510 Managing Conflict by sbsinesslondon.ac.uk

CMI 510 Managing Conflict

Ofqual unit number L/616/3215

Aims of unit

Managing conflict takes resilience. It requires the ability to evaluate complex information, make evidence-based judgements and act professionally within the bounds of organisational and legal frameworks. This unit is designed to equip the learner with strategies to manage conflict with confidence, find creative solutions and make difficult decisions.

Keywords

Types, causes, impact, evidence-based judgement, disagreement, resolution

Learning Outcomes

Understand the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations Understand

Understand how to investigate conflict situations in the workplace Understand

Understand approaches, techniques, knowledge, skills and behaviours for managing conflict Understand

Learning Outcome

One -Understand the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations

Assessment criteria

1.1

Analyse types and causes of conflict within organisations

Command verb Analyse: Break the subject or complex situation(s) into separate parts and examine each part in detail; identify the main issues and show how the main ideas are related to practice and why they are important.

Reference to current research or theory may support the analysis.

Learning

Outcome One -Understand the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations

Assessment criteria 1.1 Analyse types and causes of conflict within organisations

AC 1.1 Types may include but are not limited to personal or relational conflict, instrumental conflict, and conflicts of interests, conflicts relating to alleged discrimination, individual or team performance, leadership, disagreements between organisations, employees, volunteers, other stakeholders, pressure groups, trade unions and lobbying organisations, whistle blowing.

Learning Outcome One -Understand

the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations

Assessment criteria 1.1 Analyse types and causes of conflict within organisations

AC 1.1 Causes may include but are not limited to poor communication, differences in views, culture, values, ethics and beliefs on an individual and organisational level, competency issues, personal issues (tiredness, ill-health, presenteeism, absenteeism, carer responsibilities) competition (internal and external), resource allocation, flexible working, disparities between worker’s rights and benefits, organisational decisions and decision making processes, the introduction, interpretation and application of policies and procedures and legal and regulatory frameworks, management of change.

Learning Outcome One -Understand the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations

Assessment criteria

1.2 Analyse the stages of conflict

Learning Outcome

One -Understand the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations

Assessment criteria

1.2 Analyse the stages of conflict

AC 1.2 Stages of conflict may include but are not limited to no conflict, latent conflict, emergence, escalation, stalemate, de-escalation, settlement/resolution, peace building and reconciliation.

Learning Outcome One -Understand the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations

Assessment criteria

AC1.3 Assess the impact of conflict on organisational performance

Command verb Assess : Provide a reasoned judgment or rationale of the standard, quality, value or importance of something, informed by relevant facts/rationale.

Learning Outcome One

Understand the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations

Assessment criteria

AC1.3 Assess the impact of conflict on organisational performance

Impact may include but is not limited to positive outcomes (e.g. business growth/performance, development of individuals and teams, new ideas and innovation, process improvement, improved brand and image, reduction of poor practice, increased engagement, compliance with organisational, regulatory and legal requirements) and negative outcomes (e.g. high staff turnover, damage to image, brand, reputation, failure to meeting targets, reduced quality, decreased staff and customer satisfaction, poor customer experience, litigation and financial cost.

Learning Outcome 2

Understand how to investigate conflict situations in the workplace

Assessment criteria

AC 2.1 Discuss processes for investigating conflict situations in the workplace

Command Verb Discuss: Give a detailed account including a range of views or opinions, which include contrasting perspectives.

Learning Outcome 2

Understand how to investigate conflict situations in the workplace

Assessment criteria

AC 2.1 Discuss processes for investigating conflict situations in the workplace

AC 2.1 Processes may include but are not limited to selecting the process/methodology (formal and informal), data and information gathering, evaluation and reporting within scope of role and in line with organisational and legal frameworks (such as confidentiality, data protection, disclosure, equality and diversity, health and safety, bullying and harassment, whistle blowing).

Assessment criteria

Learning Outcome

2 Understand how to investigate conflict situations in

the workplace

AC 2.1 Discuss processes for investigating conflict situations in the workplace

Conflict situations may include but are not limited to minor conflicts between individuals, groups and teams versus major conflict with organisational leadership, direction and strategy and external stakeholders.

Assessment criteria

Learning Outcome 3 Understand approaches, techniques, knowledge, skills and behaviours for managing conflict

AC 3.1 Analyse the knowledge, skills and behaviours required to manage conflict effectively

Command Verb Analyse: Break the subject or complex situation(s) into separate parts and examine each part in detail; identify the main issues and show how the main ideas are related to practice and why they are important. Reference to current research or theory may support the analysis.

Learning Outcome 3 Understand

approaches, techniques, knowledge, skills and behaviours for managing conflict

Assessment criteria

AC 3.1 Analyse the knowledge, skills and behaviours required to manage conflict effectively

AC 3.1 Knowledge may include but is not limited to the legal and organisational frameworks, operating within limits of authority and knowing when to escalate to management, other departments and stakeholders (e.g. police, Health and Safety Executive and other regulatory bodies).

Learning Outcome 3 Understand approaches, techniques, knowledge, skills and behaviours for managing conflict

Assessment criteria

AC 3.1 Analyse the knowledge, skills and behaviours required to manage conflict effectively

Skills and behaviours may include but are not limited to self-confidence, impartiality, ability to break the cycle of conflict, Emotional Intelligence (Goleman, 1995) to pre-empt, prevent, or minimise conflict, flexibility to change a course of action, honesty, facilitation skills, encourage collaboration, active listening, proactivity, relationship building, ability to compromise, negotiation, empathy, defuse blame, create win-win situations, deliver bad news.

Learning Outcome 3

Understand approaches, techniques, knowledge, skills and behaviours for managing conflict

Assessment criteria

AC 3.2 Evaluate the use of approaches and techniques to resolve conflict

Command Verb Evaluate: Consider the strengths and weaknesses, arguments for and against and/or similarities and differences. The writer should then judge the evidence from the different perspectives and make a valid conclusion or reasoned judgement. Apply current research or theories to support the evaluation when applicable.

Learning Outcome 3 Understand approaches, techniques, knowledge, skills and behaviours for managing conflict

Assessment criteria

AC 3.2 Evaluate the use of approaches and techniques to resolve conflict

AC 3.2 Techniques may include but are not limited to forcing an outcome, winwin/collaborating, compromising/smoothing, withdrawing/avoiding, mitigating, Transactional Analysis (Eric Berne, c.1950), negotiating, conciliation and arbitration (ACAS, 2017), Conflict Mode Instrument (Thomas-Kilmann, 1974).

Reading/resource materials available on ManagementDirect

Multi Media Videos

• ●Howard Guttman: Dealing with Conflict

• ●ACAS: Managing conflict at work External Web links

Relevant Theories, Frameworks and Models

• ●Eric Berne (c.1950) Transactional Analysis

• ●Goleman (1995) Emotional Intelligence

• ●Thomas-Kilmann (1974) Conflict Mode Instrument

Contacts

• Acas – Disciplinary and grievance procedures

• GOV.UK - Handling an employee's grievance

• GOV.UK - Taking disciplinary action against an employee

Books and reports

• Acas. (2020) Discipline and grievances at work. London: Acas.

• Aylott, E. (2022) Employee relations: a practical introduction. 3rd ed. HR Fundamentals. London: Kogan Page.

• Barnett, D. (2017) Employee investigations: how to conduct - and train others in conducting - grievance and disciplinary hearings. (Employment Law Library 1). London: Nielsen.

• Barnett, D. (2020) Resolving grievances. (Employment Law Library 8). London: ELS.

• Bennett, T., Saundry, R. and Fisher, V. (2020) Managing employment relations. 7th ed. London: CIPD and Kogan Page.

Understanding conflict

What is conflict?

• Conflict is a natural disagreement resulting from individuals or groups that differ in attitudes, beliefs, values or needs. It can also originate from past rivalries and personality differences. Other causes of conflict include trying to negotiate before the timing is right or before needed information is available.

Understanding conflict

Some Legal Frameworks

• Regulatory and legislative may include but are not limited to the Equality Act 2010 (subsequent changes, deletions and replacements), General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) 2018, Health and Safety

• Act 1974 and industry specific regulation, Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act 2016, The National Minimum Wage Regulations 2016, Working Time Directive 1998, Working Together to Safeguard Children 2013, working hours, visas, advertising standards (e.g. The UK Code of Broadcast Advertising Code), qualifications, safeguarding (DBS and PVG), national initiatives (e.g. apprenticeships, traineeships, internships and returnships).

The ingredients of conflict.

• Needs - Needs are things that are essential to our well being. Conflicts arise when we ignore others' needs, our own needs or the group's needs. Be careful not to confuse needs with desires (things we would like, but are not essential).

• Perceptions - People interpret reality differently. They perceive differences in the severity, causes and consequences of problems. Misperceptions or differing perceptions may come from self-perceptions, others' perceptions, and differing perceptions of situations and perceptions of threat.

• Power - How people define and use power is an important influence on the number and types of conflicts that occur. This also influences how conflict is managed. Conflicts can arise when people try to make others change their actions or to gain an unfair advantage.

The ingredients of conflict.

Values - Values are beliefs or principles we consider being very important. Serious conflicts arise when people hold incompatible values or when values are not clear. Conflicts also arise when one party refuses to accept the fact that the other party holds something as a value rather than a preference.

Feelings

and emotions - Many people let their feelings and emotions become a major influence over how they deal with conflict. Conflicts can also occur because people ignore they’re own or others' feelings and emotions. Other conflicts occur when feelings and emotions differ over a particular issue.

• Conflict is not always negative. In fact, it can be healthy when effectively managed.

The ingredients of conflict.

Healthy conflict can lead to...

• Growth and innovation

• New ways of thinking

• Additional management options

• If the conflict is understood, it can be effectively managed by reaching a consensus that meets both the individuals and society's needs. This results in mutual benefits and strengthens the relationship. The goal is for all to "win" by having at least some of their needs met.

Somecomplicating factors include:

Distribution of costs and benefits. Those who benefit may not be the same as those who pay the costs.

Perceptions of problems. People tend to blame others for causing the problem.

Speed of clean-up or other actions. Some will want changes to take place more quickly than others.

Managing Conflict

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:

Analyse the conflict

Determine management strategy

Pre-negotiation

Negotiation

Post-negotiation

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps

are:

Step 1: Analyse the conflict.

• The first step in managing conflict is to analyse the nature and type of conflict. To do this, you'll find it helpful to ask questions.

• Answers may come from your own experience, your partners or local media coverage. You may want to actually interview some of the groups involved. Additional information regarding analysing conflicts can be found in the Guide to Information and Resources.

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:

Step 2: Determine management strategy.

Once you have a general understanding of the conflict, the groups involved will need to analyse and select the most appropriate strategy. In some cases it may be necessary to have a neutral facilitator to help move the groups toward consensus.

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:

Step 2: Determine management

strategy.

• Collaboration - This results from a high concern for your group's own interests, matched with a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win/win." This strategy is generally used when concerns for others are important. It is also generally the best strategy when society's interest is at stake. This approach helps build commitment and reduce bad feelings. The drawbacks are that it takes time and energy. In addition, some partners may take advantage of the others' trust and openness. Generally regarded as the best approach for managing conflict, the objective of collaboration is to reach consensus.

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:

Step 2: Determine management strategy.

• Compromise - This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests along with a moderate concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "win some/lose some." This strategy is generally used to achieve temporary solutions, to avoid destructive power struggles or when time pressures exist. One drawback is that partners can lose sight of important values and long-term objectives. This approach can also distract the partners from the merits of an issue and create a cynical climate.

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:

Step 2: Determine management strategy.

• Competition - This strategy results from a high concern for your group's own interests with less concern for others. The outcome is "win/lose." This strategy includes most attempts at bargaining. It is generally used when basic rights are at stake or to set a precedent. However, it can cause the conflict to escalate and losers may try to retaliate.

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:

Step 2: Determine management strategy.

• Accommodation - This results from a low concern for your group's own interests combined with a high concern for the interests of other partners. The outcome is "lose/win." This strategy is generally used when the issue is more important to others than to you. It is a "goodwill gesture." It is also appropriate when you recognise that you are wrong. The drawbacks are that your own ideas and concerns don't get attention. You may also lose credibility and future influence.

There are five steps to managing conflict. These steps are:

Step 2: Determine management strategy.

Avoidance -This results from a low concern for your groups own interests coupled with a low concern for the interests of others. The outcome is "lose/lose." This strategy is generally used when the issue is trivial or other issues are more pressing. It is also used when confrontation has a high potential for damage or more information is needed. The drawbacks are that important decisions may be made by default.

Step 3: Pre-negotiation.

To set the stage for effective negotiation, the groundwork must be laid.

The following should occur prior to negotiation.

Initiation - One partner raises the possibility of negotiation and begins the process. If no one is willing to approach the others to encourage them to reach an agreement, a trusted outsider could be brought in as a facilitator.

Assessment - Conditions must be right for negotiation to be successful. Key players must be identified and invited. Each side must be willing to collaborate with the others. Reasonable deadlines and sufficient resources to support the effort must exist. Spokespersonsfor each group must be identified and involved. Parties need to determine which issues are negotiable and which are not.

Ground rules and agenda - The groups must agree on ground rules for communication, negotiation and decision making. They should agree on the objectives of the negotiation process. An agenda of issues to be covered needs to be developed.

Step 3: Pre-negotiation.

Organisation - Meeting logistics must be established, including agreed upon times and places. People must be contacted and encouraged to attend. Minutes must be taken so that information can be distributed before and after meetings.

Joint fact-finding - The groups must agree on what information is relevant to the conflict. This should include what is known and not known about social and technical issues. Agreement is also needed on methods for generating answers to questions

Interests - When negotiating be sure to openly discuss interests, rather than stated positions. Interests include the reasons, needs, concerns and motivations underlying positions. Satisfaction of interests should be the common goal.

Step 4: Negotiation.

Options - To resolve conflicts, concentrate on inventing options for satisfying interests. Do not judge ideas or favor any of the options suggested. Encourage creativity, not commitment.

Evaluation - Only after the partners have finished listing options, should the options be discussed. Determine together which ideas are best for satisfying various interests.

Step 4: Negotiation.

Written agreement - Document areas of agreement and disagreement to ensure common understanding. This helps ensure that agreements can be remembered and communicated clearly.

Commitment - Every partner must be confident that the others will carry out their parts of the agreement. Discuss and agree upon methods to ensure partners understand and honour their commitments.

When evaluating options...

Use objective criteria for ranking ideas

Make trade-offs among different issues

Combine different options to form acceptable agreements

Step 5: Postnegotiation

• Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made. Some key steps include:

• Ratification - The partners must get support for the agreement from organisations that have a role to play in the agreement. These organisations should be partners and should have been involved in the previous steps. Each organisation will need to follow its own procedures to review and adopt the agreement.

• Implementation - You and your partners' jobs are not done when you've reached agreement. Communication and collaboration should continue as the agreement is carried out. The partnership will need to have a plan to monitor progress, document success, resolve problems, renegotiate terms and celebrate success.

Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made.

Some key steps include:

Step 5:

Postnegotiation

Negotiation skills.

Negotiation is an important skill for coming to an agreement when conflicts develop at home, at work and when dealing with issues like those related to watershed management. When negotiating...

Separate people from the problem.

Step 5: Post-negotiation

Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made.

Some key steps include:

When negotiating, remember you're dealing with people who have their own unique needs, emotions and perceptions.

Some conflicts are based on differences in thinking and perceptions. These conflicts may exist mainly in peoples' minds. It helps for each party to put themselves into the other's shoes so they can understand each other's point of view.

Identify and openly discuss differences in perceptions, being careful not to place blame. In addition, recognise and understand the other side's emotions as well as your own.

• Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made.

Some key steps include:

Step 5: Postnegotiation

Interest vs. Position

People often confuse interests with positions. An interest may be reducing litter in roadside ditches. There are many possible ways of addressing this interest. One might be the position of mandatory recycling. Another position might be a deposit on bottles and cans. Still another could be organising a clean up day.

• Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made.

Some key steps include:

• Focus on interests, not positions.

Step 5: Postnegotiation

Focusing on interests, rather than positions, makes it possible to come up with better agreements. Even when people stand on opposite positions, they usually have a few shared interests.

It takes time and effort to identify interests. Groups may not even be clear about their own interests. It helps to write down each group's interests as they are discovered. It helps to ask why others take the positions or make the decisions they do. Partners will have multiple interests. Interests involving important human needs (such as security, economic well being, and a sense of belonging, recognition and control over one's life) are difficult to negotiate.

Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made.

Some key steps include:

Step 5: Postnegotiation

Develop optional solutions.

When developing optional solutions that meet the interests of all sides, try to meet as many of each side's interests as possible. Start by inviting all sides to brainstorm ideas (before reaching a decision).

• Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made.

Some key steps include:

Some obstacles to developing innovative options are:

Step 5: Postnegotiation

Judging and rejecting prematurely

Searching for a single best answer

Putting limits on scope or vision

Considering only your own interests

To overcome these obstacles, view the situation through the eyes of different partners. Focus on shared interests to make the process smoother for all involved. Look for meaningful opportunities, not simple solutions.

Step 5: Postnegotiation

• Once negotiation is complete, the group will need to implement the decisions made.

Some key steps include:

Developing objective criteria.

When developing criteria for selecting or combining possible alternatives, revisit the conflicting interests. These can't be ignored or "wished" away. Instead discuss them as you begin developing criteria for judging alternatives. Also keep in mind principles such as fairness, efficiency and scientific merit.

Strive for criteria that are legitimate, practical and unbiased. You may also find it helps to explore the criteria used in making past decisions and discuss criteria with your partners or outside experts.

Stakeholder Conflict Examples

Managing Conflict

Conflict Resolution

Managing Conflict

Approach ObjectiveandTypical Response Supporting Rationale Likely Outcome

Forcing Getyourway. "Iknowwhat'sright. Don'tquestionmy judgementorauthority."

Avoiding Avoidhavingtodeal withconflict.

"I'mneutralonthatissue. Letmethinkaboutit."

Compromising Reachanagreement quickly.

"Let'ssearchfora mutuallyagreeable solution."

Accommodating. Don'tupsettheother person.

"HowcanIhelp youfeel goodaboutthis? My positionisn'timportant enoughtoriskbad feelingsbetweenus."

Collaborating Solvetheproblem together.

"Thisismyposition. What's yours? I'm committedtofindingthe bestpossiblesolution."

Bettertorisk causing afewhardfeelings thantoabandona positionyou're committedto. Youwillfeel vindicated,andthe otherpartywill feeldefeatedand possibly humiliated.

Disagreementsare inherentlybad becausetheycreate tension. Interpersonal problemsdon'tget resolved.Theycan causelong-term frustration,which willbemanifested inavarietyof ways.

Prolongedconflicts distractpeoplefrom theirwork,taketime, andengenderbitter feelings. Participants become conditionedto seekexpedient, ratherthan effectivelongtermsolutions.

Maintaining harmonious relationshipsshould beourtoppriority. Otherpersonis likelytotake advantageof you.

Positionsofboth partiesareequally important.Equal emphasisshouldbe placedonqualityof outcomeandfairness ofdecision-making process. Theproblemwill mostlikelybe resolved.Both partieswillbe committedto solutionand satisfiedthatthey havebeentreated fairly.

Conflict Management Techniques

• Conflict situations are an important aspect of the workplace. A conflict is a situation when the interests, needs, goals or values of involved parties interfere with one another. A conflict is a common phenomenon in the workplace. Different stakeholders may have different priorities; conflicts may involve team members, departments, projects, organization and client, boss and subordinate, organization needs vs. personal needs. Often, a conflict is a result of perception. Is conflict a bad thing? Not necessarily. Often, a conflict presents opportunities for improvement. Therefore, it is important to understand (and apply) various conflict resolution techniques.

Forcing

Also known as competing. An individual firmly pursues his or her own concerns despite the resistance of the other person. This may involve pushing one viewpoint at the expense of another or maintaining firm resistance to another person’s actions.

• Examples of when forcing may be appropriate

• In certain situations when all other, less forceful methods, don’t work or are ineffective

• When you need to stand up for your own rights, resist aggression and pressure

• When a quick resolution is required and using force is justified (e.g. in a life-threatening situation, to stop an aggression)

• As a last resort to resolve a long-lasting conflict

Possible advantages of forcing:

• May provide a quick resolution to a conflict

• Increases self-esteem and draws respect when firm resistance or actions were a response to an aggression or hostility

Some caveats of forcing:

• May negatively affect your relationship with the opponent in the long run

• May cause the opponent to react in the same way, even if the opponent did not intend to be forceful originally

• Cannot take advantage of the strong sides of the other side’s position

• Taking this approach may require a lot of energy and be exhausting to some individuals

Win-Win (Collaborating)

• Also known as problem confronting or problem solving. Collaboration involves an attempt to work with the other person to find a win-win solution to the problem in hand - the one that most satisfies the concerns of both parties. The win-win approach sees conflict resolution as an opportunity to come to a mutually beneficial result. It includes identifying the underlying concerns of the opponents and finding an alternative which meets each party's concerns.

Examples of when collaborating may be appropriate:

• When consensus and commitment of other parties is important

• In a collaborative environment

• When it is required to address the interests of multiple stakeholders

• When a high level of trust is present

• When a long-term relationship is important

• When you need to work through hard feelings, animosity, etc

• When you don't want to have full responsibility

Possible advantages of collaborating:

• Leads to solving the actual problem

• Leads to a win-win outcome

• Reinforces mutual trust and respect

• Builds a foundation for effective collaboration in the future

Win-Win (Collaborating)

• Shared responsibility of the outcome

• You earn the reputation of a good negotiator

• For parties involved, the outcome of the conflict resolution is less stressful (however, the process of finding and establishing a win-win solution may be very involved – see the caveats below)

Some caveats of collaborating:

• Requires a commitment from all parties to look for a mutually acceptable solution

• May require more effort and more time than some other methods. A win-win solution may not be evident

• For the same reason, collaborating may not be practical when timing is crucial and a quick solution or fast response is required

• Once one or more parties lose their trust in an opponent, the relationship falls back to other methods of conflict resolution. Therefore, all involved parties must continue collaborative efforts to maintain a collaborative relationship

Compromising

Compromising looks for an expedient and mutually acceptable solution which partially satisfies both parties.

Examples of when compromise may be appropriate:

When the goals are moderately important and not worth the use of more assertive or more involving approaches, such as forcing or collaborating

To reach temporary settlement on complex issues

To reach expedient solutions on important issues

As a first step when the involved parties do not know each other well or haven’t yet developed a high level of mutual trust

When collaboration or forcing do not work

Possible advantages of compromise:

Faster issue resolution. Compromising may be more practical when time is a factor

Can provide a temporary solution while still looking for a win-win solution

Lowers the levels of tension and stress resulting from the conflict

Some caveats of using compromise:

May result in a situation when both parties are not satisfied with the outcome (a lose-lose situation)

Does not contribute to building trust in the long run

May require close monitoring and control to ensure the agreements are met

Withdrawing

• Also known as avoiding. This is when a person does not pursue her/his own concerns or those of the opponent. He/she does not address the conflict, sidesteps, postpones or simply withdraws.

Examples of when withdrawing may be appropriate:

• When the issue is trivial and not worth the effort

• When more important issues are pressing, and you don't have time to deal with it

• In situations where postponing the response is beneficial to you, for example -

• When it is not the right time or place to confront the issue

• When you need time to think and collect information before you act (e.g. if you are unprepared or taken by surprise)

• When you see no chance of getting your concerns met or you would have to put forth unreasonable efforts

• When you would have to deal with hostility

• When you are unable to handle the conflict (e.g. if you are too emotionally involved or others can handle it better)

Possible advantages of withdrawing:

• When the opponent is forcing / attempts aggression, you may choose to withdraw and postpone your response until you are in a more favourable circumstance for you to push back

• Withdrawing is a low stress approach when the conflict is short

• Gives the ability/time to focus on more important or more urgent issues instead

• Gives you time to better prepare and collect information before you act

Some caveats of withdrawing:

• May lead to weakening or losing your position; not acting may be interpreted as an agreement. Using withdrawing strategies without negatively affecting your own position requires certain skill and experience

• When multiple parties are involved, withdrawing may negatively affect your relationship with a party that expects your action

Smoothing

• Also known as accommodating. Smoothing is accommodating the concerns of other people first of all, rather than one's own concerns.

Examples of when smoothing may be appropriate:

• When it is important to provide a temporary relief from the conflict or buy time until you are in a better position to respond/push back

• When the issue is not as important to you as it is to the other person

• When you accept that you are wrong

• When you have no choice or when continued competition would be detrimental

Possible advantages of smoothing:

• In some cases smoothing will help to protect more important interests while giving up on some less important ones

• Gives an opportunity to reassess the situation from a different angle

Some caveats of smoothing:

• There is a risk to be abused, i.e. the opponent may constantly try to take advantage of your tendency toward smoothing/accommodating. Therefore it is important to keep the right balance and this requires some skill.

• May negatively affect your confidence in your ability to respond to an aggressive opponent

• It makes it more difficult to transition to a win-win solution in the future

• Some of your supporters may not like your smoothing response and be turned off

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

• Resolving conflict constructively is the most critical of team skills. Without this ability, the team cannot develop the trust and bonding that allows moving from the Storming stage into peak performance.

Conflict resolution is not a standalone skill. There are specific techniques and attitudes that are helpful, but conflict resolution interrelates with other skills.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

Communication Skills

• Good communication skills prevent conflict or destructive escalation. Many of us do not communicate well. Sometimes our body language does not fit our verbal messages creating a cognitive dissonance in the listener. We may personalise issues. We may criticize people rather than actions, behaviours, or situations.

Listening effectively is the other half of good communication.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

• The most common deficiency is letting our mind race ahead of the speaker’s voice. We may use this speed difference to formulate responses or defences. Or we may allow our mind to wander on other subjects and miss part of what is said. This is, at best, frustrating for the speaker. It also leads to misunderstandings. Team members must train their minds to focus on words and message until the speaker finishes. Only then should they analyze and formulate a response.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

Problem Solving

• Problem solving skills define a problem, gather information, analyze the information, synthesize solutions, select the best solution, and implement it. These activities occur in distinct steps and in an orderly and structured way.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

Without good problem solving skills people jump to conclusions.

The conclusions that various people jump to are often wildly different. Without a factual basis, the discussion turns to who is “wrong” and who is “right” with an undertone of who is “OK” or “Not OK”. Problem solving avoids conflict with structure and consensus.

• Teams can also bring problem solving directly to bear on a conflict. They treat the conflict as a problem, gather information, analyze, search for solutions, and implement.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

Other Skills That Prevent Conflict

• Other team skills have a collateral effect of avoiding or mitigating conflict. Time management prevents arguments about who does what and when. Cross training prevents boredom and prevents conflict over workloads. Facilitation controls meetings and reduces frustration over wasted time.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

Conflict Resolution Skills

• Intervention occurs when parties to a conflict are confronted. In the mildest form, a team member quietly and separately points out the situation to one or more of the individuals involved. In the strongest intervention the entire team confronts the conflicted parties much as friends and relatives might confront an addict.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

Feedback is an effective conflict resolution technique.

In feedback, one individual confronts another in a structured setting with a carefully crafted statement. A feedback statement goes like this:

• “When you…(Describe The Behavior)”

• “I feel….(Describe Your Emotion)”

• “Because…(Describe The Reason For the Emotion)”

• “What do you think?” (Wait For Response)

Feedback is an effective conflict resolution technique.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

• An example would be: “Jim, when you are late for meetings it makes me angry because your tardiness wastes everyone’s time and prevents our team from conducting its business. What do you think?” The addressee of the feedback statement must then respond in a structured way. A facilitator governs and controls the process.

• Feedback is powerful. It defuses anger and brings rationality to a discussion. Feedback and Intervention are only two of many conflict resolution techniques.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

• Team conflict is typically seen as negative. We tend to think of it as team members disagreeing, arguing and yelling. Dealing openly with group conflict seems uncomfortable for most individuals, but these derailments are a normal part of every team's functioning. Dealing with a team conflict head-on can assist the team in finding better solutions and developing a solid foundation of trust in the long run.

• Every team has internal conflicts from time to time. Many leaders avoid team conflict, and others handle disagreements inappropriately. But leaders who handle problems constructively can improve productivity, generate new ideas and personally develop team members.

Tools to Overcome Conflict

There are many ways to handle conflict constructively. "Using situational leadership with teams is an excellent way to overcome conflict and move forward," says Warren. Here are some additional steps you can teach your team members:

1.Attack the problem, not the person.

2.Focus on what can be done, not on what can't be done.

3.Encourage different points of view and honest dialogue.

4.Express your feelings in a way that does not blame.

5.Accept ownership for your part of the problem.

6.Listen to understand the other person's point of view before giving your own.

7.Show respect for the other person's point of view.

8.Solve the problem while building the relationship.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

Team conflict is typically seen as negative. We tend to think of it as team members disagreeing, arguing and yelling. Dealing openly with group conflict seems uncomfortable for most individuals, but these derailments are a normal part of every team's functioning. Dealing with a team conflict head-on can assist the team in finding better solutions and developing a solid foundation of trust in the long run.

Every team has internal conflicts from time to time. Many leaders avoid team conflict, and others handle disagreements inappropriately. But leaders who handle problems constructively can improve productivity, generate new ideas and personally develop team members.

Resolving Conflict Skills in Teams

Getting Back on Track

• A team derailment can be disconcerting to most team members. To ensure your team gets back on track and stays there, do the following:

1.Hold a debriefing meeting/team intervention and discuss what happened and how it can be avoided again.

2.Create a contract between the team members stating the team rules.

3.Have a celebration with all the team members.

Don't let a team conflict stop you in your tracks. Handle the conflict with skill and confidence, and your team will achieve its goal.

Persuasion Theory

Negotiation

• the process of discussing something with someone in order to reach an agreement with them, or the discussions themselves:

Negotiations Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy:

The Planning Process

• Know your limits and alternatives

• Set your objectives (targets) and opening bids (where to start)

• Target is the outcome realistically expected

• Opening is the best that can be achieved

• Assess constituents and the social context of the negotiation

Goals, Strategy and Planning

Direct effects

The Direct and Indirect Effects of Goals on Strategy

• Wishes are not goals

• Goals are often linked to the other party’s goals

• There are limits to what goals can be

• Effective goals must be concrete/specific

Indirect effects

• Forging an ongoing relationship

Strategy versus Tactics

• Strategy: The overall plan to achieve one’s goals in a negotiation

• Tactics: Short-term, adaptive moves designed to enact or pursue broad strategies

• Tactics are subordinate to strategy

• Tactics are driven by strategy

• Planning: The “action” component of the strategy process; i.e. how

will I implement the strategy?

McGraw-Hill/Irwin

Approaches to Strategy

Unilateral: One that is made without active involvement of the other party

Bilateral: One that considers the impact of the other’s strategy on one’s own

Strategic Options

• Per Dual Concerns Model, choice of strategy is reflected in the answers to two questions:

• How much concern do I have in achieving my desired outcomes at stake in the negotiation?

• How much concern do I have for the current and future quality of the relationship with the other party?

The Dual Concerns Model

Avoidance: Don’t negotiate

Competition: I gain, ignore relationship

Collaboration: I gain, you gain, enhance relationship

Accommodation: I let you win, enhance relationship

The Nonengagement Strategy: Avoidance

• If one is able to meet one’s needs without negotiating at all, it may make sense to use an avoidance strategy

• It simply may not be worth the time and effort to negotiate

• The decision to negotiate is closely related to the desirability of available alternatives

Competition – distributive, winlose bargaining

ActiveEngagement Strategies

Collaboration – integrative, winwin negotiation

Accommodation – involves an imbalance of outcomes (“I lose, you win”)

Understanding the Flow of Negotiations: Stages and Phases

How does the interaction between parties change over time?

How do the interaction structures relate to inputs and outcomes over time?

How do the tactics affect the development of the negotiation?

Understanding the Flow of Negotiations: Stages and Phases

Negotiation proceeds through distinct phases or stages

• Beginning phase (initiation)

• Middle phase (problem solving)

• Ending phase (resolution)

Key Steps to an Ideal Negotiation Process

• Preparation

• What are the goals?

• How will I work with the other party?

• Relationship building

• Understanding differences and similarities

• Building commitment toward a mutually beneficial set of outcomes

• Information gathering

• Learn what you need to know about the issues

Key Steps to an Ideal Negotiation Process

Information using

• Assemble your case

Bidding

•Each party states their “opening offer”

•Each party engages in “give and take”

Closing the deal

•Build commitment

Implementing the agreement

Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process

Define the issues

1 Assemble the issues and define the bargaining mix

2 Define your interests

• Why you want what you want

• The bargaining mix is the combined list of issues

Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process

Know your limits and alternatives

1 Set your objectives (targets) and opening bids (where to start)

2 Assess constituents and the social context of the negotiation

• Target is the outcome realistically expected

• Opening is the best that can be achieved

Analyze the other party

Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process

• Why do they want what they want?

• How can I present my case clearly and refute the other party’s arguments?

Present the issues to the other party

Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy:

The Planning Process

• Define the protocol to be followed in the negotiation

• Where and when will the negotiation occur?

• Who will be there?

• What is the agenda?

Management

Negotiations

Tips

• Aim high to begin with – easier to lose ground than gain

• Give concessions ‘reluctantly’

• Break down complex deals

• Language:

• Make proposals with open questions such as:

• “what would happen if we…?”

• “suppose we were to…”

• “what would be the result of?”

• Dealing with stone-walls: “what would need to happen for you to be willing to negotiate over this?”

• Always get agreement in writing

How to influence others

• The three ‘Ps’:

• Position (power?)

• Perspective (empathy)

• Problems (solutions)

Summary on the Planning Process

“...planning is the most important activity in negotiation.”

Decision Making

Decisions in the Management Functions

Rational Decision Making 8-step Process

• 1. Identification of problem

• 2. Identification of Decision Criteria

• 3. Allocation of weights to criteria

• 4. Development of alternatives

• 5. Analysis of alternatives

• 6. Decide on an alternative

• 7. Implementation of decision

• 8. Evaluation of decision

The Decision-Making Process

Problem

Identification “My salespeople need new computers”

Identification of Decision Criteria

Allocation of Weights to Criteria

Analysis

Reliability

Screen size

Implementation

Development of Alternatives

Levels of information-based decision making

Strategic level, managers are largely concerned with longterm organisational planning.

Tactical level, medium term.

Operational, shortterm day-to-day.

Levels of management

• Strategic management

• Board of directors and senior executives

• medium to long term focus

• strong requirement for information from external sources

• need highly summarised reports as well as varying amounts of detail.

Levels of management

• Tactical management

• middle, departmental, functional managers

• shorter to medium term focus

• need information from both inside and outside the organisation

• summarised and more detailed reports needed

Levels of management

• Operational management

• maintaining the status quo.

• foremen, supervisors, charge hands

• need information from within the organisation, rarely from outside

• need detailed information and unsophisticated summaries.

Levels of management

• Compared with strategic level, at the operational level...

• the planning horizon is narrower

• decisions are more structured

• information is required to be based more on internal sources, more historical, less summarised and more highly accurate

MIS and Decision Making

• Fully structured decisions

• the MIS might make the decision itself

• or at least suggest an outcome and await edits

• for example, stock re-order

• Semi-structured decisions

• the MIS will provide support, charts, output summaries, and the manager will make the decision

Decision characteristics

About Rational Decision Making

Is it always possible to make rational decisions?

All alternatives and consequences are known

Preferences are clear

Preferences are constant and stable

Single, welldefined goal is to be achieved

Problem is clear and unambiguous

Rational Decision Making

Final choice will maximize payoff

No time or cost constraints exist

Intuitive decision making

• Based on “gut feeling”

• subconscious process of making decisions on the basis of experience, values, and emotions

• does not rely on a systematic or thorough analysis of the problem

• generally complements a rational analysis

Types of Problems & Decisions

• Well-Structured Problemsstraightforward, familiar, and easily defined

• Programmed Decisions - used to address structured problems

• minimize the need for managers to use discretion

• facilitate organizational efficiency

Types of Problems and Decisions

• Poorly-Structured Problems - new, unusual problems for which information is ambiguous or incomplete

• Nonprogrammed Decisions - used to address poorly- structured problems

• produce a custom-made response

• more frequent among higher-level managers

• Procedure, Rule, & Policy

Types of Problems & Level In the Organization

Ill-structured

Type of Problem

Top

Well-structured

Programmed Decisions

Nonprogrammed Decisions

Level in Organization

Lower

Things to consider . . .

• Certainty – how certain is a particular outcome?

• Risk – how much risk can you take?

• expected value - the conditional return from each possible outcome

• Uncertainty – Limited information prevents estimation of outcome probabilities for alternatives.

Decision-Making Styles

• Dimensions of

Decision-Making

Styles

• Value orientations

• Task and technical concerns

• People and social concerns

• Tolerance for ambiguity

• Low tolerance: require consistency and order

• High tolerance: multiple thoughts simultaneously

Decision-Making Styles

Directive

• Prefer simple, clear solutions

• Make decisions rapidly

• Do not consider many alternatives

• Rely on existing rules

Analytical

• Prefer complex problems

• Carefully analyze alternatives

• Enjoy solving problems

• Willing to use innovative methods

Conceptual

• Socially oriented

• Humanistic and artistic approach

• Solve problems creatively

• Enjoy new ideas

Behavioral

• Concern for their organization

• Interest in helping others

• Open to suggestions

• Rely on meetings

Decision Making Styles

Advantages and Disadvantages of GroupAided Decision Making

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Greater pool of knowledge

Social pressure

2. Different perspectives 2. Minority domination 3. Greater comprehension 3. Voting , Trading

4. Increased acceptance 4. Goal displacement

5. Training ground

“Groupthink” harmony

Aims of unit

Keywords

Types, causes, impact, evidence-based judgement, disagreement, resolution

Understand

Learning Outcomes

Understand

Understand the types, causes, stages and impact of conflict within organisations

Understand how to investigate conflict situations in the workplace

Understand approaches, techniques, knowledge, skills and behaviours for managing conflict