – now a traditional event at the SEB Annual Meeting - pays tribute to the remarkable botanist and plant physiologist Harold Woolhouse (19321996). A former influential president of SEB, Harold was Director of the John Innes Centre between 1980 – 1989, transforming it into an international centre of excellence for the plant sciences. Each year, the SEB invites one of the modern generation of plant pioneers to describe how their work is pushing the frontiers of knowledge and technology even further. At SEB Brighton 2016, Jane Langdale (Professor at the University of Oxford) introduced us to exciting research aimed at improving rice yields.

As rice provides 30% of the calorie intake in Asia, this crop will have a pivotal role in feeding growing populations. “Rice is one of the few crops where the people who grow it eat it themselves, rather than exporting it or using it for animal feed,” Jane said. Rice yields have plateaued in recent years, with production only increasing by <1% each year between 200020101. Last year, demand in Asia outstripped production, forcing countries to dip into their reserves. Clearly a breakthrough is needed to boost the growth in yields.

CARBON CONVERSION

One solution could be to introduce C4 photosynthesis into rice. In standard C3 photosynthesis, the activity of the key carbon-fixing RuBisCO enzyme is limited by the presence of oxygen, which causes the competitive reaction of photorespiration. C4 plants, however, have a distinct ‘Kranz’ anatomy (from the German for ‘wreath’) that enables the concentration of CO2 around RuBisCO. The leaf veins are surrounded by a concentric layer of bundle sheath cells, with an outer layer of mesophyll cells. In the mesophyll cells, CO2 is fixed into a 4-carbon intermediate (by an oxygen insensitive enzyme) which is then shuttled to RuBisCO in the bundle sheath cells. This prevents CO2 from being effectively lost through photorespiration, allowing more to be fixed into carbohydrate. Because C4 plants also have higher water- and nitrogen-use efficiencies, it is thought that “introducing C4

photosynthesis into rice could increase yields by 50%,” said Jane.

PROJECTING AHEAD

This is the goal of the C4 Rice Project, a global consortium that was brought together by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), and is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation – currently through a grant to the University of Oxford with Jane as lead investigator. This ambitious task would require both introducing Kranz anatomy into rice and spatially compartmentalizing photosynthetic enzymes between bundle sheath and mesophyll cells. “Kranz anatomy has evolved over 60 times independently across diverse plant families so it shouldn’t be that difficult,” mused Jane. So far, her own work has focused on identifying gene candidates to develop a ‘molecular toolbox’ for introducing Kranz anatomy. Maize is an ideal model system for this, as the husk leaves that surround the ear have a C3 anatomy whereas the foliar leaves have the C4 Kranz arrangement. “We compared transcriptome profiles between husk and foliar leaves at the time when Kranz anatomy develops,” said Jane. This identified approximately 20 gene candidates which are now being expressed in rice to assess phenotypic consequences. “We are currently at the stage of stacking up to five transgenes at a time, but we don’t anticipate any breeding trials until 2029,” she concluded. “We may have started this but the people who will deliver it will be our young PhDs and postdocs”.

As one who believed that applying scientific research was the solution to feeding the world, Harold Woolhouse would surely have approved.

For more information on the C4 rice project, visit http://www.c4rice.com

1. Khush, G.S. (2013) Strategies for increasing the yield potential of cereals: case of rice as an example. Plant Breeding, vol. 132, pp 433-436.

Right Rice terraces in Banaue, Philippines

Photo credit: Jane Langdale

TAK –ING TO

‘On a wing and a prayer’ is certainly not how birds control their flight patterns, in fact quite the opposite. Research from the recent SEB Meeting in Brighton shows that, whether it’s during foraging, migration or everyday ‘gadding about’, bird physiology is highly tuned to help them to navigate all sorts of environments. Some of these mechanisms are even inspiring new aviation innovations which could be used in drones or other, as yet, unidentified flying objects.

PROCESSING POWER

“Bird Brain” might be a derogatory term, but it is now clear that our feathered friends quickly process a great deal of information on the wing. Visual cues in particular are very important to help birds navigate around objects and fly precisely through narrow gaps. However most birds lack the 3D stereoscopic vision that we have- so how do they manage?

Both birds and bees apparently use a system called “optic flow” where they balance the speed that visual cues move across each eye. As Mandyam Srinivasan (University of Queensland, Australia) explains “If you fly a bee or a budgie through a tunnel where the walls are moving forwards, they will speed up so that the flow of visual information continues across their retina at the same speed”. In a tapered tunnel, the image velocity increases as the walls come closer together, hence the birds slow down as the tunnel narrows.

THE EYES HAVE IT

Besides regulating speed, birds use optic flow to navigate obstacles in ‘cluttered environments’, showing “exceptional

THE SKI ES

aerodynamic manoeuvring coordinated by rapid processing of visual cues” says Andrew Biewener (Harvard University, United States). He has investigated this using high-speed cameras to film pigeons trained to fly through an indoor environment between two perches. The results demonstrated that pigeons have acute spatial judgement and body awareness when steering around objects. First, they constantly selected the widest gap when confronted with a fast steering decision. Furthermore, they accurately measured the size of the gap in relation to their body and modified their wing behaviour accordingly.

When the gap was fairly wide (but not enough to fly straight through), the birds adopted a ‘wing-pause’ strategy, holding their wings in position at the top of the upstroke as they passed through. For narrower gaps however, they folded their wings and tucked them in laterally against their body. Whilst this position gives less aerodynamic control, it reduces the risk of damage if the wing should touch the obstacle. “These results show that pigeons exhibit a remarkable kinaesthetic sense of body and wing position when flying past dense arrays of obstacles” says Andrew.

Mandyam has observed similar wingbehaviour in his budgies. What’s more, he found that these birds increase the trajectory of their flight just before flying through a

narrow gap to compensate for the slight loss in altitude as they closed their wings. “There’s a fair amount of elaborate pre-planning going on before they go through these gaps” he says. So robust are these optic flow systems, that Mandyam has since demonstrated that they can be successfully used to automatically pilot small aircraft.

STABLE DIET

But visual cues may compete with other senses that are used to maintain position. Hummingbirds hover at flowers to drink nectar and this “sustained hovering is a balancing act that presents both a motor and a sensory challenge,” says PhD student Benjamin Goller (University of British Columbia, Canada). Benjamin and his colleagues have demonstrated that a priority for hummingbirds is to keep their vision stable whilst they hover. As such, they respond to moving background images by moving their body to compensate, even when most of their visual field is stationary1. So how do they process the multitude of visual cues in natural environments while they are feeding?

“We hypothesized that feeding hummingbirds would use bill contact with their food source to override their hovering response to moving

visual patterns” says Benjamin. To test this, he constructed a specialized feeder; a sugar-filled syringe equipped with four strain gauges to measure how much a feeding hummingbird pushed it in the vertical or horizontal axes. Whilst the birds docked their bill into the syringe to feed, patterns of dots or lines were moved across their background vision. Surprisingly, despite having their bill inserted in the feeder, the hummingbirds still responded to the visual cues, pushing against the feeder depending on the direction the patterns moved. “This shows that hummingbirds attempt to stabilise visual motions even when docked at a rigid nectar source” says Benjamin. However, this raises further questions including how do hummingbirds control their flight when feeding from flowers whose flexible stems also move? “We are interested in investigating the parts of the brain responsible for processing motion and how these brain regions may limit or explain the behaviours we measure” says Benjamin.

MAKING THE MOST OF IT

Given that flight is so strenuous, it can be a fine balance for foraging birds to meet their energy needs. So it is not surprising that many species alter their flight behaviour to make the most of prevailing conditions. “GPS trackers have successfully determined where seabirds forage, yet the finer details regarding flight behaviour have been less well studied” says seabird biologist Philip Collins (University of Roehampton, United Kingdom). “Now, however, by coupling GPS devices with accelerometers we can study in-situ flight behaviour at a sub-second level of detail”. His research has focused on a population of Kittiwakes nesting on Middleton Island, off

the Gulf of Alaska. The birds were fitted with accelerometers that recorded acceleration in three axes: heave (up and down), surge (forward and back) and sway (side to side). “The up and down movement allows us to identify individual wingbeats and to work out how often and how hard they are flapping” says Philip.

The results showed that Kittiwakes take advantage of the wind speed to reduce the amount of work associated with flight.

“When birds have a favourable tailwind they have an overall faster speed, however when we subtract the wind speed, we find that the actual speed of flight down to the bird is lower” says Philip. Curiously, the kittiwakes were found to keep the same flapping rate regardless of the conditions – instead they vary their speed by how hard they flap their wings. So in unfavourable headwinds, the birds fly faster by flapping harder, without changing the rate of flapping.

“These results show that individuals adjust their behaviours in response to different conditions” says Philip. “However, the applicability of these results will likely vary depending on the flight style of the species”. As the Kittiwakes’ flight style includes flapping and gliding, it is currently unknown whether wind conditions similarly affect soaring species, such as albatrosses, or those that flap continuously, including shags and cormorants.

WHEN BIRDS HAVE A FAVOURABLE TAILWIND THEY HAVE AN OVERALL FASTER SPEED, HOWEVER WHEN WE SUBTRACT THE WIND SPEED, WE FIND THAT THE ACTUAL SPEED OF FLIGHT DOWN TO THE BIRD IS LOWER

UPLIFTING BEHAVIOUR

Meanwhile, other species have learnt how to exploit urban environments during their foraging trips. “We have found that seagulls systematically alter their flight trajectories to utilise the updraught generated by a row of seafront hotels” says Cara Williamson (University of Bristol).

Cara and her colleagues used laser rangefinding binoculars to capture the trajectories and ground speeds of Lesser Black-backed and Herring gulls as they commuted along the seafront of Swansea. A wind profile was generated by releasing a helium balloon and Feeding the data into a Computational Fluid Dynamics Model demonstrated that the gulls use the updraught from the hotels to maintain altitude during gliding, tracking its position as it gained altitude. “This reduces the energy cost of flight when commuting between foraging grounds and the nests,” explains Cara.

Furthermore, they also used the profile of the buildings to offset the effects of gusts and turbulence. Because the gulls’ speed is dependent on the updraught, on windier days the birds would fly at a greater distance from the hotel, to maintain their optimum speed. “In addition, we found that the angle the gulls’ position themselves at depends on the oncoming wind speed,” says Cara. On more turbulent days, the gulls would fly above the hotels, rather than in front of them. This takes advantage of the quasi-circular geometry of the updraught. As Cara explains “If a gull is subject to a horizontal gust whilst flying at the top of a contour it will move in position but maintain the same air speed. But if it experiences a vertical gust, it will be moved into an adjacent vertical column which will either reduce or increase the gull’s airspeed until it returns to its original position and speed”. This results in a ‘self-regulating’ phenomenon, which returns the gulls to the same position and velocity even if a gust pulls them off course.

Potentially, these insights could help solve flight problems with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). “UAVs are limited by battery technology and are susceptible to gusting” explains Cara. “Using gulls as inspiration could extend the current range that UAVs can operate within and increase their robustness to gusts” 2

GOING UP IN THE WORLD

When it comes to long-distance migrations, birds often don’t have much control over the conditions: they simply have to keep airborne to cover the distance in time. Yet some defy the odds even further by making their journeys at high altitudes where oxygen is much scarcer.

“At altitudes in excess of 4000m, available oxygen is greatly reduced, therefore birds have to fuel expensive flapping flight with greatly limited resources” says PhD student Nicole Parr (University of Exeter). Despite this, Bar Headed Geese (Anser indicus) make biannual migrations between their breeding grounds in Northern China, Mongolia and Tibet, and their wintering grounds in India, crossing the forbidding Himalayas in the process. They have been recorded flying at over 7,000m and according to one legend they have even been seen flying over Mount Everest. Not surprisingly, these birds have a whole host of physiological adaptations to make the most of any available oxygen. These include a greater density of capillaries in the pectoral muscles, the ability to increase cardiac output up to 5 times and haemoglobin with greater oxygencarrying capacity.

For a long time, these exceptional birds were thought to be just that – the exception. However, Nicole’s research has shown that such adaptations to extreme hypoxia may be more widespread. Her focus has been the Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea), a species which migrates between wintering grounds in Myanmar and breeding grounds in Northern China or Mongolia, a distance of over 3,500 km. It was unknown what route they used, until a tracking study investigating the spread of avian influenza H5N1 indicated that the birds crossed the Himalayas3. To investigate this, Nicole followed the progress of 15 Ruddy Shelducks fitted with GPS trackers. “The tags recorded the coordinates and altitude of each duck every 2 hours and the duration of tracking varied between a couple of months to 3 years” says Nicole.

Her results confirmed that Ruddy Shelducks do indeed cross the Himalayas,

AT ALTITUDES IN EXCESS

OF 4000M, AVAILABLE OXYGEN IS GREATLY REDUCED, THEREFORE BIRDS HAVE TO FUEL EXPENSIVE FLAPPING FLIGHT WITH GREATLY LIMITED RESOURCES. THEY HAVE BEEN RECORDED FLYING AT OVER 7,000M AND ACCORDING TO ONE LEGEND THEY HAVE EVEN BEEN SEEN FLYING OVER MOUNT EVEREST.

and that they are even capable of flying up to 6,800 m high. But why go to such extreme heights, especially when the task is so demanding? It’s thought that the distance saved by taking the direct route, rather than skirting around the mountains, allows the birds to reach their wintering grounds before resources are depleted by other species.

Meanwhile, this discovery opens up the possibility that other species are also making incredible journeys at high altitude. “Potentially, other species which winter and breed in similar areas of Asia make a comparable flight across the Himalayas, and possibly there are also species which migrate at high altitudes in the Andes of South America” says Nicole. Nevertheless, it remains unknown what physiological adaptations allow Ruddy Shelducks to fly above the mountains. Nicole plans to investigate this by making physiological comparisons –including metabolic rate, muscle histology and haemoglobin- between Ruddy Shelduck and lowland migrant waterfowl. “Ruddy Shelduck are helping to increase our understanding of the diversity of physiological responses to the challenge of high altitude” she concludes.

Above Ruddy ShelduckKu Hai Lake

Qinghai China

Photo credit:

Coke Smith

Left Kittiwakes

Photo credit:

Philip Collins

IN FOR THE KILL

Yet some species take to the heights for a different reason – to hunt for their next meal. Peregrine falcons are renowned for their remarkable ‘stoops’, where they dive at great speeds from a high altitude to strike their prey. But this carries considerable risk of injury, especially as they often pull out of the stoop just meters above the ground. So how and why did they develop this strategy?

“You often hear anecdotes of peregrines diving down at lightning speeds to hit their prey with an enormous blast that leaves it dead or even beheaded,” says Robin Mills, computational modeller at Charlotte Hemelrijk’s lab (University of Groningen, Netherlands). “But literature records that these events are rare.” In fact, most stoops are only performed at moderate speeds and the prey is slowly crushed to death in the peregrine’s claws. So if the dive doesn’t kill the prey outright, why do peregrines stoop?

To investigate this, Robin built a bird-flight simulator. Inputs on reaction time, visual accuracy, steering precision and biomechanical constraints were used to produce a model of falcons hunting a variety of prey species, using data gleaned from peregrines fitted with GPS trackers that were trained to hunt lures attached to model aircraft (collected by the Oxford Flight Group). “After running the simulator over thousands of generations, we can observe which hunters were successful and under what conditions” says Robin. The results have already shown that, without the right guidance and control, high-speed stoops would not be suitable for manoeuvring after sharply-turning prey. “The bones would break and the pectoral muscles would tear if a peregrine decided to spread its wings fully to turn sharply after its prey during a stoop,” says Robin.

Rather, peregrines use a technique called “proportional navigation”, a guidance law used in homing missiles. In simple terms, they adjust their trajectory to intercept the prey at a point ahead of time, avoiding the need for sharp turns. Approaching from above gives the falcon greater control over this finely tuned guidance system. In the simulation, the peregrines evolved different stoop strategies depending on the flight behaviour of the prey species. “When using proportional navigation in the model, the optimal altitude to initiate a stoop (and so the speed at interception) is higher for more sharply turning prey” says Robin. The faster the peregrine dives, the closer the interception point is to the prey’s current position, limiting its chance to escape. However, controlling a high-speed stoop requires razor-sharp vision and finely-tuned aerodynamic control. “When we allowed for even a small amount of visual

error in the model, no high-speed stoops evolved,” says Robin. This may explain why peregrines prefer hunting homing pigeons which fly in a straight line, allowing for slower, shorter stoops.

YOU OFTEN HEAR ANECDOTES OF PEREGRINES DIVING DOWN AT LIGHTNING SPEEDS TO HIT THEIR PREY WITH AN ENORMOUS BLAST THAT LEAVES IT DEAD OR EVEN BEHEADED, BUT LITERATURE RECORDS THAT THESE EVENTS ARE RARE. IN FACT, MOST STOOPS ARE ONLY PERFORMED AT MODERATE SPEEDS AND THE PREY IS SLOWLY CRUSHED TO DEATH IN THE PEREGRINE’S CLAWS.

“From my model results, I conclude that these impressive high-speed stoops only evolve for the finest of hunters,” says Robin. So don’t be fooled by the dazzling displays of falconers –the exceptions to the rule!

So the next time you watch a flock of birds pass overhead, remember it’s not quite as effortless as it may appear. But understanding how they do it is helping us take our technology to the skies.

1. Goller, Benjamin and D. L. Altshuler. 2014. Hummingbirds control hovering flight by stabilizing visual motion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 111(51): 18375-18380

2. http://www.uva-bits.nl/project/flight-energetics-of-urbanlesser-black-backed-gulls-a-case-study-for-bio-inspiredflightuav-technology/ DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0394

3. Prosser, D. J. et al. Satellite-marked waterfowl reveal migratory connection between H5N1 outbreak areas in China and Mongolia. Ibis (Lond. 1859). 151, 568–576 (2009)

Above Peregine Falconflight simulator

Photo credit: Robin Mills

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CRACKING THE EGG

BY ALEX EVANS, PHD STUDENT, UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS

In July 2016, Brighton played host to an invasion of eggheads. Held on the eve of the annual SEB Conference, the “Cracking the Egg” satellite meeting welcomed egg experts from around the world to gather and share their passion for one of nature’s most delectable phenomena. Organised by egg enthusiasts, Dr Steve Portugal (Royal Holloway, University of London) and Prof Mark Hauber (Cornell University), the aim of the meeting was to “bring together researchers from different scientific fields to talk about all things ‘egg’”. Here are some of the highlights of the day.

parental behavioural strategies, making them a fascinating showcase of evolutionary biology and a hotbed for multi-disciplinary research. Through the course of the day, symposium attendees were treated to a wealth of talks and poster presentations from PhD students and early career scientists through to longstanding academics, encompassing a wide range of animal species and fields of research. Prior to the conference, Steve was confident

parasitism can be such a successful strategy. “Brood parasitism sidesteps the most expensive parts of parenthood for altricial2 birds, which are the incubation of eggs and rearing of the young,” she said, further explaining that the energy and time costs of laying the egg are probably cheaper than the costs of brooding them and raising the chicks. “By foisting the costs of incubation and chick rearing onto another species, the female can instead invest in producing larger numbers of eggs.”

However, this strategy is only successful as long as the hosts can be fooled into rearing the cuckoo finch’s eggs. Species that have been parasitized for thousands of years3 have evolutionarily cottoned on to the brood parasites’ devious machinations and have evolved physiological and behavioural mechanisms to try to prevent them from being duped. One of the ways that they can do this is by evolving new egg ‘signatures’ that are harder for the brood parasites to mimic. Female prinias are able to produce a variety of individually distinctive signatures when laying their eggs, which vary between females. These signatures may be any combination of spots, splodges and wavy lines that cover the egg’s surface4. Claire revealed that the forged signatures created by individual cuckoo finches are inherited from the mother, resulting in lineages of brood parasites that have adapted to specific hosts. “So, the more signatures there are, the more host-specific lineages we can expect to find in the cuckoo finches,” said Claire. “It’s co-evolution at large!”

WAR IN THE NEST

A prominent theme throughout the symposium was the evolution of egg mimicry by avian brood parasites and how parasitized hosts have adapted to deal with egg imposters. In terms of parenting, brood parasites are the cheating champions of the bird world. Instead of incubating their eggs and rearing their chicks, they will lay their eggs into another bird’s nest and leave the owner to raise the imposter chick. Common examples are Europe’s common cuckoo and the cowbirds of North America, but brood parasitism has evolved independently a number of times in birds around the world and brood parasites are thought to account for 1% of all known bird species1 .

Naturally, the consequences for the parasitized hosts can be devastating for their reproductive success, which has resulted in a strong evolutionary fightback from the targeted species. The tawny-flanked prinia (Prinia subflava), a small bird native to subSaharan Africa, is one such species parasitised by the cuckoo finch (Anomalospiza imberbis). Dr Claire Spottiswoode from the Universities of Cape Town and Cambridge has been studying these two species and told us why brood

Later in the day, Dr Daniel Hanley (Palacký University and Long Island University Post) provided a more detailed look at how the variety of egg colours we see in nature are produced. “There are two main pigments colouring bird eggs,” explained Daniel, “one is biliverdin, producing a blue-green colouration and the other is protoporphyrin, which creates redbrown colours. The egg colours of birds are the result of an admixture of these two pigments.” Daniel was particularly interested in how the colour of imposter eggs is interpreted by host birds, leading to novel questions about avian perception and cognition. “Brood parasitism is a really interesting study system because it helps us to better understand decision making processes,” added Daniel.

DINO EGGS ARE JURASSIC ARKS

Taking us back to the time of the dinosaurs, Dr Jasmina Weimann and Tzu-Ruei Yang from the University of Bonn presented findings from their work on fossilised oviraptor eggs and how they use the eggs of today’s extant animals to learn more about extinct ones. As

living descendants of therapod dinosaurs, birds are often used as an analogue when trying to understand how dinosaur eggs may have been structured, or how they were cared for. “We see that some structures and their organisation are highly conserved between eggs from dinosaurs and modern birds,” said Jasmina, “making it possible to trace supposedly ‘avian features’ back to dinosaurs”.

Jasmina investigated the molecular information preserved within the 67-millionyear old preserved oviraptor eggshells, finding evidence of a spongy layer and blood vessels similar to that found in the eggs of modern birds. Impressively, she and her team also found preserved pigment molecules, suggesting that the oviraptor eggs were once an olive green colour4. “Until today it was common sense to think that coloured eggs are limited to our modern birds,” said Jasmina. “Our study shows that eggshell colouration evolved much earlier.”

While Jasmina spends her days examining dinosaur eggs under the microscope, Dr TzuRuei prefers to be out in the field examining the specimens in situ. During his talk, he described how he investigates the arrangement of dinosaur eggs within nests to learn more about the behaviour of the parents. The Chinese oviraptor specimen studied by TzuRuei has long been thought to depict a parent engaging in egg brooding behaviour5. However, according to Tzu-Ruei, it is more likely that oviraptors probably weren’t egg brooders at all and that this raptor died whilst adding another egg to her clutch. Some bird species have adapted egg colouration as camouflage to conceal their eggs from predators, so parents can spend more time feeding away from their young, with a reduced risk of coming back to an empty nest. Tzu-Ruei explains that this may also have been the case for the oviraptors: “With the eggs protected, the parent could have invested less in parental care, so perhaps egg brooding wasn’t that important for these dinosaurs.”

According to Jasmina and Tzu-Ruei, egg palaeonotology is currently experiencing a ‘molecular revolution’ due to recent advances in biochemistry and cellular biology. “It’s a great time to be a palaeontologist right now, because we’re getting to explore completely new areas of research,” explained Jasmina. “The extent to which we have found molecular preservation in dinosaur eggs is amazing.”

SWAPPING SPARROWS

The final talk of the day focused not just on eggs, but also the people that dedicate their time to egg collections. Dr Caren Cooper, Assistant Director of the Biodiversity Research Lab at the North Carolina Museum of Natural

Sciences, discussed the role of citizen science in large-scale research projects and how they are particularly important for her work with the museum’s bird egg specimens, including her ongoing ‘Sparrow Swap’ project6 .

In the USA, house sparrows are an invasive species and often considered to be a pest by occupying nestboxes intended for native species such as bluebirds. In order to mitigate the damage done by sparrows, birdwatchers and volunteer egg monitors will often remove any eggs laid by female sparrows. However, the efficacy of this management strategy is unknown. In addition to egg removal, Caren and her team have offered birdwatchers across the US an alternative option; to replace the sparrow eggs with replicas, whilst taking the real eggs to their lab for study. In this way, Caren and her team aim to gather information in partnership with these citizen scientists to learn more about how egg removal and egg swapping affects the nesting sparrows. So far, the Sparrow Swap project has been successful, with birdwatchers participating in almost every US state. “Hopefully we’ll soon have enough data to tell which method is more effective at minimizing house sparrow damage,” said Caren.

As well as providing data on sparrow management, a long-term goal of the Sparrow Swap project is to build the museum’s egg collection for future research. Museum specimens act as preserved biological snapshots, making them useful for tracking historical and geographical changes in species and their habitats. In fact, many museum specimens are often used for new research projects long after they had fulfilled the original purpose for their collection. “With this collection, we want to assess how communities concerned about pollution might use house sparrow eggs as bio-indicators of environmental and, perhaps, even human health,” said Caren, adding “we also hope to use the eggshells for studies of geographic variation in selection pressures on egg characteristics.” During her talk, Caren promoted the advantages of citizen scientists in aiding studies that can only be made possible by the observations recorded by interested individuals from all around the world. Often, the invaluable work of citizen scientists goes unacknowledged: “In 2014, I published a study7 with colleagues in which we examined the contributions of citizen

science efforts to understanding migratory birds and climate change. We found that about half of what is known about migratory birds and climate change derives from citizen science efforts, yet none of the papers mentioned the term ‘citizen science’”. Countering this, Caren’s concluding remarks highlighted the fact that this trend is changing and publications are now starting to attribute citizen scientists, with increasing encouragement for the public to engage with researchers across the globe. By the end of the day, in addition to the research showcased here, the delegates had been treated to insights into a wealth of egg topics, including the stiff-yet-fragile structure of eggshells8 and the complex role of hormones in bird eggs9 and across many other animal species including sharks, squid and sea turtles. Looking back, Steve feels the symposium succeeded in its goal of celebrating the wide world of egg research. “It was fascinating to see the diverse range of egg-based research currently going on,” said Steve. “Finding out about the different techniques and approaches being used to address fundamental questions regarding eggshell properties has changed my ideas for future research directions.”

To see the full “Cracking the Egg” satellite programme of abstract go to: http://www. sebiology.org/events/meetings_archive/SEB_ Brighton_2016

1. Winfree R. (1999) Cuckoos, cowbirds and the persistence of brood parasitism. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 14 (9), 338–343

2. Definition of Altricial birds: http://articles.extension.org/ pages/65368/precocial-and-altricial-birds

3. Spottiswoode, CN & Stevens M. (2011) How to evade a coevolving brood parasite: Egg discrimination versus egg variability as host defences. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 278 (1724), 3566-73

4. Wiemann J, Yang T, Sander PNN, Schneider M, Engeser M, Kath-Schorr S, Müller CE & Sander PM. (2015) The blue-green eggs of dinosaurs: How fossil metabolites provide insights into the evolution of bird reproduction. PeerJ PrePrints, 3:e1323 https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj. preprints.1080v1

5. Norell MA, Clark JA, Chiappe LM & Dashzeveg D. (1995) A nesting dinosaur. Nature, 378, 774-776

6. Sparrow Swap project on SciStarter: www.scistarter.com/ sparrowswap

7. Cooper CB, Shirk J, Zuckerberg B. (2014) The Invisible Prevalence of Citizen Science in Global Research: Migratory Birds and Climate Change. PLoS ONE, 9(9): e106508 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0106508

8. Taylor D, Walsh M, Cullen A, & O’Reilly P. (2016). The fracture toughness of eggshell. Acta Biomaterialia, 37, 21-27 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2016.04.028

9. Peluc SI, Reed WL, Gibbs P and McGraw KJ. (2014) Maternal dietary carotenoids mitigate detrimental effects of maternal GnRH on offspring immune function in Japanese quail Coturnix japonica. Journal of Avian Biology, 45: 334–344. doi:10.1111/jav.00360

SEEDS FOR THE FUTURE

As the proverb says “All the flowers of tomorrow are in the seeds of today”. The same goes for the food crops that need to feed our growing population. Until now, food security has tended to focus on the mature plant and its yield, however we are now beginning to understand the critical influence of the events preceding and during germination. Seeds may be tiny, but they are complex worlds of development and change.

During the session ‘Seed Biology –From Laboratory to Field’ at the SEB Annual Meeting in Brighton, we heard from the pioneers of this field, and how they hope to unlock the potential of seeds to sow the harvests of the future.

ALL PACKAGED UP

We normally assume that once plant embryos are packaged up into seeds and dispersed, they are left to fend for themselves. However new research suggests that mother plants still help their offspring long after they are separated, providing assistance through ‘dead organs’. The outer seed coat enclosing the embryo is derived from maternal cells that undergo programmed cell death (PCD), forming a hard physical layer that protects against damage, microorganisms and temperature extremes.

“It is commonly believed that during PCD, cells are completely degraded and their constituents remobilized to other parts of the plant” says Buzi Raviv, a PhD student in Professor Gideon Grafi’s lab (Ben Gurion University, Israel) “But we have found that there is life in the dead organs enclosing the embryo”. Buzi discovered that the dead seed coat releases a range of enzymes – including DNAses, RNAses and proteases- during germination. Furthermore, these enzymes were still active; after separating the enzymes using gel electrophoresis, Buzi incubated them with the appropriate substrates and detected digested products. In planta, hydrolases have a range of functions including DNA replication, cell cycle progression and gene expression; hence these enzymes could be influencing germination in countless ways. Buzi found the same result in a range of species – including Arabidopsis, Cicer arietinum (chickpea), Sinapis alba (white mustard) and cereals such as wild emmer wheat and oat. “This suggests that storing hydrolases in dead organs enclosing embryos and releasing them upon hydration is a general theme in plants that may increase the survival rate of germinating seeds” says Buzi.

The released enzymes also included chitinases, which degrade fungal cell walls, suggesting a

role in protecting the embryo from pathogens. Buzi tested this by incubating spores of the model pathogen Alternaria alternata with samples of the substances released by the seed coat of white mustard. “When Alternaria was incubated with the aqueous extract, 85% of the spores showed increased branching, a known stress response” Buzi says. The substances released from seed coats of other species also had activity against bacteria, including Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. This exciting work could help develop new methods to protect seeds without coating them in hazardous chemicals, and improve how seeds are stored in seed banks. “There is a lot of work ahead in this project” says Buzi. “In my next experiments, I will address how the mother plant’s growth conditions affect the composition and quantities of the substances stored in the dead organs enclosing the embryo.”

PRIMED FOR ACTION

When it comes to seeds, one of the biggest problems for farmers is non-synchronous or poor germination. This results in non-uniform development and can cause the farmer to under- or over-sow, costing time and money. Unlike yield and disease resistance, it can be time-consuming to accurately phenotype crops for germination, as Steven Penfield (John Innes Centre, United Kingdom) explains: “Germination is typically scored by eye by counting at various intervals. There are some protocols for extracting data from images but they are mostly old and cumbersome”. Consequently, germination times are often only approximate, as no one tends to watch the seedlings overnight, at weekends or during their tea beak. To combat this, Steven with his collaborator Ji Zhou at the Earlham Institute, has helped develop an automated phenotyping platform for germination and seedling establishment, powered by Raspberry Pi computers (single-board computers the size of a credit card). “This very simple platform uses time-lapse photography to automatically score seed and seedling traits

Below left Arabidopsis seedling GUS stained for Giberellic Acid synthesis acticity

during germination” says Steven. “We can score germination accurately to 30 minutes and measure the rate the root and shoot appear”. Together, these parameters provide a good assessment of “seed vigour”, which ultimately determines the quality of the crop. “Vigorous seeds germinate rapidly and uniformly, and produce healthy seedlings under the widest possible range of conditions” says Steven.

Yet certain techniques do exist that can synchronise germination, such as ‘osmopriming’. “This restricts the amount of water a seed can take up and therefore limits its ability to germinate” says PhD student Jack Mitchell (University of Birmingham, United Kingdom). The seeds are soaked in enough water to allow the early stages of germination but not the full transition, before being dried. Once sown and rehydrated with water, ‘primed’ seeds germinate faster and more uniformly than unprimed seeds. This simple method, which was even used by the ancient Greeks, is effective on a wide range of crops, including lettuce, carrot, pepper and onion. But the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. Jack’s research is investigating the gene expression changes during osmopriming in Arabidopsis seeds. Already his work has documented clear changes in genes related to Gibberellic Acid (GA) and Abscisic Acid (ABA). However standard molecular biology techniques require him to physically destroy each seed to quantify gene expression which limits the number of time points he can test.

In order to get the complete story, he is developing a real-time, non-invasive imaging system using a luciferase reporter system. This introduces a transgene linking the promoter of the gene of interest to the luciferase enzyme

TOGETHER, THESE PARAMETERS PROVIDE A GOOD ASSESSMENT OF “SEED VIGOUR”, WHICH ULTIMATELY DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF THE CROP. “VIGOROUS SEEDS GERMINATE RAPIDLY AND UNIFORMLY, AND PRODUCE HEALTHY SEEDLINGS UNDER THE WIDEST POSSIBLE RANGE OF CONDITIONS

from fireflies. As the expression of the gene of interest increases, the luciferase enzyme will also be transcribed at a higher rate. The rate of gene expression can then be quantified by applying the substrate luciferin, which is converted by luciferase into a green light signal. “A luciferase system would be a fantastic tool that could be used to non-invasively monitor gene expression in real time within individual seeds” says Jack. This would enable seed companies to select seeds that will germinate together and give uniform harvests.

Meanwhile, Julia Buitink (IRHS-INRA Angers, France) has been investigating the gene networks that allow seeds to remain viable in a dry state (known as ‘seed longevity’). She collected over 100 gene-expression timecourses from Medicago truncatula seeds under different growth conditions and assessed seed longevity at each time point. From this she identified key players whose expression level correlated with how long seeds could last in storage. This ‘longevity module’ was found to be enriched with genes that play a role in defence against biotic stress, including the transcription factors WRKY3 and NFXL1. Accordingly, Arabidopsis wrky3 and nfxl1 mutants show increased sensitivity to pathogens and their seeds die faster in storage. For both mutants, the seed coats are more permeable, suggesting that having defective barriers against pathogens critically influences seed longevity. “These data suggest that seed longevity evolved by ‘hijacking’ defence-activated pathways in leaves to provide physical barriers that protect against pathogens whilst seeds are in the dry state and thus unable to elicit any metabolic defences” says Julia.

Right Seeds of wild emmer wheat

CUTTING OUT THE MIDDLE MAN – AUTONOMOUS REPRODUCTION

Perhaps one of the greatest frustrations for seed scientists is that genetic material is reshuffled during fertilisation, causing key traits to be lost. A ‘holy grail’ would be to develop crops that could autonomously produce seeds without fertilization, allowing heritable traits to be fixed across time. This process, known as apomixis, has already been demonstrated in the model plant Arabidopsis. However, transferring this trait into crops is made difficult by the ‘double fertilization’ event that normally occurs during plant reproduction. Whilst one sperm cell fuses with the egg cell to form the embryo, another sperm cell fuses with the central cell, which contains two maternal nuclei. The now-triploid central cell gives rise to the endosperm; a food store which surrounds the developing embryo. But the endosperm has dosage sensitivity, meaning that normal development requires the balance of two maternal and one paternal genomes otherwise the seed is aborted. “Transferring apomixis into crops will require us to overcome parental dosage sensitivity of the endosperm, which is very strong in monocot crops like maize, rice, oat, and barley” says Claudia Köhler (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences). However, knock-out Arabidopsis mutants in components of the Fertilization Independent Seed Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (FISPRC2) develop seeds autonomously, without fertilization. “FIS-PRC2 normally represses autonomous replication of the central cell” says Claudia. Her work has shown that this is due to FIS-PRC2 preventing gene expression in the maternal nuclei by modifying chromatin structure. After fertilization, the paternalspecific expression of these genes drives endosperm development. Consequently, these genes show “genomic imprinting”, because they are only expressed from one parental allele.

It appears that the plant hormone auxin is critical for the endosperm to develop correctly. “Among others, genes involved in auxin biosynthesis are under repressive control of FIS-PRC2 and activation of those genes in FIS-PRC2 mutants induces fertilizationindependent auxin formation, which triggers central cell replication” says Claudia. Auxin biosynthesis genes show genomic imprinting across many plant species, suggesting that repressing maternal auxin genes is a conserved mechanism to prevent autonomous endosperm development. Furthermore, autonomous endosperm formation also occurs in rice knockout mutants for Fertilisation Independent Endosperm (FIE) – a subunit of the FIS-PRC2 complex.

These results suggest that auxin is both necessary and sufficient to initiate endosperm development, and hence seed formation. Finetuning auxin expression in the central cell therefore could overcome the paternal genome requirement and dosage sensitivity, opening the way towards autonomously fertilising crops.

DYNAMIC INTERACTIONS

The endosperm has also attracted interest for other reasons; as a highly specialised storage tissue, it could be used to produce valuable recombinant pharmaceutical proteins. However, the endosperm is a dynamic tissue that changes considerably during seed maturation. The inner layers of starchy endosperm cells undergo programmed cell death whilst the living aleurone cells in the outer layers secrete enzymes to breakdown stored nutrients that fuel germination. These processes require an active and flexible secretory system to coordinate the synthesis and delivery of the storage proteins needed for each stage of development. As such, the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and Golgi body (the main secretory organelles) must be capable of rapid structural reorganisation. In developing maize grain for instance, prolamincontaining protein bodies proliferate from the ER, whilst protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) develop as post-Golgi organelles and merge later during maturation.

To date, we have very little understanding of how these changes coordinate the delivery of storage compounds. “Conventional studies of protein storage organelles in cereal seeds involve acquiring static images using immunofluorescence and electron microscopy, revealing little about the dynamic restructuring events” says Eva Stöger (University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU), Austria). Her research has been addressing this by developing fluorescent markers to facilitate live-cell imaging in barley. These have already demonstrated that PSVs behave differently depending on the region of endosperm. In the aleurone layer, the PSVs remain spherical whilst those in the subaleurone layer go through several rounds of fusion and rupture to form large composite aggregates.

Understanding these interactions could help develop more efficient molecular farming. “Accumulating proteins in the endosperm has many advantages; for instance proteins with adverse effects on the production host can be expressed because their absence from vegetative tissues means they do not impact plant growth” says Eva. In addition, the ER of cereal storage cells contains many molecular chaperones and isomerase

Above Dispersal unit of wild emmer wheat

Above right

Autonomous replication of the central cell in ovules expressing auxin biosynthesis genes in the central cell

Right Barley protein storage VACUOLE

enzymes that facilitate protein folding and maintain stability. The triploid genome of the endosperm also increases the effective number of transgene copies, and thus the transcription of the protein product. So far seed-produced recombinant proteins include lysozyme, human serum albumin and human growth factor. But potentially seeds could be used to produce vaccines and feed additives. According to Eva; “These benefit from encapsulation within storage organelles such as protein bodies, as these provide some protection against proteolysis upon administration and can have an adjuvant effect” (resulting in a more pronounced immune response against the vaccine). She has already demonstrated this principle by producing the model vaccine influenza haemoagglutinin H5 in protein bodies, which were ectopically induced in tobacco leaves. “In mice, the protein bodyformulation achieved a comparable immune response to soluble antigen with a strong adjuvant and still worked at a 100-fold dilution” she says.

SPATIAL CONTROL – IT’S ALL ABOUT LOCATION

Given that 21% of global calories depend on wheat 1, even small increases in the quality of this crop could bring great benefits for food security. According to Aakriti Wanchoo-Kohli (Rothamsted Research, United Kingdom), understanding how the balance of plant hormones control grain development could be a key to boost yields. “Whilst the phytohormone Gibberellin (GA) plays a critical role in wheat grain development , GA synthesised by the embryo also moves to the aleurone layer to induce the production of a-amylase and other hydrolytic enzymes that break down starch reserves for growth” she says. However, excessive a-amylase activity causes starch degradation, resulting in poor quality flour and a crop only fit for animal feed. Aakriti’s research has been investigating whether manipulating GA levels in specific areas can increase grain size without compromising quality.

“We generated a range of transgenic lines using tissue-specific promoters to modify GA biosynthesis or signalling in the seed-coat, endosperm, embryo or aleurone of developing wheat grains” she says. The results so far have also demonstrated that GA manipulation is far from straightforward, especially as the hormone can shuttle between the embryo and the endosperm. Increasing GA levels in the endosperm produced larger grains, but also more a-amylase, leading to a poorer quality. When GA in the endosperm was reduced, the grains became smaller but a-amylase levels were unchanged. On the other hand, reducing

GA in the embryo and scutellum of developing grains significantly reduced a-amylase levels, showing that it is GA produced here that induces hydrolytic enzymes.

“Hopefully, these results could help to improve flour quality and avoid economic losses for farmers in the future” Aakriti says. Since the structure of other cereals grains are very similar to wheat, potentially GA manipulations could be used in other crops to improve grain size and flour quality.

1. FAOSTAT (2015), http://faostat.fao.org/

This article captures only a flavour of the work SEB plant researchers are performing to reveal the secrets of seeds. To view all the abstracts from the SEB Brighton session Seed Biology – From Laboratory to Field, visit http:// www.sebiology.org/docs/default-source/Eventdocuments/plant-abstracts.pdf?sfvrsn=0

TOGETHER, THESE PARAMETERS PROVIDE A GOOD ASSESSMENT OF “SEED VIGOUR”, WHICH ULTIMATELY DETERMINES THE QUALITY OF THE CROP. “VIGOROUS SEEDS GERMINATE RAPIDLY AND UNIFORMLY, AND PRODUCE HEALTHY SEEDLINGS UNDER THE WIDEST POSSIBLE RANGE OF CONDITIONS

PUSHING THE FRONTIERS

Artificial life has traditionally belonged to the realm of sciencefiction yet it is fast becoming a reality as synthetic biologists go boldly where no other biologists have gone before. From gene circuits to carbon capture to lightactivated organisms – the pioneers of this brave new world were in full force at our Annual Meeting in Brighton.

GREEN FOR GO

What if we could activate biological systems with literally a flick of the light switch? PhD student Martin Battle (University of Essex, United Kingdom) is investigating the possibility of doing just this using the green-light photoreceptor CcaS from the freshwater photosynthetic cyanobacterium Synechocystis. Normally, the CCAR response regulator of the gene responds to green light by producing an antenna complex which transfers light energy to the photosystems. “But if you replace the coding sequence for this antenna protein with something else, then essentially this will be expressed in response to green light” says Martin. Whilst this has already been demonstrated in E.coli, Martin hopes to use this system to introduce greenlight regulated processes in plants. Although plants depend on light for photosynthesis, they generally use only the red and blue ends of the spectrum, reflecting green light back. This offers the potential to introduce new signalling pathways which can be activated without affecting other processes. “Many researchers already grow their plants under red and blue LEDs only to save energy” Martin says. “So it would be easy to supplement them with green light when you want to switch the system on”. To see if this is feasible, Martin is expressing synthetic constructs linked to reporters such as yellow fluorescent protein in Arabidopsis and Nicotiana benthamiana. “At the moment we have had some problems with low or oscillating expression” he says. This may be because bacterial and plant phytochromes are related and have similar structures, hence the endogenous plant light receptors may be interfering with CcaS function. However, this technology is not limited to plants; Wilfried Weber (University of Frieburg, Germany) has demonstrated that optical control can also be applied to mammalian cells. “By functionally rewiring plant and bacterial photoreceptors to growth factors, synthetic polymers, kinases or transcription factors, we achieve optical control along the whole signal transduction cascade” he says.

Photo credit Martin Battle, Jones Lab, University of Essex

“We apply these optogenetic tools to control cell migration, mechano-signalling as well as cell differentiation”.

Expressing design

Synthetic versions of biological systems are increasingly used to help us understand how their natural counterparts work in vivo. One of the most complex cellular processes is glycosylation; the addition of oligosaccharide chains to protein backbones that determine their structure and function. These chains are added and modified sequentially as proteins progress through the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body. “Glycosylation affects a wide range of processes and characteristics including blood types, immune responses and hormone signalling,” says Dr Kate Royle (Imperial College, United Kingdom). “Due to the numerous enzymes involved, their overlapping distributions, and substrate promiscuity this complex process can generate hundreds of different glycans”. Disentangling this web could enable new, therapeutic glycoproteins to be engineered and cast light on the mechanism of glycosylation disorders. As such, Kate and her colleagues have embarked on an ambitious project to build a synthetic Golgi body reactor. “By disengaging the glycoenzymes from the cell, we can linearize the network into individual, sequential modules and characterise them as parts” she says. Their strategy is to express the glycoenzymes in E.coli before immobilising them in sequence to form the synthetic reactor. This will either be done using affinity-tag immobilisation of the enzymes onto support pellets of a packed bed reactor or attaching the enzymes with nonspecific surface chemistry to a microcapillary. Meanwhile, the model yeast Pichia pastoris

MANY RESEARCHERS ALREADY GROW THEIR PLANTS UNDER RED AND BLUE LEDS ONLY TO SAVE ENERGY SO IT WOULD BE EASY TO SUPPLEMENT THEM WITH GREEN LIGHT WHEN YOU WANT TO SWITCH THE SYSTEM ON

will be used to express a core glycan composed of mannose residues, which can be built up to form the target substrates.

The group are currently working towards the production of their first prototype: G2, a complex human glycan with a two-branched structure. “Our first step will be to use the range of therapeutic targets we have generated to test the limits of the system,” says Kate. “Ideally, we will be able to produce different glycoform versions of antibodies to test which is the most efficient”.

DOING IT OUR (PATH)WAY

All of our food ultimately originates from CO 2 fixed into organic compounds, yet this process is highly inefficient in plants. “To meet our energy and food needs by photosynthetic CO2 fixation, we will need an estimated three worlds by 2050” says Tobias Erb (Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Germany). “Our strategy is construct artificial CO2-fixation pathways to create novel CO2 -fixing microorganisms.” Tobias is particularly interested in a group of highly-efficient CO2 fixing enzymes called enoyl-CoA carboxylases/reductases (ECRs), recently discovered in the Alphaproteobactera species Rhodobacter sphaeroides and the Actinobacteria Streptomyces. “ECRs are an order of magnitude more efficient in converting CO2 than RuBisCO, the key carboxylase of plants” he says. Using ECRs as a starting point, Tobias has constructed several theoretical CO 2 -fixation cycles, combining known reactions of enzymes from across the biological

kingdoms. “Our drafts are not based on existing biochemical pathways, but on what is biochemically plausible, so they are not constrained by natural evolution” says Tobias. The enzyme candidates can be further engineered to improve their performance: “We opened up the substrate-binding pocket of ECRs so that they can now carboxylate over sixteen different substrates, which allows us to draft many different CO2-fixation cycles” says Tobias. One of their most promising synthetic cycles, containing 17 enzymes from nine different organisms, including three engineered enzymes, is theoretically more efficient than the plant Calvin cycle.

But theory doesn’t always translate into reality and much optimisation needs to be done. Exposing enzymes to novel substrates frequently causes unwanted side-reactions, requiring them to be engineered further or the addition of ‘proofreading’ enzymes. Even when the system works in a reaction tube, introducing the pathway into microorganisms is challenging as we have little idea of how it will interact with endogenous metabolism. Tobias argues that a “bottomup, reductionist approach”, rather than a ‘top-down’ one, is essential to fine-tune these cycles. “For instance, a cycle of 17 enzymes at just three possible expression levels (low, medium, high) would have 129,140,163 (317) possible test combinations - without the guarantee that it would operate in the complex background of an organism” he says. Nevertheless, his group has already begun to demonstrate proof-of-principle by introducing the plant Calvin cycle into non-CO2 fixing microorganisms. “I think that within the next decade we will see the transplantation of artificial CO2-fixation cycles into living organisms or even synthetic chloroplasts” he concludes.

REWIRING THE SYSTEM

Given that so much of our DNA is shared with other organisms, it is how our genome is “wired up” that makes us truly different. One of the most potent applications of synthetic biology is to introduce novel ‘gene circuits’ into micro-organisms. These have been used to develop sensory systems for toxic compounds, yet these can be activated by other substances besides the target. However, Baojun Wang (University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom), has demonstrated that we can learn a thing or two by borrowing concepts from electronic circuits. “We used the concept of a double-input AND gate to act as a filter for nonspecific signals” says Baojun. These systems contain two sensors which must both be activated to produce the output. A circuit to detect zinc ions, for instance, may have two input sensors, one of which also responds to lead ions, and the other to cadmium ions. The gene for the output protein (e.g. Green Fluorescent Protein, GFP) is under the control of the AND gate output promoter which contains binding sites for each cooperative activator protein expressed from the cognate input sensor. Hence both input sensors must be activated before output gene transcription occurs. “If only lead or cadmium ions are present, only one sensor is activated and GFP is not produced” says Baojun.

The concept of sensors can be taken further to improve the design of gene circuits that induce microorganisms to produce useful products. “These systems are highly efficient, but sometimes you want to tone production down” he says. In his “dynamic adaptive circuits”, sensors are

BUT THEORY DOESN’T ALWAYS TRANSLATE INTO REALITY AND MUCH OPTIMISATION NEEDS TO BE DONE. EXPOSING ENZYMES TO NOVEL SUBSTRATES FREQUENTLY CAUSES UNWANTED SIDE-REACTIONS, REQUIRING THEM TO BE ENGINEERED FURTHER OR THE ADDITION OF ‘PROOFREADING’ ENZYMES

Above right

A synthetic membrane bilayer made using the droplet interface method

Photo credit: OCastell

Left Constructing artifical carbon fixation pathways requires cloning genes from multiple different organisms

Photo credit: Tobias Erb

AS OUR TECHNOLOGY AND KNOWLEDGE IMPROVE

FURTHER, THE FUTURE

LOOKS SET TO SEE EVEN MORE INNOVATIVE SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES

introduced that respond to inputs such as light intensity or nutrient level by altering enzyme activity or turning on downstream genes that reduce metabolic flux. They can also be engineered to respond to the accumulation of toxic intermediates, either by reducing production or activating ‘clean up’ enzymes. “These gene circuits can thus help to build more adaptive and balanced microbial factories” says Baojun.

One of Baojun’s most exciting projects is seeking to engineer bacterial viruses (phages) with circuits that recognise pathogenic microorganisms in the human gut (such as E.coli and Salmonella) but not the benign species which digest food1. The phages will deliver CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases that will cleave specific sequences in the host bacteria’s genome. “Potentially, this could be developed into an oral administration to treat diarrhoeal diseases, particularly in resource poor areas” says Baojun. This could help avoid the side-effects of antibiotic treatments, which can affect beneficial gut bacteria and make nutritional disorders worse.

ARTIFICIAL LIFE

But perhaps the ultimate expression of synthetic biology is to completely engineer artificial cell systems. Ambitious as this sounds, Oliver Castell (Cardiff University, United Kingdom), 2016 SEB Cell President’s Medallist, has demonstrated that even simple approaches can go far. He focuses on mimicking the phospholipid cell membrane that surrounds cells and controls the flux of materials in and out. When a glass slide is coated with a hydrogel, then immersed in a lipid solution, the lipids will arrange as a monolayer at the water/lipid interface. If an aqueous drop is then added to the solution, a ring of lipids also forms around it. As the droplet sinks down through the solution, the lipids surrounding it contact the monolayer and become a bilayer. The inside of the droplet now resembles the cytoplasm of a cell, surrounded by a membrane. Transmembrane proteins can be inserted into the bilayer by including them in the drop’s contents. Because the system is based on glass slides, biological processes can then be measured optically. Ion flux through transmembrane pores for instance, can be quantified by filling the droplets with fluorescent dyes, such as the Ca2+ sensitive Fluo-8. As Ca2+ ions in the surrounding solution enter the droplet through the pore, they react with the dye, causing the pore to appear as a bright spot.

This is a powerful tool to understand membrane kinetics, but Oliver has taken it further to inspire a novel technique for DNA sequencing.

In conventional nanopore sequencing, an ionic current is passed through a protein nanopore embedded in a polymer membrane. “DNA is then ratecheted through the pore and this disrupts the ion flow” says Oliver. Because the four different bases alter the flow to different extents, the DNA molecule can be sequenced as it passes through the pore. “The main disadvantage of this system is that only one nanopore can be measured at a time, so only small genomes can be sequenced” says Oliver. “Our idea was to use our optical system to sequence DNA in a similar fashion but using multiple pores”. In his approach, the aqueous droplet contains DNA constructs tethered to bacterial streptavidin protein, Fluo-8 dye and nanopores from Staphylococcus aureus yeast. Once the droplet has docked and formed a bilayer-pore system, a current is applied to drive Ca2+ ions inside where they fluoresce with Fluo-8. The same charge also drives negatively-charged DNA out through the pores in the opposite direction, however, the streptavidin tether causes the DNA molecule to get stuck within the pore. The trapped DNA makes the pore more narrow, reducing the flow of the Ca2+ ions". “The residual fluorescence shows the flow of Ca2+ through the pore, and by that we can infer the base sequence as each has a distinct optical signature” says Oliver. Furthermore, the process can be scaled up to sequence many pores at once.

Oliver is already looking beyond to new applications, including encapsulating stem cells in droplets to protect them from the immune system. “We’re not saying that you shouldn’t study cells anymore” he concludes. “We are simply building parallel systems to help us ask smarter questions”.

As our technology and knowledge improve further, the future looks set to see even more innovative scientific advances. No doubt our synthetic biologists will be back with more wondrous innovations at the 2017 SEB meeting in Gothenburg.

To view the complete list of abstracts from the SEB Brighton session ‘Synthetic Biology: Systems Design and Rewiring’, visit http://www.sebiology.org/docs/default-source/Eventdocuments/cross-disciplinary-abstracts.pdf?sfvrsn=0 1. http://gcgh.grandchallenges.org/grant/missiled-bacteriophage -enabling-controlled-infant-gut-health

3

ENHANCING BIOLOGY EDUCATION –WE KNOW HOW!

Although the SEB is an organisation dedicated to bioscience research, it can sometimes be overlooked that the majority of our members are also teachers, to a greater or lesser extent. Innovative teaching methods and incentivising students is at the core of education and SEB+ has been making great strides in recent years to support the academic bioscience community in this.

During the one-day session ‘Enhancing Biology Education’ at SEB Brighton, we heard from a range of speakers who have developed creative ways to support student learning in the Biosciences. Here are a few examples:

OPEN BADGES

Anyone who was a scout or guide will remember the thrill of collecting badges of achievement. At the University of British Columbia, undergraduate student Lisa Go and Dr Kathryn Zeiler have used this concept to great success with their biology undergraduates. “Course objectives can be so overwhelming that students don’t go back to check they have met them” Lisa says. Her solution was to take the large list of course objectives and break them down into smaller, more palatable goals. These goals are then represented with a series of online ‘Digital Badges’ using Credly (https://credly.com/).

“By creating badges, we created a roadmap of learning with transparent goals that progressively build upon each other. Students know exactly what is expected of them allowing them to take full control of their learning” says Lisa. Students can claim each badge once they have met a series of objectives, and so build up a digital portfolio of skills. Badges can include practical skills, such as microscopy, and can be added to social media accounts on LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter, enhancing student resumes. The only problem for Lisa was that her students still yearned for a ‘real’ badge of their own. “In the end we made them iron-on badges for their lab coats - then they were very happy!” she says.

To claim your very own SEB Digital Badge, visit https://credly.com/, click “Claim Credit” in the title bar and enter the code C15-07CD-19A.

SKILLS AGENDA

It can be difficult for seasoned researchers to appreciate, but final-year research projects can be extremely daunting for undergraduates with little practical experience. “We found our students were terrified, kept asking trivial enquires and couldn’t think beyond the protocol” says Jane Gurman (Sheffield Hallam University). Their solution was to introduce a new lab-based module, so that practical skills went from being a “hidden agenda” to a formalised programme. Instead of leaving research projects to the final year, undergraduates now complete a series of “little labs” each year that build up to a miniproject. In the second year, this is assessed by a report and a formal presentation in the style of a scientific conference. By the time they come to their final year project, students now have “much more confidence – they just get on with it” says Jane. Even better, there has been a real jump in the number of students now going on to industry positions or further study.

PRACTICAL DEBRIEFS

Practical classes are one of the most challenging aspects of science teaching, and undergraduates often struggle in this environment. Katharine Hubbard (University of Hull) found that a significant minority of students found labs “stressful” and “confusing” in a project she ran while still working at the University of Cambridge. There was a clear call for “pre-practical” resources to help students prepare for labs, but also “post-practical” materials to help them revise. Who better to make these than students who had experienced “getting it wrong” for themselves? “Our students are a fantastic creative resource that should be tapped” says Katharine. “It’s time we used all the extra skills we know they have from their UCAS forms!” Four students were awarded paid internships to produce a suite of bespoke online materials and videos with

dynamic feedback. The videos certainly proved popular, especially in the run up to the exams when usage counts soared. The experience was also invaluable for the interns themselves and Katharine is looking to embed student-produced work into more modules in the future.

CREATIVE STREAKS

“Traditional labs often train students very well to do part of a task but they can’t think outside the box” argues Mark Clements (University of Lincoln). Having an interdisciplinary approach combining art with science is a powerful antidote for this. BroadVision, an art/science collaboration at the University of Westminster, is one such example (http://broad-vision.info/). Here student projects have included making a “bioluminescent immersive experience” in a darkened room, and facial agar masks to investigate the microflora which live on us. Similarly, in the Idea Translation Lab, art and science undergraduates from Trinity College Dublin work together to create an exhibit for the local science gallery. Besides motivating students to really consider how their research can be applied, such projects also foster those key ‘soft skills’ that employers seek - including resourcefulness, initiative and communication.

INDUSTRY PROBLEMS

Whether biology graduates stay in academia or go into industry, their success depends on their ability to apply taught knowledge to real problems. To foster this skill in his students, David Smith (Sheffield Hallam University) developed “blended problem solving sessions” based on real-life problems supplied by employers. Each problem is presented as a YouTube video 48 hours before the tutorial, at which the students discuss possible solutions. After collecting their ideas on the online tool

Padlet, the students watch a second video which reveals the actual solution that was used. Similar industry-based learning is becoming more widespread – the students at the University of Lincolnshire School of Pharmacy, for instance, are challenged each year to produce a new public health campaign for local Co-Op Pharmacies. “Feedback from the students has been highly positive” says David. “Besides knowing that what they are being taught can be applied, this approach has led to more engagement with the teaching material”.

Far left

Facial Agar mask

Photo credit:

Melissa Fisher

Left Katharine Hubbard engaging students in the lab

Photo credit:

Mike Park

BESIDES MOTIVATING STUDENTS TO REALLY CONSIDER HOW THEIR RESEARCH CAN BE APPLIED, SUCH PROJECTS ALSO FOSTER THOSE KEY ‘SOFT SKILLS’ THAT EMPLOYERS SEEK - INCLUDING RESOURCEFULNESS, INITIATIVE AND COMMUNICATION.

BEST OF THE REST

CAREERS

WHEN YOUR STUDENTS ASK “WHAT’S NEXT?”, POINT THEM TO WWW.BIOSCIENCECAREERS.WORDPRESS. COM WHERE THEY WILL FIND A WEALTH OF BIOSCIENCE GRADUATE PROFILES. THESE INCLUDE BOTH ‘TRADITIONAL’ RESEARCH-BASED ROLES – SUCH AS CONSERVATIONISTS AND GENOMICS –BUT ALSO ROUTES OUT OF ACADEMIA; EVERYTHING FROM A LIBRARIAN TO A MARKET ANALYST!

PLANT SCIENCE

HOW TO SHOW YOUR STUDENTS THAT PLANTS ARE JUST AS FASCINATING AS ANIMALS? HEAD TO TEACHING TOOLS IN PLANT SCIENCE, AN ONLINE REPOSITORY OF INSPIRING RESEARCH-BASED LESSON MATERIALS HOSTED BY THE PLANT CELL. HTTP://WWW.PLANTCELL.ORG/SITE/ TEACHINGTOOLS/

BIOMIMETICS

LET BILLY BAMBOO AMAZE YOUR STUDENTS ABOUT HOW NATURAL DESIGNS HAVE INFORMED HUMAN DESIGN. QUIZZES AVAILABLE IN ENGLISH AND GERMAN WWW.BIONIK-ONLINE.DE

A TOOLBOX FOR COMMUNICATION

Whether you’re speaking at a conference or in a lecture theatre –taking some time to brush up your presentation skills will always pay dividends in maximising the impact of your message. At SEB Brighton 2016, we heard from some of the masters in the trade during the “Science Communication Toolkit” session.

DREAMWRITING THE SCIENCES

Ever wished that manuscript would write itself? According to journalist and writer Gilly Smith (University of Brighton), it can if only we would only tap into our unconscious creativity. ‘Dreamwriting’ (also known as ‘free’ or ‘automatic’ writing) is an approach that helps to draw fresh connections between ideas, experiences and words. It essentially involves writing automatically, without stopping and without worrying about whether what you write is good enough. “Creativity often proceeds by intuitive leaps, drawing from areas of the mind not regulated by rational thoughts” says Gilly. This may explain why our best ideas often come when we are least expecting them. Dreamwriting can be likened to casting a fishing net that helps you to catch all your ideas at once, so you can then pick out the ones you don’t need. “It may not write your thesis but it can get you through the tunnel of writer’s block or pop the champagne cork on your ideas” says Gilly. She has also seen dreamwriting help academics to “fall in love with their research” again, for instance by using it to write short TV or radio scripts describing their work. Gilly also recommends an exercise called ‘The Saboteur’: “In 20 minutes, write a really nice letter to your inner critic, thank them for bringing you here, say why you don’t need them anymore then say goodbye nicely. It can be profoundly empowering”. Whether you use pen and paper, iPad or even a Dictaphone, dreamwriting can help us all to liberate that unconscious stream of genius.

BIOLOGY ON THE BOX

Strategically selected videos have the potential to both simplify difficult concepts and to enthral, making them a powerful tool for engagement. “TV clips can be a useful way to set the scene or stimulate a discussion” says Chris Willmott (University of Leicester, UK). “We often set clips for students to watch before tutorials so we can use the time better”. If you’re based in the UK, your Institute likely has a subscription to Box of Broadcasts (BoB http://bobnational. net/). This comprehensive online archive contains over 2 million TV and radio programmes that can be used for educational purposes copyright-free. But with so much choice, finding the material you want can feel like looking for a needle in a haystack. Fortunately, BiologyOnTheBox (https://biologyonthebox.wordpress.com/) has done the hard work for you. “This recommends TV and radio content for enriching bioscience teaching” says Chris, the curator of the site. Entries, including programmes and specific clips, generally come with a review and suggestions for

using them in lessons. Besides flagship natural history documentaries, these cover bioethics debates, news clips, panorama specials and even Countryfile episodes. There are also tips for using and navigating BoB, including how to make your own clips from full-length programmes. Those who are already biologyfilm connoisseurs meanwhile, can turn reviewer and post their own entries, to get what Chris describes as a “warm glow of knowing that you’ve contributed something for the benefit of others”.

COMMUNICATING THROUGH CARTOONS

According to Anne Osterrieder (Oxford Brookes University, UK), using cartoons is a sure-fire way to give your presentations the unique touch. “Even if you’re not Walt Disney, you can use cartoons to convey information that would take a lot of words to tell” she says. Adding emotions and human touches are particularly effective ways to make your images ‘sticky’ – such as giving the nucleus a monocle to show it is the “wise brain” of the cell. But even simple line drawings can be potent, for instance in depicting protein structures, cells and microorganisms. There’s no need for expensive software – CorelDRAW, Paint, GIMP and (for Ipads) Paper have plenty of features to get you started. You can even cheat by using pictures from websites that stockpile royaltyfree graphics, such as Public-Domain-Photos (http://www.public-domain-photos.com/).

For those looking to take their creations to the next level, Anne recommends PowToon, an online platform for designing animated videos and presentations that can be uploaded onto YouTube. And if you need inspiration, “the Twitter hashtag #sciart is a great way to discover new science artists such as the Amoeba sisters on Youtube or Errant Science (http://errantscience.com/)” says Anne.

IMAGES FOR IMPACT

With PowerPoint so ubiquitous these days, it can be difficult to stand out from the crowd. But as Mary Williams (Features Editor, The Plant Cell) knows, Microsoft Office has some simple tricks “we can all use without having an arts degree” to give our images impact. Take the SmartArt function for example. This automatically turns bullet-point lists into professional, customisable diagrams at the click of a button. Meanwhile, there is a suite of tools to help you tailor your own images to purpose. The ‘Remove Background’ function for instance, is useful if you want to

superimpose a particular object in a photograph front of another background. ‘Crop to Shape’ meanwhile, allows you to instantly fit your image or photo to any shape you desire. ‘Artistic Effects’ can give your pictures the waterbrush quality of a painting or a striking ‘posterized’ feel. Even if you have few images of your own, there are now many online databases hosting publicly-available images. Besides the well-known Flickr, Mary recommends Openclipart, Wellcome Images, Bugwood (for plants and insects) and the New York Public Libraries Digital Collections. Just remember to include the name of the photographer or the source of the image. But before you get carried away, Mary cautions “Just because it’s easy, don’t overuse it. A little goes a long way so use images strategically to reinforce your message”.

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BIODIVERSITY MATTERS:

SCIENCE WITH IMPACT

This year’s annual ‘Science with Impact’ session featured the usual excellent speaker line-up and, for the first time in its 4-year history, a public audience were invited to join the SEB delegates and participate in the discussions. Chaired by George Littlejohn (SEB+ section chair), our panel first presented their particular perspectives on biodiversity, after which the floor was opened for questions. Global biodiversity. HERE

WHERE

As a plant hunter, Sandy Knapp (Natural History Museum, UK) knows well the joy of discovering a new species. In a world where we have already accumulated much knowledge, there is still much to be found. “It’s said that we know more about the surface of Mars than some places on Earth and an estimated 20% of all flowering plants are waiting to be described,” she explains. But the joy of finding new species is tempered with apprehension: “It’s like finding a unique copy of a book in a library as you start to smell the smoke. Species are disappearing at an unprecedented rate as we hurtle towards the sixth mass extinction.”

And this is happening everywhere, not just in far-off places. According to Sandy, our challenge is to help the public know the joy of discovering species for themselves around them. Knowing that something exists is the first step towards taking action to protect it. “There isn’t an answer to the question “How many species do we need?” concludes Sandy. “Our challenge is to see the world as a whole and take conservation from the local to the global level”.

URBAN BIODIVERSITY

Closer to home, over 50% of us now live in cities and this is predicted to reach 66% by 2050. But these urban sprawls fragment natural habitats and pose heavy impacts on the environment –including heating, flooding and air pollution. Whilst some species have been able to adapt to the city lifestyle, others are struggling, which raises the question: can we do anything to help biodiversity thrive in our cities? According to Maureen Berg (University of Brighton, UK), green infrastructure has the potential to create a mosaic of habitats even in the urban environment. This goes beyond parks and

gardens and encompasses allotments, canals, disused railways, rivers – even rooftops. Besides fostering biodiversity, green infrastructure promotes ecosystem services that nourish our health and wellbeing, including climate regulation, air quality and water storage. There are even economic impacts: house prices rise and we even spend more in greener areas. Green spaces can also be invaluable for education and engagement, helping people to see that “biodiversity is part of their life and not just something on TV far away,” as Maureen says. “This makes them able to push for policies for a more biodiverse urban environment”.

AQUATIC BIODIVERSITY

When it comes to biodiversity loss, times are particularly hard for marine species. “Freshwater is the most imperilled ecosystem on the planet, with freshwater fish second only to amphibians as the most vulnerable taxa,” says Steven Cooke (Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada). Besides the ‘classic threats’ of climate change, eutrophication and habitat destruction, new dangers are rapidly emerging: electronic waste, microplastic particles, pharmaceutical waste, noise pollution, etc. Indeed, we have altered the planet to such an extent that scientists have described it as a completely new epoch – the Anthropocene. But despite the current state, the future is still open as to whether the Anthropocene will ultimately be good or bad for biodiversity and humanity. As Sandy and Maureen also indicated, people are the most important part of this equation. “The ultimate form of environmental education is behaviour modification – the way we purchase, vote and interact with the environment,” says Steven. But to influence this, we need to move beyond saying “The sky is falling!” and instead inspire

the public with the optimism that they can make a difference. “Science is only part of the solution,” Steven concludes. “I challenge you to think about the Anthropocene you would like, then make it happen as a scientist and a citizen”.

Q: What should we do to avoid overwhelming people in complex situations where there are multiple stressors?

SC: Complexity makes it difficult for policy makers to act. As scientists, we need to do more experiments to investigate multiple stressors and identify thresholds, so that we can provide a clear message.

SK: Never underestimate how analogy can help understanding. Often we as scientists try to explain things that are very specific instances but simplifying things and analogising it to everyday life can help us all to understand complexity.

Q: What should we do when people clash over green spaces (e.g. farmers and walkers in the English Lake District)?

MB: The public often don’t have sufficient information about how working people maintain the green spaces that they like. For instance, kayakers can have very negative views about fishers, until they realise that fishers do a lot of work to maintain the river habitat.

SC: We need to do a better job of finding winwin-win situations that support conservation, food security and livelihoods. It’s an opportunity for social scientists.

Q: How can we prevent distorted science from being reported in the media?

SC: Always be an honest broker. Be clear when you are advocating and giving your opinion versus describing what the science and the data actually says.

MB: Social media can be effective. If you put a neat, condensed package on Facebook or Twitter then you can link it to the research paper so the public get the science behind the story.

SK: Be aware though that social media is a bubble – it selects what you see based on what you post so you think everyone thinks like you do. The only way that we are going to chance human behaviour is to talk to those who don’t agree with you.

Above

This years panel chaired by George Littlejohn

CAFÉ SCIENTIFIQUE

Since they first started in 1998, Café Scientifiques have been bringing researchers and the public together to discuss the latest scientific ideas in cafes, bars and restaurants across the country. For the public, these events offer an insight into the real world of academic research. For the researchers meanwhile, it’s an opportunity to have their work scrutinised by a different audience, who often have very searching questions! At our 2016 Annual Meeting, the SEB joined forces with the Brighton Café Scientifique group to present “The good, the bad, and the ugly: Who benefits from living and moving in groups?”

Whilst the second poster session was winding down at the conference centre on Day 3 of the SEB Meeting, the doors were just opening at the Latest Musicbar, host for the Brighton Café Scientifique. One of our longtime SEB members and this year’s organiser of the Egg Symposium, Steve Portugal (Royal Holloway University of London) was getting ready to inspire some of Brighton’s public on the world of animal group dynamics. With over 1,060 members, Brighton’s Café Scientifique events are typically oversubscribed and members came out in force (despite the Football World Cup final). “Everyone who comes enjoys hearing an expert talking knowledgeably about their field of research” said David Sang, who coordinates the Brighton Café Scientifique’s events and chaired the session tonight. Steve gave an entertaining introduction to the world of animal behaviour before explaining how “we can use this knowledge to benefit our lives and technology”. One of his projects has addressed the question of why do birds often fly in V formations? Early models suggested that this saves energy as the birds position themselves to benefit from the updraft of the bird in front. However, these models presume that the birds have fixed-wings like aircraft: the only way to truly test the theory was to use living subjects. The endangered Northern Bald Ibis was chosen, a species that historically migrated from Austria to Southern Italy. Not wanting to lose their £3000 data loggers, the research team used a group of captive Ibises that had been trained to follow their human “foster parents”. The birds were then taken on their very own ‘migration’ to Italy, following on behind ‘Mum’ or ‘Dad’, who was strapped into a microlight (“like a chair with a hairdryer on the back of it” says Steve), bellowing encouragement through a megaphone. The results demonstrated that not only did the birds generally keep to the most energetically saving formation, but they also remembered which individuals had done their fair share of the hard work at the front. “The birds have a complicated social network – they remember each other and what they’ve done” said Steve. When a particularly keen bird put in a hard day’s work at the front for instance, the next day his fellows made sure they had a rest at the back. “The more work you are prepared to do for others, the more they will reward you” said Steve.

Fascinating as this is from a biological perspective, aviation companies are already looking to mimic V formations in passenger aircraft in the near future. “This could save money on fuel and allow planes to travel further” said Steve. “As an example, planes would take off from Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, etc. join together in the air to cross the Pacific, then peel off to their respective American destinations”.

Steve’s talk certainly proved a hit with the audience and prompted a lively round of questions. “Absolutely gripping and totally immersing…Steve really demonstrated how we can learn from nature” said audience member Louise. It also proved useful for Steve, who said “It was unique experience presenting in such a curious venue and in a more relaxed atmosphere than normal. A couple of the audience’s questions really made me re-think the interpretations of some of my findings”.

Fancy putting your research under the Café Scientifique spotlight? Find your local group at: http://www.cafescientifique.org/

For information on how to train a Northern Bald Ibis, see http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11574073

Above Northern Bald Ibis Photo credit: Tatjana Hubel

DETAILS

12 – 14 DECEMBER 2016

CHARLES DARWIN HOUSE, LONDON, UK

ORGANISED BY DR GRAHAM SCOTT

UNIVERSITY OF HULL, UK & DR SARA MARSHAM

UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE, UK

T A I I T Y V

KEY TOPICS

• INTER-DISCIPLINARITY – BRINGING THE ARTS INTO SCIENCE TEACHING

• MAKER TECHNOLOGY

• PLAYFUL LEARNING

• RESEARCH AS A CREATIVE PROCESS

• THE USE OF VIDEO IN TEACHING

MEET THE YOUNG ACADEMICS

BY CAROLINE WOOD

Speakers: Carol Bucking (York University, Canada), Gonzalo Estavillo (CSIRO, Australia), George Littlejohn (University of Exeter, UK), Jodie Rummer (James Cook University, Australia), Teresa Valencak (University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria)

Chair: Sarah Blackford, Head of Education and Public Affairs, SEB

With only enough academic positions to employ around 5% of PhD students, there comes a time when every young researcher must decide whether to try and ‘make it’ in academia or chose another career path. During the lunchtime Question and Answer session “Meet the Young Academics” at SEB Brighton 2016, our early-career delegates were able to find out just what it takes to land that elusive tenured position. Our panel featured plant, animal and cell biologists, all of whom were current or past SEB president’s medallists. Together they demonstrated the diversity of career paths available across different nations.

THE EARLY BIRD CATCHES THE WORM?

Given the high level of competition, how early should PhD students start looking for postdocs? The panel agreed that sooner is always better, but opportunities often come about through contacts you make from your research. “During my PhD in Canada, we were encouraged to work with other experts to learn new techniques” said Jodie. “These small collaborations in your PhD can turn into postdocs later on”. Even outside the lab, you should be seizing every chance to improve your network, advised Gonzalo: “Go to conferences, talk to the person next to you and never sit with your own lab group,” he said. But if you want to apply to a specific programme or award, a focussed approach may be necessary. “I started applying for postdocs two years before my PhD finished but this was because I wanted to fund it through a Fellowship, and these can take up to a year to come through” said Carol.

UPSKILL DEVELOPMENT?

And when it comes to making these applications, is it important to have teaching experience? The panel were unanimous that this can give you an edge in the job market. “For us mortals without Nature papers, the more you can increase your skills, the more likely you are to get the job you like. Showing you can communicate gives you an extra advantage,” said Gonzalo, with Teresa adding: “I think one of the reasons my University hired me was because I have a teaching degree so could be used both as a researcher and a lecturer”.

DURING MY PHD IN CANADA, WE WERE ENCOURAGED TO WORK WITH OTHER EXPERTS TO LEARN NEW TECHNIQUES. THESE SMALL COLLABORATIONS IN YOUR PHD CAN TURN INTO POSTDOCS LATER ON.

STAYING POWER?

Meanwhile, is a change always for the better or does it harm your career prospects to ‘stay put’? “My postdoc was very much a continuation of my PhD and it didn’t harm me at all; it enabled me to think about some ideas in a really different way,” said Jodie. Making a break, however, does broaden your skills and self-development. “Having a wide experience convinces people that you will function well in a department, that you can make links with people and contribute to teaching across the board” said George.

A CHANGE FOR THE BETTER?

And what about changing your area of research – how amenable are PIs and potential supervisors to a change of interest, or slightly off-topic ‘side-projects’? In this respect, funding can be a key issue. “My centre had a set of specific guidelines so I only had a few options,” said Gonzalo. “But inside my topic, I was free to move in different directions”. Securing your own funding can thus be the key to your independence. “Try to develop skills in writing grants and getting information on new grant proposals during your PhD, because this is something, as academics, we have to do on a daily basis,” said Teresa. The important thing is to communicate your ambitions to your supervisor. “If your post doc isn’t exactly what you want it to be, you need to have a very honest conversation with your PI,” said Carol. “There are often ways to work around in the background to get what you want and most PIs are very amenable to that”.

Wrapping up this lively session, George, made a more general comment on the art of career choice saying, “Life happens at the same time you make your career – so make your decisions based on your values”.

TOP TIPS

BE TENACIOUS APPLY, APPLY, APPLY!

STAY POSITIVE YOU NEVER KNOW HOW THINGS WILL WORK OUT GRAB EVERY OPPORTUNITY TO BUILD YOUR NETWORK, LEARN NEW TECHNIQUES AND HAVE NEW EXPERIENCES

BUILD YOUR OWN NICHE AND EXPLOIT IT

BE OPEN TO DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS, CAREER PATHS AND FUNDING SOURCES

TALKING THE TALK

One of the SEB’s great strengths is that its members represent all levels of academia – from established professors to PhD students just embarking on their research journeys. It is therefore fitting that the day preceding the Annual Meeting is traditionally focused on our early-career members. Caroline Wood gives a round-up of this year’s event which focussed on the art of effective communication.

You never get a second chance to make a first impression,” said SEB’s Head of Education and Public Affairs and science career specialist, Sarah Blackford. Opening the day’s proceedings, she stressed the importance of building a professional profile that is both appropriate and informative. This acts as a platform on which you can inform people about who you are and what you do: “If you don’t communicate your research, it doesn’t exist, so always be prepared with an engaging and positive ‘elevator pitch’ that captures your work succinctly.” Try to weave your research into a narrative - stories are how we have been conditioned historically to engage with information. Above all, don’t be disparaging about yourself. Confidence is key and ‘body language’ (the way you present yourself) says more about you than the spoken or written word alone.

Following Sarah’s introduction to “talking the talk”, the afternoon focussed on how to go public and tackle the media. Invited speaker, Jenny Gimpel (SEB’s first press intern and currently PR manager at King’s College London), gave some really valuable insights into the “competitive but collaborative” scientific news industry. “Timing is critical if you want to publicise your work – if it’s not new, it’s not news,” she stressed. “As soon as you have a paper accepted, start preparing –liaise with your University press office, draft a press release (embargoed if necessary) and conduct interviews with journalists”. Be aware though, that writing for the media requires a different approach to a journal paper. Rather than leaving your ‘big finding’ to the end, it needs to be stressed straight away to draw your audience in. “You should also make sure your message has international relevance –particularly important when 75% of the world now owns a smartphone,” said Jenny. Keep in mind though that all interest is good; “You

will really miss out if you limit yourself to the top tier,” said Jenny. “You may not think much of social media, but there is evidence that tweeting about your research leads to higher citation counts”. Consider using bold, striking infographics and compelling photographs to attract as diverse an audience as possible.

For many scientists, however, media engagement is a daunting prospect. Yet help is at hand, including the Voice of Young Science (VOYS) network, a programme hosted by Sense About Science. They provide training and workshops to help early career scientists engage with the media and public debates. “The network has really taken on a life on its own,” said Claire Marriott (lecturer at the University of Brighton and an active VOYS ambassador). Chairing the panel session, Claire added: “Our members have responded to ‘dodgy’ media stories – such as ‘detox diets’and asked companies for the evidence behind claims they make about their products”.

Meanwhile, as a researcher-turnedjournalist, Alun Anderson (former editor of New Scientist) was well placed to offer advice on working with the media. His “stochastic” career has included writing for Nature, Science, New Scientist, The Economist – as well as a few books of his own. He urged the young scientists not to see journalists as a ‘pest’, but as a partner. “Our goal should be to empower the public so they know what is happening in the world,” he said. Nevertheless, one has to remember that the media is an “entertainment industry” and that “if you don’t grab people’s attention, you may as well have said nothing”. But don’t become too flippant; “Remember, you are on a stage and have to be aware of the possible consequences,” advised Alun.

The session finished with a lively panel discussion, leaving participants inspired with new outlets to get their research onto the public stage.

PANEL DISCUSSION

Is there a conflict between what scientists and journalists want?

Alun: Journalists can miss whole areas of science – for instance, there is almost no reporting on chemistry or plant science. Yet there are so many astronomy stories even though black holes are much harder to understand. Perhaps we need to work harder at making sure people know why it is important.

Jenny: It’s not a case of ‘us and them’: journalists need scientists and scientists need journalists. If you don’t have writers in certain areas, you won’t get the media stories, so the burden on us is to explain our work.

How can we balance attracting people’s attention and over-exaggerating our message?

Jenny: It is up to press officers to be vigilant about reporting correlation rather than cause-and-effect, especially for health stories. Safeguard your work and include the limitations of your study. It is better to turn a story down than risk it getting hijacked.

Claire: Good journalists always get a quote from an independent researcher as well.

Alun: Know in your own mind what you are doing and why you think it is important.

How do you go about finding stories and deciding what to write about?

Alun: Times have changed so much. Before, we would target the elite journals. But now we have the power of Google, we are more able to find all kinds of stuff.

With so much published on the web nowadays, how can one break through the noise?

Alun: Build an audience: join something like The Conversation and get involved in discussions (https://theconversation.com/uk).

How can public engagement benefit scientists?

Claire: The public often ask different questions than other researchers and make you better at explaining yourself.

Alun: Public engagement helps scientists to take a step back, see the bigger picture and decide where you should be taking your research.

Should scientists get involved in contentious issues (such as GM crops)?

Jenny: If you have a new area of research, you have to keep talking about it or the public see it as an unfamiliar concept. One success story is three-person embryos (mitochondrial donation). This was ultimately accepted because there was a constant debate and an army of scientists ready to answer the public’s questions.

Alun: The journalist’s role is to bring people together for discussion. GM crops are an example of an arrogant, mishandled approach. Only later did scientists come out on the benefits; before then, the public saw them as something to benefit the agricultural industry.

What’s your top tip for becoming a science communicator?

Jenny: Listen to the radio, watch the news, read the papers but this time do it carefully and ask “Has this been done well? Is it a good example of science communication?”

Alun: Follow your passion and let it show without becoming too hippy!

Claire: Start now – take advantage of conferences for practice, for instance by interviewing people and writing blogs.

“From now on, I’m going to stress the significance – the WOW factor- at the start and not the end” Grace Scott, Western Sydney University, Australia.

“It’s made me realise that as an institute we could do much more to extend the reach of our researchers” Alexander Stubenvoll, Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Germany.

“It’s broadened my tunnel vision and helped me not to get too bogged down in details” Esther Odekunle, Queen Mary University of London, UK.

“I now realise that publishing isn’t the end of the story and that scientists have their own voice afterwards” Tina Bedekovic, University of Aberdeen, UK.

For more information about the Voice of Young Science network, visit http:// www.senseaboutscience.org/pages/ voys.html

Podcasts are all the range these days and during the session Mark Cunliffe showed us how to make one by recording live clips from our speakers and delegates. You can find the result here (link**). But anyone can have a go at a Podcasts. Mark particularly recommends listening to RadioLab and 99% Invisible for some ideas.

DIVERSITY DINNERS

MAJOR CHALLENGES FOR MINORITY OPPORTUNITIES

BY JONATHAN SMITH

Once known as the Women in Science dinner, the SEB’s newly rebranded Diversity Dinner was held in Brighton during the Annual Meeting this year. As our guest speaker for the evening, Professor David Asai1, who is director of the undergraduate science education programme at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute (HHMI), USA, revealed his inspiring ideas for helping science and academia become more inclusive for minorities.

Diversity poses our greatest challenge, and presents our greatest opportunity,” began David Asai, following a welcoming introduction from former colleague and SEB+ Section member, Dr Mary Williams2. Out of all the potential quotes he could have used to kick off the SEB’s inaugural Diversity Dinner, it was a big surprise when he cited Pope Francis, leader of the Catholic Church and, most certainly, not a scientist. David told the audience that he found the Pope’s second Encyclical3 on climate change and the environment – released last year – remarkable. “Scientifically, it is a wonderful essay,” he enthused, explaining that, although there is nothing new about communicating the importance of biodiversity and the environment to the public, the Pope added in his own perspective saying how climate change is affecting poor people. This perspective is what helped his message on the dangers of climate change engage so many people and was a stark lesson regarding the power of diversity.

The benefits of a diverse work force are clear to most scientists; however, science still has a long way to go in terms of the participation of ethnic minorities. Referring to Scott E. Page’s book4, David highlighted why science needs diversity: diversity is a property and a benefit of a group, and science is a group activity, involving collaborations, review panels and interdisciplinary cooperation. Diversity improves problem-solving because persons with different perspectives bring new strategies, new tools, and new ways to interpret data; the more difficult the problem, the greater the benefit of a diverse group of problem-solvers.

A citizen of the US whose family is of Japanese ancestry, David is no stranger to the importance of diversity in science. “Ethnic minorities are by no means the only ‘diversity’ group in the population,” he clarified, “but I am focusing on this aspect today because it has a long way to go to improve in this area.” With around 37 per cent of the population made up of ethnic minorities, the US has a diverse population, which is set to exceed 50 per cent in a generation’s time. However, the fact that only around nine per cent of scientists come from ethnic minority groups, David made it clear that this represents a major opportunity lost for science and technology.

So why does this disparity exist? “To overcome the shortfall in the talent pool, we need to discover the reality of what is happening,” said David, quickly moving to debunk the common myth that minorities are not interested in science. “University science courses actually start off with ethnic minorities overrepresented,” he told the audience. “But this trend reverses when you look at graduation rates, meaning that many ethnic minority students drop out during the course of their

studies.” Challenging another myth, David revealed that drop-out rates among minorities is much higher than for all students even when controlling for preparation, such as maths and family support. To identify the true causes, David advocated that we look for the problem within the academic system itself.

Even though universities across the world are trying to address the diversity issue in their student population, David believes that their good intentions are undermined by three important flaws in the system. First, many initiatives are aimed at the students, such as mentoring programmes. While these activities perhaps are effective, “this is essentially ‘blaming the victim’, whilst not tackling the root cause of the issue,” said David, advising: “It would be better to allocate our resources to training up faculty members to recognise and tackle their own implicit biases.” His second point focused on the educational infrastructure and incentive system for lecturers. “At present, most undergraduate students are kept from doing real research in real labs until their final year,” he explained. “We need to provide more authentic discovery-based research opportunities for all students at an earlier age.” As his final point, David highlighted issues of communication saying that, currently, there is not enough engagement between social scientists - who are measuring the effectiveness of interventions - and science practitioners: “We need to have discussions around what good mentoring systems and research environments look like,” he said.

David wrapped up his talk by highlighting the difference between diversity and inclusion. “Diversity can be empirically measured, whereas inclusion is an emotional value; budding researchers from diverse backgrounds must feel like they belong,” he said. In a culture where exclusion is increasingly valued by politicians and the electorate, we must learn to be truly inclusive in science and not just diverse.

Having savoured David’s words, whilst enjoying a delicious three-course dinner hosted by the Ship Hotel, the audience was ready to pose questions to the speaker. Ably chaired by the SEB’s Equality and Diversity group convenor, Dr Teresa Valencak 5, a graduate student provoked the first line of discussion by suggesting that the silence of students in lecture halls might wrongly imply to many minority students that it is only they who don’t fully understand the subject being taught. David agreed, stating that lecturing without encouraging student participation is bordering on malpractice. The discussion then shifted to the roles of lecturers and their departments in the question of inclusivity, with one commenter playing the devil’s advocate and stating that researchers have to cope with too many academic pressures to spend time on outreach, and another adding

that departments must make it easier for academics to create an inclusive atmosphere saying: “Tell your management what you think inclusion should be. Rebel!”

David wrapped up the proceedings, describing how impressed he was with the SEB’s focus on diversity and equality at the annual meeting. “It is clear that you [the audience] have already demonstrated your willingness to tackle this issue by attending this Diversity Dinner,” he remarked. With these words of encouragement, the SEB hopes to continue increasing its emphasis on inclusion and diversity and encourages all its members to consider supporting the next Diversity Dinner, which will take place during the main meeting in Gothenberg next year.

1. http://www.hhmi.org/news/hhmi-appoints-david-asaiundergraduate-science-education-program-director 2. http://aspb.academia.edu/MaryWilliams

3. http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/ documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si. html

4. https://www.amazon.com/Difference-Diversity-CreatesSchools-Societies/dp/0691138540

5. http://vetmeduni.academia.edu/TeresaValencak

SEB GOTHENBURG 2017

3–6 JULY 2017

SWEDISH EXHIBITION AND CONFERENCE CENTRE

SEBIOLOGY.ORG #SEBAMM

GÖT THE DATE?

CONFERENCE HIGHLIGHTS:

· 9 SIMULTANEOUS SESSIONS IN PLANT, CELL AND ANIMAL BIOLOGY

· ATTRACTS OVER 800 DELEGATES FROM ALL AROUND THE WORLD

· OPPORTUNITY FOR INTERDISCIPLINARY NETWORKING AND CROSS-COLLABORATION

· SUBMIT YOUR RESEARCH FOR ORAL AND POSTER PRESENTATION

· CAREER DEVELOPMENT WORKSHOPS FOR YOUNG RESEARCHERS

· SEB+ EDUCATIONAL SESSIONS

· FINANCIAL SUPPORT AND GRANTS FOR STUDENTS AND YOUNG RESEARCHERS