DC: A Capital Analysis of Urban Form by Robert James Hernandez

DC A Capitol Analysis of Urban Form

...dedicated to my wife Crystal for my absence while I wrote this book.

Contents

Part I: Current State

Part II: Through the Eyes of Kevin Lynch

Part III: The Urbanization Process of DC

Part IV: Reflection & Urban Issues

Part V: Conclusion

Bibliography

Images

PART I Current State

urrently what this city is striving to achieve is to become an "international business city (Abbott, 1989)." It would

ultimately become a place where large businesses, institutions, and trade organizations would come to discover, lobby, and conduct trade with each other and the US. This was the vision that The Board of Trade has had since around the 1930s. It is slowly starting to transform into a world destination through various plans and restrictions but may not reach the definition of becoming a mega city unless the district as a whole increases their density.

DCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Figure Ground

1. Washington Monument 2. Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception 3. Old Post Office Pavilion 4. Washington National Cathedral 5. United States Capitol 6. One Franklin Square 7. Rowhouse

555â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

278â&#x20AC;&#x2122;

3 1

2 6

The 8 Wards of DC

The 39 Neighborhood Clusters of DC

The Greenspaces

Zoning

oning for DC has not dramatically changed over the years due to the city beauti fication movement that resulted

into the McMillan plans and zoning acts. Starting to dissect these ideas, the McMillan plan was a legislation that was passed by Congress in order to restore the national mall and develop a comprehensive park system for the city (Abbott, 1989). In order to see this plan flourish, the AIA and President Roosevelt formed the Commission of Fine Arts which is now a consulting organization to the city for any type of design oriented projects from bridges and painting to buildings.

Moving to the zoning act of 1938, the district created

a police force of the Zoning Commission that regulated the type of buildings that were to be built in the district. Commissioners were given the power to regulate in accordance with the ordinances and plans of the city at the time. Some of these were the health and wel fare of the city, adequate light coming down onto the sidewalks, the safety of building, etc. Furthermore, the act added regulations with regards to building new buildings. These were (Unknown):

â&#x20AC;˘

zoned districts should be suitable to the character of the

respective precincts and should encourage stability in districts and in land values;

•

the Zoning Commission is required before adopting any amendments to hold a public hearing with at least 30 days notice;

•

a favorable vote of at least a full majority of the total membership is required, not just of those participating;

•

the building height limits of the Act of 1910 cannot be superseded in zoning;

•

one cannot build a building without a building permit in the District;

•

the executive is the enforcement arm (DCRA); and

federal public buildings are exempt from zoning controls, but the National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) shall review and regulate such buildings.

commercial

residential

The Zoning

Density

he density of DC is fairly low for the amount of activity that happens in the area. According to the 2000 census,

DC misses the population density of 10,000 people by a little fewer than 700 people. In 2010, it missed the prime density by 100 people. The types of housing that predominates the city are row houses towards the edges and condo apartments in the denser central areas. Suburbia is null due to the size of the city. The neighboring states however act as the areas where some live to escape the density of the city or have a cheaper area of living.

0 - 4,813

37,959 67,49

The Density

Population

he demographics have dramatically varied through the years and have been having a steady increase in population.

The earliest known record of a census was in the year 1800. There were 8144 people in the district and about 70% were white while the rest were blacks. Slowly and gradually, it grew until about 1860 when the number of federal jobs increased six-fold from 1860 to 1880 (Abbott, 1989). The numbers of the population itsel f went from 75,080 to 177,624 people who were still mostly a 3 to 1 ratio of whites to blacks respectively. From here the population grew ever more rapidly until another boom happened again in the 1930s to 50s. This time the population jumped from 486,869 to 802,178. The federal employment also made a leap from 62,000 jobs to 230,000 (Sandys, 2013).

0 - 1,784

6,601 16,646

The population

1M 1M

800k 800K

600k 600K

400k 400K

200k 200K

0 1800 Graph of the Population Flux

2010

Rowhouses

PART II

Through the Eyes of Kevin Lynch

ashington DC uses all of Kevin Lynch's five elements of imaging a city. It incorporates paths, defines edges, has

di fferent districts, has numerous nodes, and contains landmarks scattered through the city center.

Paths

r. Lynch defines a path as, "channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally, or potentially moves.

They may be streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads (Lynch, 1960)." As you can see from the diagrams, defining paths was an important driving design factor in the planning of DC. Creating connecting boulevards and greenscapes between major governmental buildings allowed for a more monumental impact than it would have been i f it was only using the Jeffersonian grid. Having large 160' boulevard oriented at an angle towards a governmental building adds impact to the monumentality of the city.

Edges

he edges within DC were di fficult to distinguish. Lynch describes an edge as, "linear elements not used or

considered as paths by the observer... boundaries between

two phases, linear breaks in continuity: shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls (Lynch, 1960)." As people know the District of Columbia was a ten by ten mile square rotated 45 degrees so to form a diamond in line with the cardinal coordinates. This was until 1846 when the district gave back Virginia's area due to the lack of upkeep (Matthew, 2007). The result is the shape we have today, where the Potomac is a clear southern boundary of DC. As for within the actual city limits, edges are di fficult to define because of the amount of meticulous developmental planning that has been made in DC.

Districts

C is a rare phenomenon because of its lack of affiliations with any state. It has its own identity, its own government,

and its own police. The capital has been divided up into 8 wards. These act as political lines for the government of DC. Elected citizens are then a part of the Council of the District of Columbia and vote on issues of the city. There are also 39 neighborhood clusters that help the DC government determine budgeting, planning, service delivery, and analysis purposes. Walking through the city is a di fferent experience that the lines put on paper however, as it is di fficult to distinguish where these wards and clusters begin and end.

Nodes

gain, looking back to Lynch's principles nodes are, "... points, the strategic spots in a city into which an observer

can enter, and which are the intensive foci to and from which he is traveling (Lynch, 1960)." Nodes appear throughout DC in numerous locations. They tend to be designed where L'Enfant's plans cross each other at key moments around governmental buildings. They act as a transition point where cars can circumscribe the populated center circle. Inhabitants can usually relax in the circle on their lunch breaks and enjoy some of the sun i f it is a nice day. The panoramic vantage point of all the di fferent streets and boulevards is an advantageous idea.

Landmarks

andmarks are no strangers to DC. Like the numerous nodes throughout the city, landmarks are scattered throughout the

city, but centralized towards the governmental areas around the mall. As defined by Lynch they are, "...another type of pointreference, but in this case the observer does not enter within them, they are external. They are usually a rather simply defined physical object: building, sign, store, or mountain (Lynch, 1960)." These are the opposites of nodes, a positive extrusion rather

than an open area. The main governmental buildings as well as the Washington Monument are the most popular landmarks that are most likely used by everyone who visit. With the height of these buildings being mostly well under 300', and the distance one travels from them to get to a signi ficant location is too long to maintain a visual connection.

PART III

The Urbanization Process of DC

merica was still an infant when DC was first conceived and this allowed for an exception in regional legislation.

In 1791 Congress authorized the creation of a place for the government through the Resident Act and thus the District of Colombia was born. When the residency act was approved, the Federal government was to have its own territory from which to govern the rest of the United States. The temporary home of the government resided in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania before the location for D.C. was chosen. George Washington, who was already assisting with the planning of Alexandria and George, chose the location of the new capital (National Park Service U.S Department of Interior, 2014). George Washington chose a 10mi x 10mi square of land between the state boarders of Maryland and Virginia which they in turn ceded. By the time of this act, the towns of Alexandria and George had already been establish and was the sweet spot of where the President wanted the which he rotated 90 degrees and located on the boarder of Maryland and Virginia. At the time the 100 square miles were a part of both states, and both states donated their land to the federal government in order for it to have its own system of legislation (National Park Service U.S Department of Interior, 2014). This would be of the importance because of the role it would play in being the capitol of the nation. The type of legislation that currently governs the district is titled

The Board of Trade. This later would merge with the Chamber of Commerce in 1934 but would still effectively operate in the same manner (National Park Service U.S Department of Interior, 2014).

Hippodamian Grid

lthough not usually referenced as a major influence to the design, the Hippodamian grid is an underlying element

in DC. The maximum population size the grid and design was based upon was for ten thousand people. These people would then be divided into three classes of professions: artisans, farmers, and military. When this was completed, the land would be divided up into three regions: sacred spaces for religious and sacramental structures, public for governmental and civic structures, and private for businesses, homes, and other something. Once these principles were establish, they started to overlay the grid within the region and would begin to form an order and regularity to the city as a whole, suggesting where streets would be made and open spaces placed. The result would be the incorporation of city blocks, with which Hippodamus is credited with inventing. The sizes of the blocks would vary based on the need of the people, but the average was about one hundred feet by one hundred and seventy-five

feet, a 4:7 square ratio. Insulae would be placed between the street and this system of grid work and allowed the city to develop in a regulated but flexible way.

Roman Castra

hen the Roman army wanted to set up a camp, whether it was for a short or long term, discipline had to be

maintained. Not only was it required that a Roman soldier keep the correct distance in the row and line in which he stood in formation, but the camps also had to be orderly and as close to perfection as possible. The architecti, which is loosely translated to be chief engineer, had the responsibility of creating the initial axis upon which the rest of the camp was to be orientated. The architecti could then call on anyone in the army to help with the construction of the camp and make sure it was properly maintain throughout its use. I believe the following excerpt perfectly explains the discipline the Romans had with building their castra and is from a book entitled The Wars of the Jews.

"...as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight till they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven;

The Roman Castle of Iciniacum near Theilenhofen 44

Arbeia Roman Fort reconstructed gateway

nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first leveled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them (Flavius, 2009)."

The act of marking the ground and generating a cross

axis from which to orient the rest of your site is prevalent in DC. If one looks closely at the North Capitol and East Capital streets, one can see the Capital building is the origin of the linear coordinates. Government is supposed to be the center of attention in this particular city.

The Principle of the Second Man

much later urban designer by the name of Ed Bacon used a great historic parable of a piazza to convey the Principle

of the Second Man. The Piazza della Santissima Annunziata in Florence is built proof of how multiple builders can really make a conscious decision of location. The construction of Brunelleschi's arcade of the Foundling Hospital (noted as A in the diagram on the next page) is what really started to suggest a piazza just outside. This happened around 1427 and there was

DCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Castra

no real clear plan as to what would develop in the surrounding structures. The church (noted as B in the diagram) was there at the time of the Foundling Hospital, but its facade was flat and it did not posses the look it has today. Along came the architect Michelozzo, however, and he redesigned the church in 1454 to have features similar to the hospital. This is when the piazza started to posses an architectural language that defined it, but was technically still not considered to be a public square.

Nearly two hundred years had passed and nothing

had been added or changed. It seemed unfinished during that time and the city again had no clear plan as to completing the square. Finally, architects by the names of Antonio da Sangallo & Baccio d'Agnolo were commissioned to design the building directly across from the hospital (C). Here is where the true principle of the second man plays a big role. Antonio da Sangallo & Baccio d'Agnolo had a decision to make: should they place a new architectural language in which would make their building the focal point of the square since the architecture that was present was already 200 years old, or should they finish the piazza by using the same language already in place by Brunelleschi and Michelozzo? This was probably a di fficult choice for the two and finally Sangallo resisted the urge to advance the architectural language of the square. Instead he

Piazza della Santissima Annunziata

humbly acknowledged and used the older building's architecture to complete the space now known as the Piazza della Santissima Annunziata.

I believe Bacon most likely used this parable to keep

the developers of the city on the same page. One quote that I found to be a strong persuasive argument in designing a city that has segmented patrons is, "...it is the second man who determines whether the creation of the first man will be carried forward or destroyed (Bacon,1967)." As you will later read, the Principle of the Second Man is an often forgotten but key component in the development of Washington DC, although it was not fully realized until later.

The Design

eorge Washington had been working on creating the federal city in 1791. He presented congress with a

preliminary plan from Pierre Charles L'Enfant who had drew the first map of DC on the 22nd of June that year (Hawkins, 2013). This consisted of cross-axial gestures with key nodal points. Simultaneously, Thomas Jefferson had also started working on preliminary designs for the new capitol. His ideas were modest in comparison, however, as he used similar concepts from

Roman Castrum Diagram

Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Enfant Plan

the Hippodamian grid: structured, square, modest. Conversely, Washington thought that the capitol city of the United States of America should incorporate more grandeur statement and saw the necessity to combine the two since they both had their own particular value. It wasn't until August of the same year that Washington finally showed the plan to congress had it approved through the Residency Act of 1791. This first approved plan mostly designed by L'Enfant however was not to the exact expectations of George Washington. The results were three important changes: discarding some minor avenues, relocating the exchange, and moving the president's house to higher ground towards the East (Hawkins, 2013). Originally, L'Enfant had proposed to have the section just West of where the White House currently convenes and name it the "President's Palace" (see illustration on next page). This would have been where the president would have had his household with supporting gardens and landscapes. Nevertheless, Washington made the claim that the rise in grade south of that area would block the view of the Potomac.

After these details were worked out, the corner

stone for the Presidential Palace was set in 1792. During early phases of construction, L'Enfant was fired from the job due to some disagreements he had with the surveyors. He was never

properly paid for his work and died penniless. One of the three city's surveyor, Andrew Ellicott, had produced an engraved map that was similar to L'Enfant and included more information about lot sizes and sales (Fletcher, 2008). Because of the vastness of the project, the building of DC was slow. The main buildings, the Congressional House and Library of Congress, were started within the next two years after the groundbreaking. Small residential projects and schools were built throughout the rest of the area until 1814. In 1812 however, the British reached Washington during the War of 1812 set fire to the city almost completely devastating it. This caused major setbacks for the L'Enfant/Ellicott goals.

It wasn't until the late 1800's that Washington

refocused their gaze on recreating plans to achieve the ultimate design goal. By this time Washington DC, now one hundred years old, was in vast disarray with regards to planning. The vision Washington and L'Enfant had in mind had been all but lost and practically forgotten. Instead of a grand, well structured seat for the government, cows grazed what was supposed to be the capitol mall and an armory was built right in the middle, bisecting the Congressional House and Washington Monument axis. Congress had also allowed a railroad to directly bisect the mall. Around this time, Georges-EugĂ¨ne Haussmann was

The War of 1812, British Forces Burning Washington, D.C.

commissioned by Emperor NapolĂŠon III to create the perfect state of an industrial city which became a known urban strategy. Garden Cities were coming to fruition, the creations of urban planners and landscape architects. Charles Mul ford Robinson also wrote the Improvement of Towns and Cities as a commentary of American architecture and its disrepair becoming the first man to write a real guide to urban planning. With these ideologies Senator James McMillan of Michigan met several times with the AIA in 1900. L'Enfant's plan had been rediscovered in 1887 but there was no real action until the turn of the century (Matthew, 2007). After the meetings in 1901, McMillan formed the Senate Park Commission with which he named architects Daniel Burnahm and Charles McKim, sculptor Augustus St. Gaudens, and landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.

These men would form the plan take the actions to

develop DC closest to what we see today, but not with some opposition from the Joseph cannon, the speaker of the house at the time. The commission was successful in submitting and getting the McMillan plan approved but Cannon was upset that the Senate bypassed the House in doing so. This, however, did not result in the plan being completely tossed out, as there were backers in Congress who believed in the plan.

Ultimately, they were able to redevelop the mall and

make it a comprehensive landscape. They added an extensive park system that was to be incorporated throughout the rest of DC, cleared, straightened, and added structures and land to the mall, and continue to develop monuments to fill the mall. The three branches of government could now use it as a means of connecting as was originally intended and the monumental core could be revitalized. One note that the Attorney General at the time stated was:

"No building should be constructed except such as will be meet the just expectations not only of the present but of the future generations. The building should be worthy of the purpose to which it is to be devoted and of the Government whose dignity it in part represents. In this connection do regard should be had to the general plan for the adornment of Washington, which is now under consideration by a competent Commission (Moore, 1902)."

This was a mile marker in the time line of Washington

DC. It finally had a plan to follow and an organization to see it through. The Senate Park Commission developed over time and slowly became what is now known as the National Capital

Planning Commission (NCPC), which formed in 1924 (Matthew, 2007 ). They oversee all urban planning, development, and improvements that are to be made in Washington and believe the city must stick as close to the comprehensive plan as possible.

PART IV

Reflection & Urban Issues

fter staying in DC for a week, walking was not a terribly di fficult endeavor. The block sizes seemed long and

arduous, but that could have been from the ten-mile hike we had to trek in order to observe as much of the city as possible in a short time frame. The traffic congestion in the city was an interesting spectacle, as people from so many di fferent cross streets wanted to go the same direction or just cross each other and it seem almost impossible with the jam. According to walkscore.com, DC has a walkability score of 74, being 7th amongst the top 10 walkable cities (Walk Score, 2014) . I could see DC being walkable with the use of the public transit, which received a score of 70, but the typology of zoning seemed limited to mostly accommodating office spaces and residences. I did not run across one grocery store or main shopping cluster while I was there.

Unfortunately there were not any large or popular ongoing events happening during our visit. After reading around in books and the web for the current issues of DC, one issue in particular stuck with me that I believe I was able to witness first hand. This would be the debate for revoking the Height Act of 1910.

According to architect Robert K. Levy back in 2012, he, "optimistically declared that the study which will

evaluate the federal law limiting Washington building heights is a 'win-win' situation fore everyone involved (Vinnitskaya, 2012)." On the one hand the height act helps control and consolidate the density level to a comfortable livability and activate the street li fe. This was one side of the argument in the article by a blog writer for the Atlantic Cities Blog, Kaid Benfield. The opposing argument is that there is no room to grow and develop the city because of the limit. Building can only be so high. This could then in turn affect the economic outcome and stunt growth. Another writer of the Atlantic Cities Blog, David Schleicher, responded to the defenders of the Height Act with six questions in anther article. These where (Schleicher, 2012):

1. Do you believe supply is important in determining prices in housing and office markets? 2. Why do you think development should be spread out? 3. What effect do you think limiting heights has on agglomeration, including the depth of local markets and information spillovers? 4. Why do you think D.C. will grow without going up? 5. Do you think D.C. would instantly become as tall as New York upon repeal? 6. How much is the D.C. aesthetic worth?

Both of these arguments have valid things to consider,

as it seems to be addressing the classic question of form or function; or both? What balance can the city begin to achieve i f it were to start to let up on the Height Act in certain cases? It seems as thought the National Planning Commission is only now beginning to explore these options at the end of 2013 came to a temporary conclusion that, "it must protect the integrity of the form and character of the nation's capital, [and] that there may be some opportunities for strategic change in the areas outside of the L'Enfant City where there is less concentration of federal interests (Young, 2013)." I would personally be surprised to see DC become a Mega world-class city of any sort. The profiles of the buildings are pretty low in comparison with other city downtowns as the emphasis is on length and horizontal perspective rather than vertical encroachment.

PART V In Conclusion

ashington is an extremely unique area of unfamiliarity. It is a rare city in the way that it is designs, governed,

and interacts with the rest of the world. It is disconnected both literally and politically from the rest of the United States. Perhaps the way it continues to operate could become detrimental in the long run as times become faster and more technical? Despite my short limited and frigid experience in this city, I appreciated some of the things it had to offer.

Bibliography

U.S. Census Bureau - District of Columbia - Race and Hispanic Origin: 1800 to 1990. manuscript., U.S Census Bureau, 2002. .

Abbott, Carl. "Perspectives on Urban Economic Planning: The Case of Washington D. C. Since 1880." The Public Historian. no. 2 (1989): 5-21.

Unknown, . "DC Zoning History." DCOZ , http://dcoz.dc.gov/about/history2.shtm

Sandys, Toni L. "Population gains at near-historic lows."The Washington Post, 12 30, 2013. http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/district-population-booms-in2013/2013/12/30/1ac8515e-7162-11e3-9389-09ef9944065e_story.html (accessed February 28, 2014).

National Park Service U.S Department of Interior, "The L'Enfant & McMillan Plans." Accessed February 28, 2014. http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wash/lenfant.htm.

Fletcher, Kenneth. Smithsonian, "A Brief History of Pierre L'Enfant and Washington D.C." Last modi fied 5 1, 2008. Accessed February 28, 2014. http:// www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-brief-history-of-pierre-lenfant-andwashington-dc-39487784/?all.

Josephus, Flavius. "A Description of the Roman Armies and Roman Camps and of other Particulars for which the Romans are Commended." In War of the Jews. . Reprint, : IAP, 2009.

Hawkins, Don Alexander. "Unbuilt Washington."Washington History. no. Summer (2013): 52-54. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41982417 (accessed April 8, 2014).

Laale, Hans Willer. Once They Were Brave, the Men of Miletus. Bloomington, Indiana: Author House, 2007.

Fletcher, Kenneth. Smithsonian, "A Brief History of Pierre L'Enfant and Washington D.C.." Last modi fied May 1, 2008. Accessed February 27, 2014. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/a-brief-history-of-pierrelenfant-and-washington-dc-39487784/?all&no-ist.

Edmund N. Bacon, Design of Cities, (New York: The Viking Press, 1967), 95.

Francine Cary, Urban odyssey : a multicultural history of Washington, D.C., (Smithsonian, 1996).

Cynthia Field, Isabelle Gournay, and Thomas Somma, Paris of the Potomac, (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2007).

G. Martain Moeller, AIA Guide to the Architecture of Washington, D.C., (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).

James Goode, Capital Losses, (Washington & London: Smithsonian Books, 2003).

Matthew, Gilmore. H-Net, "A Timeline of Washington DC History." Last modi fied October 2007. Accessed April 15, 2014. http://www.h-net. org/~dclist/timeline1.html.

Moore, Charles. The Improvement of the Park System of the District of Columbia.. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1902. http://www.

cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/mcmillan/plan.pdf.

Lynch, Kevin. The Image of the City. Massachusetts: The MIT press, 1960.

Vinnitskaya, Irina. "The Pros & Cons of Revoking the DC Height Act." Arch Daily, December 13, 2012. http://www.archdaily.com/297778/the-pros-cons-ofrevoking-the-dc-height-act

Schleicher, David. "6 Questions for Defenders of D.C.'s Height Limit." The Atlantic Cities. (2012). http://www.theatlanticcities.com/politics/2012/11/6-questionsdefenders-dcs-height-limit/3986/

Young, Deborah. "Commission Action." National Capital Planning Commission, November 23, 2013. http://www.ncpc.gov/DocumentDepot/Actions_ Recommendations/2013November/Final_Action_Height Master_Plan_111913.PDF

Images

The War of 1812, British Forces Burning Washington, D.C.: http://www.thomasschoenberger.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/5washington-burning-1814-granger.jpg, http://www.thomasschoenberger.com/ blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/5-washington-burning-1814-

Principal High Buildings; http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Worlds_tallest_ buildings%2C_1884.jpg

Arbeia Roman Fort reconstructed gateway: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Arbeia_Roman_Fort_ reconstructed_gateway.jpg, http://upload.wikimedia.org/

L'Enfant Plan: http://www.ncpc.gov/Images/Maps/L'Enfant%20Plan,%201791.jpg

Sketches of DC Plan (page 48): http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Map_of_the_District_of_ Columbia%2C_1835.jpg

The Roman Castle of Iciniacum near Theilenhofen: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Kastell_Theilenhofen_ Iciniacum_%28English%29.png, http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/0/01/

Rowhouses: https://farm5.staticflickr.com/4149/4991234592_60e264fbfc_o_d.jpg

Piazza della Santissima Annunziata: http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/344/flashcards/1903344/jpg/ piazza_della_santissima_annunziata__florence1350266185907.jpg