The Observer XIX.3 - Under the Radar: Stories from Outside the Newsroom

Letter From the Editor

Tuesday,April11,2023

DearReaders,

WelcometotheWinterEditionofVolumeXIXof The Observer, “UndertheRadar: StoriesfromOutsidetheNewsroom.”Weareexcitedtobringyouanissuethat invitedtheteamtoexploretopicsoftenunderrepresented(orevenmisrepresented) inWesternmainstreammedia.

OliviaandJohnoffersomenewinsightsintoRussiaandtheUkrainianWarwiththe useoftheelusiveWagnerGroupandthewar’sglobaleconomicimpact.Then, NeethiniandAlyshaconsiderthelastinglegaciesoftwokindsofimperialistpoliciesunexplodedAmericanbombsinLaosandthedevastatingimpactoffinancial institutionsinPakistan.AlexanderexplorestheprecedentsetbyBrazil’snewISDS approach.

Sydney,Isobel,andVictoriawriteaboutconcerningaspectsofclimatechangearound theworldandaskwhoisimpactedandwhoisresponsible.SylviaandMeghan questiontheethicsofmajorinternationalsportingeventsandtheirrolesin internationalpolitics.Frommyself,anarticlehighlightingconcernsofaRussian takeoverinMoldova.

Iamveryproudoftheworkofmystaffandwouldliketoextendmydeepestthanks fortheircontributionstomyfinaledition,especiallySydneyforhercontributiontothis topicchoice.Ihopeyouwillreturntoread The Observer forournextvolume!Ifyou haveanycommentsorconcerns,pleasecontact The Observer at theobserver@qiaa.org.Ifyou’dliketocontributeanarticleinthefutureorapplytojoin ourteam,followusonInstagram(@theobserver.qiaa)orFacebook(TheObserverQueen’sUniversity)forupdates.

Now,IhopeyouenjoythefinalinstallmentofVolumeXIXfor The Observer!

Alexandra Paul

PrintEditor-in-Chief, The Observer

Putin’s Second War:The Dangers Emerging in Moldova

• AlexandraPaul,Editor-inChief

The Wagner Group: How Information Warfare Sets a Dangerous Precedent

• OliviaHowells,StaffWriter

AYear in the Markets: How the Ukraine War Has Changed the World

• JohnMinyen,StaffWriter

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Nullified Neutrality:The Lingering Consequences ofAmerica’s Secret War

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• NeethiniPrathipan,StaffWriter

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American Imperialism: It Isn’t Just Warfare

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• AlyshaAhmad, AssistantEditor

WhyThis Brazilian Policy Could Shake-Up Environmental andTrade Efforts

• AlexanderEzquerra,StaffWriter

OceanAcidification:The Chemical Changing of our World

• SydneyRobinson,StaffWriter

Climate Relocation in Fiji: Who Bears the Responsibility?

• IsobelAnderson,StaffWriter

Who Should Pay for Climate Change?

• VictoriaSampson,StaffWriter

More than Just a Game

• SylviaKathirkamanathan,StaffWriter

The Formula One SaudiArabian Grand Prix is a Prime Example of Sports-Washing: But What is Sports-Washing and Will it Work?

• MeghanHembruff,AssistantEditor

.Putin’s Second War: The Danger. .Emerging in Moldova..

by:AlexandraPaul

Vladimir Putin’s dream of resuscitating the Soviet Union has sent waves of terror across the world, but none are so acutely aware of its menace as those living in easternEuropeancountriesthatwereonce under the hammer and sickle flag. Particularly, countries who share a border with Ukraine, Putin’s first victim in his crusade to restore Russian glory, have wearily taken stock of their own vulnerability to Russian manipulation. Though Poland and Belarus are often mentionedinsuchconversations,Moldova is emerging as perhaps the likeliest candidate to be the second country invaded under the pretense of liberation. Like Ukraine, there is an unignorable part oftheMoldovanpopulationthatstillfeelsa kinship with Russia and wants to break away to rejoin a country that will protect their

theiridentitiesandinterests.

MoldovabecamepartoftheUSSRin1940 whenRomaniawasforcedtosurrenderthe territorytoMoscowbecauseofthewartime Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. During the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Moldova declared itself independent –thoughnotallofitslandwasnecessarily unifiedbehindthisdecision.Since1990,a small strip along the Dniester River near Moldova’s border with Ukraine has styled itself as the breakaway state of Transnistria. Unique from the rest of the country, ethnic Russians and Ukrainians make up the majority of Transnistria’s population.Apreferencetoremainwiththe Soviet Union over reuniting with Romania and a fear of their relegation to a second-class status pushed the idea of independence

A solidarity protest in the Moldovan capital Chișinău on the anniversary of the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Gikü.

independence in the late 1980’s and early ‘90’s,andpersiststoday.

Awar broke out between Transnistria and Moldova in 1990 with Russian and Ukrainian volunteers and even a former Soviet field army joining the fight before a ceasefire was declared in July 1992. The agreement was negotiated by the Russian and Moldovan presidents as it became apparent that Moldova had insufficient military resources to gain real control over the region. Today, the faction wanting to rejoin Russia retains the plurality of public opinion, with independence being the second-mostpopularoption.TheMoldovan government considers Transnistria to be the “Administrative- Territorial Units of the LeftBankoftheDniester”andin2022,the ParliamentaryAssemblyCouncilofEurope recognized the territory as being under a Russianmilitaryoccupation.

But, why does any of this matter? The answer lies in the lead-up to the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the continued Russian rhetoric surrounding the status of the Donbas region. Like Transnistria, DonbashasasignificantRussian-speaking community and has engaged in armed conflict with its central government to attempt to join the Russian Federation. Both ended in a ceasefire without any concrete resolutions, leaving the areas suspendedin“frozenconflicts”–asituation where the lack of a peace treaty or other declarative documents means a war could legallyresumeatanytime.

AcentralpartofRussia’sjustificationofits invasion was reigniting this conflict, recognizing the “Donetsk People's recognizing

Republic” and claiming to protect the territory from the Ukrainian government’s totalitarianandgenocidalattemptstoforce Donbas to remain part of Ukraine. While Moscow’s claimed interest in protecting Donbas’ democratic process is about as legitimate as its claims of having a “denazification” mission in Kyiv, the similarities between Donbas and Transnistria are haunting. Yet, perhaps Transnistria is an even easier target for Putin’srampage.

Transnistria has already been used by Russia as a base for troops in the Ukrainianconflict,likelybecausetheregion houses a Soviet-era ammunition depot. While this alongside Transnistrian rhetoric advocating for a return to Russia is unnerving, even more so Putin’s recent decisiontorescinda2012declarationthat Moscowwouldattempttofindasolutionto resolve the issue of Transnistria’s status while upholding Moldova’s sovereignty. ThisdecisionmakesRussia’spositionclear –itispreparedtodowithTransnistriaand Moldova what it did with Donbas and Ukraine.

Within the last month, more signs of Russian interference have emerged. Moldovanpoliceclaimtheyarrestedseven actors, some of whom are Russian nationals, who were paid to cause mass disruption during an anti-government protest. Less than one week after this incident, several media outlets (including the Dossier Centre for Investigative Journalism, a site funded by an exiled Russian energy executive and political enemy of the Kremlin) published a five-page document outlining a decadefive-page

longplantooverhaulWesterninfluencein Moldova. Its objectives included neutralizing Moldovan opposition to a Russian military presence in Transnistria, freezing Moldovan relations with NATO, and bolstering political parties who view Russiafavourably.

The Moldovan government, like any other (includingtheUkrainiangovernment),isnot andcannotbebeyondreproach–thecost of living crisis in Moldova is severe and there continue to be many social and political issues that go unaddressed. But, Russia is hardly a more benevolent governor. As tensions rise between the pro-Western and pro-Russian factions, Moldova seems more and more like a powderkegonesparkawayfromexploding intothesecondfrontofRussia’swar.

The likelihood of a Russian invasion of Moldovaisgrowingandthequestionmust beasked–haveWesterncountrieslearned anythingaboutwhathappenedinUkraine? Will there be some preventative action taken to stop another invasion, or will Moldovansbedoomedtothesamefateas their neighbours? As a country whose neutralityisconstitutionallyenshrinedbutis a well-known NATO collaborator, Moldova standstobecomethenexttargetinPutin’s reactionaryEuropeanpowergrab,anditis notalone.GeorgiaandArmenia,countries near Russia in the Caucasus region, are also candidates to be pulled into this neo-Soviet campaign. It is now up to their allies, those whose relationships have endangered them, to stand with them againstRussianaggression.against

The Wagner Group: How Information .Warfare Sets a Dangerous Precedent..

by:OliviaHowells

“Allisfairinloveandwar.”

Whatwasoncealightheartedsayingcould now become a reality as groups like Wagner lead the world in information warfare. Lately the name “Wagner” has become a gateway to understanding the Russia-Ukraine war. However, what is neglected from media coverage and potentially ideologically disappointing, is thefactthatWagnerisneithernew,norisit uniquelyRussian.

Forthoseunfamiliarorwhohavehearditin passing, the Wagner Group is a Russian private military company (PMC). Founded in 2014 by army officer Dmitri Ukin, Wagner has come to the forefront of the news lately because of their presence in Ukraine on the assumed contract of Vladimir

Vladimir Putin. The Wagner Group has been closely associated with Putin’s regime, despite his insistence of no association.

Often compared to mercenaries, private military companies are contracted to fulfill military objectives for profit. Officially, states employ PMCs when the state military may be undertrained in a certain skillset,lackingnumbers,orguidanceina certain region. On a less official basis, the nuanced legalities surrounding PMCs give states a unique opportunity to thwart internationallawandnorms,whileevading responsibility.

Although it has only started to gain the attention of mainstream media outlets, the Wagner Group reflects a long-standing tradition

Vladimir Putin attending a military event. President of the Russian Federation (via www.kremlin.ru).

tradition in Russian defence policy. Alongside many 20th century reports of Russia employing private militias, use of the Wagner Group dates back to Russia’s 2014 annexation of Crimea. Using the Wagner Group to achieve military objectivesinCrimeawasvaluablebecause it allowed for Russia to maintain their plausible deniability, which mirrors their strategy today in Ukraine. From there, Putin has employed the Wagner Group in various other regions, namely Syria and Central Africa. It is not uncommon for statestoemployPMCstohelpsecuretheir geopolitical or strategic interests. Many large powers employ PMCs, namely the US, who used them in the 2003 Iraq War. The controversy here lies in the actions of the Wagner Group. The Wagner Group have been cited in the assassination of high-ranking separatist commanders in post-soviet republics, as well as human rights abuses of Ukrainians. They have been accused of aggravating instability in Central Africa by assisting rebels. They have also perpetuated Islamophobic violence in their presence alongside the Syrianarmy.

Upon learning that many other powers legally employ PMCs, it is natural to wonderwhyweshouldcareaboutWagner.

I surely would not be satisfied with some liberal democratic enshrined answer that essentially proclaims Western moral superiority.The ethical case of PMCs is a story for another time. Rather, I want to highlightthatthesesamelargepowerswho employPMCshavelegalizedthem.Infact, China, often ideologically linked to Russia in IR, was an original signatory of the Montreux Document which establishes human

rights obligations for states regarding PMCs. The Montreux Document seeks to identify “good practices” in the employment of PMCs as a basic regulatory structure. What surprises many, is that Russia themselves have not legalized PMCs. Thus, despite constant collusion and arguable attachmenttotheRussiangovernment, the Wagner Group is not legal in Russia.

By not legalizing PMCs, Russia has employed a common state tactic to thwartinternationalresponsibility.Since they are not legal, there are no regulatorystructuresandcorresponding responsibilities that Russia must develop. Evoking “blissful ignorance,” this legal ambiguity essentially allows Putin, under proxy of the Wagner Group, to do as he pleases regardless ofinternationallaw.Solongasthereis noproofofhisinvolvement,hegetsoff scot-free. It is like giving a kid a gun, and telling him to shoot someone, but evading responsibility because he’s not yourkid.

Legal nuance is a large reason that many have pushed to designate PMCs like Wagner as mercenaries. It has actually fosteredalargedivide,asmercenariesare outlawed in Russia and the word itself carriesadifferentsemanticmeaning.Some claim that PMCs like Wagner are identical to mercenaries because they kill for profit, whileothersdistinguishbetweenmonetary and ideological motivations. I understand the semantic merit of this debate, as “mercenary” sounds a lot worse than “PMC,”however,Ithinkitmissesthepoint point

The Wagner Group are not motivated by just money, or Russian faith; they are motivated by both. This is far more daunting, as it renders the Wagner Group as a state army with greater monetary incentive and little international accountability, or otherwise as a real-life gameofCallofDuty.

The case of Wagner is important to understand, because they are a prime example information warfare’s success. Modern Russian grand strategy is increasingly reliant on misinformation, which spreads fast in today’s uniquely digital age. Though many of us have not fallen victim to Russian propaganda, the sheer lack of knowledge on the normalization of PMCs like Wagner is evidencethistacticisworking.Manyofus grew up in this era of mass technological consumption, sifting through hours of content each day as attention spans diminish between generations. It has become common custom to consume our news through a headline, or forget about anissuethatinfuriatedusjustaweekago. The breadth of knowledge out there has condemned us to neglect inquiry and trust what was put in front of us. I see it in myselflastyear,whenIhadn’tyetheardof the Wagner Group or PMCs as I confidently wrote my paper on the Russia-Ukrainewar.Wearefallingvictimto our own advancements. This is troublesome as it has enabled Wagner to operate under the radar with little repercussions, with estimated soldiers in the tens of thousands. Unsupervised, they will only get bigger, along with their ability toexertPutin’swill.

Thisisnotmeanttobetangentialoraguilt trip but is rather a worthy concern as we move forward and hold governments accountable.ItscaresmethatI,alongwith many,didn’tknowthattheso-called“good guys” in the West employed PMCs. What scaresmeevenmoreishowthesegroups have become normalized within state defence. Key takeaways here are that the Wagner Group continues to grow and the Russian state’s ability to violate international law is becoming more efficient, namely in Ukraine. The other takeawayisthattheWagnerGroupisone of many. There is no easy solution, however,therehasbeenapromisingpush for regulatory structures in scholarship. Establishinguniqueinternationalregulatory structures for PMCs, regardless of their legality,couldencourageaccountabilityand transparency. On an individual level, I wouldencourageareturntoinquiry.Iurge everyone to read further than the surface, especially as Russia’s war on Ukraine unfolds. The widespread existence of PMCs, especially in Russia, sets a dangerous precedent for the future of warfare. In the absence of accountability, the Russian military has an open door to playdirty,whichtheyseemtoneedatthe moment. It appears that fairness is a doubleentendreinloveandwar.

.AYear in the Markets: How the Ukraine. War has Changed the World

by:JohnMinyen

As the one year milestone of the Russia-UkraineWarpassesby,theseverity oftheconflictisstillcausingdistressacross several sectors in international financial markets. Oil and agricultural markets, particularly, have been hit hard, and politicalfalloutfromthewarbetweenworld powerscontinuestoaddfueltotheflame. Combined with the severely weakened stateofmostcountries’economiescoming outoftheCOVID-19pandemic,thegrowth that was expected to occur is not developing at optimal speed. In some cases,thesituationhasbecomemoredire as continued stalled growth adds pressure tooverburdenedmarkets.Whilethewarin Ukraine is not the only source of market concerns,ithasproventobeafocalpoint for global events. The combination of multiple negative factors has led to unfavourable

unfavourable projections, resulting in the beginningofseveremarketfluctuations.

One of the major worries for economists rightnowisthatoilandgasinfrastructurein Ukraine is being targeted, while Russia’s statusasamajornaturalgasexporterhas put European governments in an awkward position.Oneofthemostimportantassets to both sides of the war, oil production, is being affected on a global scale, thereby resultingindrasticimplicationsforyearsto come no matter the outcome of the war. These changes can be observed in the United States, where on October 20th of 2022, 180 million barrels from the US oil reserves were released to offset the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries’(OPEC)decisiontoreducealloil production. The decision to reduce oil production

Stock exchange board.

production soon after laying out plans to increase production to meet new post-COVID demands has direct political implications, and stands in open defiance of the United States’ request to not cut production. While the justification for this slash was stated to be a decrease in demandandanuntenablepricefall,behind thescenesitisquiteobviousthatRussiais using its status as a co-founder of OPEC and one of the top three oil producers in the world to exert pressure on foreign markets.

Countries in Europe have been especially waryofthesechanges,asthedecisionby many European countries to distance themselves from reliance on Russian oil hasbeenmetwithRussiashuttingoffsaid natural gas to cause immediate destabilization of those countries' economies.Forinstance,theNordStream pipelineattackandthedecisionbyRussia to shut-off another major gas pipeline to Germany are indicative of the repercussions of the war. Moreover, on September 7, 2022, the Russian government announced that a major oil pipeline between Germany and Russia would be temporarily shut off, and on September28,theNordStreampipelinein theBalticSeawasbombed.Thisseriesof undersea pipelines leads directly from GermanytoRussia,andisamajorarteryin thefuelsupplytonotonlyGermany,butthe entiretyofWesternEurope.Russia’sstatus asthelargestexporterofnaturalgastothe European Union has persisted despite direct opposition to the war from those governments, which has brought an immediate power crisis to many European nations.nations

Russia continues to hold significant economicpowerwithintheregion,evenas theirdomesticeconomysuffers.Disruption to the flow of natural gas to the European Union would be catastrophic for the world economy,sincethefalloutfromthewarhas already severely hampered the growth of marketsfollowingtheCOVID-19pandemic. Particularly, the recovery of the United Kingdom’s economy has declined due to crippling global supply chain issues. The significant downturn of the United Kingdom’s economy can be clearly reflected in the economic predictions from thestartof2022tothepresent.InJuneof 2022, the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development released anupdatedpredictionforeconomicgrowth across the European sectors, and saw Britain reduced from a 4.7% increase in 2022 and an increase of 2.1% in 2023 reduced down to 3.6% in 2022 and a 0% growth in 2023. As the United Kingdom’s shortage of supplies persists, the threat to internationalmarketsincreases.

In addition to the oil markets, global agriculture has been disrupted on an extreme scale. Ukraine produces 10% of the world’s wheat export, but has now suffered almost $6.6 billion USD in damagestotheiragriculturalinfrastructure. As Russia consolidates land in the east and continues bombing campaigns, Ukrainian farmers have experienced difficulties returning to the fields and growing the work-intensive wheat crop. Instead, many farmers are switching to sunflower and oil producing crops, hoping tomaintainaprofitablecropyieldthatcan beexported.Asaresultofthisdrasticshift, Ukraine has engaged in economic diplomacy

diplomacy with Poland to build an oil pipeline between the two countries to accommodatethisnewinfluxoforganicoil. However,thistradeoffwillnotcomewithout ashocktotheagriculturalmarkets.

According to the Ukrainian Ministry of Agrarian Policy, land dedicated to wheat cultivation has decreased by 35%. Combined with the still recovering supply chainissuesfromtheCOVID-19pandemic, inflation for agricultural products have spiked significantly in recent months. Wheat grain earmarked for export still sits in the harbor under Russian blockade, despite an intense diplomatic effort that saw nearly $9 billion worth of wheat channeled out of the Black Sea harbors. Wheat and oil production are not the only issuesdisruptingtheagriculturalworld.The Russian export of fertilizer accounts for 20% of fertilizer exported globally, but the sudden sanctions of Russian exports with noimmediatealternativehasimperiledthe world’s ability to produce food. Although many farmers were protected with locked inputpricesfor2022,thereisanoticeable volatility in the market that will affect 2023 andpotentialcropyieldsforyearstocome.

As the war in Ukraine continues, each passing day continues to hamper necessary economic growth in sectors all over the world. The economic pressure beingputonthesemarketsisintense,and the development of international financial distress willbefollowedwithraptattention byexperts,therebydictatingthetoneofthe worldmarketsforyearstocome.every

.Nullified Neutrality: The Lingering. Consequences ofAmerica’s Secret War

by:NeethiniPrathipan

In August 2021, the Mines Advisory Group (MAG) celebrated a milestone. The organization safely and successfully removedits300,000thunexplodedbombin Laos.TheMAGbeganitsmissionin1994 and continues its efforts today. While its success is crucial to ensuring the safety and security of all Laotian citizens, this mission sheds light into the horrific history ofLaosandtheAmericancontribution.The bombstheMAGworktoremovedateback to1964-1973.Thesebombsweredropped by the CIA and the American State Departmentasanefforttolimitthespread of communism within the Southeast Asia region. The United States did not assume responsibility for their actions, hindering Laos’economicandsocialdevelopmentfor decades to come. America’s exertion of influence over this small state through cluster

cluster munitions, illustrate the greater dangersofunexplodedordnancesandthe limitedframeworksthatexisttocombatthis issue.

Laos assumed its neutral position in the VietnamWarwouldlimitthedestructionof land and the citizen casualties. However, during the 1960s, Laos was seen as a growing threat to American interests. Should Laos fall to the communist forces, the domino effect will deter any US influence in SoutheastAsia, affecting their regional interests.Thus began the decade longoperationwheremorethan2.5million tonsofbombsweredropped.

Labelled as a mission to ensure peace, Operation Barrel Roll was a CIA backed projectthatdroppedmorethan260million bombs

Bomb shells left over from the US secret bombing during the Vietnam War, lined up in a village outside Phonsavan. Lorna (via Flickr.)

bombs on Laos from 1964-1973. This mission was controlled by the U.S. Ambassador to Laos and the State Department. Due to a combination of “official denials” and “public indifference” this operation was coined the phrase, “America’sSecretWar.”Therewasnothing secretaboutthiswartothepeopleinLaos, though. On average, the United States droppeda“planeloadofbombseveryeight minutes, 24 hours a day, for nine years” making Laos the most bombed state in history. Due to the type of bombs and the rainyclimateofLaos,athirdofthebombs failed to detonate upon immediate dropping. Since then, these cluster munitions unexpectedly detonate, resulting in over 50,000 deaths and injuries years after the war. In the past fifty years, only about 1% of these bombs had been cleared before grassroots organizations and countries began to take notice and assistanceeffortswerecreated.

TheUnitedStates’needtoprotectregional interests held no bounds as they opted to disseminatetheentirestateofLaosinthe name of peace and protection. A lack of mediaattentionandcompleteignoranceof the external powers limited development within Laos. They ignored a state’s guaranteed neutrality in an effort to save theirlosingwareffortsinVietnam.

The state of Laos after America’s actions requires global concern. An absence of acknowledgement limited the development ofthestate,hinderingitsprogressdecades tocome.Afterdeployingmillionsofbombs, the U.S. exterminated the threat of Laos andnolongersawitsinterestsinthestate as crucial or necessary. With limited interest

interest, the country was left to fend for itself. The presence of unexploded weapons limit Laos’ tourism industry, economic development, and the livelihood ofeverycitizen.

Tourism is often a used to expand the economic ventures of a state. Laos, a city once housing beautiful forests, rivers and culture has only recently been able to accept tourists at a steady basis once again.Thanks to grassroots organizations, theyhavenotbeenabletoremovealarge numberofUnexplodedOrdnances(UXOs). However, official state warnings still exist warning tourists of high-risk areas riddled withunexplodedbombs.Economically,the presence of UXOs has limited the “socio-economicdevelopmentofLaos”and with limited funding, complete clearance will still take many decades. It has also caused a skewed balance of the distribution of capital and labour in Laos. Thousands of people suffer death or injuries while completing everyday tasks. Forty percent of the victims are children, whoareunawareofthedangerstheshiny metalobjectsonthegroundpose.

In 2016, Barack Obama became the first presidenttoacknowledgetheactionsofthe U.S. Government, forty-three years after thelastbombwasdropped.Inhisspeech, headdressedthesecretnatureofthewar, the lack of knowledge American’s share regarding their country’s contribution and thenextstepsneededtolimitthethreatof citizen lives. Obama’s government also promised various forms of technological teaching to young people and funding of $90milliondollarsfrom2016-2019.

Outsideoftherecentassistance,demining efforts rely on grassroots organizations. TheLegaciesLibraryworkstoeducatethe global public on the history and aftermath of America’s Secret War. Through recent media attention, Laos is slowly recovering after an almost fifty-year period of lack of assistance.ToassistLaotianwomenBaan works with them, creating bracelets made from the left-over metals of exploded bombs. This venture offers a guaranteed income to numerous people who were unabletoworkduetoinjuriesandthreatof livesasadirectcauseofthesebombs.

Demining efforts did not occur in years after the war. Laotian citizens, while suffering due to the UXOs, have also adapted to their environment. With no external assistance for numerous decades andtheneedtocreatevarioushousingand schools for its people, citizens resorted to usingtheleftoverbombcasingsforshelter. Peoplehaveusedleftoverplanefueltanks ascanoes,usethemetalforcutlery,andin some cases, pillars for their homes. Despite their use of these bombs, some are unaware when they’ll explode, living their lives under daily threat. In 2021,19 people were killed and 47 people were injuredduetothepresenceofUXOs.While citizensattempttolivetheirlivestothebest oftheirability,thedangerofthesebombsis stillprevalent.

Laos was not the only state to be devastated by the impact of cluster munitions. In 2010, the Convention of Cluster munitions was introduced. Since then, 109 state parties and 13 signatory stateshavesigned,joinedandcontributeto the demining efforts of many countries all all

over the world.The United States has not joinedthisconventionand,accordingtothe Arms Control Association, they have an “estimated one billion submunitions” at present that have the potential to cause a dangerous“globalhumanitariancrisis.”

America’s usage of cluster bombs questions the success of the Cluster Munitions Convention. Countries that have joined the Convention continue their allianceswiththeU.S.whilehavingfederal laws excusing the use of these weapons. Canadahasbeenattemptingtoimplement Bill C-6, which prohibits the “use, production and stockpiling” of cluster munitions.However,withinthatsamebill,a clause allows for the use of cluster munitionswhenjoining“anallywhohasnot signed on to the convention”. Canada’s failure to address the inner problems and the disastrous effects of cluster munitions illustrate how various countries lack governance in resolving problems they havedirectlycaused.

ThecaseofLaosillustratesalargerhistory of dominant countries minimizing the economic and political strength of other states through destroying their lands and people. Demining efforts must be a global effort because the safety, wellbeing and economicprogressofcitizensandthestate are at risk. Countries need better frameworksandgovernancetoaddressthe catastrophic results of unexploded ordnances.

.American Imperialism: It Isn’t Just. Warfare

by:AlyshaAhmad

WhenwethinkofAmericanimperialism, we think of drones operated by men wearing camouflage; of tanks rolling over barren sand dunes in the Middle East; of the smell of sulfur and metal. However, American imperialism also includes the enactment of neoliberal policies abroad that favour the interests of those in the Global North. Through international financial institutions (IFI), neoliberal programmes are implemented in countries intheGlobalSouthsothatcountriesinthe GlobalNorth,particularlytheUnitedStates, can maintain their hegemonic endeavors. The economic goals of American imperialism are realized in the case of Pakistan’s financial crisis, which is exacerbatedbythecountry’sentrapmentin a long-term dependency on IFIs, including theInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF)and the

theWorldBank.

Economic imperialism thrives off of and preys on vulnerable countries, which describes Pakistan’s current state. Prior to borrowing from IFIs, Pakistan had high inflation and a high fiscal deficit. These difficulties were amplified by political instability, weak governance and corruption, making it difficult to implement effective policies and attract foreign investment.Now,Pakistanhasahighlevel of debt due to constant borrowing from other countries, the IMF and the World Bank.Pakistanborrowsfromotherstofund projects that would support the development of infrastructure resulting in the country’s total borrowing being approximately USD$130 billion in 2020, which has only worsened since. The country’s

Hand holding burning money. JPValery (via Unsplash).

country’s balance of payment crisis has also greatly contributed to its financial issues, with recent data revealing that Pakistan’s account deficit stood at a startling$12billionin2022.

Duetothisaccountdeficit,thepressureon Pakistan’s foreign exchange reserves has greatly increased. The reserves have dropped to about $3 billion, which is enough to cover just three weeks of imports.Italsodoesn’thelpthatPakistan’s weak position is worsened by years of political instability and stark political polarization within the region, as demonstrated by the multiple changes in government and numerous military interventions. Furthermore, Pakistan’s fragile state has exacerbated due to the more recent COVID-19 pandemic, causing decreased economic activity; particularly thedemandforPakistaniexportsandfewer remittances from the Pakistani diaspora. Forthisreason,Pakistancontinuestoseek assistance from IFIs in an attempt to escapeitsdeepfinancialcrisis.

IFIs frame their endeavors in altruistic manners, but the practice of their goals provesotherwise.Thehegemonicinterests of imperialists are actualized by IFIs with the help of policy conditionality, voting power, and debt-traps. According to the organization’s website, the IMF assists developing countries with strengthening their economic capacity through advising finance ministries, aligning legal and governance frameworks to international standards,andtrainingpolicy-makers.The World Bank has similar goals of ending extreme poverty, and helping developing countries create sustainable economic countries

growth. After connecting with the IMF, Pakistan was subject to harsh austerity measures to decrease its deficits resulting in reduced social spending, related to healthcare,educationandsocialprotection. Thesepolicieshavenegativelyaffectedthe poor and working class, effectively wideningthecountry’swealthgap.Thatis, the IMF pushed for market-oriented reforms and privatization measures, ironically resulting in the loss of jobs. It’s clearthatthesereformsprimarilyservethe interests of corporations in the Global North, since only corporations reap the benefits of privatization. Similarly, the World Bank emphasizes privatization and deregulation.

Through policy conditionality, Pakistan is forced to obey the IMF in order to receive loans, despite the negative impacts this hasonthecountry.Byanalyzingthevoting poweroftheIMFandtheWorldBank,the polarized power dynamics between decision-making countries and the country requiringassistanceareobvious.Countries who have the most voting power within these organizations are the United States andtheUnitedKingdom,whichareamong themostprominentcountriesintheGlobal North. Accordingly, the financial advice providedtodevelopingcountriesisthrough the lens of countries in the Global North that have the specific interests of only developed countries in mind. This is demonstrated by the emphasis on privatizedpublicassets,whichprovidesthe opportunity for Western multinational corporationstopurchasepublicassetsand profit off of them. Thus, the presence of IFIs harm industries in Pakistan and limits jobopportunitiesforthosewhoneedthem job,,

most.

Pakistan has become dependent on IFIs not only as a result of contrasting power dynamicsandpolicyconditionality,butalso by being indebted to them. The policies backed by IFIs undermine the sovereignty of vulnerable countries like Pakistan. Pakistan’s dependence on IFIs has deepened due to the IFIs’ policies regarding loan restructuring, high-interest rates, trade and investment, and the exchange rate. Pakistan adopted loan restructuring policies to manage its debt burden by renegotiating the terms of existing loans, including extending the repayment period. While this seemingly provides immediate relief to the country, it results in long-term challenges due to increased interest payments. Thus, Pakistan’s ability to make payments to creditors becomes increasingly difficult. The liberalized trade and investment policiesimplementedunderthedirectionof theIMFandtheWorldBankalsodecrease Pakistan’ssovereignty.Thatis,Pakistanis increasingly dependent on foreign powers from the Global North, since the IMF encourages policies that attract direct foreign investment. This is also the case whenitcomestoPakistan’sexchangerate, which the IMF made to be a fixed exchange rate. Therefore, a slowdown in global trade would harshly impact the country.

Pakistan’s experience with IFIs is not an isolated one; Sri Lanka is subject to a similar economic imperialism as Pakistan. Sri Lanka experienced a financial crisis in 2018-2019, which presented some similaritiestoPakistan'sfinancialcrisis.For similarities

instance, both countries faced external debt challenges and consequently sought support from the IMF and World Bank. Sri Lanka also had external debt challenges, includingalargetradedeficitanddeclining foreign reserves. It was also forced to undergo harsh austerity measures and structural adjustment programs, as a conditionforreceivingloans.LikePakistan, these policies required the government to decrease social spending on programmes, including social welfare programs and public services. Similarly, these policies encouraged market-oriented reforms, includingprivatizationandderegulation.Sri Lanka’s financial crisis was also exacerbated as a result of the country’s political unrest, including its anti-government protests. Consequently, Sri Lanka has experienced an increased dependency on IFIs, making it difficult for thecountrytoescapeitsfinancialcrisis.

AsdemonstratedbythecasesofPakistan and Sri Lanka, it’s clear that international financial institutions prey on vulnerable countries to trap them in a long-term dependency on those in the Global North. International financial institutions, like the IMF and the World Bank, are merely tools of economic imperialism and serve to accommodate only the interests of the Global North. These institutions simply operate under the guise of providing altruisticassistancetovulnerablecountries, byhavingthesecountriesbecomeindebted totheminaseeminglyindefiniteway.Even though gunpowder isn't bombarding Pakistani soil and the smell of sulfur no longer permeates Pakistani air, the economicpoliciespushedbyIFIsreekofa smell that is wildly familiar to its people: imperialism

.Why This Brazilian Policy Could Shake. .Up Environmental and Trade Efforts..

by:AlexanderEzquerra

A common provision in trade agreements, known as Investor State DisputeSettlement(ISDS),isimpedingthe international fight for social and climate justice. Despite ISDS provisions becoming central to investment protection and trade agreements over the last 30 years, there has not been sufficient reporting on their impact. Brazil, despite minimal coverage, has a unique position on ISDS arbitration and as the largest economy in Latin America, serves as a possible case study forareasonablepolicyalternative.ISDSis an arbitration mechanism which allows investors to sue national governments if they feel that the government has broken conditionsthatitagreedtouphold.Whena foreign investor sues a government under an ISDS clause the case goes to an arbitration tribunal made up of one judge appointed

appointedbyeachpartyandathirdagreed upon by both actors. Often these tribunals cost millions in litigation costs and if the investor wins, the government is forced to pay for all sunk costs as well as possible futureprofits,leadingtopayoutswhichcut into funds that could have been allocated elsewhere. The legal actors involved in ISDSoftenhavefinancialincentivestorule infavourofinvestors,astheselawyersand professors who serve as arbitrators are being paid millions in legal fees. ISDS, therefore, is a process which completely skewsinfavourofinvestorsattheexpense ofgovernmentsandcommunities.

Sinceitsintroduction,ISDShasactedasa barriertosocialandenvironmentalreform. Firstly,thecaseofVattenfallv.Germanyis animportantcaseforeveryoneseekingto promote

The National Congress of Brazil. Ramon Buçard (via Unsplash).

The case was between a Swedish energy firm and the German government and arose after the government delayed permitsforacoalplantaftersettingenergy regulations informed by an international panel on climate change. Rather than follow environmental regulations, the firm launched an ISDS claim against Germany totalling $1.9 billion. To avoid an ISDS arbitration, the government reached a settlement with the company which saw environmental regulations dropped, the firm’scommitmenttoavoidimpactinglocal waterrevokedandanundisclosedfinancial settlement funded by German taxpayers. Social policy is also endangered by ISDS, as the case between Phillip Morris and Australia displays. This case was initiated by Phillip Morris after the Australian government imposed plain packing for all tobacco products to discourage smoking. To initiate the tribunal, Phillip Morris sued under the ISDS clause between Hong Kong and Australia, despite the company being Swiss, they used their Hong Kong branch to launch the claim. The case, luckily, was struck down on these legal grounds,however,thisdoesnotmeanthat thefirmdidnotprofitfromtheevent.Dueto the case, other countries like Namibia, Togo and New Zealand halted similar anti-smoking regulations in fear of the possible financial costs of a lengthy court case. These 2 cases alone demonstrate how far-reaching and disastrous ISDS clauses can be as governments are influenced by the threat of ISDS while writinglegislation.

Brazil’s rejection of the arbitration mechanism

mechanism and innovative model for investment agreements in the future presentsaviablesolutiontoISDSandthe barriers it imposes on social and environmental reform. The first ISDS treatiesweresignedinthe1960sprimarily between colonial powers and newly independent countries to ensure that investors from the ex-colonial ruler were protected.

ISDS clauses had limited growth, until the 1990s and 2000s when the United States workedtolinktradeandISDSbyincluding ISDS chapters in bilateral investment treaties (BITs) and within larger free trade agreements like NAFTA. This link led to ISDS clauses being implemented in over 3000 agreements signed by nearly all countries involved in trade. Governments adoptingISDSthoughttheysimplyagreed to a trade protection mechanism that fosters foreign investment and breeds economicgrowth.Brazil,followingthetrend ofthe1990sandearly2000s,signedBITs with ISDS provisions. However, the government never ratified the agreements becausetheISDSchapterwasfoundtobe incompatible with Brazil's constitution. Since then, the government has never signed an agreement containing an ISDS clause. The Brazilian case disproves the central defence of ISDS, as despite Brazil being one of the few developing countries to not sign an agreement with an ISDS clause, it has not had difficulty attracting FDI as Brazil was the sixth highest recipientofFDIasrecentlyas2020.

DespiteBrazil’sexperienceorlackof,with ISDS being important for assessing the viabilityandrationaleofISDS,itlargelyhas has

gone ignored. Brazil, as an alternative to ISDS, has established a new model for investment agreements which instead of focusing on investor protection and arbitration, focuses on promoting state-to-state cooperation and shifting publicdebateaboutISDS.

Thisnewmodelestablishesobligationsand responsibilities for investors, unlike traditional investment agreements. Brazil’s approach to ISDS could have a global impact. Firstly, developing countries have consistentlybeenlimitedbyISDStoenact regulations which would benefit their citizens. Notably, the threat of a foreign investor seeking arbitration has halted manypolicieswhichpromotesocialchange andenvironmentalprotection.Scholarscall this effect a ‘regulatory chill’, from anti-smoking policy in New Zealand to environmentalpolicyinMexico,thischilling effects policymakers globally. This combinedwiththelargesumsusedtopay for arbitration and settlements, which can reach billions of dollars depending on the case, greatly limits the government's capacity to enact necessary reforms. Brazil’s approach has had some limited influencealreadywithinothergovernments critical of ISDS, but the true global impact of Brazil’s model could be realized in the coming years as the arbitration system is hopefullytransformed.

The relevance of Brazil’s policy approach toISDScanbeseenwithinaninternational context of climate change and sustainable development. The limitations on government action and the unequal power relations which ISDS produces will paralyze the fight against climate change, and

and Brazil’s policy of scrapping ISDS is necessary for climate justice. Achieving a green economic transition and legislating theclimatepolicywillfacemajorresistance fromISDS.Fossilfuelcompaniesandother investors under ISDS have and will continue to sue governments that enact environmental/social protection. An ambitious commitment against climate change will be thwarted unless countries follow the Brazilian case and terminate investment treaties with ISDS clauses. Brazil is key to the future of international climate policy as it is proof for other developing countries that foreign investment will not disappear if no ISDS clauseissignedbythehostcountry.

Despite the uninspiring condition of ISDS debate within the global trade regime currently, Brazil represents an alternative possibility and a starting point for a critical examination of ISDS’s future in trade law. Not only does the peculiar case of Brazil dismantle dominant thinking about ISDS but it provides a path for the international trade community which promotes climate justiceratherthancorporatepower.Brazil's continued economic development over the last30yearsdemonstratesthatarejection of ISDS is both economically viable and environmentallynecessary.

.

OceanAcidification: The Chemical. .Changing of Our World..

by:SydneyRobinson

Ocean acidification will have one of the most damaging effects on marine life and human health, and it is not being addressedsufficiently.

Climate change is well known to be jeopardizing our planet's future. While states are collaborating to develop solutions that can be implemented in society, much of the media and government action ignores certain aspects of our changing ecosystem. One of these examples is ocean acidification. Many socialandpoliticalcampaignsarecentered on 'save the turtles' and switching to electric vehicles, emphasizing that carbon dioxide pollution is warming the earth. What is not discussed is the fact that carbondioxidepollutioniscurrentlyhaving a devastating impact on the chemical balance

balanceoftheocean.

Oceanacidificationisoccurringalloverthe world, and many European countries are already seeing the effects on marine life and human health, alongside the overall effectsofclimatechange.

Ocean acidity is typically supposed to be aroundapHof8.2,however,itdecreased to8.1throughouttheindustrialeraandhas sincedecreasedtoaround8.07today.This is caused by the influx of CO2 concentrations,resultingina30%spikein oceanic acidity. These changes in the chemicalbalanceoftheoceanarealready showing effects today. Within the northern seas in Europe, the Norwegian and Greenland seas have experienced significant decreases in pH compared to the

Coral reef with wildlife. Francesco Ungaro (via Unsplash).

theglobalaverage.Tostresshowimpactful this change is, the decrease in pH has occurred100timesfasterthananychange in acidity within the past 55 million years. This is unnatural and these statistical changes in pH will affect marine ecosystems,humanhealth,andworsenthe general effects of climate change within Europe.

Ocean acidification will have profound effectsonvarioussectorsoflife,beginning with marine ecosystems and human life. With the increasing acidity in oceans, the primary effect of this will be on marine life with shells and skeletons, as it makes it increasingly harder for these marine animals to build calcium carbonate. As a result, these animals will have less protectionfrompredatorsanddisease,the coralreefsthatvariousanimalsfeedonwill turnintorubble,andthenaturalphysiology of marine animals will be disrupted. This will have a particularly negative impact on coral reefs, whose regeneration will take millions of years rather than hundreds of years. This will eventually have an impact on human health, fishing industries, and worldwidestability.

Thesechemicalchangestothephysiology of marine life will have significant impacts on humans' relationships with these animals. There are various ways that ocean acidification can damage human health. Firstly, as the pH of the ocean decreases, the likelihood of malnutrition and poisoning increases. Ocean acidification will alter how marine life evolvesandmayaffectkeygrowthperiods. This has already been shown to have an effect on lipid and protein reduction in whelk

whelk species. These species are high in phytoplankton polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and omega-3 fatty acids, which are extremely beneficial to human health and have been shown to lower the risk of heart disease and create healthy blood circulation. Chemical pollution is another riskassociatedwithoceanacidification,as are humans consuming contaminated fish, whichisaprimaryproteinsourceformany Europeans.

Secondly, an additional effect on human healthisrelatedtopeople’svocationaland recreationalactivities.Thefishingsectoris oneofthebiggestsectorsintheworldand provides various individuals with jobs and economic gains. As the pH of the ocean decreases,fisherieswillstruggletobringin high-quality, uncontaminated fish, causing the fishing industry to suffer and many people to lose their jobs. Moreover, ocean-based recreational and exercise opportunities, such as swimming, snorkeling, fishing, and scuba diving will start disappearing. Limiting job opportunitiesorremovingthem,inaddition to fewer opportunities for outdoor ocean-based recreation can cause emotional distress for many individuals. Economic instabilities can cause great stress for individuals, coupled with limited ability to participate in these activities, which can lead to declines in mental well-being. Finally, there will be a scarcity of medicines derived from marine life and ecosystems.Theoceanisrichindiversity, which can aid in the development of medicinesandnaturalproductsthatbenefit human health. This shift in the chemical balanceofmarineecosystemsandanimals will limit scientists' ability to contribute to medicine

Overall, ocean acidification will have a significant influence on global climate change, especially within the continent of Europe. Conducted by researchers, there are nine planetary boundaries that, if crossed, could threaten human life, including ocean acidification, climate change,andozonedepletion.Asaresultof the anthropogenic influences thus far, the worldhasalreadypassedalmostfiveofthe planetary boundaries, with ocean acidification being the latest. Ocean acidification thresholds are already being crossed at regional levels, and many organisms are already reaching their tipping points. Ocean acidification in combination with these other planetary boundarieswillhavesignificantimpactson theworld.

Climate change is not something that is under the radar. It is constantly discussed in the twenty-first century, but topics such as ocean acidification do not receive enough attention. Given the potential and ongoing impacts on marine life, human health,andglobaleconomiesitshouldbea more prominent topic of discussion. The longer we wait for adequate intervention methods,theworsetheconsequenceswill be. There are already signs of marine life destruction and repercussions for human activity, which will only worsen over time especiallyifglobalattentionisnotfocused onit.

reefs, which are one of its biggest tourist attractions. Marine life is a key aspect of Australian nature, and increasing ocean acidification will have profound impacts on marineanimals.However,thiswillcontinue to fade away due to ocean acidification. Japan has a large fishing industry and seafood serves as the primary protein source for many individuals. Seafood like oysters, scallops, urchins, shrimps, and crabs are all at risk of chemical contamination and pollution from ocean acidification, which will have associated devastating consequences for Japan's fishing sector and economy. Currently, these three areas of the world are most vulnerable to ocean acidification, however, this number will only increase; particularly instatesresidingathigherlatitudes.

The risks associated with rising ocean acidification must be acknowledged. The chemicalchangesintheoceanarealready having a significant impact around the world, and many people are unaware of this.Theeffectsofoceanacidificationneed totransformintoawidelyknownissuethat nolongerswimsundertheradar.

Europeisnottheonlyplaceaffectedbythe increasingacidityintheocean.Japanand Australia are extremely affected by ocean acidification.Australiaisknownforitscoral reefs

.Climate Relocation in Fiji: Who Bears. .the Responsibility?.

by:IsobelAnderson

For the residents of the island nation of Fiji, the climate crisis means more than a headline. Located 1,800 miles east of Australia with over three hundred islands and home to nearly 1 million people, the population’s access to secure housing, food sources, and clean water is increasinglythreatenedasrisingsealevels and severe weather patterns reach a tipping point. Like other areas in the South-West Pacific, its ocean and surface temperatureshavetripledcomparedtothe global average rate. Severe cyclones regularly strike the area, with Cyclone Winston hitting Fiji in 2016, causing 44 fatalitiesandseveredamageresultingina loss of a third of the country’s GDP. The continual burning of fossil fuels only heats theplanet’ssurfacefurtherandtrapsmore moisture in the atmosphere, creating the perfect

perfect storm for increasingly devastating tropicalcyclones.

With the majority of its population occupying low-lying coastal communities, thethreatsofrisingsealevels,intensifying storm surges, and coastal erosion have alreadyforcedanumberofcommunitiesto relocate inland, making Fiji one of the first countriesintheSouthPacifictodoso.The government has created a comprehensive plan–theStandardOperatingProcedures forPlannedRelocations–thatoutlinesthe most pressing issue resulting from the climatecrisis:howtorelocatecommunities whosehomesarealready,orwillsoonbe, underwater.Atthispoint,thequestionisno longerwhetherrelocationisnecessary,but rather,howtomanageiteffectively. promote

A group of people swim next to a coastal home in Fiji. Arie Oldman (via Unsplash).

Fiji’s government does not have the capacitytofundtheprojectsindependently, with their GDP down 20% after the COVID-19 pandemic shut down the country’smainsourceofrevenue,tourism, overnight.However,theneedforfundingis only increasing. As Sayed-Khaiyum, Fiji’s MinisterfortheEconomy,laidout,“65%of the population of Fiji lives within 5 kilometers of the shoreline. That’s a lot of people… You’re going to have a lot more peoplelivingintheinterior.”

Through innovative solutions to locate funding, the government imposed the world’sfirstrelocationtrustfundforpeople displacedbyclimatechange.Thoughseed fundingwassourcedfromtaxesonhotels, restaurants, and civilian incomes, the Prime Minister stated at the 2019 UN generalassemblythat“thisisnotenough”, andthatforFiji’srelocationtrustfundtobe successful, it would require the support of international partners. While New Zealand madethefirstdonationof$2milliontothe fundin2020,otherglobalpowershavenot yetmadethefinancialleap.

China, the United States, and India contributed 44.6% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2021. While the onus of climate responsibility ought to fall upon these major powers, Fiji and other island nationshavefoundthemselvesbearingthe bruntofitsdisastrousconsequences.With the world far off-track from its collectively established global warming limits, Fiji and other Pacific Island nations say that wealthier countries should pay for the inevitable‘lossanddamage’theywill,and already have, experienced to their countries’ infrastructure, communities, and well

well-being.

Money was a major talking point at the COP27climatenegotiationsthattookplace in Egypt in November, 2022. As world powers face their own economic turmoil, including inflation, potential recession, and energyshortagesfromRussia’sinvasionof Ukraine, strong commitments to climate compensation have become increasingly unlikely. While the climate summit establishedanagreementtocreatea‘loss and damage’ fund last November, there was a notable lack of detail regarding wherethemoneywouldcomefromorhow thefundswouldbedistributed.

A committee tasked with delineating the technicalities of the funding, made up of representatives from both developing and developedcountries,helditsfirstthree-day meeting in March, 2023 in Luxor, Egypt. While the talks did not cover contentious issues of finance sourcing and project details, delegates apparently made progress towards finding common ground on the fund’s implementation, said Mohamed Nasr, Egypt’s lead climate negotiator.Thisprocess,whilerepresenting progress, is far too slow, with ongoing negotiations lacking a clear decision-making mandate to protect the human lives and rights of South Pacific Island citizens. A lack of effective enforcement mechanisms, inconsistent international cooperation, and the prioritization of economic competitiveness has put countries on a frustrating cycle of grandpromiseswithlittleconcreteaction.

The way forward in supporting countries who are on the frontlines of the climate crisis

crisisisuncertain,withendlesspoliticaland economic considerations that have to be made. First and foremost, extensive international cooperation is required, alongsideanurgencythathasnotyetbeen displayed by wealthy countries. The ‘loss and damage’ fund does represent a possible avenue through which global awareness and progress can be made to providingclimatecompensationforFijiand other at-risk countries. Until that approach isimplementedandcountriesarereceiving financing, effective and realistic short-term solutionsarerequiredintheinterim.Some support could be drawn from existing humanitarian aid networks. Many at-risk countrieshavealreadyacquiredsignificant debt after major climate disasters forced them to take on international loan payments to rebuild their communities. Countries could have their international loans forgiven if they were used in responsetoaclimatecrisis,allowingfunds that would have been used in debt repayment to be reallocated to the development of locally based climate responses, such as the construction of seawallsforcoastaldefense.

“Many of these countries are burdened by debt,” says U.S. special climate envoy John Kerry. “They are greatly impacted by whathappenswithrespecttothecrisis,the climate.Andthentheyturnaroundandthe west or the north offers them more debt. Thatisn’tgoingtowork.”

While communities can relocate and rebuild,muchofwhathasbeenlostcannot be regained. In Fiji, communities who are forced to relocate have to make the impossibledecisionofeitherleavingbehind behind

thebonesoflovedones,orexhumingthem andtakingthemtotheirnewhome.Either choice is deeply traumatic. The deep connection between many Pacific Island communitiesandtheirtraditionallandsand seascapes has made relocation efforts especially complex. Culture, languages, andpracticesareoftenintertwinedwiththe natural environment and its resources. Relocating communities to new locations candisrupttheirtraditions,knowledge,and practices, leading to a loss of cultural identityandheritage.

“Pacific people are still deeply spiritual… and deeply connected to the land,” said NetaniRikafromthePacificConferenceof Churches (PCC). “It is the land God gave your forefathers and your forefathers have given to you, and now if you are moving away,it’sasignalmostthatyouaregiving uponyourresponsibility.”

Any efforts to address climate-induced displacementmustconsidertheimportance of land connections. This may involve providing support for the preservation and restoration of cultural landscapes, traditional ecological knowledge, and supporting community-led decision-making processes.

Unfortunately, Fiji’s uncertain path forward is only the beginning. As temperatures continue to warm and sea levels continue to rise, forced climate migration will become the reality for coastal nations around the world. While the financing of relocation funds is a pressing and necessary issue, it is only a band-aid solution to climate change’s long-term consequences.Ifworldleaderscontinueto

fail in protecting our planet’s delicate ecosystem, more countries around the globe must face the disastrous consequences of climate change and will be forced to reckon with the role they playedinitsadvancement.

.

Who Should Pay For Climate Change?..

by:VictoriaSampson

The climate crisis has fallen victim to the hyperactivity of global affairs in recent years.Climatechangehasbeenrepeatedly bumpeddownthelistofto-dosinfavourof more immediate calamities – first, it was COVID-19, and now the Russia-Ukraine War.Intheirwake,littleenergywasleftfor reinforcingwide-scalesustainablepractices orrepairingexistingclimatedamage.

Numerous countries and organizations havetakenadvantageofthe“biggerfishto fry” mentality and have been focusing efforts elsewhere. In some cases this may beavaliddigression,butforothersthereis no compelling justification. Whether the pauseindialogueissimplyaby-productof tunnelvision,oritiswithegoisticintentions to preserve resources, climate silence is a disadvantageous practice for every disadvantageous

country.

Every country in the world is an equal stakeholder in environmental health. It is developing countries, however, that are facing the immediate repercussions of climate change. Though environmental disastersarenotbiasedtosocio-economic status, countries found lower on the GDP scale do not possess the resources to mitigate climate damage or to resurrect affected areas once the damage is done. Wealthiernationsappearrelativelystronger in the face of floods, hurricanes, droughts etc. because they have the ability to bouncebackquicker.

The paradox, though already evident, is that wealthier countries often derive their primary exports which is the cause of a primary

A beach in Malawi. Maria Zardoya (via Unsplash).

higher GDP, through commodities reliant on the environment. The sustainability of our planet is in the interest of every country, but for those driven by profit it should possess even more mental capital in the minds of governments, but unfortunately, it does not. Instead, developing countries are burdened with weaker political and economic structures, as well as increased vulnerability to environmentalcrises.

Malawi,asmallcountryinsouthernAfrica, experienced torrential flooding in March caused by warming temperatures. UnusuallyheavyrainfallinMalawiresulted in over 400 deaths, the destruction of villages, and another hit to the already decliningeconomy.Climatechangetooka tollontheregionwhichisenhancedbyits inability to independently recover; unlike othercountries,Malawiisnotself-sufficient enough to remedy the damage devoid of external aid, leaving it in a state of emergency.

In November of last year, an agreement between200nationswasmanufacturedto tendtothisexactpredicamentattheUnited Nations Climate Conference. At this conference,afundwaserectedtoprovide financial help to developing nations most impacted by climate change, called the ‘loss and damage’fund. This was the first instance of donations being collected with the intention to use them in rebuilding communities devastated by natural disasters, and Malawi was the first recipient. Though money has been funnelled to target areas vulnerable to climate damage in the past, compensation after the fact has seldom been a consideration

consideration. Unfortunately, the intentions behind the loss and damage fund did not translate well into practice, and Malawi remains independent in the triumph of receivingclimatejustice.

Wealthy nations pledged to contribute millions of dollars to this cause but their philanthropic promise fell short in the fine print. 71% of the funding provided by contributing nations was delivered in the form of a loan rather than a grant. While themoneyimmediatelysatisfiesacountry's struggles, it only ends up adding to the debt burden that riddles many of the potentialrecipients.MalawianVillageChief Isaac Mambundungu said he had no choice but to lead his people to relocate after water destroyed every home in their area. When relocated, the village was met with infertile land and since it was estimated that approximately 80% of peopleinMalawiliveandworkofftheland by growing maize, the community was left inextremepovertyandwithfoodinsecurity. It is insensitive at best, to add repaying a loan to this list of financial burdens that exist in, already struggling and now environmentallytraumatized,areas.

While the efforts derived from the UN Conference, may be a symbol of acknowledgementthatpoorernationshave been disproportionately responsible for climate damage, symbolism appears to be theextentofitsaccomplishments.

One positive exchange did come from the loss and damage fund however; Scotland was the first nation of the 200 to make a direct payment. The Scottish government has pledged seven billion pounds to the has

fund,andfromthat,hundredsofthousands wenttoMalawi-TheissueisthatScotland hasbeentheonlynationtofollowthrough on the agreement made this past November. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, not only are the monetary promises from the conference not being met – but, the countries in need have collectively agreed that the initial projections were too low to begin with. From this conclusion emerges the obvious question of, why have none of the other 199nationsfollowedthrough?

The last few years have seen an unprecedentedabundanceofglobalunrest intheformofmilitary,politicalandmedical emergencies. After sending support in various forms to Ukraine and affected nations,itispossiblethattherewasalack ofresourceslefttodistributeelsewhere.Or perhaps, domestic security concerns trumpedthepromisesmadetointernational organizations in the interest of climate change. Though either rationale may be justified for some nations, it is inconceivabletopositthatitisubiquitously applicable,especiallyforthosethatremain financiallystable.

Norway is an example of a country that is financially stable and has actually been thriving in the face of global calamities. It profited immensely off of the Russian-Ukrainewar,yetfailedtomeetthe quota of donations that they promised to contributetothelossanddamagefundas a UN member state. Norway acquired a largesumofincomefrombecomingoneof Europe’s primary sources for oil, after sanctionsonRussiacuttheexistingsupply sanctions

tomostofthecontinent.Ittookmonthsfor the government to send adequate aid to Ukraine,andisstillunderperforminginthe name of climate change. What transcends thisparadoxmostofall,isthatthemethod of oil extraction used in Norway is extremely harmful to the environment. Wouldthisnotgenerateamoresignificant obligation to at least donate some of this excessincometoacausesuchastheloss anddamagefund?

While it may not be immediately lucrative for a government to prioritize the climate crisis,itisindubitablybeneficialinthelong run. Currently, Norway is among the top European countries ranked by GDP per capita, but what happens when its most profitableexportindustry,whichreliesona healthy ocean life, collapses because of climate damage? Next to oil, the country depends on its fisheries to generate income, but this might become an unreliable source if wealthier nations (Norway included) do not address climate change. The same contrasting logic is appliedfrequentlyamongwealthycounties: relying on the environment to provide profitableresources,yetdestroyingitinthe process.

Pouring money into COVID-19 and the Russia-Ukraine War may have been inevitable, but if the wealthier nations are truly profit-driven, as it appears they are, investing in the future of commodities and themitigationofclimatedamageseemsto bethesmartermove.NorwayandScotland represent the extremes within this crisis; hopefully, more will follow in the ethical footstepsofthelatter.Afterall,itshouldbe the wealthy countries that pay for climate should

.More Than Just a Game.

by:SylviaKathirkamanathan

The FIFA World Cup 2022 was an event that garnered the attention of millions of people around the world to show their national pride, celebrate their love for soccer, or even just wait to see the Brazilian team do their signature post-goal dance. These games brought people and societiestogethertobondoveracommon interest, which is a beautiful thing. Yet, what goes overlooked is the human cost behindthesegames,especiallytheimpact on migrant workers who constructed the facilities.FIFAandtheQatarigovernment’s ignoranceandabuseofmigrantworkersfor thesakeoftheWorldCupareinexcusable and needs great action to make things right.

Labourexploitationhasbeenamajorissue in Qatar for over a decade before the country

countrywasannouncedasthehostofthe World Cup, primarily due to the kafala system. The kafala system is a legal framework found in Gulf Cooperation Council countries such as Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar to define foreign labourer-to-employer relations. In this system, local or company employers can sponsor foreign labourers and cover the costoftravelandhousingforthemtowork. Many of the executions of this framework are under the jurisdiction of interior ministries as opposed to labour ministries, thusthelabourersarenotprotectedbythe labour laws of the country they enter for work. This allows sponsors to exploit labourers since they are in control of whether these labourers can renew their employmentorresidencyvisas.Becauseof this power imbalance, employers can leverage

Migrant workers dig into a field. International Labour Organization (via Flickr).

leverage the amount and timing for workers’ payments, working conditions, andotherfactors.

In November 2017, the government of Qatar signed the United Nations International Labor Organization agreement, which was an agreement to target labour exploitation to match international standards of labour laws and promote labour reform. The goal of the agreement was to deconstruct the kafala system, advocate for worker, promote workplace health and safety, and reform the pay and recruitment processes. Some improvements made since then include passing domestic worker laws, hiring labour dispute committees, and implementing worker insurance. They also abolished the exit permit, allowing migrant workerstoleaveQatarwithouttheneeding employer permission, and the no-objection certificate,whichallowsmigrantworkersto get a new job with minimum wage without fearofpunishmentfromformeremployers. Despitethisisprogressonpaper,poorlaw enforcementandimplementationareatthe root of the issue and are the reasons why thousands of migrant and domestic workers continue to be exploited and abused.

AfterQatarwasannouncedtobethehost of the 2022 FIFA World Cup, the Qatari government spent around $300 billion to turn the capital city of Doha into a prime location for the games and the tourism to come,requiringmillionsofmigrantworkers over the last 12 years. Notably, Qatar’s population increased by roughly 40% after theWorldCupwasannouncedbecauseof thedemandforconstructionworkerstoset up

upforthesegames.Migrantworkerswere forced to work unethically long hours, in dangerous working environments, and while enduring prolonged heat exposure, putting them at risk of falling ill and being injuredinaccidents.Itisreportedthatthey werethreatenedfortakingbreaks,housed in inhumane conditions, not given medical care, and not given nutritious food. Becauseofthis,itisestimatedthat400to 500 workers died in the construction process, with human rights organizations estimatingnumbersinthethousands.This also resulted in many migrant workers needing to return home to tend to their conditions from working in Qatar. The Qatari government failed to properly investigatethesedeathsandconditionsby mislabelling them as natural deaths or simply cardiac issues, preventing their families from seeking compensation for work-relateddeathorinjuries.

InthewakeoftheFIFAWorldCup,closeto 20,000workerswerehiredbytheSupreme Committee for Delivery and Legacy for workingtosetupthegamesinadditionto the migrant workers in June 2020. This committeewassupposedtoensurestricter labour standards and protection via the Workers Welfare Standards for ethical recruitment, payment, and abolishment of forced labour to improve workers’ working and living conditions. Again, poor enforcement resulted in the company failingtopaysalariesforseveralmonthsof labour by Qatar Meta Boats, failure to review resistance permits, and such forth, thus feeding into the abuse of migrant workerscrisisinQatar.

FIFAclaimsthattheywereunawareofthe concerns

concerns with Qatar Meta Coats until May 2020duetoalackofroutinenotificationon these cases and that they trusted the Supreme Committee to support workers’ rights. This shows FIFA’s habit of overlooking human rights and migrant worker abuse in order to execute these international games. Unless FIFA takes responsibility and issues a system to monitor FIFA-related labour in order to enforce labour standards in the host countriestheyselect,migrantworkerabuse suchasthatinQatarwillcontinuetogoon, and such issues will continue to go unnoticed and buried by their international audience for the sake of money and publicity.

Afterimmenseglobalbacklashagainstthe Qatari government and FIFA for the treatmentofmigrantworkers,theEuropean Parliament voted to make FIFA compensate the families of the deceased migrant workers from the World Cup building process. Additionally, Human Rights Watch demands at least $440 millionforthemigrantworkers’familiesfor FIFA,whichistheprizemoneyforwinning theWorldCup.

Itisactions,orlackofactions,likethisthat show what corporations and people are willingtooverlookandexcuseforthesake of profit. FIFA clearly values the revenue andfamegarneredbytheWorldCupover ensuring those putting their lives at risk to bringthesegamestofruitionareprotected. Theirclaimsofignoranceareunbelievable considering how large and resource-rich the company is. By choosing Qatar as a hosting country, FIFA must have either known about the history of migrant worker known

abuseinthecountryandchosetoignoreit orshouldhaveensuredworkersinvolvedin building the World Cup games were not exploited. It shows a lack of morals and humanity from FIFA and the Qatari government. The Qatari government's kafalasystemreformworkisnothingmore than performative; policy and laws without enforcement are just words and that is something these migrant worker abusers knowandcontinuetopractice.

I have grown up watching the FIFAWorld Cup every four years with friends and family. I found immense joy in keeping up withthesegamesandfeelingconnectedto people around the world over a shared interest.AfterlearningabouthowFIFAand the Qatari government treat migrant workers,IaminclinedtoboycotttheWorld Cupandwouldhopeothersfeelthesame way. FIFA needs to get involved in the treatmentofworkersfortheirgamesifthey are going to yield the decision of what countries will host the games. It is not as simpleaspassingabatontoagovernment andhavingfingerscrossedthattheygetit done ethically. We need to hold corporationslikeFIFAaccountablefortheir decisions and lack of actions if they are going to continue to host their games and havesuchamassiveinternationalimpact.

.The Formula 1 SaudiArabia Grand Prix is. .a Prime Example of Sports-Washing: But. .What is Sports-Washing and Will It Work?..

by:MeghanHembruff

Whenthelightsgooutandtherace gets underway at the Saudi Arabian Formula One Grand Prix in a couple of weeks, a globalaudienceofcloseto100millionwill be tuning in to witness the high speed overtakes, wheel-to-wheel action, and of course, the champagne podium celebrations. What was once a sport marked by exclusivity and illustrious glamour has, in recent years, gained popularity among young viewers and penetrated the North American market, makingitoneofthemostwatchedsportsin the world. Only the biggest international events like the World Cup and the Olympics exceed Formula One in viewershipandglobalprevalence.

This increased international reception createsnewopportunitiesforFormulaOne organizers

organisers profiting from Saudi autocrats. TheGrandPrixisalsoawelcomesightfor theSaudiregime,whichhasbeenaccused ofusingtheeventasapoliticalplatformfor drawing the international community's attention away from its numerous human-rights abuses and oppressive treatmentofmigrantworkers.

FormulaOne'spresenceincountrieswitha substandard record on human-rights is nothing new. The sport has been competinginBahrainsince2004,acountry which has been described by Human Rights Watch as "dismal". However, the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, perhaps for the firsttimeinsportshistory,compelledglobal audiences to realise that international sporting events are deliberately being manipulated to conceal inequalities or wrongdoings

Sebastian Vettel at the US Grand Prix in 2017. Dave Wilson (via Dave Wilson Photography).

wrongdoings. The term 'sports-washing' was employed to describe the situation in Qatar and refers to the ways in which a stateinvestsinsportingeventstopromote itsreputationonaglobalstageanddeflect attention away from negative perceptions ofitsactionsandinstitutionalframeworks.. It is seen as a form of 'soft power', where thestateappealstointernationalaudiences tocounteractitsunfavourablereputation.

While the current media landscape is vast and fragmented, large sporting events like the World Cup or the Formula One Grand Prix serve as the most viable opportunity from a marketing perspective to reach international audiences. This makes sport attractivetocorporationslookingtomarket theirproductstointernationalaudiencesas well as states looking to improve their reputationontheglobalstage.Indeed,the recent adoption of the term 'sports-washing' provides us with a critical lensforanalysingtheethicsofinternational sporting events taking place in countries with recorded human rights abuses. Moreover, the newfound terminology and heightened awareness means that incidentsthatmighthavegoneunnoticedin the past are ever more at the forefront of conversationsinthesportingworld,andfor goodreason.

The Saudi Arabian Grand Prix is a prime exampleof'sportswashing'.InMarch2021, human rights organization Grant Liberty estimatedthatSaudiArabiahasinvestedat least $1.5 billion on 'sports washing' activities. In 2020, Saudi state-owned oil company Aramco announced its sponsorship of the Aston Martin Formula One

One team as well as Formula One races. In-person attendees or those watching the race from abroad are familiar with the numerous Aramco advertisements lining thebarriersalongthetrackthroughoutthe season.Ahead of the 2020 SaudiArabian Grand Prix, Prince Khalid bin Sultan Al Faisal, president of the Saudi Automobile and Motorcycle Federation stated, “I firmly believe the Saudi Arabian Grand Prix will be the biggest sports event hosted in our country’s history and has the potential to change lives, perceptions and reach new audiences and communities like never before."

Many have expressed concerns or disapproval of Formula One's continued involvement with Saudi Arabia including BritishMPs,sportsjournalists,socialmedia activists, human rights organizations, and even the drivers themselves. In light of a January2022UNreportclassifyingcertain actions taken by the Saudi regime, particularly the execution of minors, as violations of international law, Mercedes driverandeight-timeworldchampionLewis Hamilton spoke critically of Formula One's decisiontoraceinSaudiArabia.

Despite the overwhelming backlash, there remains a significant group of supporters that argue Saudi Arabia's 'sports-washing' does not pose a serious enough threat to warrant cancelling the upcoming Grand Prix. Furthermore, some argue that the Saudi's attempt at 'sports-washing' does not succeed at improving its international reputation or drawing attention away from its human-rights issues. When the chequered flag waves marking the end of the

theraceandweallturnoffourdevices,will Saudi Arabia really have improved its geopolitical position and successfully swayed audiences by this glamorous demonstrationofwealthandprestige?

Mostlikelythiswillnotbethecase.Rather, some have argued that international sporting events draw attention to ongoing conflict and human-rights concerns. Qatar mistreated its migrant worker population longbeforethe2022WorldCup,butmost of us were only made aware of this situation because the World Cup cast a lightonQatar.Ithasalsobeensuggested thatthepresenceofinternationalsportsin countries like Saudi Arabia creates an opportunity for a counter-hegemonic movement. For example, at last year's Saudi Arabian Grand Prix, Aston Martin driver Sebastian Vettel invited a group of Saudi women to drive a few laps around the track - a direct political statement against the Saudi regime's previous ban against women driving and its continued mistreatmentofwomen.

In this way, international sporting associations, like Formula One, could leverage their relationship with the Saudi regimetospeakoutagainstinjusticesand demand reform. Formula One maintains that they have strict regulations in place that demand certain conditions are met of theirpartners.ThefactthatSaudiArabiais engagingin'sports-washing'isnotalonea sufficient reason for Formula One to not racethere.Ifthatwerethecase,wewould havetoensureourcriticismisnotlimitedto a narrow range of non-western actors and beequallyscepticalofeventslikethe2012 London Olympics, which can be argued was

wasanattemptbyaformerimperialpower to improve its international reputation and deflect attention away from its colonial history. We need to work beyond mere labels like 'sportswashing' and closely analyse whether the relationship between Saudi Arabia and Formula One has the potential to create positive change or whether this attempt at diverting attention away from the state's injustices is contributing to further corruption and oppression.

Thequestionremains:shouldFormulaOne continuecompetinginSaudiArabia?It'sa multifaceted argument that has strong points on both sides. However, if sporting events like the Formula One Grand Prix continue to take place in countries with known human-rights violations, the organisersneedtotaketherequiredsteps to improve their terms and regulations in ordertoensuretheyarenotcontributingto or allowing further injustice. If this cannot bedonethenitwillonlyconfirmsuspicions thattheyareonlyinitforthemoney,which would be a rather devastating realisation for the future of not just Formula One, but internationalsportasawhole.