RMSTEM - 2nd Edition - Trinity Term 2025

RMSTEM RMSTEM RMSTEM

Contents Contents

RMSTEM TEAM

Editor-in-Chief

Aroush Nasim

News

Najma Dahir

Aleesa Mehmud

Leah Robertson

Amy Zheng Writers

Imogen Adedapo

Mila Hinton

Kate Julius

Swaleha Khan

Alessia McCormick

Aroush Nasim

Lara Turan

Aisha Gurung

Meher Patwalia

Amy Zheng

Illustrators

Kya Ko

Anja Sticklen

4 6 7 7 8 10 14 16 18 20 24 26 30 32

NewBurosumabAntibody TreatsXLHBoneDisease

LeahRobertson

NewAImodelcanpredict geneactivity

NajmaDahir

TheEarth’sinnercoremay havechangedshape

NajmaDahir

TheNavier-StokesEquations andFluidDynamics

LaraTuran

Theeffectsofmusicon emotion

MilaHinton

TheScienceofSkywalker: Factvs.FictioninStar Wars

KateJulius

Theimportanceofdietary supplements

AlessiaMcCormick

Howgeneticengineeringis goingtochangetheworld

ImogenAdedapo

Theeffectofmappinghuman cellsonthedetectionand treatmentofcancer

AroushNasim

Isittimetoditchthedead languages?

MeherPatwalia

Thedisapprovalofthe positiveinductiveeffect

AleesaMehmud

CanSat-RMSTeamRosetta

AmyZheng

TheUsesof3DBioprinting

AmyZheng

TigerConservation

AishaGurung

Editor’sNote Editor’sNote

We’reexcitedtopresentthesecondeditionofRMSTEMandcan’t waittosharewhatwebelievewillbeanengagingandthought-provokingissue. Wehopethiseditionencouragesyoutothinkbeyondthe‘now’andintothefutureas wediscuss“Howgeneticengineeringisgoingtochangetheworld”and“Theusesof 3DBioprinting.”

Asyouallknowscienceisaneverevolvingfieldwithnewdevelopmentsineach industry.Thepastyearwehavewatchedcreativeadvancementsthroughout scienceincludinghow“TheNewBurosumabAntibodyTreatsXLHBoneDisease.”

Aswealsounfoldthetruthbehind“TheNavier-StokesEquationsandFluid Dynamics”and“Theeffectofmappinghumancellsonthedetectionandtreatment ofcancer”whichprovethelastingeffectssciencecanhaveontheworld.

Asmytimeaseditorunfortunatelycomestoaclose,Iwouldliketothankeveryone thatcametogetherinmakingthisedition.I’mthankfultoeveryreaderwhohas joinedalongthewayandhopefullyabletohavedevelopedastrongerlovefor science.IamsogratefultohavebeenthefounderofthismagazineasIhavehadthe opportunitytoworkwithabrilliantgroupoflikemindedindividuals.So,pullupa chair,relaxandwehope youenjoyreadingthiseditionasmuchasweenjoyedcreatingit!

YourEditorinChief,

AroushNasim

NHSProducesNewMonoclonal

Importance of Phosphate

AntibodyToTreatXLHBoneDisease

What is XLH? X-linked Hypophosphatemia is an inherited disorder and a form of Rickets which affects approximately 1 in 20,000 individuals. The condition is caused by low levels of phosphate in the blood, or ‘phosphate wasting’ (where more phosphate is excreted in the urine than necessary). This leads to teeth and bones becoming weaker and easier to fracture. Thankfully, a new treatment called Crysvita, in the form of the monoclonal antibody Burosumab, was discovered by the Japanese Pharmaceutical company Kyowa Kirin. Although the NHS made this treatment available for children in 2018, it was only in November of 2024 that the NHS approved it as a treatment for adults.

What causes XLH?

XLH is caused by a mutation on the PHEX gene of the X chromosome, causing it to be inherited and sex-linked disease. The PHEX gene mutation doesn’t directly cause the decrease in phosphate, instead it causes an increase in the hormone FGF23. In healthy individuals, FGF23 is responsible for regulating phosphate levels in the blood by reducing phosphate reabsorption by our kidneys, thus, an increase in it can lead to an excessive concentration of phosphate in the urine and less of it in the blood. This causes bones and teeth to absorb less phosphate and weaken. At the same time, high levels of FGF23 decrease the production of vitamin D, causing a decreased absorption of phosphate in the gut.

If a female suffers from the condition and it is homozygous dominant, all of her children both boys and girls will inherit it. However, if it is heterozygous there's a 50% chance of passing it on to the children.

XLH is caused by a spontaneous mutation which can be passed on to family members, however, in rare cases, this mutation can also be spontaneous. Symptoms of XLH start to appear in infancy, often when a child begins to walk as they will experience a slow growth rate and be much smaller than their peers. Other common symptoms include bone abnormalities, a delayed ability to walk, bowed legs, joint pain, muscle weakness or even hearing loss.

Phosphate is one of the most vital ions for living organisms, which we obtain in our diets in products such as dairy, grains and meats. It is used to synthesise biological molecules such as DNA, RNA and ATP, and is an essential component of the cell membrane. Most importantly, phosphate is used in the mineralisation of bones, which store 85% of all phosphate in the body. Normal phosphate levels are between 2.5 - 4.5 mg/dL of blood, anything below this value is considered hypophosphatemia as the patient will develop weaker bones.

Function of Crysvita

Before Crysvita was approved, the only available medications for XLH were phosphate supplements or activated vitamin D, which are taken orally on a daily basis. These were proven to be less efficient and can even cause side effects such as stomach problems and kidney stones. Fortunately, Crysvita is now widely available. This drug contains the IgG1 monoclonal antibody Burosumab, which works by binding to excess FGF23 hormones and inhibiting their biological activity. This restores healthy bloodphosphate reabsorption in the kidneys and allows more phosphate to be deposited into bones, making them stronger and healthier.

Crysvita was first approved for use in February 2018 in 28 European Union countries, after Kyowa Kirin’s 20 year journey of scientific discovery with XLH and burosumab. The FDA approved Crysvita based on evidence from 3 clinical trials with 199 patients. In an additional trial, adults with XLH were given the drug every 4 weeks for 24 weeks, 94% of patients experienced an increase in blood phosphate levels. Crysvita is now given in the form of an injection under the skin, every 2 weeks for children and every 4 weeks for adults.

LeahRobertson

DiagramofFGF23hormonebindingtophosphate molecules

ScienceNews

The Story of Susan Bird

This is the story of Susan Bird that can be found on the NHS Website, a 68 year old from Oxfordshire who was diagnosed with XLH when she was just 2 years old. Her mother, children and grandchildren were also born with the condition. Once she was in her 40s, her mobility became more and more restricted and she was in so much pain that she was ‘living on painkillers’.

Her only treatment options were phosphate, which gave her stomach upsets, and vitamin D. However, since she started burosumab her condition has improved remarkably. Susan states that people born with XLH now have “an amazing future ahead of them” and that the effects of burosumab were “absolutely life changing”. After a year of treatment, Susan stated that she was a “totally different person” and is now happily travelling with her husband.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Crysvita?

Advantages:

As mentioned, Crysvita has been proven effective through clinical trials, where it caused an increase in blood phosphate levels in 64 out of 68 adults. Crysvita causes very few side effects compared to the previous phosphate and vitamin D drugs. As symptoms of XLH appear in early childhood, and Crysvita can be given to children from the age of 1, treatment can be provided rapidly to ensure that the patient has the best quality of life in the future.

Crysvita is a relaxed treatment process, as injections are only given every few weeks and can be done at home, making the patient feel more comfortable.

Disadvantages:

Despite having fewer side effects than previous drugs, Crysvita can still cause side effects such as vomiting, muscle pain, nausea, toothache and injection reactions.

Although Crysvita has a very high success rate, it still may not work for some people. Crysvita patients will need regular blood tests to monitor their blood phosphate concentrations.

In the USA, burosumab costs approximately $160,000 per year for children and $200,000 per year for adults. However, Steven B. Miller, Chief Medical Officer of Pharmacy Benefit Manager Express Scripts, argues that the drug is not ‘inexpensive’, but ‘responsible’ as it is vastly cheap compared to treatments for other genetic disorders, which in the USA have an approximate price of $600,000 per year. In England, the cost of burosumab is £2,992 per 10 mg vial, and the dose of burosumab is 1 mg/kg of body weight every 4 weeks. If an 80 kg adult was receiving burosumab treatment for a year, it would cost approximately £311,168.

Burosumab poses the risk of hyperphosphatemia, where blood phosphate levels are higher than normal. Hyperphosphatemia hasn’t been reported in pediatric patients, but approximately 7% of adults receiving burosumab have developed hyperphosphatemia, causing them to require a burosumab dose reduction of 50%.

While drug testing needs to involve large scale double blind trials, it is great to hear about individual case studies reporting improvements such as this one. Despite its disadvantages, Crysvita has both effectively increased patients’ blood phosphate levels and improved patient quality of life. It shows a promising future for those affected by XLH.

NewAImodelcanpredictgeneactivity

Overtheyears,scientistshaveworkedtowards understandinghowgenesworkandwhichgeneswere expressedindifferentsituations.Traditionalmethods reliedonlabexperimentswhereresearchersstudiedcells andranteststoseehowgenesaffectcellfunction.Whilst thesemethodsprovidedvaluableinformation,AIhas advancedsothatscientistscanpredictgeneactivitywith higheraccuracyandspeed.AImodelsarerevolutionising asmassiveamountsofdataarebeinganalysedand patternshumansmayhavemissedarebeingidentified. Thisbreakthroughhasthepotentialtochange medicine andbiotechnologyasweknowit.

Sincetheendofthe1900susefulmethodssuchasRNA sequencing;whereresearcherswouldextractRNAfrom cellstoseewhichgeneswereexpressed.TheproteinDNA interactionteststudieshowproteinscontrolDNA expressions.However,thesemethodshadsomenegatives asitwastimeconsuming,duetothesetestshavingtobe doneindifferentconditionsandondifferentgenes.They werealsoexpensiveasexperimentswereoftenrepeated. However,AIhassolvedtheseissuesasithasnowbeen trainedtousepastresearchinordertorecognisewhich partofDNAisimportantforgeneregulations.

AImodelsaretrainedonmanybiologicalsamplesallowing themtorecognisecertainDNAsequencesthataffectgene expressions.Thesemodelsdon’tjustpredictwhichgenes areactivebutalsohelptounderstandwhycertaingenes behavethewaytheydo.Thishasmajorimplicationsfor medicineinparticular.Forexample,itcanhelpdoctorsto detectdiseasessuchascancer,diabetesandAlzheimer's bypredictinghowcertaingeneswillbehave.AIcanalso helpimprovebiofuelproductionbysuggestinggenetic modificationstobacteriawhichareinvolvedinthe conversionofbiomassintoethanol.

AsAIcontinuestoimprove,scientistsareabletostudy genesfaster,cheaperandmoreaccuratelythanever. However,therearestillmanychallengessuchasensuring theseAImodelsareaccurate,ethicalandfreefrombias.

NajmaDahir

ScienceNews

TheEarth’sinnercoremayhavechangedshape

Researchers used to believe the Earth's inner core was an unchanging solid sphere. Early seismic studies suggested that the waves travelled through the core in a way that would be predicted for a solid composed primarily of nickel and iron. However, modern discoveries have invalidated this perspective, and the inner core has turned out to be more dynamic than was previously thought. Its shape also changes due to irregular growth, gravitational attraction, and rotational variation instead of being a rigid sphere. Therefore, new evidence suggests that the inner core was not as solid as once believed.

The Earth's inner core is over 5000 kilometres beneath the surface and is surrounded by a liquid outer core. As it is impossible to drill that deep, scientists use seismic waves, which are energy waves produced by earthquakes, to examine its structure.These waves previously implied the inner core was a solid sphere. Recent research shows variation in its density and movement, suggesting that some of the core may be changing shape or becoming less solid.

The inner core plays a significant role, as it helps to generate the planet’s magnetic field. This protects us from harmful UV radiation. If the core is changing, it may explain variation in Earth’s rotation. This could improve earthquake prediction models and provide insights into the planet's long term evolution.

Scientists are now working on refining their model to understand how fast these changes are occurring and what it means for the earth. Some researchers believe the changes are driven by heat

Thedisapprovalofthepositiveinductiveeffect

Formanyyearsinchemistry,itwasacceptedthatalkylgroups,whicharecomposedofcarbonand hydrogenatoms,exertapositiveinductiveeffect.ThisconceptoriginatedfromChristopherIngold's observationsthatalkylgroupsseemedtoincreaseelectrondensitythroughsigmabondsincertain molecules.Theexplanationforthiswasbasedonobservablereactivitytrends,wheremethylgroups appearedtopushelectronstowardapositivecharge,ultimatelyinfluencingthestabilityofvarious molecules.Thisunderstandingwasusedtoexplainthestabilityofcarbocations,theacidityofcarboxylic acids,andthebasicityofamines.However,thisperspectiveoverlookedanimportantdetail:carbonismore electronegativethanhydrogen,suggestingthatcarbonshouldwithdrawelectronsratherthandonate them.

RecentresearchfromCardiffUniversity,basedonquantummechanicalcalculations,challengesthe previoustheorybydemonstratingthatalkylgroupsareinductivelyelectron-withdrawingcomparedto hydrogen.Ananalysisofthechargedistributioninalkanes,alkenes,alkynes,aromaticcompounds, haloaceticacids,substitutedcarboxylates,andcarbocationsduringSN1reactionsrevealedthatalkyl groupspullelectrondensityawayinductivelyratherthandonatingit.Thisfindingcontradictscurrent textbookexplanations,asthechargeonacarbonatombecomeslessnegativethemorealkylgroupsare attached.Furthermore,theirworkconfirmedthathyperconjugation,polarisability,andsolventhavea moresignificantroleinacidity,basicity,andcarbocationstabilitycomparedtotheinductiveeffect.

CANSAT

AmyZheng

WhatisCanSat?

TheCanSatcompetitiongivesstudentstheopportunitytolearnpractical skillsbyworkingontheirownproject.ACanSatisasimulationofarealsatellite, withinthevolumeanddimensionsofasoftdrinkcanwithamaximummassof350g.Studentsarechallengedto fitallthecomponentsofarealsatelliteintotheserestricteddimensions,suchaspower,sensors,a communicationsystemandmore.

What’sourgoal?

Everyteamisrequiredtocompletethesetprimarymission,tomeasureairpressureandairtemperature duringtheCanSat’sdescent,aswellastelemetry.Telemetryisthewirelesstransmissionandcommunicationof datafromremotesources,usingsensorstocollectdata,inourcasetelemetrywilloccurbetweentheground stationandtheCanSat.

Inadditiontotheprimarymission,teamsareexpectedtodesignasecondarymissionoftheirchoosing!Our secondarymissionistoassessthelandingofourCanSat,andiscomprisedof4differentaspects:

1.Deploymentof3legsfromthebase:allowingtheCanSattolandinanuprightposition.

2.Deploymentofamicrowheeledroverunit:ifitissafe,aroverstoredinsidewillbeejectedfromthecan.

3.Videotelemetryfromtherover:wewillbeabletocontroltheroverwirelessly,andtheroverwilltransmit livevideofeedtothegroundstationofitssurroundings.

Ourteamtakesinspirationfrompastmissionsto planetsandasteroids,whereitisvitaltolandaprobe insuchamannerthatthenallowsittocollectdataand senditbacktoEarth.EspeciallytheRosettaspace probe(2004)thataimedtorendezvouswithcomet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko,andlandaprobeonits surfacebylaunchingharpoonsdesignedtoanchorthe landerPhilae,whichwouldthentransmitimagesand collectsamplesofthecomet’senvironment.

Ouroriginalaimwastolaunchharpoon-like attachmentsfromthecanintotheground,simulatingtheRosettamission.Sincethenwehavealteredouraims duetotechnicallimitations,butkepttheideaofimageandvideotelemetry,aswellasgivenourroverunitthe namePhilae!

Whoarewe?

EveryCanSatteamshouldhaveatleastonepersonworkinginproject management,programming,candesign,andparachutedesign.InTeam Rosetta,wehave2peopleforeachrequiredsection:AmandaMahendra andAmyZhenginprojectmanagementandprogramming,AmyZheng andAmberRatcliffinoutreach,AtheneWojcikandAmberRatcliffincan design,andfinallyZaraHillmanandMillieMowleinparachutedesign.Wealso haveanotherstudentwhovolunteerstoassistuswithourseparateareas,focusing mainlyoncalculationsandparachutedesign(LaraTuran).

Howdoesthecompetitionwork?

Thecompetitionrequiresteamstosubmit3reports,thepreliminary,critical,andfinaldesignreview (shortenedtoPDR,CDR&FDR).Eachreporthassectionsonteamorganisation,projectmanagement,testing plans,outreachschemesandvariousareasofdesigni.esoftware,mechanicalandelectricalwhichmustbe appropriatelyfilledin.Reportsarejudgedbasedonthemarkscheme:

Technicalachievement35%

Scientificvalue35%

Professionalcompetencies20%

Outreach10%

Afterareportissubmitted,eachsectionis markedaccordinglywithapass,meritand distinction.Thereportfeedbackalso indicateswhetherateamhasprogressedto thenextstageofthecompetition.

WesubmittedourPDRbackinNovember, andI’mhappytosaythatwereceived3 distinctionsand21outof26marks!A successfulresultfromthePDRallowedustoattendtheregionallaunchonthe4thMarch2025.Wealsosent ourCDRofftobemarkedinFebruary,againreceivingseveralpositivedistinctionsbutunfortunatelywewere notadmittedtothefinals.

Thisyear’sCanSatcompetitionhasbeenagreatjourney,allowingallofustolearnanddevelopnewskills,as wellasdiscoverpassionsforvariousareas.Trulyanamazingexperience.Movingforwards,ourteamhopesto improveonourweaknessesandenterthecompetitionagaininthenewschoolyear,withtheultimategoalof reachingfinals!

TofollowourjourneyintheCanSatcompetition,followourinstagramaccount@rmsforgirlscansatwherewe postupdatesandourprogress!

Navier-Stokesareasetofequationsthat describethemovementofeverysinglefluid, undereveryconditionpossibleinouruniverse. Theyformthebackboneofafieldin mathematicscalled‘fluidmechanics’; mechanicsisthestudyofhowforce,matter andmotionarerelated,andfluidmechanicsis thestudyoftheserelationshipsinobjectsthat ‘flow’.TheyarepartoftheClayInsitute’s MillenniumPrizeProblems,whichareseven problemsthatare‘themostdifficultproblems withwhichmathematiciansweregrapplingat theturnofthesecondmillennium’,andcome withaheftyonemilliondollarsinprizemoney. Andbeforewebegin,Iaskthereadertoview thisarticleasaverybriefintroductiontothis enormousandfascinatingtopic,thatisinno waycomprehensiveormathematically rigorous,butattemptstobeawindowintoa fundamentalmysteryinmathematics.

SowhatcanweuseNavier-Stokesfor?

Theoretically,anythingthatcanflow.In application,Navier-Stokesareusedinmany fields,butdohavesomelimitations.For exampleinBiology,theyareusedtomodelthe flowofbloodaroundthebody;inengineering theyareusedtomodeltheflowofairarounda plane’swings,oracar’sbody;inanimation theycanbeusedtorenderrealisticfluid motion.

Beforedelvingintothedetailsofthese equations,let’sexaminetheassumptionswe canmaketosimplifytheequations,fortheir useineverydayscenarios.First,weassume thatourfluidisNewtonian-itsviscosityis notaffectedbytheshearrate.

LaraTuran

Ifweapplyaforcetothisfluid,like stretchingorsquashingit,the ‘thickness’ofthefluiddoesn’tchange. Mostliquidsweencountereveryday areNewtonian;water,forexample, alwayshasthesameviscosity,no matterhowmuchforceisappliedtoit.

Wealsoassumethatourflowis incompressibleandisothermal. Unintuitively,incompressibleflowcanbe exhibitedbycompressiblefluidstoo;we defineitbyimaginingeveryfluidasa collectionofinfinitelysmall‘fluidparcels’, whosemassandvolumemustremain constanttobedefinedasincompressiblethevolumeofthose‘parcels’are incompressible.Isothermalflowiswhen thefluidremainsthesametemperatureat everypointduringthemovement.Thisis possiblebecauseheattransferredtothe wallsofthecontainerisequaltothe frictionalheatbackintothefluid.Whilst theseconditionsmaketheequationsalot simplertounderstandandtosolve,they areextremelysimplifiedandcannotbe appliedtoeverytypeofflow,butcanactas agoodapproximation.

Nowthatwehaveestablishedtheground rulesthatenableustousetheequations, let’stakeadeeperlookintothefirstone:

Thefirstsymbolinthisequationiscalled nabla.Itrepresentsdivergence,andinthis casedivergenceofavectorfield.Thisisa valuethattellsushowmuchapointtends todirectvectorsawayfromitwithinthe vectorfield.Justlikeweimaginedthefluid asinfinitely manyparcelsforitsvolume, wecanalsoimagineitasacollectionof vectors,orarrows,thatrepresentthe speedanddirectionofeverysinglepoint withinit.

Theothersymbolinthisequationisthe velocity,whichisavectorquantitywith threecomponents:u,vandw,actingin

Therefore,thisequationistellingusthatthe divergenceofthevelocityvectorfieldiszero.

Forreadersthatwouldlikeadeeper understanding of howwetakethedivergenceofavectorfield, theillustrationbelowgoesintomoredetailabout theprocess:

Apointwillhavealargedivergence whenthevectorsarounditmoveaway fromit,andapointwithnegative divergencewillhavethevectorsaround itpointingtowardsitself.

Forfluids,wecanthinkofdivergenceas howmuchasinglepointactsasasourceof thefluid;themouthofatapwouldhavea highdivergence,whereasitwouldhavea smallervaluelowerdownthestream.The reasonthisdivergencemustequalzero overallisthatmasscannotbedestroyed.If onepointwithinthefluidmovesawaywith acertainvelocity,itisalsotravellingto anotherpointwiththatvelocity,sothatthe totaldivergenceiszero.Overall,thismeans thatweconsidereverypointwithinthefluid atalltimes-noneislostoradded.

Oursecondequationisderivedfroma fundamentalequationinclassical mechanics:Newton’sSecondLaw.Many ofyouwillhaveencounteredthisbefore, solet’sadaptthisequationtouseinfluid mechanics:

givesusthedensity(rho)ofthefluid. Thereforeinfluidmechanics,density canoftenbeequatedwithmass. Accelerationisthechangeinvelocity overtime,specificallyofthevectorfield, whichwedefinedpreviously:Du/Dt. Youmayhavenoticedthecapital‘D’ notation;thisdenotesthatthisisa Lagrangianacceleration.Simplyput, thisisexaminingthechanging accelerationofanindividualparticleas itspeedsuporslowsdownduringits journey,ratherthanchoosinga‘frame’ throughwhichweviewasmallpartof thefluid,andexaminingthevelocityof theparticlesthatpassthroughthat frameovertime(Eulerian acceleration).

Nowthatwehavedefinedthemassand acceleration,onlytheForceremains.The Forceisasumofthevariousinternaland externalforcespresentinfluids.First,the fluidexperiencesinternalpressure,which influenceswherethefluidsmovetowards. Thisisexpressedasagradientinthree dimensions

Theviscosityofthefluidalsocreatesan internalfrictionalforceastheparticles slidepasteachother.Formally,itishow muchresistancethefluidhastowardsa changeinshapeorthemovementofits variouspartsagainsteachother.For fluids,wecanthinkofitashowthicka fluidis;forexample,honeyisthickerthan water,anditisalsomoreviscous.

Formostscenarios,weconsidertheonly externalforcetobegravity,butwedenoteall ofthemwith‘F’.

Wehavenowdefinedallofthevariables withinbothequations,andhopefullythat shedssomelightonwheretheycomefrom, andwhattheycanbeusedtofind.Wecanalso seethattheseequationsarederivedfrom fundamentallawsofphysicsthatgovernour universe:theconservationofmass,and Newton’sSecondLaw.Thereforetheymust applytoallfluidswewouldliketodescribe, right?Unfortunately,thisisfarfromthetruth. Wedon’tyethaveafullunderstandingofthe solutionsoftheNavier-Stokes,norifany solutionsexistatall.

illustrationdemonstratingdifferencebetweenLagrangian andEulerian

Wecannotyetmodelturbulentflow accuratelyoverlongperiodsoftime,and thisiswhywecanonlypredictthe weathersofarinadvance;rightnow,we modeltheatmosphereasifitwasmade oflargesections,whichwecanfindthe averagevelocityfor,ratherthan individualairparticles.Ifwediddecide tocalculatetheactualsolutionsfor Navier-Stokesoftheweather,the computationsrequiredwouldtakefar longerthananyofourlifetimes.The longerthetime,themoreunreliable thesemodelsbecome,anditwouldbe hugelyinfluentialinallbranchesof scienceiftheexistence,orevennonexistenceofsolutionstoNavier-Stokes couldbeproven.

ThisiswhereI(jokingly)leavetheproof asanexercisetothereader.Intruth, theseequationsareoneofthegreatest unprovenmathematicalproblemsofour time,anditwouldbeamiracleifareader orIcouldbetheonestocomeupwiththe answer.Sopleasetakethisarticleasan enjoyable,ifextremelysimplified, introductiontothesebeautiful equations,butpleasedonotbefully satisfiedwithmyexplanations.I,also, amnot,assomeofthemathsmentioned isfarabovemyunderstandingtoo.

illustrationofchaoticvslaminarflow

MilaHinton

Musichasbeenaroundforthousandsofyears.Ithas evolved,changedandgrownthroughgenerationsof creativity,ingenuityandartistry.However,the psychologybehindtheeffectsithasonitslisteners andouremotionshasmostlyremainedthesame.

Ina2001PETscanstudybyBloodandZatorre, resultsshowedthatmusictriggersthesameneural processesthatgovernthebrain’sabilitytoproduce feelingsthatarecommonlyassociatedwithfoodand drugs.So,whenShakespearesaidthatmusicisthe foodoflove,hewasn’tjustbeingdramatic.Thebrain isabletoconvertmusicalauditoryinformationinto stimulationofneuralcomponentsthatareusually associatedwithemotion,attention,andfeelingsof euphoria.Listeningtomusichasthepotentialto stabilisethehumanpsychebyelicitingawiderange ofbothnegativeandpositiveemotions.Forexample, relaxingsoundsmaybenefithealthbyreducinglevels ofstress.Highlevelsofstresscancausedisorders suchasillnesses,insomnia,depression,oranxiety. So,whatemotionscanmusicmakeyoufeel?Asong willnotmakeeveryonefeelthesameway.Thisisdue tothemessagesourvaryingculturesandexperiences haveassignedtosoundsbeforelisteningtoasong. Whileculture,memoriesandassociationsdo influencemusicandemotions,therearecrossovers acrosstheseaspects.Berkeley’sInteractiveMusic Mapisamusicmapbasedonpeople’sresponseswith 13emotionaldimensions,self-reportedbyindividuals fromChinaandtheUSA.

Nowthatithasbeenestablishedthatmusicdoes affectouremotions,thequestionishowandwhatelse canitdoforus?

Well,activemusic-makingcancausethe releaseofneurotransmitterslikedopamineand serotonin.Dopamineinfluencesfocus, concentration,memory,sleep,moodand motivationwhileserotoninimpactsmood,sleep patterns,anxietyandpain.Activemusicmakingcanbesinging,playinganinstrument orcreatingmusic.Thehormoneoxytocinis producedwhenmakingmusic,specifically singinginagroupandithelpsusfeelconnected tootherpeople.Aswellasthis,singing promotesrelaxationasitsynchronises breathingpatternsandreducestheproduction ofcortisol(‘thestresshormone’).Musiccan elicitmanyemotionsandbyunderstanding yourownfeelingsandhowyouassociatecertain typesofmusic,youcanuseittoimproveselfregulationandmentalhealth.

Iknowwhatyou’rethinking,‘Butthereareso manydifferentgenresofmusic!HowdoIknow whataffectstheyallhaveonmyemotions?’. Well,you’reright,therearemanydifferent genresofmusicbutI’llfocusonsomeofthe mostwell-known:classical,pop,rapandrock.

Classicalmusicisknownforbeingveryvaried initsconveyedemotions,itcanrangefromlove andjoytoangeranddespair.Although confusing,thiscanactuallybeusedasatoolto copewithdifficultemotions.Listeningto upbeatsymphoniescanelevatemood,evoke feelingsofhappinessandcontentment.Onthe otherhand,melancholicpiecescanhelpus processourownemotions,providinganoutlet foremotionalrelease.

Therearemanypreconceivedideassurrounding ‘sad’musicandhowitjustmakesusevenmoresad thanwealreadyarebutactually,listeningtosad musichelpsusbecomemorereflectiveand emotionallystableintimesofstress.Classical musiccanofferadistractionforourmindsfrom negativethoughtsandpreventspiraling,which helpstosoothepanicattacksandanxiety.Itoffers aneasywaytoimproveouremotionalwell-being throughstressreductionandmoodenhancement.

Nextupis‘Pop’orPopularmusic.Muchlike classicalmusic,thereisawiderangeofemotions portrayedinpopmusicbutmosthavetheperfect balancebetweenhappyandsad.Thisiscalled valence.Didyouknowthatastudyofover5000 popsongsfrom1950to2013foundthatvalence hasnotreallychangedoverthedecadesandmost popularsongsremaininthisbalancebetween happyandsad.Popmusicoftenencouragesa feel-goodfactorandthereleaseofdopamine makesus,ofcourse,feelhappierandalsomore connectedtothemusic.

Rapandrockmusicfollowasimilarpatternto eachother.Bothcanbeviewedasaggressive andangrybutalsoemotiveandinspirational. Rockmusiccanbesplitintotwosmallerstyles: Hardrockandsoftrock.Hardrockmusicis classifiedasastyleofrock‘nrollthatcontains harsh,amplifiedsoundandloudelectric guitars.Softrockmusicisaformofrock‘nroll thattendstoproduceasofter,morepleasing soundandoften,pianosorsynthesizersare usedtoaccompanytheelectricguitars, somethingthathardrockdoesn’tusuallyhave. Althoughdifferentinmanyways,bothhave similareffectsonouremotions.Rockcan significantlyincreasehostility,sadness, tensionandfatigueandcausesignificant reductionsincaring,relaxation,mentalclarity andvigour.Asmentionedbefore,raphas similareffectsonouremotions.Aggressiverap musiccanleadtoanincreaseinemotional aggressionratherthaninbehavioural aggression.However,rapmusiccanalsomake peoplefeelempowered,resilientandoverall morepositive.

Overall,itisclearthatmusiccaninfactgetus inourfeels.So,whatcanyoudowithwhatyou havelearntinthisarticle?Well,nexttimeyou arelisteningtoagloomysymphonyorafeelgoodpopsong,rememberwhyyoufeeltheway youdo.Youcanalsousewhatyouhavelearnt todevelopyouremotionalintelligence.For example,youcanmakeyourfeelingschangeor evolvebylisteningtomusicoryoucanbecome inspiredormotivatedtocompleteaproject.If youarelisteningtoagenreofmusicthatisnot coveredinthisarticle,feelfreetogoand conductyourownresearchonhowitmakes youfeelandwhy.Thisarticleisjustanoutline andthereissomuchmoregoingoninsidethe brainthatisnotcoveredhereandthatmaynot haveevenbeendiscoveredyet.

The Science of vs. Fiction

TheStarWarsfranchisehascaptivatedaudiencesfordecadeswithitsepicspacebattles,alienspecies,andfuturistic technology.ButhowrealisticaretheelementsintheStarWarsuniverse,andtowhatextentdotheyalignwithscientific principles?Andcouldanyofitactuallyexist?

TwinSuns:TheRealitiesofBinaryStarSystems

Tatooine,thedesertplanetwhereAnakinandLukeSkywalkerspentmuchoftheirlives,isfamousforitsiconictwinsuns. Thiscelestialfeatureaddstotheplanet’smystiqueandvisualappeal,buthowrealisticisit?

Inreality,binarystarsystems—wheretwostarsorbiteachother—arequitecommoninourgalaxy.Scientistsestimatethat abouthalfofthestarsintheMilkyWayexistinbinaryormultiplestarsystems.Thesesystemscanincludetwostarsof similarsizeorpairsofalarger,moremassivestarandasmallercompanion.

However,thewayStarWarsportraysTatooine’stwinsunsmaynotbeentirelyaccurate.Inabinarystarsystem,thetwo starsmaynotbecloseenoughtohavesuchadramaticvisualeffect,especiallywhenviewedfromthesurfaceofaplanet. Thestarswouldlikelyorbiteachotherinsuchawaythattheirappearanceintheskywouldvarydependingontheir positionsintheirorbit,andtheymaynotalwaysappearastwinsunsinthesamewaytheydoonTatooine.

Additionally,thepresenceoftwosunsraisesquestionsabouttheplanet'shabitability.Thegravitationalforcesoftwostars couldleadtoachaoticclimate,makingitdifficultforaplanettomaintainstableconditionslikethoseneededforlife.While somebinarysystemshaveplanetsinstableorbitsthatcouldsupportlife,thespecificconditionsofTatooine—extreme desertlandscapes—suggestthatitismoreofafictionalcreationthanascientificallyplausibleenvironment.HoweverI wouldprefertosaythat,somewhereoutthere,arealworldversionofTatooineiscurrentlyorbitingitsveryowntwin suns.

DroidsandArtificialIntelligence:AreWeClose?

DroidslikeC-3POandR2-D2playcrucialrolesintheStarWarssaga, providingbothoneofmyfavouritecharacters,aswellasutilitywith theiradvancedartificialintelligence.Withthecurrent,rapiddevelopment ofAIitbegsthequestion,aredroidslikethisapossibility?Thedroidsin StarWarsaresentientbeingswithemotionsandsophisticatedreasoning, andwhilecurrentAItechnologyisquitefarfromachievingsuchautonomy, couldweseeithappening.Today’sAIiscapableofperforminghighlyspecialised tasks,suchasdrivingcarsordiagnosingmedicalconditions,butitlacksthe generalintelligenceandemotionalcapacityofthedroidsseeninStarWars. Researchersaremakingstridesinmachinelearningandnaturallanguage processing,butcreatingatrulysentientmachineisalongwayoff.Intermsof robotics,humanoidrobotsarebecomingmoresophisticated,buttheyremainfar behindthecomplex,responsivedroidsofStarWars.InStarWars,wealsoseedroidsbecomedangerousandusedwithbad intentions,suchastheB1-BattleDroids.Theideaofemotionallyintelligentbattledroidsbeingusedintherealworld, possiblyforunethicalpurposesisaveryscaryone,thatcouldcompletelychangetheworld.Still,thepossibilityof advancedAIremainsacompellingareaofstudy,withbreakthroughscontinuallypushingtheboundariesofwhat’spossible.

Skywalker: Fact in Star Wars

KateJulius

SpaceTravel:ThePhysicsofFaster-than-LightTravel

OneofthemosticonicaspectsofStarWarsistheabilitytotravelfasterthanthe speedoflight,thankstothehyperdrivesystem.Inthemovies,shipslikethe MillenniumFalconcanjumptohyperspace,bypassingtheconstraintsof lightspeed.However,isthispartofthefranchiserealistic?

Thespeedoflightisanincredible299,792,458meterspersecond.Atthat speed,youcouldcircleEarthmorethanseventimesinonesecond,andhumans wouldfinallybeabletoexploreoutsideoursolarsystem!In1947humansfirst surpassedthe(muchslower)speedofsound,withsupersonicjets.

Inourcurrentunderstandingofphysics,travelingfasterthanlightis actuallyimpossible.Einstein’stheoryofrelativitysaysthatasanobject approachesthespeedoflight,itsmassincreases,andtheenergyrequiredtocontinueacceleratingitbecomesinfinite. AccordingtoAlbertEinstein’stheoryofspecialrelativity,summarizedbythefamousequationE=mc2,thespeedoflight(c)is somethinglikea‘cosmicspeedlimit’thatcannotbesurpassed.So,light-speedtravelandfaster-than-lighttravelisphysically impossible,especiallyforanythingwithmass,suchasspacecraftandhumans.Therefore,unfortunately,thehyperdrivein StarWarsremainsfirmlyintherealmofsciencefiction.

AlienSpecies:BiologicalPossibilities

TheStarWarsuniverseispopulatedwithavastarrayofalienspecies,fromthewookieesofKashyyyktotheamphibious Twi'leks.WhileEarthonlyhostsoneknown‘intelligent’species—humans—couldalienlifeformsasdiverseasthoseseenin StarWarsactuallyexist?

Scientistshavelongspeculatedaboutthepotentialforextraterrestriallife,particularlywiththediscoveryofexoplanetsinthe “habitablezone”ofdistantstars,whereconditionsmightsupportlife.However,thediversityofspeciesinStarWars,ranging fromgiantinsectoidcreaturestosentientaquaticbeings,stretchesthelimitsofbiologicalpossibilities.

EvolutiononEarthhasbeenshapedbyveryspecificconditions,sowhileit’splausible thatalienlifecouldexistelsewhereintheuniverse,theextremediversityoflifeforms seeninStarWarswouldrequireamuchbroaderrangeofenvironmentalconditions thanwecurrentlyknowabout.Thepossibilityofsentientspecieswithradically differentbiologyis,fornow,afascinatingideawithoutevidence,butcompletely plausiblegivenhowmuchwedon’tknowabouttheuniverse.

Conclusion

WhileStarWarsfeaturesmanyelementsthatarefarbeyondtherealmsofcurrent scienceandtechnology,someaspectsstillremainpossible,it’sjustthatwehaven’t discoveredenough.Nevertheless,theStarWarsuniversecontinuestospark imaginations,andwhoknows?Futurescientificadvancementsanddiscoveriesmight onedaybringsomeoftheseseeminglyimpossibleconceptsalittleclosertoreality.

AlessiaMcCormick

Between the 16th and 18th centuries sailors were dying in their droves from scurvy, a disease which caused symptoms of weakness, swelling and red and blue spots on your skin. It was discovered that they could be saved by the consumption of a daily orange, lemon or lime containing vitamin C.

When my grandad was at school in the 1950s, he was made to queue up for a dose of malt extract (delivered from a shared spoon!) from which he got his potassium and vitamin B6 (among other nutrients), during post-war rationing. My grandmother was medically advised to drink Guinness during her pregnancies in the 1970s as it contains iron, B vitamins, vitamin E and folates. This just shows that supplementing is nothing new!

You’d think that with modern instant access to a vaster range of foods, supplements would no longer be as necessary. However, due to the nature of today’s world: being fast paced and frequently reliant on ultra processed food proven by an average of 1.5 meals a week being eaten out. Many British people struggle to maintain a healthy balanced diet to provide the necessary nutrients for the body. Therefore, they perceive the need for supplementary vitamins and minerals. As a consequence, 57.6% of the adult British population use supplements daily.

But what are supplements, how do they work and are they doing us any good?

A varied diet should include fruits, vegetables, whole grains, proteins and fats. In reality fulfilling these requirements is not always achievable due to factors such as lifestyle, intolerances, dietary restrictions and preferences.

Supplements are specifically designed to provide nutrients not available in sufficient quantities to fulfil the needs a person has. For example, an anaemic person or a vegan may require extra iron, or someone with a lactose intolerance may need calcium for healthy bones. Supplements come in a variety of forms, including pills, powder, liquids and gummies. Vitamin D, calcium, iron, omega-3 fatty acids and probiotics are some of the most common.

How are they made and how do they work biologically? Well, firstly you swallow the supplement which moves down the oesophagus into the stomach - where digestive acids and enzymes dissolve the supplement. The remaining portion travels down the small intestine - where it is further broken down by the pancreas and liver’s enzymes and fluids. Then, nutrients are absorbed into the lining of the intestine - where the vitamins enter into the bloodstream. Next, the bloodstream carries the beneficial portions of the vitamins to different cells and tissues, whilst excess watersoluble vitamins (B and C) and their byproducts are excreted through urine. Remaining fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) are stored in the liver and fatty tissue for later use.

Certain nutrients such as Vitamin C, D and zinc boost the immune system - which is necessary as research shows that seasonal illness cases are rising. Regular intake of these supplements can help to prevent deficiencies and maintain a strong immune system - particularly in those who are at high risk, such as the elderly or people suffering with chronic health conditions.

Bone health is also a key reason for people turning to supplements. As we age, bone density reduces at an average rate of 3% a year for people above the age of 50 leading to osteoporosis (brittle bones). Calcium and Vitamin D help us absorb calcium causing them to be vital for bone strength. Supplements also play a key role in mental well-being. Omega-3 fatty acids which are commonly found in fish oils are vital for brain health. Research shows that they can also lead to improved cognitive function. Further studies have shown that omega-3s may also contribute to memory, focus and even mood regulation. Moreover, other nutrient deficiencies such as vitamins B, D and magnesium have links to mental conditions such as depression and anxiety.

Research shows that for athletes and those who engage in regular physical activity, supplements can be an effective way of enhancing both performance and recovery. For example, protein powders provide the foundation for muscle hypertrophy (growth and improved strength) and repair after workouts. As well as this, the use of creatine and branched-chain amino acids can lead to improved endurance and reduced muscle soreness which enables quicker recovery in between workouts.

One of the main problems with supplements is that their consumption is self regulated and a physical need for them is usually selfdiagnosed.The perceived need for a supplement as a solution to a health problem might prevent a patient from seeking help from their GP. Therefore they should be taken with caution for the protection of both the body and the wallet!

Overconsumption of certain vitamins and minerals can be harmful - like excess vitamin A which would be toxic (0.2mg) - in the short term leading to nausea, and eventually liver damage. Similarly, iron supplements can cause constipation, and digestive issues. And in a select few rare cases, high doses of supplements can interact with medicines - so it is essential to consult a healthcare professional before self-prescribing a supplement regime.

Overall, you can’t do better for your nutritional health than by following a healthy, balanced diet. Supplements can never replace that but they can play an important role in supporting health through filling in nutritional gaps, and boosting the immune system - which may improve both mental and physical wellbeing and aid recovery.

As Benjamin Franklin said, ‘An apple a day keeps the doctor away’…. However, I might consider adding a multivitamin and mineral supplement as well!

Whatisgeneticengineering?

GeneticengineeringisalaboratoryprocessthatinvolvesalteringthecompositionofDNAinanorganism. ThiscanrangefromalteringasinglepairofbasesinastrandofDNAtoremovingentiresectionsofDNA, replacingthemwithnewoneswhichproducedifferentaminoacids.Thismeansthatgeneticengineering presentsmanyopportunitiesforthedevelopmentofmedicinalpracticesaswellasthepioneeringofsolutions toarisingissuesinareassuchasagricultureandtheenvironment.Itisaveryexcitingemergingfieldin sciencethatcouldchangehowthehumanracefunctionssubstantially.

Geneticengineeringincancerresearch

Currently,scientificresearchisbeingconductedaroundtheworldinvestigatingthewaysthatgenetic engineeringcanbeutilisedinthedevelopmentofnewmedicines,curesforcancersandvaccinesfor infections.Forexample,BartsCancerInstitute—CancerResearchUK’spredominantresearchcentre—has beenundertakingresearchintohowgenetherapycanbeusedtoeliminatecancercellsinthebody:

“Thegenetherapyprogramfocusesonthedevelopmentofengineeredvirusesthat selectivelyreplicateinandkillcancercells(oncolysis).”

Fascinatingly,theyareattemptingtouseengineered viruscellstoeliminatecancercells.Virusesarenonlivingpathogenswhichcanonlysurvivebyinvading hostcellsandrapidlyreplicatinginsideofthem.They areusuallyassociatedwithillnessaswhentheyinvade ourbodycellsandreplicate,ourcellsburstwhichis whatmakesusfeelill. However,inthisinstance, geneticengineeringisbeingusedtoalterthegenetic materialinthevirussothatittargetscancercells ratherthanbodycells.Thistreatmentiscalled oncolyticvirustherapyandcouldworkverywellfora varietyofreasons:cancercellsusuallydon’thave strongantiviraldefensesmeaningthatviruscells couldinfectthemrathereasily,theseoncolyticviruses areabletobeintricatelygeneticallyengineeredto increasetheirabilitytoattackcancercellswhile producingimmune-boostingmoleculesandoncethe viruscellsmakethecancercellsburstandrelease cancerantigens.Antigensareproteinsthatare paramountinthefunctionoftheimmunesystem;they arefoundonthesurfaceofpathogensandstimulate immuneresponses.Inparticular,theystimulatethe immunesystemtoproduceantibodies(whichareother proteinsproducedbywhitebloodcells)todefend againstthepathogen.Thesecancerantigenswill stimulatethebodytoproducetheantibodiesneededto defendagainstthemandlater,willremainintheblood asmemorycellswhichcouldhavethepotentialto contributetothecancernotarisingagain.

ImogenAdedapo

Howwecantransformagriculture andfoodproduction

Therearemany,manyexampleswheregenetic engineeringiscurrentlybeingappliedto agricultureandfoodproductionasitisaseriously amazingareaofsciencethatcanhelpsolvemany agriculturalproblems.

Anexampleistheshiftoftheproductionof biosyntheticinsulinfrompigandcattle pancreasestogeneticengineeringtechniques involvingreplicatingthegeneticcodeforhuman insulinusingbacteria.Priortothis,therewere issuessurroundingtheproductionofinsulinfrom animalsincludingshortages,side-effectsaswell asreligiousandethicaldilemmas.

Anotherexample,whichcouldhaveamassive impactonthecosmeticindustry,isthenewly developedsustainablepalmoil.

Palmoilisoneofthemostextensivelyusedlimitedresourcesinthecosmeticandagriculturalindustries with66millionoftheEarth’ssurfacetakenupforitsproduction.However,theproductionofthisleads tomass-deforestationandtothedestructionofnaturalhabitatscausinganimalextinction.Thereforein 2019,C16Bioscience,abiotechcompanybasedinNewYork,collaboratedwithBillGates’company: BreakthroughEnergytoproduceapalmoilalternativewithsimilarpropertiesusingafermentation processnodifferentthanwhenmicrobesarefermentedtobrewbeer.

TheimpactofgeneticengineeringduringCOVID-19

Techniquesprominentingeneticengineeringwereutilisedbynumerouscompaniessuchas AstraZenecaandJohnsonandJohnsontocreateaCovid-19vaccine(theseweresimilartothe techniquesusedtoproducehumaninsulin).Scientistsusedavirusasa‘viralvector’tocarryaprotein thatwouldeliminatesomeoftheCovid-19virus.Theyplacedthisvirusintothebloodstreamratherthan usingbacteriasothatourDNAcouldcopyitsdefensivegeneticmaterial,preventinganyfurther ailmentwiththattypeofCovid-19. Geneticengineeringwassousefulforsomeofthesevaccinesas scientistscouldreconstructgeneticsequencesencodedforproteinsneededintheCovid-19virusto enableittoenterhumancells.TheminmRNAstandsfor‘messenger’andessentially,carriesasetof instructionsfromtheDNAforhowtocreateproteins.

GeneticengineeringisalsothereasonwhyvaccinesforCovid-19begancomingoutasearlyaswinter 2021.Sincecompanieswantedtodevelopavaccineasquicklyaspossible,theyturnedtogenetic engineeringratherthanusingthetraditionaltechniqueofinjectingadeadorinactivevirusintothe bodyandlettingantibodiesbecreatedagainstit.Theprocessalonetofindthecorrectantigenscantake ataminimumfourtosixmonths.Thiswasdefinitelytooslowconsideringthescaleofthepandemicbut luckily,gene-basedvaccineswerethesolution.Theyweremuchfastertoproduceastheyusedgenetic instructionstoforcecellstoproduceanimmuneresponse.

RisksofGeneticEngineering

However,likewithmanyfieldsofscience,therearesomeriskstoconsider.Forexample,agenethatbenefits oneplantmayinfluenceanother;agenethatmakescertainplantsimmunetoherbicidescouldtransfertoother plantspeciessuchasweeds,makingtheirexterminationmoredifficult.Scientistsarealsostillunsureofthe long-termeffectsofgeneticallymodifiedfoodsandvaccinesthereforetherearesomeethicalissues surroundingthisfield.Also,despitethefactthatgeneticengineeringcansolveproblemssurroundingfood shortages,agricultureandvaccinations,theproductsofthesolutionsarestillveryexpensive,meaningthat developingcountries—whicharetheplacesinwhichtheyaremostneeded—cannotaffordthem.Genetically modifiedcropscouldalsopresentarisktothebiodiversityoftheenvironmentasthepollenproducedbythese newplantstheymayspontaneouslyhybridisewithnativeplantswhichhasnotbeentested,socanaffectthe balanceofcurrentecosystems

Inconclusion…

Whilegeneticengineeringdoesproposetheserisksanddisadvantages,itisstillaverynewandemergingfield inscience.Ifirmlybelievethatthepositivesoutweighthenegativesandthatasmoreresearchisconducted, thiswillbeevenmoreevident.Ibelievegeneticengineeringisgoingtochangetheworldasitgivesustheability tomodifyDNAandlifeitself.Whetheryoudoordonotcompletelyagreewithitfromanethicalviewpoint,it doescertainlyhavethepotentialtotrulybenefitsocietyandmaketheworldabetterplacewiththecorrect approach.

T T TheEffect heEffect heEffect ofMapping ofMapping ofMapping HumanCellsonthe HumanCellsonthe HumanCellsonthe DetectionandTreatment Detection

and

and

Treatment ofCancer ofCancer ofCancer

Treatment Detection

Detailedmappingofhumancellscancontributetothemedicalfieldinmanyways,whetheritcanhelpbytrackingthe progressionofspecificconditionsoritcouldbeappliedbygivingspecifictreatmentplansforeachpatient.Throughout thecourseofthisessayIwillbefocusingontheeffectcellmappinghasondetectingandpreventionofcancer.

Earlydetection

AliquidbiopsyisabloodtestthatlooksfragmentsofDNAfromtumourcellsthathavediedandbeenbrokendown. Earlychangespresentedinyourbloodcanserveasbiomarkersforcancerdetection.However,onlyasmallnumberof tumor-derivedcell-freeDNA(cfDNA)fragmentspresentmutationsthatcanbedetected.Cancercellsalsorelease vesiclescontainingtumor-derivednucleicacids.cfDNA,vesiclesandplateletscouldbepartsofacirculatingtumour thatreflectsthepresenceofcancer.Withoutthesedetailedcellmappingprocesseswewouldn’tbeabletodetectcancer earlyon,whichinsomecasesmayprovetobedetrimentaltoaperson'shealthandoverallcancerprognosis.

TrackingProgression

RFLP(RestrictionFragmentLengthPolymorphism)analysisisusefulinfindingwhereaspecificgeneforadiseaseison achromosomeorinthiscasefortheanalysisofcarcinomas(cancerthatformsinepithelialtissue).Thisanalysis supportsthemonoclonalevolutionmodelthatstatesthatsolidtumorsundergoabriefperiodwheredifferentgene mutationscausethesamediseasesintheearlystagesoftumorprogression,followedbyrapidcelldivisionofasingle populationofcells,whichcanultimatelyformthemass ofthetumor.

Trackingclonalevolutionisimportantinregardsto monitoringcancerprogressionasitrepresentshowtumors canevolveovertimethereforeallowingearlyintervention andspecifictreatmentplansforeachpatient.Bymapping geneticchangesatthiscellularlevel,scientistscanidentify howasingledominantcloneexpandsandpotentiallygives risetonewsubcloneswithdifferentmutations.

IdentifyingCirculatingTumorCells

Circulating-Tumour-Cells(CTC)provideabloodbiomarker forcancerprogressionandtreatmenteffectiveness.Ifan increaseinCTCsisassociatedwithcancerprogression, aCTCdecreaseswithcancercontainmentorremission.

Evidencesuggeststhattheprocessoflocalinvasionof cancercellscanoccurveryquickly,sometimesevenwithin afewhours.Thereforecirculatingtumourcell(CTC)detectionmightbeevenbetterthanaclinicalcancerdiagnosis.

AroushNasim

ThispossibilityissupportedbydatafromgeneticallyengineeredPLCYmousemodels,inwhichfluorescenttagged pancreaticepithelialcellsthathavehadtheirgenomealtered,bytheintroductionofoneormoreforeignDNAsequences fromanotherspeciesbyartificialmeans,weredetectedinthecirculationandwereintheliverbeforepancreatic tumourscouldbedetectedbyhistopathologicalimaging(microscopicimagesofthetissuesusedindiseaseanalysis)and fluorescenceimaging(photographsthatusefluorescentdyesandproteinstomarkmolecularmechanismsand structures.)Itallowsustoobservethedynamicsofgeneexpression,proteinexpression,andmolecularinteractionsina livingcell.TheseCTC’sbeingidentifiedandtracked/mappedallowustodeterminetheprognosisofthecancerandbuild treatmentplansaroundthis.

CancerPreventionandPersonalisedMedicine:

Followingadvancementsinearlydetectionmarkers,manycancertypescannowbedetectedbeforephysicalsymptoms develop.Thesemarkersarebiochemical,genetic,observedsmallmoleculesandproteinstructures.Technologiescanbe usedtodetectthesemarkersinclinicalsampleswiththechoiceofusingatechniquethatinvolvesusingmultiplesignals combinedonthesamemediumtoefficientlyusetheavailablecapacity,thistechniqueiscalledmultiplexing.

Theuseofmorethanonemarkerinthesamesampleoftenincreasesthesensitivityofcancerdetectiontoolsallowingthe physiciantodiagnosethecancerearlyandaccurately.Thisinformationisextremelysignificantasindividualspecific treatmentprojectscanbedesignedbasedonthepresenceandstageofcancerdisplayedfromtheprofilesofthese specificmarkers.

Theuseofthesemolecularmarkersindiagnosis(theuseoftoolsinmolecularbiology tobetterunderstandthepathogenesis,diagnosisandprognosisofdiseases)with additionalinformationmayprovideadifferent,moredetaileddiagnosiscomparedto pathologicaldiagnosis(thestudyofcellsortissuestoidentifyadisease).

TheHumanProteomeProject(HPP),isaprojecttoprofileallthepeptidesand proteinspresentinaclinicallyhealthypersonandtocomparethistothesameprofile fromacancerpatient.Bycharacterisingallofthegenome,HPPhasgeneratedamap oftheprotein-basedmolecularfundamentalsofthehumanbodyandhasnow becomearesourcetohelpexplainbiologicalandmolecularfunctionstoadvancethe diagnosisandtreatmentofdiseasesincludingcancer.Theseproteinprofilesrelate especiallytobreastcancerasyoumaysometimesproducetheHER2proteinwhich wouldbepresentifyouhadbreastcancer.Asaconsequencetothisyourdoctormay prescribeyouspecifictypesoftargeteddrugtherapiesetc.trastuzumabor pertuzumab

Comprehendingthesespecificproteinprofilesandhowtheyareexpressedinnormal andcancerousstatesisessential.Thisisimportantasmostofthedrugsapprovedby theFDAaredirectedtowardproteins.Infact,atearlystages,thosedrugsthatwere approvedbyFDAforcancerdetectionanddiagnosiswereproteinbased.Although thecancerprocessisinitiatedbymutation,itsexpressionismediatedbyproteins andenzyme-mediatedsignalpathways.Makingthemappingontheseproteins importantinadvancinginnovationintodrugsforpatients.Inpersonalisedmedicine, thekeytaskistoidentifyandconfirmkeyproteins,differentexpressionpatterns, andgenevariantsassociatedwithadiseaselikecancer.

Overalldetailedcellmappingofhumancellsprovestobeimportantin helpingdiagnosisandtrackingspecificcellsinordertoachieveabetter prognosisforadisease.However,althoughthisisaveryusefulwayin helpingtopreventcertaindiseases,molecularanalysisalsoallowsinsight intospecificdrugsthatcanbeusedoncancerpatients.

Thesituationstalkedaboutthroughoutthisessayprovideproofintotheusesofhumancellmappinganditsimportancein treatingmanydiseases,specificallycancer.Therefore,governmentsshouldprotectintellectualpropertyrightsinregardto healthcaretoallowfutureinnovationandmoredetailedcellmapstohelpalleviatethesedetrimentaldiseases.

Is it time to ditch the dead languages?

MeherPatwalia

Sincethebeginning,scientistshaveusednamingsystemstogrouptogetherdifferentobjects accordingtotheirpurposeandfunction.Toavoidconfusion,theIST,orInternationalScientific Terminology,hasbeenestablished,toallowconsistentcommunicationglobally.Before1750,when groundbreakingscientificdiscoverieswerebeingmade,AncientGreekandLatin,inspiredby authorssuchasVirgilandHomer,werethelanguagesscholarswouldwritein,andthereforewhen suchbooksbegantobewritteninEnglish,thesetermswerenotchanged.However,astechnology advancesandourresearchleadsustodisprovecertaintheorieswemayhavehadbefore,oraswe begintorunoutofwaystoclassifynewspeciesandobjects,LatinandGreekterminologybecomes redundantand,insomecases,justplainwrong,leadingtoalackofclaritywhenitcomesto classification.Sohowdowesolvethisproblem?

Theoriginofscientificvocabularycanbedividedintothreemain categories:thoseborrowed directlyfromeitherLatinorGreek,theirmeaningsandstructuresvirtuallyunchangedfromits originalform;thosewherethefunctionoftheobjectcanbediscernedfromitsname;andthose wherethemeaningofthewordisincorrecttowhatweknowtoday.

Forthefirstcategory,mostofourelementsontheperiodictable,suchas‘aurum’,‘argenteum’and ‘ferrum’(gold,silver,andironrespectively)areincluded,withtheseallhavingbeentakenfrom Latin,andelementslike‘helium’and‘iridium’arenamedafterHeliosandIris,figuresfrom mythology.Aswellasthis,severalofourplanetsandconstellationsarealsonamedafter prominentfiguresinRomanandGreekmythology-Jupiter,Venus,CassiopeiaandPerseusbeinga fewexamples.

Inthesecondcategory,wehavewordslikehydrolysis,fromtheAncientGreek‘hydro’usedto denotewater,and‘lysis’meaningtounbind,withhydrolysisthereforemeaning‘tosplitusing water’.Otherexamplesofthisincludemonomerandpolymer,with‘mono’meaningone,‘poly’ meaningmany,and‘meros’meaningapart,thusleadingthesewordstomean‘onepart’and‘many parts’.

Finally,ourwordforoxygencomesfromtheGreek‘oxys’,meaningacidic,and‘genes’meaning producer,andwascoinedbytheFrenchscientistAntoineLavoisier,whoincorrectlybelievedthat oxygenwasacomponentofallacids.

Traditionally,Latinwasthelanguageofthehighclass,astatussymbolsettingtheeducatedapart fromthosewhocouldnotaffordtolearn,shownthroughbooks(liketheBible)beingwrittenand readinLatin,asadeliberateandmaliciousattempttokeepacleardistinctionbetweenthehigher andlowerclasses.Bydiscardingthetraditionalterminology,wemakeaccesstoscientific knowledgeeasierforeveryone,insteadsettingabaselanguagethateveryonecaneasilylearnand understand-buttheproblemwiththisisthatweassumeeveryoneiswillingorabletolearnan Indo-Europeanlanguage(whicharethemostcommonbasesformodernscientificvocabulary). TheuseofsuchcomplexlanguagecanalsodeterthoseinterestedintheSTEMfieldtopursueit,for thefearthatalackofknowledgeofLatinandGreekwillprohibitthemfromfullygraspingcertain ideologies.

AsignificantproblempeoplehavewiththeusageofLatinandGreekisrelatedtotheLinnaean system.TheLinnaeansystemwasdevelopedbySwedishbiologistCarlLinnaeus,whoproposed classifyingspeciesoflivingorganismsintosmaller,morespecialisedgroups.Thesystemfirst dividesorganismsintofivekingdomsbycomparingDNAsequences:animals,plants,fungi, protists,andprokaryotes.Thesearethenrankedaccordingtophylum,class,order,family,genus, andspecies,thelattertwobeingusedinabinomialnamingsystem,whichaccuratelyidentifies individualspecies.Overthelast300years,thisnamingsystemhasremainedunchanged,withthe mostmajoradditionbeingthedevelopmentofthethree-domainsystem.

However,developmentofelectronmicroscopesoverthepast50yearshaveallowedscientiststo observeorganismsatahigherlevelofdetail,leadingtofinerdistinctionsbetweencloselyrelated organisms.Thishasgreatlyaffectedthenamingandorganisationofprokaryoticorganisms,which donothavenucleiandserveasthesamegroupbacteriacomesunder.Theyarenamedunderthe InternationalCodeofNomenclatureofProkaryotes.Advancesintechnologyhavebeguntochange howprokaryoteshavebeenstudied,butthecodedictatesthatonlypureculturesofbacteria(a populationofcellsgrowingintheabsenceofotherspeciesortypes)areeligiblefornaming.Only around0.2%ofknownprokaryotesarecurrentlynamed,andasubstantialamountofthe prokaryotesarepoorlyordered,ambiguousandoftenidentifiedbyalphanumericcodes.Tosolve thisissue,in2017agroupofscientistsbegantodevelopSeqCode,anewnamingsystemfor prokaryotestoworkalongsidetheoriginalNomenclatureCode.Toaccuratelyrenamethe prokaryotes,thebiologistssequencetheorganisms’DNAdirectlyfromanenvironmentalsampleto obtainanearcompletegenome(theDNAblueprintofthebacteriumwhichencodesallfunctions theorganismwillbeabletoperform)andrecogniseothermembersbelongingtothesamespecies.

Proposednamescurrentlygothrough2separateprocessesof peerreviewtopreventproblemswithsynonymyoccurring.Ifthe prokaryotealreadyhasadesignatedname,theonein constructionwilleitherbeananglicisedversionoftheoriginal name,orwillbesynonymouswithaLatinword,toensurea smoothtranslationandeasilyindicatecharacteristicsofthe organism.Inthisway,prokaryoteswithsimilarfeaturescanbe groupedtogetherwithaccurateandinformativenames,thus solvingtheissueofLatinandGreeknamesbeingoutdatedand confusing.

ReplacementofLatinandGreekinnamingisalsonoticeablein otherbranchesofscience.Elementsontheperiodictablethat werediscoveredormadeafterMendeleevhavebeennamedafter countries,thecompaniesthatmadethem,ortohonourcertain scientists,eg.francium,whichwasdiscoveredbyMarguerite Pereyandnamedafterhercountry;flerovium,named aftertheFlerovLaboratoryofNuclearReactions;and curium,dedicatedinhonourofMarieandPierre Curie.

Overthelastfewhundredyears,thenumberofidentifiedastronomicalobjectshasrisenfrom hundredstooverabillion,withmorebeingdiscoveredyearly.ThishasledtotheInternational AstronomicalUnion(IAU)designatingeachobjectanumberorcodeinordertoidentifyand classifythemandtheirfeatures.ThemostcommonlyusednamingsystemiscalledtheBayer designation,whereastarisidentifiedbyalowercaseletteroftheGreekalphabet,followedby theLatinnameoftheconstellationtowhichitbelongs,writteninthegenitive(possessive) form,whichiswhymoststarsnamedinthisdesignationendin‘is’,‘i’(ifsingular),‘ae’,or‘um’ (ifplural).ExamplesincludeAlphaCentauri‘αCen’andEpsilonCarinae‘εCar’.Afterall twenty-fourlettersoftheGreekalphabethavebeenassigned,upperandlowercaseLatin lettersareused.Astechnologyhasadvanced,starcatalogueshavebeguntobegeneratedby computersandhigh-resolution,high-sensitivitytelescopes.Therefore,toclearlydistinguish differentstars,designationsareassignedbasedontheirpositionsinthesky,forexample SDSSpJ153259.96-003944.1,wheretheSDSSpindicatesthatthestarisapartoftheSloan DigitalSkySurveypreliminaryobjects,andthenumbersindicatethecelestialcoordinates.A similarapproachistakenwhennamingblackholes,supernovae,galaxies,andothercelestial bodies,forexampleusingeitherwheretheobjectisnamedaftertheyearitwasdiscoveredor thecataloguetowhichitbelongs.

Ontheotherhand,changingscientificterminologycouldbecatastrophic,especially consideringtheamountofcontentandresourceswehavethatwouldhavetobealtered.Our entirescienceeducationsystemteachespupilsbasedonthesenamingsystems,andtochange itnowwouldrequirealotoftimeandmoney,andthisisonlyonesectorofmodernlife.Current scientistswouldhavetorelearnvocabularytheyspentyearslearning,andresourcessuchas textbooksandwebsiteswouldallhavetobechangedtoaccommodatethenewterminology andminimiseconfusion.

Connectingtothisisthequestion:howdowestandardisethisnewvocabulary?Careful considerationisneededinordertocreateterminologythatisaccessibletoeveryone, andthisincludeschoosingalanguagethatiswidelyspokenandwilling tobelearnedbyscientistsglobally.Aswellasthis,newrulesexplaining hownamesareformedwillhavetobethoughtof-whichagainwilltakea dedicatedeffort,as,consideringtheamountofvocabularyscientistshave amassedovertheyears,itwouldbenoshortprocess.

Asmentionedearlierinthisarticle,scientificjargoncan bedauntingforthosewishingtopursueaSTEMcareer, withthisbeingareasontosimplifyterminologyby removingGreekandLatin.However,ifweinsteadtook thetimetocoachthosewhofindthelanguageaspectofthe fielddifficult,thisissuewouldnotariseatall.Itisentirelyuntruethatalack ofknowledgeofLatinandGreekwouldprohibitsomeonefromachievingin thisfield.Yes,averylargeproportionofscientificpaperspublishedbefore 1750werewritteninLatin,butthisdoesnotmeanitisimpossibleto studytheseworks,aswiththedevelopmentoftechnology, translationsareavailabletoanyonewithaccesstotheinternetin justafewseconds,andmostscientistswouldprefertoreadmodern theories,whicharemostlypublishedinEnglish.

Finally,changingourscientificterminologyleadstotheerasureofcenturiesofworkdoneby thosewhocamebeforeus.Althoughtheymaybeconfusingtousnow,wordswherethe meaningisincorrecttowhatweknowtodayarejustevidenceoftheconclusionsmadeby scientistsinthepast:forexampletheamygdala,derivedfromtheGreek‘amygdale’meaning almond.KarlFriedrichBurdach,whofirstidentifieditin1822,believedthatthealmond-shaped areawastheentiretyoftheamygdala,butinstead,itwasonlyasmallpartofthenucleithe brainmassiscomposedofratherthantheentirestructure.ThisallowedfirstJohnston,then SwansonandPetrovichtofurtherdiveintothestructuresoftheamygdala,discoveringfeatures likethetraditionalcortical,claustralandstriatalelements(alldifferentnuclei)ofthe amygdaloidcomplex,whichwouldnotbepossiblewithoutBurdach’soriginalidentification andnamingoftheamygdala.Byreplacingthisterminology,weruntheriskoflosingvaluable informationthathasalreadybeensomewhatresearchedbyothers.Linkingbacktothe etymologyofoxygen,theincorrectmeaningofitsnamehashelpedustodiscernthateven thoughitisnotacomponentofallacids,therearestillsomethatcontainoxygen,revealedtous byLavoisier’snaming.Thereissomuchinformationcollectedoverhundredsofyears associatedwithLatinandGreeknames,anditwouldbeashametoeraseallevidenceofthe progressofmankind.

Toconclude,thehumanracehasdevelopedsignificantlysincetheestablishmentof InternationalScientificTerminology,andsoitisonlyrightforustoalsowanttodevelopour vocabularytomeetourstandardsandexpectations.Bymodernisingourlanguage,weonly wishtomakeitmoreconvenientforustocontinueresearchingandcommunicatingwitheach other,andthereisnothingwrongwithsimplifyingthatwhichisdifficulttouseorthatwhich causesconfusion.However,itisimportanttonotethesignificanceoftheinformationcollected withthisvocabulary,andtohonourthosewhohavemademassivecontributionstothefieldof STEMwiththeirresearchbyrespectingtheirnamingconventions,insteadofadaptingtheir ideasanderasinghistoryforourownease.Evenifafewofthewordsaredifficulttointerpret, themistakesmadebyothersserveasareminderthatmistakesarehowyoulearnanddevelop yourunderstandingoftheworldaroundyou.

Errarehumanumest,perseverarediabolicum.

3Dbioprintingisatechnologythatusesbioinks,biomaterials,andlivingcellstoprint3Dliving tissuemodelsandbone-likestructures.Itfollowstheprocessofadditivemanufacturing,wherea structureiscreatedbybuildingitonelayeratatime.Thereare3stagestobioprinting:prebioprinting,bioprinting,andpost-bioprinting.

Pre-bioprintingconsistsoftheinitialdesignofthestructure,typicallyadigitalfileor3Dmodelin theformattheprintersareabletoread.Thesedesignsareusuallycreatedindependentlyusing externalsoftwarelikeCAD(computeraideddesign),orascanoftheobjectisusedifitisa relativelysimpleshape.Specificsoftwarethentranslatesandaltersthedesignintoaspecific formatthattheadditivemanufacturingmachinecanprocess.Dependingonthesizeoftheobject andthemethodusedtocreatesaidobject,theprocesscouldtakeseveralhoursorseveraldaysto complete!Duringthisstep,theprintingmaterialwillalsobeprepared.Cellsareoftenembedded intothebioinktocreatecellularapplications,bioinkconsistsoflivingcellsandother biomaterialsthatimitatetheextracellularmatrixenvironment,bioinksmusthavecomponents thatarenon-toxicandareabletobemodifiedbycellsafterprinting.

Thebioprintingandpost-bioprintingstepsconsistofloadingthebioinksintocartridgeswhich arethenslottedintomultipleprintheads.Parametersaresetandtheprintingbeings!Oncethe 3Dstructurehasbeencreated,thestructuresmustbecrosslinkedtoensurestability,thisisdone bytreatingtheobjectwithUVlightorsomekindofionicsolution. Typically,thestructureisthen coveredwiththerelevantcellmediumthenplacedinanincubatortocultivateforscientificuse andstudies.

Despiteitsyoungage,3Dbioprintingalready hasmanyapplicationsanduses.Oneexample includesimprovingdrugdevelopmentby providingamoreethicalpathwaytodetermine drugefficacy-byusingbioprintedtissue modelsinearlydrugdevelopmentalstages whichinturndecreasestheuseofanimal testingandmayperhapsreplaceanimal testinginthefuture.Somepromising applicationsfor3Dbioprintingalsoinclude: revolutionisingfuturemedicaltreatments, creatingpatient-specificandthereforeorganspecifictreatments,andbiocompatibilitywith humancellsandtissues.

AmyZheng

Recentbreakthroughshavebeenmade!OnebytheUniversityofGalway, whereresearchersinbiomedicalengineeringhavedevelopedamethod thatallowscell-generatedforcestochangetheshapeofbioprinted tissuesinthesamemannerthatithappensinbiologicaltissuesduring organdevelopment.3Dbioprinting,aswithmanyotherbiological technologies,hasitsfaults.Asignificantdrawbackofbioprintingisthat thetissuesandstructuresproducedhaveadecreasedabilitytocontract, thisisespeciallyanissuewhenconsideringorgansandhumantissues.Inthis case,thebioprintedhearttissuescancontract,butnottothesameextentas ahealthyadultheart,astheforceofcontractionisconsiderablyweaker.

Bioprintedtissuesandorganshavetheirlimitationsanddrawbackswithboth productionandapplication.Similartoallmedicinalresearchprojects,fundingisrequired.With bioprinting,thedemandforenergyandspecialistequipmentisconstantlyincreasing.The maintenanceofcellenvironmentsisdifficulttomanage,andalsoconsumeshighamountsof energytosimulatetheoptimumconditionsforgrowthanddevelopment,resultinginsome

Withtheapplicationof3Dbioprintingcomesthedelicatenatureofthecellsandfactors impactingtheefficacyofproducts.Contamination,cellconcentrationandpressurecanallimpact theefficiencyoftheproductformed.Theclinicaltranslationofbioprintingorganoidsandtissues, especiallybonescaffolds,haveshownsomesuccesswhenusingspecificbiodegradableand acellularprintedstructures.Howevertechnicalissuesstillremain,thebiocompatibilityof biomaterials(bioinks)inastructureiscomplex,itsuggeststhattheprintedscaffoldingshouldnot stimulateatoxicreaction.Differentmaterialsholddifferentpropertiesthatarebeneficialtothe frameworkofprintedorganoids.Ceramicmaterialshaveshowngreatbiocompatibilityand bioactivity,buthavepoormechanicalpropertiessowouldnotbesuitableasasupporting member.Whereasmetallicmaterialshaveexcellentmechanicalpropertiesandstability,but sufferfrompoorbiocompatibilitylevelsthatisdifficulttomanipulateandpredict.

Overall,3Dbioprintinghasgreatprospectsand potentialtobecomealeadingtechniqueintissue engineering,whiletechnicalandbiologicalchallenges persist,continuedresearchandinnovationaresteadily improvingthefeasibilityofbioprintedtissuesand organs.Asadvancementsprogress,3Dbioprintinghas thepotentialtorevolutionisemedicine.Pavingtheway forpatient-specifictreatments,organtransplants,and improveddrugdevelopment,ultimatelytransforming healthcare.

AishaGurung

WehavesharedourEarthwithtigersfor2millionyears,centuriesagotodaytherewereasmanyas1 milliontigers,howeverrecentlyithasbeenrecordedthattherearenowfewerthan4,000tigersonly occupying13countries.Allcountriesrecognisingthedeclinein2010havesincerespondedwith conservationattemptstodoublethetigerpopulations.Theseattemptshavebeeninactionsince,with particularsuccessinNepal.Inordertoattempttosavethetigerpopulationnumbers,itissaidtobe partiallynecessarytounderstandtigersubspeciesasthishelpsinformconservationstrategiestoprotect thespecies'geneticdiversitywiththegoalofreversingtheirdecline.

Thetigerotherwiseknownasthepantheratigrishasbeensaidtohavemanysubspecies,withinscience debatesareongoingastowhethertherearetwosubspeciesoftigers(asmorphologicalandecological analysishavesuggested)orfivetosixsubspecies(assomemoleculargeneticevidencehasconcluded). Also,duetothelargedeclineinthepopulation,therearequestionsastowhethersomesubspeciesare alreadyextinctandifwehaveidentifiedthemall.

Theidentificationoftigersubspeciespurelythroughobservablephysicaltraitslikebodymass,skullshape, furcolorandpatterncandistinguishmainlandtigersfromtigersinthesundalandregion.Forexample,the BaliandJavantigershavenarrowskullswherecaspiantigershavewiderskulls.Sundaislandtigersare usuallysmalleranddarkerincolorwithheavystripeswhereastheAmurtigersarebiggerwithpaleorange fur.However,physicaltraitsalonehavebeeninsufficientinidentifyingtigersubspeciesclearly.Thislack ofclearphysicaldifferencessupportsthetheorythatgeneticvariationwasreducedwhenpopulation numberstookamajordecline.However,fromageneticstandpoint,successfultigersubspecies identificationcanbeachieved.

TheResearcherYue-ChenLiuandhis teamsuccessfullyidentifiedmultiple genomicregionsthathavethe possibilityofidentifyingadaptive differencesofsubspecies.Wholegenomeresequencingdataused32 tigersamplesthatwerecollectedand analysed.Thesetigerswereeither partofapreviousstudyornewly capturedfromthewildtobe representativeofallpotential subspeciescoveringallsixgenetically distinctgroupsoftigers.Through comparisonofsumatrantigerswith theothersubspecies,theteamwere abletofindseveralgenesthatwere linkedtodifferencesintraitssuchas bodysize,metabolismandcolour. SumatranandBengaltigerswerethe mostdistinctgroups,whereasthe remainingfourweremuchcloser genetically.

Liuandhisteamfoundonestrongsignalwhichwasthe ADH7genewhichislinkedtothesmallbodysizein mice.ThisledtheteamtoconcludethatSumatran tigersmayhaveevolvedtobeasmallersubspeciesdue totheirislandenvironment.Confirmationofthisgene, alongwiththeUQCRQandEXOC5gene(linkedto colourandmetabolism),couldhelpexplainthe adaptationofthesumatrantigertoitstropical environmentandcanprovideastrongfoundationfor theappropriateconservationandabenefittoglobal conservationstrategies.

Thesixsubspeciesconcludedfromtheresearchare:

TheSiberiantiger(Pantheratigrisaltaica)infareastern SiberiaandnortheastChina

TheBengaltiger(Pantheratigristigris)inBangladesh, Bhutan,IndiaandNepal

TheSouthChinatiger(Pantheratigrisamoyensis),believedtobeextinctinthewild

TheSumatrantiger(Pantheratigrissumatrae)whichisthelastoftheIndonesianislandtigerpopulationsandis itselfcriticallyendangered

TheIndochinesetiger(Pantheratigriscorbetti)inMyanmar,Thailand,andLaosbuthasnotbeenrecordedin Vietnaminmorethantwodecades

TheMalayantiger(Pantheratigrisjacksoni)firstrecognizedin2004andiscriticallyendangered

Theresearchalsoconfirmedthattherewereoncethreeothertigersubspecieswhichhavesincegoneextinct: theJavantiger(Pantheratigrissondaica)

theBalitiger(Pantheratigrisbalica)

theCaspianTiger(Pantheratigrisvirgata)

Sowhyistigerconservationimportant?Therearemanyreasonsastowhyatiger'sextinctionwouldbedamagingto theplanet.Firstly,therearenumeroustigerhabitatsinAsia'swatershedswhichsupplymorethan800million peoplewithwater.Tigerhabitatsandforestsarealsoknowntoprovideecologicalservicessuchascleanerair, pollinationandtemperatureregulation.Protectingtigersandtheirhabitatswithprotectedarealawsreduces deforestationandisoneofthemostcosteffectivewaystoreduceflooding,preventdroughtsandlowerimpactsof climatechange.TigersacrossAsiaarethemainmotivationbygovernmentstocreateandeffectivelymanage protectedareas.Onereasonastowhyisbecausethetigerplaysaprimaryroleinthehealthanddiversityofan ecosystem.Asanapexpredatoratthetopofitsfoodchain,tigersmaintainthepopulationofwildungulates(hoofed mammalse.gdeer,zebraetc)andthereforeprotectthebalancebetweenherbivoresandthevegetationuponwhich theyeat.Theextinctionofthetigerwouldmakeanecosystemunprotectedandsowouldeventuallycollapsedueto overpopulationandoverconsumptionleadingtodamagetolandandextinctionofcertainplantswiththehelpof deforestation.

Toconclude,Ibelievethattigerconservationisimportantbecauseasaspeciestigersprotecttheenvironment,are fundamentaltoecosystemsandareofculturalsignificancealloverAsia.Tigerconservationattemptsareongoing allovertheworldandconservationistsarehopeful,soweshouldbetoo!Ibelievethatweshouldallsupporttiger conservationandtherecoveryoftigers.Yoursupportforconservationdoesn'talwayshavetobedonationsto wildlifeconservationprojects(e.gWWForZSL),bysimplybeingeducatedandraisingawarenessyoucandoyour partinbringingbackourtigers.

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RMSTEM RMSTEM