trashy (2015-2016)

trashy

systems + cultural understanding solid waste management through the eyes of a landscape designer.

abstract When it comes to defining what landscape architecture is, every designer has their own personal opinion. As I’ve learned it, landscape architects are filters. We take what the land, people, animals, plants, etc give us, and we come up with solutions to problems.

We speak to the earth, and it responds. We work in contrasts, we bring different professions together and we make things work. We are the system’s system manager.

content ...............................why trash? ..........................user’s manual .....................................context ............materials management ............................site selection ............................methodology .................interview // transect ....................diagram // section ..............................conclusions ...................................glossary .................................thank you

why

systems

As students of landscape architecture, we are taught to think a certain way about information. The way garbage is moved around the landscape, and the effects of this movement are very systematic and planned. But with these plans, come flaws that inherently continue to cause harm to the earth. These issues affect entire ecosystems and are something more and more ecologists, landscape architects, land planners developed solutions for example Freshkills on Staten Island.

Garbage is something that’s everywhere. Items are extracted from the earth, brought into the world for a certain purpose and then tossed around until eventually it needs to be re-used, recycled, or tossed.

Municipalities, understanding this life cycle, have approached solid waste from the top down, targeting businesses, and individuals to draw attention to the fact that the Earth’s land + resources are in limited supply.

trash? culture

As a human of the earth, and an active participant in many different landscapes, living as a temporary citizen amongst other temporary citizens in the City of Syracuse, a person begins to see the consequences of not caring about garbage. Walking down the street, you peer up at a tree, thinking you’re seeing a squirrel playing on the branches, but in fact, it’s a plastic bag blowing in the wind.

The attitude of, “Well no one else cares, so why should I?” starts to wear on you after a while, until suddenly you’re running in the park with an empty Gatorade bottle, and no one is around and you think, how easy would this be. It’s just one plastic bottle. As a single human, I can begin to understand how people think about garbage on an individual level, and not and not be able to visualize the cumulative impact of our collective “individual bottles”.

2

user’s system’s management case study i portland, or

manual cultural observation case study ii kyoto, japan

4

portland Metropolitan, Oregon

Population:

2,226,009 Area:

6,684 sq mi Density:

333/sq mi Primary Solid Waste Disposal Method:

Landfilling

The Portland Metropolitan Area of the United States has jurisdiction in the states of Oregon and Washington but is centered around the city of Portland, OR. The other cities encompassed by the Greater Portland Area are Vancouver, WA, and Hillsboro, OR.

2 mi.

kyoto

Prefecture, Japan Population:

2,610,140 Area:

1,781 sq mi Density:

1,470/sq mi Primary Solid Waste Disposal Method: 5 mi.

Incineration

The Kyoto Prefecture is an area of Japan located on the main island of Honshu in the Kansai region, centered within the main city of Kyoto.

6

materials

Use of Recovered Material

Mate Manag

Recycling & Recovery

In solid waste management, my study focused on the end of life management, including recycling + recovery, disposal, and use of recovered material.

management +

Culture & Landscape

erials gement

On an individual level, my study focused on consumption and use of material as well as culture + landscape observations.

8

site To look at the system of waste management + its adaption to cultural norms a person needs to understand the entire Portland Metropolitan Area and its relationship with individual businesses, smaller jurisdictions + residents.

West Van Transfer Station (WC)

ESCO Sauvie Island Landfill

M)

Newberg ransfer tation (WM)

Fuel Processors Inc. Suttle Road Recovery Facility (R)

RB Recycling

New Earth Farm

H ycling

Tire Disposal & Recycling

S&H Recycling (Proposed)

Portland Leaf Wood Waste Management

Agilyx River City Environmental

Metro Central Transfer Station Pacific Power Vac

EFI

NW Shingle Recyclers (Proposed)

Quick Stop Recycling

Green Way Recycling

Best Buy In Town

Columbia Biogas (Proposed)

CORE Recycling Oregon Recycling Systems

Far West Fibers NE

Allwood Recyclers

Environmentally Conscious Recycling

NW Shingle Recyclers - NW

E

Far West FibersHillsboro

Woodco Aloha Garbage

Foster Road Recovery Facility (R)

Far West Fibers SE

Rock Tenn

Far West Fibers

Dean Innovations

NW Shingle Recyclers- SW

McFarlane’s Bark Agilyx

KB Recycling (KB)

Lakeside Reclamation

Willamette Resources (RS)

Thermo Fluids, Inc. Clackamas Compost Products (S & H)

Grimm’s Fuel

Pride Recycling (P)

SP Newsprint

S&H Logging

Metro South Transfer Station

Dan Davis Recycling Center (R)

E

Crown Point Refuse

Troutdale Transfer Station (WM)

Gresham Sanitary

selection Located almost central in Kyoto Prefecture, the Kamo River hosts a wide Mt range of Sajikigatake different people, landscape transformations + human maintenance. The river is a cultural melting pot on which nature + humans fight for control.

Washougal Transfer Station (WC)

Kamo River

Clackamas County Garbage and Recycling Transfer Station(WM)

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method 1. Interview (verb) ˈin(t)ərˌvyo͞o/

“Question (someone) to discover their opinions or experience.”

(Merriam Webster Dictionary)

2. Diagram

(verb) ˈdīəˌɡram/

“A8 simplified drawing showing the appearance, structure, or workings of something; a schematic representation.”

(Merriam Webster Dictionary)

dology 1. Transect (verb) tranˈsekt/

“A straight line or narrow section through an object or natural feature or across the earth’s surface, along which observations are made or measurements taken.”

(Merriam Webster Dictionary)

2. Section (noun) sekSH(ə)n/

“A representation of the internal structure of something as if it has been cut through vertically or horizontally.”

(Merriam Webster Dictionary)

12

interview

Interviews explored the different types of people, places, and processes of solid waste in the Portland Metropolitan Area.

All interviews were recorded with notes, and photos and these often took place during a site tour. The notes I took were fact-filled, but also included the personal opinion of the person or people I was interviewing. Interview responses were rich with information about the process, and the interviewee’s roles in the system as manager and educator.

Education Processing

i. Transfer Stations

ii. Glass Recycling

iii. Metal

iv. Compost

v. Landfill

transect

Transects were cut perpendicular to the Kamo River and its adjacent properties + park. These cuts were done every fifteen paces south to north, for the duration of 1.1 miles between the Shiokoj Dori and Shijo Dori bridges. It is between these two bridges that a change occurred, moving from low to high occupancy of tourism. These transects inventoried two phenomena: trash (volume, location, and type) and landscape typology (materials, arrangement, and textures).

Trash Inventory

Landscape Texture Typology

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interview

1. interview The Re-Building Center is located in the City of Portland, OR and is the largest reclaim center of it’s kind in the world.

The Re-Building Center is a place for people to bring old furnishing to be resold at a low price to anyone looking for home improvement materials.

The center collects everything from used doors, to tiles from a bathroom floor to old lumber.

They pride themselves in providing recycling + re-use education for the community.

The center has gained international recognition and has been featured in articles as far away as Japan.

Education // The ReBuilding Center

transect Trash inventory along the Kamo River starts in a residential neighborhood. Because of this, the landscape is exposed to different densities of people than found on the northern end of the study area. With each step, and each picture taken of the river’s edge, trash inventory was collected, which included information about the number of garbage parcels per frame, the type of garbage, and any additional notes that would give an indication as to the kinds of animals that live or occupy the space, or a potential for human interaction.

16 Trash Inventory

interview

1. interview Waste Connections is a company dedicated to the collection, transferring, disposal, and recycling of solid waste. An important part of every regional company is providing a team of Waste Reduction Specialists to provide educational programs in schools, multifamily housing, businesses, certain events, and construction demolition in order to minimize the effects of their waste on the city around them. This education means keeping up to date on different disposal and recycling methods happening in the area and knowing where improvements need to be made on individual and business levels.

Education // Waste Connections

transect All in all , the 1.1 mile stretch of the Kamo River landscape accounts for a total of 2,054 steps. This means 2,054 pictures of how and how much of the garbage is captured by the landscape or adjacent river. As seen to the left, these pictures were stitched together to show the general method used for capturing the essence of the riverbed.

18 Trash Inventory

interview

The Stevenson Transfer Station is a small-scale facility located in Stevenson, WA. After individuals dispose of garbage (which is pay per pound) or recyclables, the transfer station then sends these pieces to vendors, sometimes as far as 3 hours from the station. The problem with small towns like these is that people are not required to bring their trash there, so they instead resort to burning, dumping in a park, or on their own land.

//Processing//Transfer Stations // Stevenson Transfer Station

transect

Each photo (or each step) documents every parcel of garbage, including information on location, texture, sorting typology, and any additional information on this parcel’s relationship with animals, humans or both.

location // texture // sorting typology // additional information section 3 // large stones // plastic // non-burnables // n-a

20 Trash Inventory

interview

1. interview Recology is a transfer station that takes in 30-40% of the region’s waste for the Portland Metropolitan area, 64% of which is recycled, composted, or sent to the Columbia Ridge Landfill. No recycling comes to this facility. The waste comes in as two different types, wet waste, and dry waste. Dry waste is sorted, and items that can be reused are recovered and given to separate entities to be given away or sold.

Since there are a large amount of compostable food scraps taken to Recology, there are birds of prey brought in to keep vermin at bay.

//Processing//Transfer Stations // Recology

styrofoam plastic, glass plastic paper plastic plastic, glass plastic cigarette plastic plastic, plastic plastic paper styrofoam plastic, paper plastic plastic, plastic, cigarette, cigarette, plas , plastic, plastic, plastic plastic plastic, paper, plastic paper plastic, plastic, aluminum plastic plastic, metal, rubber plastic plastic, metal, plastic tennis ball plastic, metal, plastic PET plastic plastic, plastic plastic , plastic, plastic, plastic plastic plastic, plastic, plastic PET plastic, metal, plastic plastic paper, metal, plastic metal plastic, plastic, cigarette paper paper, plastic, cigarette cigarette plastic, plastic, plastic cigarette plastic, PET. plastic plastic paper, plastic, plastic, cigarette, plastic, paper, plastic, styrofoam, rubber, plastic, plastic, met plastic, aluminum plastic plastic, plastic, aluminum, plastic, paper metal, cigarette, plastic metal, metal glass, paper, plastic, plastic, styrofoa cigarette, plastic. plastic plastic, PET plastic, paper PET plastic, plastic paper paper, plastic plastic paper, plastic plastic, plastic, plastic, paper, plastic, paper, paper, plastic, cigarette, plastic paper, aluminum paper, plastic, plastic,plastic,plastic,plastic,plastic,aluminum, paper, paper, aluminum, paper plastic, plastic, plastic, cigarette, cigarette, plastic. tic,plastic,plastic,plastic, plastic paper , plastic, paper umbrella, plastic plastic, plastic plastic, cigarette plastic cigarette , paper plastic , paper, plastic paper, plastic paper, paper paper, plastic plastic, PET plastic, cigarette plastic, lighter plastic, aluminum plastic, PET plastic, cigarette styrofoam, plastic paper, plastic plastic, cigarette plastic, paper plastic, cigarette paper, cigarette plastic. cigarette glass, plastic, metal, paper, cloth, plastic, aluminum, plastic, metal, plastic, plastic, plastic, plastic, plastic, cigarette paper, plastic, plastic, plastic, plastic, food, aluminum, plastic, plastic, plastic, cigarettewood, paper, plastic, plastic, cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette cigarette

transect N

After completing the inventory, I diagrammed the types of garbage that was generally found in the area, including north to south, and east to west data. With this visual, you can see how much garbage is each section, as well as how garbage is distributed in the landscape.

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S

Trash Inventory

* not entire diagram

interview Glass to Glass is a joint venture company with Owens-Illinois, the largest glass container producer in the country.

Glass to Glass uses e-Cullet technology to sort disposed glass by color, to be made into recycled glass. Since glass making is a chemical process, glass must be separated by color, and the accuracy of this process determines the quality of the product. At Glass to Glass in Portland, OR, 400-500 tons of glass are processed a day with a 90% recovery rate.

Dirty grinds, glass too small to be recycled, goes to Kerr Contractors in Woodburn, OR to be made into asphalt or ground up to use as backfill

//Processing//Glass Recycling // Glass to Glass

transect High Volume Trash Erosion Control

Rocks Water Tall Water Rocks Tall Grasses Grasses Wall

Water

Rocks

Tall Grasses

Wall Erosion High Wall Erosion Control High Volume Trash Control Volumes of Trash

After compiling the individual transects into a larger drawing and in order to get a sense of what I was looking at, I started to identify textures in the landscape, and group them on a diagrammatic level as an overlay on my initial transects of the Kamo River. Along with the trash inventory, and the quantification of garbage type, I could get a sense of how landscape + its relationship with water starts to move and capture garbage along the Kamo River.

24 S Trash Inventory // Texture Typology

High Volume Trash

interview 1. interview

Kerr Contractors is a civil construction company that does large and high profile construction projects along the Pacific coast.

Before Glass to Glass started its business in Portland, Kerr Contractors was taking glass and recycling it into asphalt.

Portland Metro maintains a policy of making sure recycled products are going to the best use, and before the glass could be used to make more glass, Kerr would take the product.

Since Glass to Glass came to be, Kerr takes the byproduct of the sorting process and makes it into asphalt. That which is not used for asphalt is used as backfill or re-crushed into sand. Kerr also recycles topsoil, scrap wood (to be made into biochar), boulders from construction sites, and asphalt.

//Processing//Glass Recycling // Kerr Contractors

transect

High Volume Trash Erosion Control

Wall

Rocks WaterTall GrassWater Rocks Tall Grasses Water

Rocks

Tall Grasses

es

Wall Erosion Erosion High Control High Volume Trash Control Volumes of Trash

Wall

26 N Trash Inventory // Texture Typology

interview 1. interview

Unlike a lot of the other places I visited during my research in Portland, Rivergate Scrap Metal was unique in its approach towards recycling.

The scrap-metal company was privately owned and had markets driving what products they kept in their lot.

For example, when I visited, the demand for aluminum was down, so the amount of aluminum stock they were willing to take in was low. Rivergate Scrap Metal processes 10,000 tons of metal per month and takes in items ranging all the way from aluminum cans to refrigerators.

//Processing// Metal // Rivergate Scrap Metal

transect 1. transect

Large stones have a low possibility of capture and are often amongst small sediment particles at the very edge of the river. Large stones can prevent larger pieces of litter like a PET plastic bottle from ending up into the river.

Although, floatable pieces like a plastic bottle may travel if the water level gets too high.

Tall grasses have the highest possibility to catch litter before it reaches the Kamo. Grasses are often found nearest to the pathway and retaining wall are normally surrounded with both large and small stones.

28 Texture Typology

interview 1. interview

At New Earth Farms, Scott Olsen + a few helping hands take on the responsibility of processing commercial scale food waste from a large business and schools in the Portland Metro area. They use a Bokashi style of composting, which is an acidic anaerobic fermentation process. This method of composting takes away from the common issues food compost tends to carry with it, which is time, location (it has indoor capabilities), it gives off fewer greenhouse gasses + is easy enough for consumers to do on a small scale. New Earth Farms takes in 3 1/2 tons to 4 tons of food waste a week, depending on the season.

//Processing// Compost// New Earth Farms

transect

A “Garbage Island� is comprised of an elevated mix of soil, sediment, and grasses that catch pieces of litter as they float downstream. A Garbage Island holds a large density of litter, as it is the only capture agent in the river itself.

A Garbage Island is normally undisturbed by humans, so when water levels rise, and the island is submerged under water, the litter is then transported downstream.

30 Texture Typology

interview 1. interview

Dirt Huggers, unlike New Earth Farms, takes mostly yard waste + yeast byproducts from brewing beer, fruit waste + curbside mix from Recology + Hood River, OR. Dirt Huggers is an aerobic composting facility, which has the ability (right now) to take in 46,000 - 50,000 tons of waste a year.

//Processing// Compost // Dirt Huggers

transect 1. transect

Across areas of small stones, there are not many opportunities for the landscape to capture garbage. The wind pushes litter into the Kamo River, or garbage is caught in a Garbage Island, where it will stay until the river rises during typhoon season.

32 Texture Typology

interview 1. interview

Located in Arlington, OR, Columbia Ridge Landfill is about 136 miles east of the City of Portland + takes almost 100% of Portland + Seattle’s Waste. Columbia Ridge Landfill is one of the largest landfills in the country.

The majority of non-recyclable trash per volume is plastic, and the majority of trash per weight is kitty litter. According to the district manager at Columbia Ridge Landfill, Portland is about 10 years behind Seattle in waste management sophistication.

Columbia Ridge Landfill has expanded the life of the landfill because the efficiency of both Seattle and Portland have gotten better and better each year.

//Processing// Landfill // Columbia Ridge Landfill

transect

Flowing south from Mount Sajikigatake, the Kamo River usually flows at low levels. In recent years, due to changes in the climate, there has been an increase in rainfall. The river joins with the Takano River, the Katsura River and then eventually the Yodo River.

Sometimes there are people who gather garbage when the river is low.

These large concrete erosion pieces have a very high ability for capture, and when high water lowers, it becomes another capture agent to prevent litter from traveling downstream

34 Texture Typology

diagram Taking information from interviews + site visits, I could better understand the relationship between solid waste / recyclables and the entities that care for them. As a visual person, I encapsulate these relationships in the system as a whole.

System

i. Creation, Collection, Movement + Processing

Indvidual Entities

Processing i. Transfer Stations ii. Glass Recycling iii. Metal iv. Compost v. Landfill

section Capturability

The ability of a texture to capture garbage parcels.

Low

Medium

High

Possibility of Collection

The chances that garbage parcels will pick up and sorted by humans for further processing.

Low

Medium

High

Amount of Human Interaction

Public spaces are the most observable places to capture a trend between the interrelationship of culture and solid waste management as well as the role that landscape plays in the process. I did detailed sections to show how the land is shaped combined with how humans use the space.

Showing how often people occupy the space.

1. Shiokoij Dori // Shichijo Dori

Day/ Night

3. Syomen Dori // Gojo Dori

Low

Medium

High

Evaluating if a space gets used more in the day or in the night.

Day

Night

Both

Tourist Use

Seeing whether or not a space is used primarily by tourists or by locals.

Low

Medium

High

2. Shichijo Dori // Syomen Dori

4. Gojo Dori // Matsubara Dori 5.Matsubara Dori // Saitocho Dori 6. Saitocho Dori // Shijo Dori

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diagram Creation Tin Cans

Plastic

Clear Glass

Plastic Bottles Yard Debris

Compost Green Glass

“Thin Paper”

“Thick Paper” Aluminum Cans

Garbage Brown Glass

Collection By volume, plastic takes up the most space in the landfill.

25-33% of recycled material actually gets recycled

Movement

There are 15 residential haulers and 36 commerical haulers in the City of Portland

Processing System // Creation // Collection // Movement

section (1)

Notable Characteristics: -Residential scale housing -High grasses along the river create a high potential for capturability -Bike ramp acess - No opportunities for seating -More human connection on east side

User Typology

Bike Parking

Walkway

Train Stati

Vegetation

Path

Street Access Residential Housing

Wall Wall

User Analysis

Kamo River

38 Shiokoij Dori // Shichijo Dori

diagram “Wet Waste”

Commercial “Dry Waste”

Crushed

Sorted

Landfill

Recycled to the Community

Food + Yard Compost

Composting Center

Individual Entities // Transfer Station

section (2)

Notable Characteristics: -No human acess for the west side - Disconnection between residents and the Kamo River -Narrow Path on east side - Single se of pedestrian access

User Typology

Vegetation Path

Station

Road

Residential

User Analysis

Garbage Island

Path

40 Shichijo Dori // Syomen Dori

diagram

Dirty Grinds

Glass Arrives (Glass is dual stream) (450 tons a day)

Machine Blows Paper Off of the Glass

Paper+ Ceramics (1.5%)

Glass moves into the “Shaker�

Columbia Ridge Landfill

Shakes out of Large Pieces of Glass Camera Sorts Glass into Three Piles (Clear, Brown + Green) EWY Current Creates an Electrical Current that Flings Aluminum Away (Water is Used to Keep the System More Efficient)

Scales use Both Ends of Magnets to take Metal out of the System

Individual Entities // Ptocessing // Glass

section (3)

Notable Characteristics: -High amounts of sediment build up in the river -Lower east side pathway widens -First set of concrete erosion control is set - Only access on west side is a ladder.

User Typology

People have lined the entire wall with potted plants

Bollards 2 sets of tairs, no bike access

Residential

Gray Heron Kamo River

Road

Stairs Path

40 Syomen Dori // Gojo Dori

diagram Product Production Consumer Purchase Sheet Production

Remelting + Ingot Casting

Can Collection

Shredding and Decoating

Individual Entities // Processing // Aluminum

section (4)

Notable Characteristics: -Increased amounts of seating - Low vegetation along the east side - Increased connection between the residents on the west side and a path along the river.

User Typology

Trash Blows from Above Path to River Area

Path

Retaining Wall

Vegetative Wall

Business Path

Kamo River

Coy Fish

Seating

42 Gojo Dori // Matsubara Dori

diagram Material Comes in

Mushroom Innoculation

Wait 1-3 Weeks

Water Down and use for Application on Soil

Put in Barrel with liquid Microbes

Take out Contaminents

Mix

Individual Entities // Processing // Bokashi Composting

section (5)

Notable Characteristics: -Pedestrian access on both sides -Increase in sediment -Discnnection between business and the river -Increase tourism

n User Typology

Open to Parcels Moving from Above Path to River Area

Path Residential

Path

Walking Ledge

Path

Kamo River

44 Matsubara Dori // Saitocho Dori

Filling

diagram Filled

Waste Comes in

Bird’s Eye

Waste is filled one section at a time

Soil Profile

R

3’ Topsoil 1’ Clay Cap 300’ (max) Compacted Waste Base Liner System

Individual Entities // Processing // Landfill

section (6)

Notable Characteristics: -Massive number of tourists on the east and west -No opportunities to sit - Tourists stay away from river pathways -No interaction possible for humans and the water.

User Typology

Stairs Path PAth Wall

Residential

Path

Kamo River

Path Sediment Build Up

46 Saitocho Dori // Shijo Dori

Generally speaking, the air of the world is shifting towards the mindset of sustainability.

Global recognition of climatesystem’s change + human being’s responsibility towards positive action is no longer a foreign concept. The major contributor to flaws in the solid waste system come from policy that is slow to adapt to an exponentially changing world + a lack of communication between consumers, the government and processors of waste. It’s safe to say that people are willing to put a positive step forward to policy change for solid waste management in response to larger regional issues, but an active response is also required to make a true impact.

management case study i

portland, or

conclusions cultural observation case study ii kyoto, japan

I think my time in Kyoto can be summed up in the last letter I wrote to my advisor, Robin Hoffman on the flight back. “Dear Robin,... That’s the thing we cannot escape from is garbage. Trash is everything, it’s everywhere.

Much like we breathe, walk + live, we produce solid waste.

My biggest lesson I learned in Japan is that humans are humans. They make mistakes, they are self-oriented, but not generally ill-intentioned...

Even though there are great global initiatives in place + larger steps have been taken, waste reduction seems hard + nearly impossible to come by. The landscape creates opportunities to manipulate topography, texture etc. to help direct trash created by humans into the least ecologically harming way.”

48

Aerobic CompostingComposting that takes place aboveground, and requires air to break down yard + / or food waste.

Dirty GrindsA by-products of glass recycling where glass pieces are too small to be re-sorted or used into recycled glass.

glossary

Solid Waste ManagementThe handling of waste material from extraction through recovery to disposal.

Wet Waste Waste coming to recovery facilities or landfills that will not be sorted further due to contamination of one form or another.

Dry WasteWaste considered to be recyclable, or not but is uncontaminated with soiled items.

Acidic Anaerobic FermentationA method of microbial movement that composting that deprives food waste of air, but feeds it with microbes and mollases.

50

to: Wayne Jackson from Glass to Glass, who connected me with so many other people in the field, includingBrent Kerr of Kerr Contractors Ellen Ives from Waste Connection (and thank you to the rest of the waste reduction specialists for taking me on one of your field trips!) + Sean Daod of Rivergate Scrap Metals ------------The people at Portland Metro, Including : Thomas Chaimov (for answering all of my seemingly random questions) , Bruce Philbrick, and Rod Wojtanik -------------Kip Eagles, the district manager of the Columbia Ridge Landfill -------------Pierce Louis + Tyler Miller from Dirt Hugger

thank you Scott Olsen from New Earth Farms ----------Brad Uhli, Solid Waste & Recycling Supervisor from Skamania County Public Works ----------Florence and Robert Rosen ----------Robin Hoffman PHD ----------Casey Duffy + Meagan Pepper ----------+ finally My mom, dad and sister for letting me abandon them for 5 months in pursuit of trash

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