9789127447172

ECHO

ECHO ENGLISH 7

Marie Kabala-Rejment

ECHO ENGLISH 7 Echo är en läromedelsserie i engelska för gymnasiet och vuxenutbildningen.

Echo English 7 är avsedd för Engelska 7 och förbereder effektivt för högre studier med engelska som arbetsspråk.

Komponenter i Echo English 7 Huvudbok i tre sektioner med information, instruktioner och övningar: Read & Respond, Write & Speak, Literature & Criticism.

Elevwebb med facit till bokens uppgifter, inspelade texter, hörövningar och extra arbetsblad. Aktivera kontot på nok.se/mina sidor.

Digitalbok med materialet från elevwebben integrerat i boken.

Övriga böcker i Echo-serien

ECHO

• Huvudböcker: Main Issues 5, Main Issues 5 Vocational, Main Issues 6 • Novellsamlingar: Short Stories 5, Short Stories 6 • Lärarwebbar, elevwebbar och digitalböcker

Läs mer på www.nok.se/echo

7

MARIE KABALA-REJMENT

ISBN 978-91-27-44717-2

9 789127 447172

Omslag_ECHO_7.indd Alla sidor

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Contents Read and Respond Is sugar the world’s most popular drug?

Sleep ‘resets’ brain connections The trouble with teaching rape law Should we trash cash?

Africa’s healthcare crisis Julian Opie’s portraits in motion

Literary Periods and Criticism 6 26 36 48 58 72

Write and Speak Academic Writing 84 Sample Texts and Instructions 87 1 Abstract 88 2 Cover letter, CV & Video application 90 3 Argumentative essay/speech, Debate, Negotiation 100 4 Discussion essay 109 5 Informative essay & speech 113 6 Literary analysis (also film and drama) 120 7 Compare and contrast essay 126 8 Research report & Peer response 131 9 Summary and response essay 136 Rhetorical Devices Feedback and Revision Source Criticism and Citation Grammar

Literary Periods The Middle Ages The Renaissance The Enlightenment Romanticism The Victorian Age Modern Times The Post-War 40s to the 60s The Hippie Movement to the 80s The 90s and Beyond Drama in the 20th century Poetry in the 20th century

170 171 175 181 187 192 198 206 212 219 226 233

Literary Criticism Introduction Postcolonialism Feminism Psychoanalysis

239 240 245 249 255

141 144 147 152

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not be properly laid down. But Christoph Nissen, a psychiatrist who led the study at the Univ

about the potential for helping people with mental health disorders. One radical treatment for

sleep deprivation, which Nissen believes works through changing the patient’s brain connecti

READ RESPOND

deeper understanding of the phenomenon which could be adapted to produce more practical a fundamental question. Why do we spend so much of our lives in this brain state? This work

active brain process and not a waste of time. It’s required for healthy brain function,” said Nis

what is called the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis of sleep, which was developed by scientist

Madison in 2003. It explains why our brains need to rest after a day spent absorbing all manne

morning news and the state of the weather, to a chat over lunch and what we must buy for tea

&

the hypothesis states that when we are awake, the synapses that form connections between ou more as we learn and eventually saturate our brains with information. The process requires a the brain to wind down its activity, consolidate our memories, and be ready to start again the journal Nature Communications Communications,, Nissen describes a series of tests that 11 men and nine women

after a good night’s sleep, or after a night without sleep. On the sleepless night, participants pl

cooked food, but were not allowed caffeine. Staff watched them throughout to make sure they

of experiments, Nissen used magnetic pulses to make neurons fire in the volunteers’ brains an

hand to twitch. When sleep deprived, far weaker pulses were sufficient to make the muscles m brains are in a more excitable state, with their neurons more strongly connected than they are

next turned to another form of brain stimulation to mimic the way neurons fire when memorie

harder to get the neurons to respond in sleep-deprived people, a sign that the process of writin

sleep loss. Taken together, the results suggest that sleep allows the brain to calm its activity so

In contrast, the sleep-deprived brain becomes noisy with electrical activity and so feeble at lay

process is all but blocked. The consequences of sleep loss were clear in a simple memory test, w IN THIS SECTION, you can read

worse than thosearticles who were well-rested.Teasing on various subjects andout how sleep affects brain connections could

snooze so much. fiShift workers to and militaryyour personnel that have to cope with sleep deprivation nd exercises improve

comprehension and language or countermeasures that restore normal brain connectivity. Blood samples taken from volunte

as well as your sleep deprivationuse, lowered levels of aspeaking molecule called BDNF, or brain-derived neurotrophic fac writing skills. connections in theand brain.

But Nissen is more excited about the study’s implications for understanding therapeutic sleep

depression. you deprive people with major depression of sleep for one night, about 60% sh 4 READ“If AND RESPOND

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the University of Freiburg, is also excited

tment for major depression is therapeutic connectivity. The new research offers a

practical treatments. “Why we sleep is

his work shows us that sleep is a highly said Nissen. The results are a boost for scientists at the University of Wisconsin-

all manner of information, from the

uy for tea. Known more simply as SHY,

tween our brain cells strengthen more and

equires a lot of energy, but sleep allows

again the next morning. Writing in the

e women aged 19 to 25 took part in, either

cipants played games, went for walks and

sure they stayed awake In the first round

brains and cause a muscle in the left

muscles move. This implied that sleepless they are after a good night’s sleep. Nissen memories are laid down. He found it

s of writing memories was impaired by

ctivity so memories can be written down.

ble at laying down memories that the

ory test, with tired volunteers faring

ns could do more than answer why we

eprivation could benefit from new drugs

m volunteers in the study showed that

rophic factor, which regulates synaptic

utic sleep deprivation and its impact on

ut 60% show a substantial improvement

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http://newafricanmagazine.com/africas-healthcare-crisis-novel-solutions/

Africa’s healthcare crisis —some novel solutions CHIJIOKE MAMA

7 MARCH

Unable to meet public expectations, healthcare systems in Africa might benefit from both native medicine, its derided sister, and the buzzing tech revolution on the continent.

In March 2001, heads of state from across the continent met in Abuja to draft a response to the targets set under the UN’s Millennium Development Goals, adopted by 189 heads of state at the General Assembly in New York seven months earlier. In Abuja, 46 heads of state agreed, among other things, to increase budgetary

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allocations for health to at least 15% of their annual budgets by 2015.

Over the next decade and a half, the Abuja Declaration was tweaked, updated and revisited in a dizzying series of acronym-churning bureaucratic protocols and pledges: “The Africa Health Strategy (2007–2015)”; the “Framework for the implementation of the Ouaga-

What does the author think of these protocols and pledges?

dougou Declaration on Primary Health Care and Health Systems in Africa (2010)”; the “Tunis Declaration on Value for Money, Sustainability and Accountability in the Health Sector”.

A decade after its adoption, however, the World Health Organisation was in 2011 forced into observing that “only eight countries are on track with respect to the health Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)”. Moreover, said the WHO report, “most countries are achieving less than 50% of the gains that would be required to reach the goals by 2015, with progress on MDG 5 (maternal health) being particularly slow.” As it turned out, only two countries met the MDG deadline targets: South Africa, the continent’s richest country, and Eritrea, which was under sanctions and economically isolated. In 2011, the AU described healthcare in Africa thus: “The African Region has one of the highest disease burdens in the world. The region’s contribution to the global burden of HIV/Aids, TB and malaria is 66%, 26% and 80% respectively …

Africa accounted for 46% of under-five deaths, 55% of the maternal deaths, 22% of AIDS-related and 90% of the malaria deaths.”

AFRICAN HEALTHCARE Abuja Declaration (2001)—African governments pledged to allocate 15% of their budgets towards healthcare. 26 countries increased their spending on healthcare and 11 decreased it.

Healthcare spending as a percentage of total government expenditure (WHO)

1995: 8.63% 2012: 9.8% Physicians per 1,000 (SSA)

1990: 0.136 2011: 0.202 Africa’s average spend per capita on healthcare was $135; that figure is $3,150 in high income nations.

Africa has spent nearly $2.5bn training doctors who now live in Western countries:

$135 $2.5bn

44 SSA countries had 75% or more of their spending on HIV prevention from external sources (2014) (UNAIDS):

75%

Malaria deaths: Between 2000 and 2015 there has been a 65% decrease:

65%

By 2050, Africa’s population, which currently stands at 1.2 billion people, will have more than doubled to 2.5 billion. Creating a continental healthcare system that meets the needs of its people will be imperative, especially in the light of the growing number of epidemics, such as Ebola, that periodically befall the continent. In 2014, the

Why will this be “imperative”?

outbreak of the Ebola virus in West Africa tested the resilience of

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healthcare systems in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. They were all overpowered within months. The Ebola outbreak highlighted the farreaching impacts of inadequate healthcare delivery, which lies beyond predispositions to epidemics but also includes severe economic losses and setbacks. According to the World Bank, “an estimated $2.2bn was lost in 2015 in the gross domestic product (GDP) of the three countries”.

Reinventing healthcare in Africa requires well-planned programmes to ensure proper financing; elevating the relevance and utilisation of health research; developing indigenous medical capacity; and modernising traditional medicine as it holds significant but neglected value within the continent. New and transformative lines of action will be required.

Basic healthcare delivery questions While policymakers delay, Africans who can afford to are seeking quality healthcare services offshore. Sadly, this comes at a huge cost for several struggling economies. According to a recent report by PWC Nigeria: “The Nigerian Sovereign Investment Authority (NSIA) says that Nigerians spend $1bn annually in medical tourism on a range of care needs. 60% [of this money] is reported to be [concentrated] across the four key specialties of oncology, orthopedics, nephrology and cardiology. This … is a huge (and avoidable) loss for the Nigeria economy”.

The report further states that: “In 2015 the Nigerian Federal Ministry What is “expenditure”?

of Health’s total expenditure was $5.85bn. Thus, the cost of medical tourism is nearly 20% of the total expenditure including: salaries of all public nurses and other healthcare workers; care programmes like malaria, HIV/Aids, mother and child care; and the operating costs of facilities nationwide.”

This scenario is not unfamiliar to Africans across the continent, especially those in Kenya, South Africa, Zimbabwe and elsewhere,

What does it mean to receive a “living wage in a timely manner”?

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where doctors have resorted to strike action to force their govern­ments to radically improve healthcare and pay them a living wage in a timely manner.

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Africa’s Healthcare Crisis—Some Novel Solutions Reading Check that you understand the text and its meaning, both expressed and implied.

Answer keys online.

UNDERSTANDING CONTENT

1 According to the Abuja Declaration, what percentage of a country’s annual budget should be allocated to health services?

2 What was the average percentage of the total government expenditure spent on healthcare in Africa in 2012?

3 According to Mama, what were the lessons learned from the outbreak of the Ebola epidemics in West Africa in 2014? a) that the virus can now be treated in Africa b) that the health services were inadequate c) that people went abroad to get treatment 4 What was the average expenditure on healthcare in African countries in 2010 as compared to the average in high-income countries? a) $135 vs $3,150 b) $385 vs $1,819 5 In addition to inadequate resources, what are two other major problems facing healthcare in Africa? a) brain-drain of health professionals b) too much foreign investment c) medical tourism UNDERSTANDING IMPLIED MEANING

1 What is Mama’s attitude to traditional medicine? a) he believes it is incompatible with modern medicine b) he would like to see it expanded 2 What improvements to the healthcare system in Africa does Mama advocate? a) Internet-based solutions b) scaling down the system 3 There are sometimes objections raised to Africa being treated as a uniform continent. In your opinion, does the author do justice to the differences between African countries or not? Find examples in the text to support your point of view.

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Source criticism Who is the author, what is the purpose of the text, and what evidence or facts are used to support the arguments? Considering these questions means that you are a critical reader.

1 Find out more information about the author. How would you evaluate his reliability and professional competence?

2 The author quotes a few different sources in this text. Look them up, write down what they do, and give your opinion on if they are reliable or not: a) the WHO b) the World Bank c) the African Union (AU) d) PWC Nigeria e) The British Medical Journal 3 Find out more information about The New African Magazine. a) What regions in Africa does it report on? b) Does it have any known political affiliations?

4 Africa consists of 56 nations. Is it possible for this article to truly discuss “Africa’s Healthcare Crisis”?

Why do you think the publishers have chosen this title?

African Union emblem

Close reading Examining the details of the text helps us understand its purposes, and makes it easier to identify stylistic features.

“

Reinventing healthcare in Africa requires well-planned programmes to ensure proper financing; elevating the relevance and utilisation of health research; developing indigenous medical capacity; and modernising traditional medicine as it holds significant but neglected value within the continent. New and transformative lines of action will be required.

”

1 What is the function of this paragraph (from p. 60) in the article? Explain your choice with reference to the article. a) it is a summary and conclusion of the first part of the article b) it is a thesis statement of the article (and a plan of action) 2 How do you interpret the difference between indigenous medical capacity and traditional medicine—does the article explain the difference?

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Vocabulary Use the words and expressions in the text to expand your vocabulary.

ECONOMICS

Many of the terms used in the article can be applied to other areas of economics, not just health economics. Match the following terms with their definitions: a) budget b) expenditure c) GDP (Gross Domestic Product) d) per capita e) budgetary allocation

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

a government’s financial plan for the year ahead the budget for a specific area of government spending an amount of money that is actually spent a measure of economic activity in a country often used in statistics, means “per person” (”by the head”)

USING A DICTIONARY

English-English dictionaries can be very useful in helping you to understand a word, learning how to pronounce it, and how to use it correctly in sentences, in the right context. There are often free English dictionary apps available for phones and computers.

1 In pairs, look up these words in a dictionary and answer the questions about each of them: austerity

disdain

abysmal

gullible

a) Is there a difference between the British and American pronunciation? b) How many different meanings are listed? c) What word class does the word belong to? (Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.) d) Is it a formal or an informal word? e) In what typical phrases can you use this word? Give examples. f ) Give a synonym for each word.

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Language Consider how writers adapt their language style to fit the purpose, the genre, and the audience of a text.

REPORTING PROPORTIONS

Percentages are used to explain proportions: If the total number of students is, say, 500, then 66% of that is 330 students. Sometimes we are not interested in the actual numbers but in the proportion itself, which can be compared, as in the following example.

66% of all students go on to study at a university or college.

1 In the article, statistics describe the healthcare services in different countries and areas of healthcare. Read the following extract from the article (from p. 59) and then rewrite the statistics in a table, as in the example:

“

The region’s contribution to the global burden of HIV/ Aids, TB and malaria is 66%, 26% and 80% respectively … Africa accounted for 46% of under-five deaths, 55% of the maternal deaths, 22% of AIDS-related and 90% of the malaria deaths.

Incidence of diseases in Africa and elsewhere

68

Healthcare area

Incidence in Africa

Incidence elsewhere

HIV/Aids

66%

34%

TB

…

…

…

…

…

”

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REPORTING AVERAGES

The average is the number you obtain when you add up figures and then divide the total by the number of figures. For instance, the average of 15, 30 and 45 is 30 ((15+30+45)/3 = 30).

1 In the following extract from the article (from p. 61), the figures are provided both for individual countries and for the average in the region. Read it carefully and then rewrite the statistics in a table, as in the example:

“

The average total health expenditure in African countries stood at $135 per capita in 2010, which is only a small fraction of the $3,150 spent on health in an average high-income country.”

In Botswana, judged to have one of the best healthcare systems in Africa and a population of 2.3 million, healthcare expenditure per capita in 2014 was $385. Compare this to Cyprus at $1,819 and Denmark at $6,463. In contrast, Burundi’s stood at $22, Chad’s $37 and the DRC’s $19.

”

Health expenditure by country Low-income countries

Amount/capita

High-income countries

Amount/capita

Africa’s average

$135

High-income countries average

$3,150

Botswana

…

Cyprus

…

…

…

…

…

2 ”Average” can also mean “typical and usual”, or ”not too good and not too bad”. Choose the appropriate word to fill in the gaps in the following text: on average

the average

average

a) … Africa’s health expenditure is significantly lower than in high-income countries. b) … African cannot afford to get treatment abroad. c) Only health services of … standard are widely available.

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Reader response What do you think about the text? Justify your response.

1 Short discussion: In pairs, discuss ways in which this text might have chosen a more human angle to describe the problems (without focusing so much on finance). Discuss if this type of article would have appealed to you more, or less.

2 Short discussion: Mama suggests a number of healthcare reforms to remedy the situation. What do you think about his plan of action? Choose one aspect to discuss with a partner. Could this plan of action work, in your opinion? What difficulties can you see?

3 Quick writing: The article describes some aspects of healthcare in Africa.

Think for a couple of minutes, then make a list of aspects that are important for any country to be able to provide adequate healthcare to its inhabitants (e.g. educated doctors, medicine, transportation, etc.).

Related projects and further research Further develop your understanding of the topic by searching for relevant information and using it in your own written and oral work.

Instructions in the Write & Speak section.

1 Informative text: The article refers to the withdrawal of government support for healthcare, as part of the Structural Adjustment policies. Find out what happened and write a short report (about 300–400 words) on the development in one of the African countries mentioned in the text. Make sure to cite and reference all the sources used in your research.

2 Research report, presentation: Work in pairs or in small groups. Look at the most recent budget put forward by the Swedish government (or by a government in any other high-income country). Look at the major posts/ information which relates to healthcare. Summarize the information and present a report on what you have found. End your report with a commentary and a personal opinion on the government’s expenditure.

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Listening Learn more about the topic and listen to spoken English from different parts of the world.

1 TED Talk: ”Dr Ernest Madu—World-Class Health Care”

Comprehension questions online.

2 Podcast: “Without health, people have nothing: Tanzania seeks a political salve”, theguardian.com

Public hospital in the city of Borama in North-West Somalia.

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WRITE

IN THIS SECTION, you can read various types of academic writing, and you can find instructions on how to structure different speech and text types. You can also learn how to reference, edit, and give feedback.

& SPEAK

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SAMPLE TEXTS AND INSTRUCTIONS Use these sample texts and follow the instructions for writing or preparing a speech. For each text or speech type there is information about the purpose (when it is used), its register (the level of formality), and its structure. The sample texts and speeches that follow show how the proposed structures can be put into practice.

1 Abstract 2 Cover letter, CV & Video application 3 Argumentative essay/speech, Debate, Negotiation 4 Discussion essay 5 Informative essay & speech 6 Literary analysis (also film and drama) 7 Compare and contrast essay 8 Research report & Peer response 9 Summary and response essay

WRITING

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8 Research report & Peer response A research report is a way of documenting a research project.

A research report is usually evaluated through peer response.

This is an extract of a research report.

Complete text online.

Are some youth more equal than others?

—Participation of immigrant youth in labour market programs in Canada

Title

BACKGROUND: Fairness and Equity Project

[This report is a summary of a large-scale two-year research project into the unemployment experience of young people of immigrant background and their participation in labour market programs designed to help young people find work.] The project called “Fairness and Equity” was carried out by social policy students at Toronto University in 2015–16 as [a replica of a similar project “Reducing the Risk” conducted by the Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs in the 1980s. The study was undertaken in the context of growing youth unemployment in Canada, with particularly high unemployment rates among immigrant youth. […]

The Aim of the Project [The aim of the project was to undertake a review of labour market programs and services in order to assess their availability and suitability to young immigrant and refugee job-seekers, with particular emphasis on difficulties faced by recent arrivals, and those with a non-English-speaking background.]

On the basis of its findings, the project was to formulate recommendations on how employment and training needs of immigrant and refugee youth can be met by labour market programs and services.

Introduce the topic

Summary of previous research in the field

Describe the research goals

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Research methods

Research Approaches [The project started by investigating available statistical data on the extent and nature of unemployment across birthplace groups and geographic areas. This resulted in the publication of Atlas of Youth Unemployment which presented a comprehensive analysis of the geographic distribution of youth unemployment.]

The project then moved to a closer examination of existing labour market conditions and the problems faced by those out of work. In addition to extensive program reviews, two major studies of youth were undertaken. The first was seen as an exploratory qualitative field study of immigrant youth in Toronto.] […]

Major Findings The levels of unemployment among immigrant teenagers and young adults were found to be consistently higher than among the control groups of Canadian-born youth.

At the same time, the proportion of young immigrants participating in employment and training programs was much lower than that of Canadian-born youth. […]

Recommendations

Implications of the study: plan for further research

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[…]

Research findings indicated that a number of changes in employment and training programs were needed in order to reach those who were most in need, and to provide them with more suitable assistance. […]

[The project suggested that an adequate system of monitoring and evaluating immigrant participation in programs and services was necessary. To ensure this, all programs should collect data on the background and needs of their participants, including information on birthplace, period of residence in Canada and English proficiency.]

WRITE & SPEAK

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Conclusion [‌] [The research identified key factors inhibiting the access of overseas-born youth, such as a mandatory period of six months of unemployment before participating in labour market programs, as well the inadequacy of programs and services in meeting their needs, such as lack of English tuition. A range of recommendations were made to reach and assist more effectively those young people most disadvantaged in the labour market, including an unemployment risk assessment and a more targeted package of assistance for each individual.]

Implications of the study: possible practical applications

References Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs, Reducing the Risk. Unemployed Migrant Youth and Labour Market Programs. Report, March 1985.

University of Toronto, Social Policy Department, 2016, Atlas of Youth Unemployment in Canadian Cities University of Toronto, Social Policy Department, 2017, Fairness and Equity: unemployed immigrant youth and labour market programs

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Instructions: Research report & Peer response Purpose A research report is a summary of a research project. It outlines the context of the project, the aims, the methods used and the results/implications of the project. The content of a research report varies depending on the academic discipline it belongs to and might report on quantitative research (with figures and statistics) or qualitative research (based on in-depth interviews or subjective opinions/interpretations).

Register Formal. There are no personal or subjective elements in a research report, with the possible exception of the introduction (mentioning your own relationship to the subject) and some final lines in the conclusion. The language used should be academic, precise, and subject-specific.

Structure TITLE

The title is a summary of the research question and an indication of the research method.

“

”

Are some youth more equal than others?—Participation of immigrant youth in labour market programs in Canada EXTENT

The report states the scope and scale of the research project.

This report is a summary of a large-scale two-year research project into unemployment experience of young people of immigrant background and their participation in labour market programs…

CONTENT

Research reports often follow the “IMRD model” (see p. 85) and include an Introduction, Method, Results and Discussion.

1 Introduction. Background and the aim of the project. Introduce the topic, provide a hypothesis, describe the research goals and give a summary of previous research in the field (a literature review).

This report is a summary of a…

It was undertaken in the context of …

The aim of the project was to undertake a review of…

On the basis of its findings, the project aimed to formulate recommendations on…

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2 Method. Research approaches. Explain the research methods used.

Specify weaknesses or limitations of the methodology.

The project started by investigating available statistical data on…

The project then moved to a closer examination of…

It is beyond the scope of this project to…

3 Results. Major findings. Findings of the study are presented and explained.

4 Discussion. Recommendations and conclusion. Implications of the research: possible practical applications and suggestions of further research in the field.

5 References. List all works used in writing the report.

Peer response to a research report A research report can be subjected to peer response. This is where other experts in the field discuss and critique the research undertaken and the research group or the authors of the research report have a chance to respond to the critique and offer explanations.

Instructions: Peer response

Peer response is different from other types of feedback as its main purpose is not to give the author ideas to improve their work. The main purpose of this type pf peer response is to make a critical assessment in the form of questions. The writer then has a chance to defend their report and their reseach by answering the questions and clarifying ambiguities.

An opponent (the person asking questions about the report) should:

a) Demonstrate their own understanding of the material. b) Ask informed questions about the sources. c) Identify the limitations of research presented and formulate questions that have not been answered by the report. d) Give constructive suggestions for further research.

EXERCISE

Rewrite the research goals of the study in your own words.

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LITERARY PERIODS

& CRITICISM IN THIS SECTION, you can find information about literary periods in history. You can read about historical contexts, characteristic features, and famous authors. You can also find an introduction to literary criticism, as well as three approaches to it.

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LITERARY PERIODS These pages outline some literary periods, focusing on Englishspeaking literature. In each period you can read about the historical background, literary features and important authors. Suggestions for further reading and exercises are given at the end of each section.

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The Middle Ages: 5th–15th century The Renaissance: 16th–17th century The Enlightenment: late 17th–18th century Romanticism: 1800–1850 The Victorian Age: 1837–1901 Modern Times: 1900–1945 The Post-War 40s to the 60s: 1945–1968 The Hippie Movement to the 80s: 1968–1989 The 90s and Beyond: 1990–2017 Drama in the 20th century Poetry in the 20th century

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The Middle Ages (5th–15th century) Historical background The Middle Ages in Europe cover a period of over one thousand years. Between 43 and 410 AD, England was a part of the Roman Empire. Subsequently, Germanic tribes (Angels, Saxons and Jutes) invaded England, bringing with them their own languages and cultures. In the late 6th century, missionaries from Rome re-introduced Christianity and Latin to England. Later, Viking invasions also made their mark on both the English culture and language.

The strong influence of the French culture in England dates back to the invasion of French Normans led by William the Conqueror in 1066 (the Battle of Hastings). Old English, a mixture of Germanic languages, not comprehensible to today’s speakers of English, was gradually replaced by Middle English, a combination of Old English, French and Latin. This became the foundation of Modern English.

Before literature was written down, people shared stories orally.

There were singers and storytellers who travelled around telling stories of brave war heroes and their tragic fates. Today we call these stories “heroic poems”.

The first books in the British Isles were in Latin, copied by hand by monks. Only those who could read Latin could read these texts.

Usually they were people associated with the Catholic Church, which was very powerful during this period. As gradually more and more people were able to read and acquire knowledge, universities were established in Oxford and Cambridge in the 12th century.

This diminished the influence of the Church. Furthermore, the invention of the printing press around 1450, by Johannes Gutenberg from Germany, made mass production of books possible and increased their accessibility.

LITERARY FEATURES

1 Heroic poems and romances 2 Mystery, miracle and morality plays

THE MIDDLE AGES

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1 Romance: Geoffrey Chaucer (1340–1400) The romance genre was originally developed in France. Usually, it told the story of a heroic knight’s adventures, also called a quest.

The knight embarked on adventures to prove himself and to win the love of a high-born lady. The knights in romances had nearly super-human abilities in fighting monsters, beasts and dragons.

In their behaviour they were guided by a code of honour, kindness, and courage known as chivalry.

Geoffrey Chaucer is often considered the father of English poetry and his works greatly contributed to the development of English as a national language.

A famous example of a romance (with a humourous twist) is “The Knight’s Tale” from The Canterbury Tales,

by Chaucer. The Canterbury Tales is a collection of 24 tales, written in rhythmical and rhymed verse in Middle English.

“The Knight’s Tale” is a typical story of two knights who compete for the love of the same lady.

The Canterbury Tales: The Knight’s Tale (lines 43–46) (Middle English) A Knyght ther was, and that a worthy man, That fro the tyme that he first bigan To ryden out, he loved chivalrye, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisye. (translated into Modern English) A KNIGHT there was, and what a gentleman, Who, from the moment that he first began To ride about the world, loved chivalry, Truth, honour, freedom and all courtesy.

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THE MIDDLE AGES

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2 Mystery, miracle, and morality plays Drama developed during the Middle Ages, through mystery plays, miracle plays, and morality plays.

As Latin was the language of the Church, and mystery plays were in English, they were meant to help ordinary people understand the biblical stories such as: Creation, Adam and Eve and the Last Judgement. Initially, these plays were performed in churches, then they moved outdoors to the churchyard. To increase their accessibility, they were often performed on a pageant wagon, which doubled as a stage, and moved from place to place.

Miracle plays were mostly devoted to the lives of saints and the Virgin Mary, hence they were also called saint’s plays. Saints were known for the miracles they could perform. An example of a miracle play was the story of Saint George who saved a village and the king’s daughter by slaying a dragon.

In morality plays characters personified different virtues, such as “Courage”, and vices, such as “Hatred”, and fought for the human soul. Morality plays were meant to help people understand how to live by teaching good morals. The best-known morality play is Everyman, representing mankind in its search for salvation, while resisting the seven deadly sins.

Everyman: A Morality Play (Middle English) Here begynneth a treatyse how yt hye fader of heuen sendeth dethe to somon euery creature to come and gyue counte of theyr liues in this worlde and is in maner of a morall playe.

(Modern English) Here begineth a treatise how the high father oh heaven sendeth death to summon every creature to come and give account of their lives in this world and is in manner of a moral play.

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Other notable works of the period • Beowulf is the oldest surviving heroic poem in English literature. It was probably written down in the 11th century, but scholars believe that it had been told orally since the 8th century. It was written in Old English. It is a poem of more than 3,000 lines, which describes the adventures of Beowulf, a warrior from southern Sweden. He is brave and strong, killing dragons and monsters to protect his people in Sweden and Denmark.

• The Legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table are medieval romances which were written down by hand on 800 pages as Le Morte D’Arthur (The Death of Arthur) by Sir Thomas Malory. They became the first English book in printed form in 1485. The French title shows how powerful the influence of the French culture was in England at the time.

EXERCISES 1 What is a quest in a romance? Consider what you think might happen during a quest.

2 Describe the difference between mystery, miracle and morality plays.

Which of these genres—if any—do you think could be popular today?

Explain your views.

3 Beowulf is a hero of early English literature. Based on the information in the “Historical background”, why do you think there were Swedish influences in England when it was written?

4 Find out more information about The Canterbury Tales. Are the collected tales real “romances”?

5 Everyman struggles with seven deadly sins. Find out more about the seven deadly sins and consider how they are perceived by today’s society, where you live.

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THE MIDDLE AGES

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The Renaissance (16th–17th century) Historical background The Renaissance is the French word for “revival”. It refers to the period after the Middle Ages when people moved away from the strictest rules of the Church and instead revived Greek and Roman cultural values. The term “humanism” was central during the Renaissance, as this shift meant that humans, as well as God, could be magnificent. To this day the term “a Renaissance person” is used to describe somebody who has versatile talents and abilities.

Leonardo Da Vinci (1452–1519) was a classic example of such versatility: he was not only Simplicity is the a painter and sculptor but also an inventor, ultimate sophistication. architect and scientist, musician and writer, Leonardo Da Vinci mathematician and engineer.

“

”

In England, the monarch Queen Elizabeth had an enormous influence on political and cultural life. She reigned for 45 years (1558–1603) and this period became known as the Golden Age or the Elizabethan Era. She was a great patron of the arts and funded the works of writers, poets, painters and thinkers. Plays were often written for, and performed at, the royal court, but during the Renaissance, theatre became also an institution of its own, a place of entertainment for ordinary people. Permanent theatres were established in London, of which The Globe (1599) was, and still is, the most famous. Only men were allowed as actors at the time, so all female roles were played by men in women’s clothing.

THE MIDDLE AGES

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When Christopher Columbus arrived in the Caribbean, in 1492, he extended the horizons of the universe, as known to Europeans, and laid the foundation for colonialism. In 1620, a group of about one hundred people, known as Pilgrims, sailed from England on the Mayflower to seek religious freedom in the New World. They arrived in the US, in what is now New England and built the first settlement of Europeans in North America.

LITERARY FEATURES

1 Secular drama: tragedies, comedies, and historical plays 2 Metaphysical poetry and the sonnet

1 Secular drama: William Shakespeare (1564–1616) Some people claim that the English playwright William Shakespeare was the greatest writer who ever lived. His 37 plays are traditionally divided into three categories: • History plays, which are often based on the lives of English monarchs (e.g. Richard III).

• Comedies, which are humorous and generally have happy endings (e.g. The Taming of the Shrew, Much Ado About Nothing).

• Tragedies, which have sad endings where many characters die (e.g.

Macbeth, Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet).

Shakespeare’s plays are mainly written in blank verse, i.e. an unrhymed but rhythmic verse.

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THE RENAISSANCE

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Typically for his times, Shakespeare’s plays are not about religion, God or about the lives of saints (as most plays were in the Middle Ages). They deal with complex relationships, which include love and betrayal, romance and envy, hatred and revenge. They are also full of witty jokes and existential and moral questions.

The Danish prince Hamlet in Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet is an example of a Renaissance free-thinker. He considers committing suicide without mainly focusing on the religious aspect of the act.

In the famous passage “To be, or not to be” he ponders.

To be, or not to be: that is the question: Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them?

Act III, scene 1 (58–62) Hamlet concludes that we do not know what happens after we die (he is not sure about heaven and hell).

But that the dread of something after death,— The undiscover’d country, from whose bourn No traveller returns,—puzzles the will, And makes us rather bear those ills we have Than fly to others that we know not of?

Thus conscience does make cowards of us all; Act III, scene 1 (80–85) Another example of Hamlet’s Renaissance approach to life is his humanism, i.e. the focus on the extraordinary abilities of man, as opposed to the almighty power of God. What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties...

Act II, Scene 2 (311)

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LITERARY CRITICISM In a traditional sense, “criticism� means a negative judgement.

However, in academic contexts, literary criticism means the study of literature from different perspectives. In practical terms this means that different lenses are used in the act of reading. These lenses change depending on how we choose to read, or analyse, a piece of literature.

Introduction Postcolonialism Feminism Psychoanalysis

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Literary Criticism: Postcolonialism Historical background The term post-colonial implies that it relates to the period after colonialism. Postcolonialism studies the legacy and effects of colonisation, when more powerful countries took over other countries, mainly to use their resources.

Colonisation as we know it today began in the late 15th century, when the large naval powers of the time (Spain, Portugal, France, Britain and Holland) began exploring the Americas, Asia and Africa and setting up trading posts there. The European nations were attracted by the wealth of resources in these far away territories: spices, silk, gold, furs and slaves were considered valuable commodities. Colonisation then extended to Australia and New Zealand and continued as a widespread political policy in the 19th century, when ninety percent of all the land in the world was controlled by European governments. Some colonised nations became independent much earlier (notably the USA in 1776), but during the 20th century most colonised nations broke free from European rule and became autonomous or independent states.

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Postcolonialism is the study of the cultural impact of colonialism.

An important work in the development of postcolonial theory was Orientalism (1978) by Edward W. Said (1935–2003). He was a Palestinian-American cultural critic. In Orientalism he examined Europeans’ relationship to Asia, historically referred to as the Orient. He focussed on the contrasting cultural identities of East and West. Said discussed European imperialism—which was an accepted policy of dominating and controlling other countries either by colonisation or a system of imposed authority. He pointed to an ongoing characterisation of the East and people from the East as the “exotic other”. He claimed that this characterisation was a way for the West to justify colonisation. By dehumanising people in the colonies and portraying their own (Western) civilisation as superior, colonisation could be seen as a humanitarian mission.

The postcolonial critic The postcolonial literary critic is interested in all aspects of colonialism (before, during, and after colonisation). Like a feminist critic, a postcolonial critic is concerned with the position of the underdog in the global community: a group that has been discriminated against, that has not had equal rights, and whose story and experiences have been largely ignored or distorted. Postcolonialism draws attention to the fact that there have been very few stories written or told from the point of view of the colonised. Many authors from colonised countries have reclaimed this right to their own stories. Salman Rushdie described this as “The Empire Writes Back to the Centre” (a pun on The Empire Strikes Back, a Star Wars film from the 1980s). The ”Centre” in this context refers to Great Britain—the historical centre of the empire.

The postcolonial critic looks at the relationship between the colonisers and the colonised. Both perspectives are of interest as issues of racism and exploitation are examined.

The postcolonial critic also closely examines how power structures are reflected in language. Native languages were often supressed as the colonisers imposed their own languages in local governments and education systems.

LITERARY CRITICISM: POSTCOLONIALISM

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A concept of “hybridity”—what happens when different cultures combine and create a new entity—is relevant from the postcolonial perspective. It examines how people reacted to the new culture and what impact it had on the established social and gender roles.

Postcolonial text vs postcolonial reading of a text Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1902) is an example of a postcolonial text. It describes the reality of colonisation from the white, European man’s perspective. The critical intepreations of it by Chinua Achebe (1977), and Edward W. Said (1993), are examples of postcolonial criticism.

JOSEPH CONRAD (1857–1924)

In 1902 Conrad, a British writer of Polish background, published Heart of Darkness, a novella in which he described the atrocities of Belgian colonialisation in Congo and explored the evils of human nature. The text gives an account of Marlow’s travels through Congo to meet the mysterious Kurtz, an ivory trader. As Marlow travels along the river he observes the natives.

We are accustomed to look upon the shackled form of a conquered monster, but there—there you could look at a thing monstrous and free. It was unearthly, and the men were—No, they were not inhuman. Well, you know, that was the worst of it—this suspicion of their not being inhuman.

It would come slowly to one. They howled and leaped, and spun, and made horrid faces; but what thrilled you was just the thought of their humanity—like yours—the thought of your remote kinship with this wild and passionate uproar.

(Conrad, Heart of Darkness) The extract above describes a sense of common humanity between “us” and “them”, but this commonness is horrifying to the narrator.

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Chinua Achebe, a prominent Nigerian writer, described Conrad’s novella as racist, because “otherness” and “darkness” dominate the portrayal of Africans in the text.

Heart of Darkness projects the image of Africa as “the other world,” the antithesis of Europe and therefore of civilization, a place where man’s vaunted intelligence and refinement are finally mocked by triumphant bestiality. … We are told that “Going up that river was like traveling back to the earliest beginnings of the world.”

(Achebe, “An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s ‘Heart of Darkness’” 1977) Achebe said in an interview that he did not have a problem with outsiders looking on and describing other cultures, but he believed that it should be done in a respectful way.

We should welcome the rendering of our stories by others, because a visitor can sometimes see what the owner of the house has ignored. But they must visit with respect and not be concerned with the colour of skin, or the shape of nose, or the condition of the technology in the house.”

(Caryl Phillips, Out of Africa, The Guardian, 22 Feb 2003)

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Edward Said defended Conrad’s intentions by placing Heart of Darkness in the context of its time (the early 20th century). He claimed that Conrad was critical of imperialism and that he was fully aware that the real aim of colonialism was the exploitation of people and resources.

Conrad’s tragic limitation is that even though he could see clearly that on one level imperialism was pure dominance and land-grabbing, he could not then conclude that imperialism had to end so that “natives” could lead lives free form European domination. As a creature of his time, Conrad could not grant the natives their freedom, despite his severe critique of the imperialism that enslaved them.

(Said, Two Visions in Heart of Darkness, 1993) EXERCISES 1 What would you say was the main thesis of Said’s Orientalism?

2 What are the main interests of the postcolonial critic? Name three.

3 Consider what Achebe said about the right of an outsider to describe somebody else’s culture (p. 247). Do you think that it is more important for people to write about their own cultures, or are the descriptions given by the outsiders equally valuable? What can be the pros and cons of both approaches?

4 Achebe claims that Conrad was racist and Said defends him as a legitimate critic of imperialism. How important do you think might be the factor that Said had no connection to Africa, whereas Achebe was concerned with African identity? How much do you think literary critics are affected by their own circumstances?

5 How do you understand Said’s words that “As a creature of his time, Conrad could not grant the natives their freedom, despite his severe critique of the imperialism that enslaved them.” In what way were Conrad’s views affected by his own time, do you think?

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ECHO

ECHO ENGLISH 7

Marie Kabala-Rejment

ECHO ENGLISH 7 Echo är en läromedelsserie i engelska för gymnasiet och vuxenutbildningen.

Echo English 7 är avsedd för Engelska 7 och förbereder effektivt för högre studier med engelska som arbetsspråk.

Komponenter i Echo English 7 Huvudbok i tre sektioner med information, instruktioner och övningar: Read & Respond, Write & Speak, Literature & Criticism.

Elevwebb med facit till bokens uppgifter, inspelade texter, hörövningar och extra arbetsblad. Aktivera kontot på nok.se/mina sidor.

Digitalbok med materialet från elevwebben integrerat i boken.

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ECHO

• Huvudböcker: Main Issues 5, Main Issues 5 Vocational, Main Issues 6 • Novellsamlingar: Short Stories 5, Short Stories 6 • Lärarwebbar, elevwebbar och digitalböcker

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MARIE KABALA-REJMENT

ISBN 978-91-27-44717-2

9 789127 447172

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