Pathways for Play

Best Practice Guidelines

Infusing play into pathway networks to encourage active lifestyles for children, families, and communities

Proudly Sponsored By:

Advisory Committee

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Roger Bell Vice-Chair, American Trails; Retired Owner, Bellfree Trail Contractors; Board Member, Professional Trailbuilder’s Association

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

Research, documentation and manuscript preparation by the Natural Learning Initiative:

Robin Moore, Dipl.Arch., MCP, ASLA, author

Adina Cox, BLA, MNR, ASLA, Research Assistant

Brad Bieber, MLA, ASLA, Design Associate

Nilda Cosco, PhD, ASLA, Education Specialist

Julie Murphy, MLA, ASLA, Design Associate

PlayCore representatives that have supported this initiative.

American Trails Advisory Committee members.

Others who have assisted, both individuals and organizations.

© 2010 PlayCore Wisconsin, Inc. and Natural Learning Initiative, College of Design, NC State University.

All rights reserved.

Pathways for Play is a trademark of PlayCore.

Suggested citation:

PlayCore and Natural Learning Initiative. 2010. PathwaysforPlay:BestPracticeGuidelines. Chattanooga, TN: PlayCore.

DISCLAIMER

The purpose of the Pathways for Play guidebook is to raise awareness and provide education about some considerations for incorporating play into trails and pathway networks; it is not to be considered as an all-inclusive resource. Please refer to the manufacturer specifications and safety warnings, which are supplied with playground equipment, and continue with normal safety inspections. Safety goes beyond these comments, requires common sense, and is specific to the pathway system involved. While our intent is to provide general resources for encouraging children and families to utilize trail systems, the authors, program sponsor, and advisory committee members disclaim any liability based upon information contained in this publication. Site owners are responsible to inspect, repair, and maintain all equipment and surfaces and manage site specific supervision sightlines, landscaping, and safety requirements.

The Natural Learning Initiative, PlayCore, and its divisions provide these comments as a public service in the interest of infusing play into pathways while advising of the restricted context in which it is given.

John R. Collins , Jr., PhD, Board Member, American Trails; Associate Professor, Department of Kinesiology, Health Promotion, and Recreation, University of North Texas

Chuck Flink , FASLA, President, Greenways Inc.

Marianne Fowler , 2nd Vice-Chair, American Trails; Vice-President of Federal Relations, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy

Pam Gluck , Executive Director, American Trails

Philip Grymes , Executive Director, Outdoor Chattanooga

Terry Hanson , Board Member, American Trails; Retired Project Manager, City of Redding Community Services; Independent Trails Contractor

Woody Keen Founder and Owner, Trail Dynamics LLC; President, Professional Trailbuilder’s Association

Scott Linnenburger , Board Member, American Trails; Principal, Kay-Linn Enterprises

Stuart Macdonald Advisory Board Member, American Trails; Manager, National Trails Training Partnership

Jim Meyer Founder and Executive Director, Trails4All

Candace Mitchell , Communications Coordinator, American Trails

Jennifer Rigby Board Member, American Trails; Founder, Acorn Naturalists; Director, The Acorn Group

Robert M. Searns AICP, Chair, American Trails; Founder and Owner, The Greenway Team

Sara Sundquist Program Coordinator, Safe Routes to School Program, Shasta County Public Health (CA); Program Coordinator, Healthy Shasta

Jim Wood Board Member, American Trails; Assistant Director, Florida Office of Greenways and Trails

1 Preface

2 Introduction

4 Background

6 Supporting Research

10 Benefits of Playful Pathways

- Extending play value

- Enabling health promotion

- Expanding inclusion

- Engaging with nature

- Reinforcing environmental literacy

- Walkable, bikeable community connectivity

- Growing community social capital

18 Case Example

- Hinshaw Greenway Cary, North Carolina

19 Infusing Play into Pathways

- Playing along the way

- Planning play pockets

- Assessing playful pathway potential

26 Case Study

- Riverpoint Park Chattanooga, Tennessee

28 Best Practice Design Principles

1. Infuse play and learning value into pathways

2. Create shared-use, inclusive pathways

3. Connect pathways to meaningful destinations

4. Locate pathways where children live

5. Apply appropriate themes

38 Case Study - South Creek Linear Park Springfield, Missouri

Introduction

All children need access to opportunities to activate, stimulate, and exercise their potential in mind, body, spirit, and social relations, including their creative abilities for understanding and transforming their inherited world. Pathways for Play is based on the belief that this multifaceted experiential life of the child is best supported by the rich natural diversity of the outdoors.

Olmsted is also credited with the first built example of a greenway (more like a linear park), the seven-mile “Emerald Necklace,” which started construction in 1878 to connect many of Boston’s prominent open spaces.

If you had the opportunity to go hiking with your family, friends, or youth group as a youngster, you can surely remember the smell of the trees, the texture of the natural ground surface underfoot, and the closeness of your family or peers as you played together and made discoveries along the way. Perhaps such trips were made by bicycle and covered a larger, more dramatic territory. Such lifelong memories reflect a rich childhood full of engaging, healthy activity.

Just a generation ago, the large majority of children found their own natural play spaces in the nearest city vacant lot, patch of woodland, or fenced backyard. Today, many children have lost easy access to natural play spaces due to urban sprawl, parental apprehension, perceptions of crime, and heavy street traffic. To confront these issues requires a paradigm shift in the way we design and re-design neighborhoods, intentionally taking into account promotion of children’s play and independent mobility – basic requirements for health promotion.1

This is not a new idea. In 1866 the concept of shared-use recreational pathways was launched by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux who conceived a network of wide, tree-lined avenues that would cut across the grid of Brooklyn and link its open spaces.2

The value of shared-use pathway networks is becoming recognized as a health promotion investment in municipal and county parks and open space systems3 but often they have tended to emphasize athletic, young adults as users, rather than children and families. Although most trail owners/operators include families and children in the description of core users they wish to attract, these populations represent a small proportion of actual users.4 In theory, pathway networks could at least be as interesting as urban parks because they provide family recreation opportunities for walking that are more interesting, quieter, and safer than city sidewalks. Adults interested in nature are more likely to find nature experiences along pathways.

PathwaysforPlay describes a new paradigm of traffic-protected, playful pathways connecting children’s homes to meaningful play destinations in the neighborhood and beyond. The main purpose of this publication is to advocate for children, youth, and families as pathway user groups and to demonstrate technically how this can be done to help dramatically increase use by infusing pathways with play value.

PathwaysforPlay is also an educational resource, designed to help professionals and community activists involved in planning, designing, and promoting playful pathways to increasingly make pathways more playful, usable, and attractive to children and families – in two possible ways: a) by upgrading existing systems, or b) by planning and designing new systems.

Pathways, trails, and linear parks have a long and highly respected lineage. In 1866, the prolific Frederick Law Olmsted (considered founder of landscape architecture in the United States) and partner Calvert Vaux (in 1858 they had collaborated on the design of Central Park) proposed a network of shared-use recreation pathways in Brooklyn. In 1878, construction began on Olmsted’s design for Boston’s Emerald Necklace - an interconnected mix of greenways, linear open spaces, and parks. (Above)

Our work is about our families, our friends, our kids, our future. We’ve finally figured out that our communities are living systems and that they have unique and important properties that must interrelate so they can thrive. When natural systems and built systems are in sync, they can begin to heal the damage done to our land and our culture and begin to regenerate our neighborhoods and communities.5

Rick Fedrizzi President and CEO Founding Chairman U.S. Green Building Council

Pathways for Play: Best Practice Guidelines

Courtesy of the National Park Service

Courtesy of Emerald Necklace Conservancy

Courtesy of the Frances Loeb Library, Harvard Graduate School of Design

Olmsted’s original drawing; (right) historic view of users of the broad pathway; (far right) the Emerald Necklace today, offering young cyclists a healthy ride and inumerable adventrues along a gently curving tread under mature shade trees, parallel to the watercourse on the left.

Background

The purpose of PathwaysforPlay is to integrate play – critical for children’s health, into walkable, bikeable, shared-use community pathway networks infused with “play pockets” providing opportunities for playing along the way.

In the last 40 years, the number of children and adolescents in the United States walking or bicycling to or from school has dropped from approximately half to fewer than 15%.6 Innovative pathway designs infused with play is a paradigm change that could increase children’s walking and biking habits by offering a network of intriguing linear play environments connecting children’s homes to playgrounds and other meaningful, daily life destinations.

The term pathway covers all forms of network infrastructure, including greenways, trails, and sidewalks, that are used by pedestrians and cyclists to move around urban/suburban neighborhoods and mixed use developments. A related, commonly-used term is shared-usepathway, which is a path designed to accommodate bi-directional mixed use, including pedestrians, bicyclists, joggers, in-line skaters, fitness walkers, people with dogs, strollers, and users of wheelchairs and other assistive devices. The term is also used for Safe Routes to School pathways that connect sidewalks and other active transportation segments. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Guide recommends a minimum tread width of 10 to 12 feet according to expected levels of use. Infusing play into pathway networks will encourage children’s playful, independent mobility – and create an everyday active lifestyle option for all family members.

The term playpocket covers all forms of spaces and facilities identifiable by children and caregivers as play environments integral to playful pathways. Play pockets may contain a mix of natural, living, and manufactured elements located on and linked by playful pathways. Play pockets may vary in size and complexity.

Trail and pathway building in locations ranging from city center to remote backcountry was galvanized nationwide in 1983 with passage of the National Trails System Act (NTSA). Today the system totals over 60,000 miles in all 50 states (longer than the Interstate Highway System) and includes 11 National Scenic Trails, 19 National Historic Trails, and more than 1,000 National Recreation Trails spanning over 11,000 miles in every state, Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico.7

The Rails-to-Trails Conservancy Urban Pathways Initiative makes trails available to children and families in inner-city neighborhoods across America. Where green space is scarce, these urban trails open up new worlds. You can exercise, run errands, meet your neighbors or just goof around after school. If you don’t have a yard and there isn’t a park nearby, the trail may be the only public space you have to enjoy and explore. Rarely does a strip of safe pavement become more meaningful…these pathways ensure that children everywhere—in rural, suburban, and urban communities—can experience the simple joy of riding their bikes and playing in a safe place.

Keith Laughlin CEO, Rails-to-Trails Conservancy

Contrasting development contexts include “greenfield” suburban development, which still accounts for the majority of new construction driven by population growth and lower land costs (and infrastructure government subsidies). On the other hand, “urban infill” options are increasing as the potential of “brownfield” and “greyfield” developments demonstrate the economic, social, and aesthetic possibilities for healing post-industrial landscapes. This latter development form typically involves varied stakeholders in existing communities trying to attract talented, discriminating workers by adding social value to the built environment. Health promoting, walkable, bikable environments are often part of the solution and typically result in interesting spaces woven into the surrounding land uses and building structures.

The two primary advocacy and technical assistance organizations promoting pathway and trail developments are American Trails, created in 1988 with the merging of two older organizations, and the Rails-to-Trails Conservancy, founded in 1986. Both organizations advocate use of pathways and trail systems by children and families.

The potential of converting rail rights-of-way to public pathways, supported by the “railbanking statute” of the NTSA, is dramatically reflected in the conversion to date of 1,600 miles to pathways (with more than 9,000 miles of right-of-way waiting to be built) throughout the country.

PathwaysforPlay will broaden the range of local community options for improving children’s access to nature. NatureGrounds, the companion program to PathwaysforPlay is already underway to naturalize thousands of playgrounds at parks and schools across America through intentional site design, using existing topography, and integrating plant material, such as trees, shrubs, and perennial flowering plants with manufactured play equipment.8 Playful pathway design will extend play-in-nature by creating attractive, playful routes for children and families.

PathwaysforPlay helps communities create networks of shared-use pathways, infused with play pockets, usable by all for healthy recreation and non-motorized transportation to connect meaningful destinations.

Supporting research

Today, although trails exist in city, suburb, and open country, it appears that only a small minority of children and families are actually using them. Pathway use by children and families is underrepresented in research and practice. Why, is unclear. Perhaps it is because previous generations took children’s independent mobility for granted. When children were out and about, they traveled on pathways of one kind or another, and no one thought much about it, except for high-traffic streets, which parents used to set boundary limits.9 However, a convincing case for deliberately re-activating the pathway idea can be made on the basis of requirements for healthy child development and related built environment requirements as well as historic precedent.

Spontaneous play

Spontaneous play (children playing together without direct adult intervention) is recognized by child development experts as a crucial aspect of healthy childhood.10 Ideally, it should happen outdoors where sufficient space is available. Play and physical activity have a critical role in protecting and supporting children’s health and well-being.11 In a commissioned report to the American Academy of Pediatrics, Dr. Kenneth Ginsberg, a leading pediatrician, wrote that “play…is essential to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children and youth.”12 The Academy recommendation reinforces the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) minimum recommendation of 60 minutes of daily moderate to vigorous physical activity for children.13

Outdoor physical activity and pathways u

When children are outdoors, they are more likely to be engaged in higher levels of physical activity.14 They are more fit than those who spend the majority of their time inside.15 In addition, children who play in natural areas also exhibit a statistically significant improvement in motor fitness with better coordination, balance, and agility.16

Pathways attract children’s physical activity. Studies conducted by the Natural Learning Initiative (NLI) in childcare centers, zoos, and parks consistently show pathways as high use settings supporting higher levels of energy expenditure by children.17 Cosco’s comparative study of three preschool outdoor environments showed that the site with a continuous, sinuous pathway and a mix of natural and manufactured components was the most active.18

Varied pathway use may result from differences in social and physical context, access conditions, and/or specific characteristics of the pathway tread and its immediate surroundings. Pathway planning and design factors such as these are under researched and inadequately understood even though trail development has been a national priority for almost 30 years. However, the dramatic rise in childhood obesity and related health issues linked to sedentary childhoods has forced a revaluation of the health and child development functions of outdoor play and the community infrastructures required to support them – including pathway networks. While specific pathway research related to children is lacking, it is possible to infer several potential impacts of pathway use.

Pathways can offer continuous exposure to natural processes for young users to explore. Insect life never fails to stimulate the curiosity of young children.

In contrast, a study that examined three rail-to-trail greenways located in Chicago, Los Angeles, and Dallas found that only 6% of trail users were under the age of 18 and only 2% were seniors.19 However, a recent study observed higher use levels for a winding, wooded pathway (Hinshaw Greenway), easily accessible from adjacent housing and connecting two neighborhood parks in Cary, North Carolina (see p.18). In this case, 30% of users were under 18 and 9% were seniors.20 Use by seniors is a relevant consideration because many seniors are grandparents, often with more time available to accompany children on pathway adventures. The success of the Hinshaw Greenway may be explained by comparing the intimate, leafy shade, and sinuous quality of its tread to the large scale “straight ahead” character of the three pathways in the earlier study, which may work well for adult cyclists but not for children.

Movement is essential to the healthy development of children while continuously exposing them to new experiences and learning opportunities.

Movement is a fundamental characteristic of children’s play and provides a special, multifunctional impact on cognitive development through several facets.

Proprioceptive describes movement of limbs connected to the rest of the body – a dancer’s sense of knowing where her or his arms and legs are and their intended contribution to the expressive gesture of the whole body.

Vestibular describes the body’s interaction with gravity and the pleasurable stimulation of the inner ear experienced as we swing, slide, or roll down a hill.

Kinesthetic describes movement through space, which is most relevant to pathway use; however, it is generally recognized that all three senses continuously work together.21

Range development is a further facet of movement, which describes the dynamic geography of a child’s experiential world expanding with maturity level.22

For infants and toddlers, play is continuous during waking hours. Play occurs wherever the child happens to be (home, childcare center, community) and in the care of parents or other caregivers (which may include older siblings).

As early childhood advances, children become both capable pedestrians and expert tricyclists as well as learning to ride two wheels. By primary grades, children are genetically programmed for independence and need play environments that support independent, spontaneous play –particularly outdoors, where sufficient space is available. Cognitively, children are still piecing together the geography of their daily territory, which may extend to sidewalk, cul-de-sac, interior courtyard or other close-to-home protected space. With parental help, children at this stage learn to judge speed and distance of moving traffic.

In the middle childhood years (approximately 8 to 12), children are sufficiently mature to rapidly extend their independent play territory away from home. At this age, access to extensive pathway systems, which parents perceive as being protected from traffic, is essential for range development and therefore neighborhood play.

Movement play lights up the brain and fosters learning, innovation, flexibility, adaptability, and resilience. These central aspects of human nature require movement to be fully realized.

Stuart Brown, MD23

Independent mobility u

In middle childhood, children move away from home to explore and understand the physical and cultural characteristics of their community, to have adventures in company of friends, to take developmentally appropriate risks, and to overcome the challenges of exploring and learning. Independent mobility is social and typically involves a peer group of siblings and/or friends – or at least a pair of “best friends.” Natural groupings may include a wide age range whereby children learn from each other. A single child rarely ventures out alone. Attentive parents realize this and understand that meaningful childhood adventures are shared, peer group experiences – recounted when back home to parents willing to listen.

Through play, the developmental drive of childhood is exercised to its full potential. Neighborhoods designed to serve children must offer meaningful destinations and safe routes linking them so that children’s curiosity and drive to play are freshly prompted each day.24 The Safe Routes to School program and related research have become a rich source of understanding about children’s independent mobility. Physical health benefits are clearly demonstrated.25 Playful pathway connections provide additional play opportunities especially on the way home “from” school when children have more time to “play along the way.”26

Reducing traffic danger u

Fast moving, dense traffic has become a major deterrent to independent mobility and neighborhood play. Fear of traffic is a primary reason why parents will not let their children roam outdoors,27 which is highly justified given the risk of injury in traffic environments.28 When asked, children themselves rank a safe traffic environment high as a dimension of child-friendly cities.29

Designing pathways that maximize both actual and perceived traffic safety can benefit all users. Actual danger can be reduced by built environment interventions in the pedestrian/traffic interface combining elements such as curb extensions, pedestrian refuges, and raised road surface grade platforms at pathway street crossings. Perceived danger can be reduced by effective social marketing of pathway improvements (pathway signage, media campaigns, school site publicity, direct promotion to parents, etc.).

Cost effectiveness of such interventions likely will be greater in school zones, where risk of trafficrelated injury is greater.30 Recent studies suggest that children are more likely to enjoy walking if traffic is reduced and if their neighborhood is green31 (the shady comfort and aesthetic effect of trees). Designing pathways to meet safety and “green” criteria may therefore increase playful pathway use by children, simultaneously decreasing school-related traffic, associated risk of injury, and the school’s carbon footprint. The multiple benefits of building safe, convenient, playful pathways in school zones will also increase physical activity and help parents feel more secure about their child’s safety. This same rationale could well be used to support playful pathways in neighborhood “park zones” to increase safe access.

Contact with nature u

Because of their linear form, playful pathways offer children opportunities for engaging with nature in a special kind of way to enjoy the many benefits well documented in the scientific literature.32

But quality natural play spaces are generally unavailable to today’s urban and suburban children and youth. Fortunately, there is a growing movement to connect children with nature launched with the publication of Richard Louv’s book, Last Child in the Woods 33 Currently, the movement has spawned more than 60 state and regional coalitions, passage of proclamations, executive orders, and legislation, and publication of numerous articles.34

Much of this activity demonstrates a demand for practical solutions to create close-at-hand natural play areas for children. For example, the strategic plan launched by the Maryland Partnership for Children in Nature, developed at the state governor’s request, calls for natural play areas in all communities in Maryland.35 A similar call is included in an executive order issued by the governor of Kansas.36

Connecting meaningful childhood destinations u

Growing research evidence supports an agenda promoting playful pathways interlinking home with play destinations and other meaningful childhood places such as schools, parks, playgrounds, sports facilities, community recreation centers, and local stores.37 Underscoring the importance of neighborhood destination connectivity for children, a recent study from Canada demonstrated that children living within a kilometer of parks containing playgrounds were five times more likely to have a healthy weight than children without a playground nearby.38

Other studies have shown that parks with paved trails are more likely to be used for physical activity by adults.39 These findings suggest that combinations of playgrounds and paved pathways are more likely to create healthy, fun filled, family-friendly active environments that will increase social interaction and therefore social capital, as well as provide destinations that connect people to nature.

Because they provide for routine, direct experience of nature close to home, greenways also enhance connectivity between people and nature—typically more so than other forms of greenspace—because of their linearity, high ratio of edge to interior area, and thus greater accessibility. This, of course, creates opportunities for recreation and the experience of aesthetic beauty, but also can have a more profound significance because bringing nature into people’s daily lives influences how they think about and experience their home environment.

Paul Hellmund and Daniel Smith40

u

Attracting adults (and accompanying children)

Although research on the use of pathways by children is limited, a number of studies related to pathway use by adults offer implications for children as well.41 We know that pathway characteristics that lead to higher use by adults include access to meaningful destinations, residence in shared-use neighborhoods, and pathways with mixed and open views –characteristics closely aligned to “prospect and refuge,” which children also enjoy. Incorporating these features, or locating new pathways with these features in mind, would encourage parental use and therefore would increase use by accompanying children.

As part of the new walking and biking infrastructures of cities and suburbs, pathways offer children independent mobility, playful exploration, discovery, learning, and enjoyment. Through play, which research has shown to be essential to healthy child development, children can experience and learn about the world around them on their own terms, in their own time and space, without the sometimes limiting presence of adults. However, studies have also shown that appreciation of environments can be deepened for the child in the company of a knowledgeable, caring adult with patience enough to move at a child’s pace, allowing time for leisurely investigation and discussion.

Connecting meaningful destinations such as playgrounds and parks is an important function of playful pathways. Residents of all ages can walk or bike to the park and explore its natural settings. Parents and children can play together in a space that is accessible to all.

If a child is to keep alive his inborn sense of wonder without any such gift from the fairies, he needs the companionship of at least one adult who can share it, rediscovering with him the joy, excitement and mystery of the world we live in.

Rachel Carson42

Independent mobility, away from traffic danger, is an essential factor in middle childhood, supporting a sense of autonomy and self-efficacy, enabling children to fully engage with their friends and community.

The benefits of playful pathway systems implied by the preceding research review suggest that playful systems offer benefits to children and families that may not be achieved by another means.

Multiple benefits include:

Extending play value

Extending the types of play (especially in the physical and socio-dramatic domain) afforded by a continuous, complex, linear space where nature is omnipresent.

Enabling health promotion

Enabling kids and families to get outdoors, enjoy the fresh air, and experience meaningful physical activity on foot, bicycle, or wheeled toys.

Expanding inclusion

Expanding possibilities for people of all abilities, ages, and backgrounds to engage in playful interactions with each other and their surroundings, which continuously afford play opportunities as children and other users move along.

Engaging with nature

Providing a multitude of opportunities for interacting playfully with a wide diversity of plants and animals through the seasons.

Two best friends head home on a traffic-free greenway, carrying soccer balls after an energetic game in the park. The curvy, undulating greenway tread is bordered by park no-mow zones, which add the sensory stimulation of native flowering plants and diverse insect life.

Reinforcing environmental literacy

Benefiting from the learning opportunities afforded by pathways integrated with a “green infrastructure” of stream and river corridors and vegetation patches,43 transecting local habitats, exposing natural and sociocultural history of former land uses.

Walkable, bikeable community connectivity

Encouraging nonmotorized travel from home to local recreational and cultural destinations, thereby reducing both traffic and the carbon footprint.

Growing community social capital

Bringing residents together through shared lifestyle experiences focused on children and a sense of building healthy communities together.

Extending play value

Play value is what children find by “reading” the play affordances of a play environment. If pathways offer play affordances at every step along the way, children will be motivated to keep moving –reinforced by play pockets at regular intervals. Playful pathway networks have the potential to spread play value through the neighborhood and beyond. Increased diversity of play value may support several developmental domains and increase inclusiveness by attracting a broader range of multi-age users than a conventional clustered playground.

Learning cognitive skills

The “richness and novelty” of being outdoors stimulates brain development.44 Research shows that direct, ongoing experiences with nature in relatively familiar settings remains a vital source for children’s physical, emotional, and intellectual development.45 Play creates a synergy between these outcomes in a process that helps children acquire an understanding of the world and how it works. The resulting cognitive skills grow and develop day by day as children continue to explore and discover phenomena in their expanding territorial range.

Building self-esteem

Children who spend time playing outside are more likely to take risks, seek adventure, develop self-confidence, and respect the value of nature.46 Outdoor recreation experiences like camping can improve children’s self-esteem.47 Children’s experience of green spaces outside the home can increase concentration, inhibit impulses, and improve self-discipline.48

“Self-efficacy” or “agency” describe the sense of being able to act on one’s environment and being in control of one’s own destiny. For children this means being able to take healthy risks, go on adventures, and solve problems by manipulating physical environments – preferably with others, to achieve a shared sense of accomplishment. Agency stimulates motivation, supports self-esteem and psychological health –the feeling of being in control of self and external events.49

Integrating the senses

Sensory integration, which is supported by children’s experience in multi-sensory rich environments, is critical to healthy child development. As sensory integration pioneer Jean Ayers says, “Intelligence is, in large part, the product of interaction with the environment.”50

u

Learning to live together

Pathway linear forms allow children to “go on adventures” together in their local area. Children can imagine they are explorers on a quest or safari. They love interesting terrain with natural objects to look at and clamber over. A small backpack can be used to hold interesting items gathered along the way. Family members can script an adventure together with masks and treasure maps, assign roles (actors, director) and film a movie “on location” as the pathway drama unfolds. Dramatic play scenarios facilitate collaboration as a group, enhance social skills, support emotional development, offer practice in working together to solve problems, and provide children a sense of collective achievement reinforcing self-esteem and competence in managing their own affairs.

As part of the pathway adventure, “hideouts” or “clubhouses” (provided by design or built by children themselves) offer space for rest and relaxation, play experiences with children from different families, and interaction with surrounding life forms. Opportunities to build these types of socio-emotional skills are essential to healthy, balanced development of individuals and sow the seeds for harmonious adulthoods that rise above differences in culture, religion, and ethnic origin.

Imagining a new world

At a time when creativity of American children is in decline, the need has never been greater to develop imagination and creativity, which are regarded as primary economic drivers in today’s rapidly changing world.51 Hannah Arendt evokes the fundamental need for each new generation to re-invent the inherited world to ensure that cultural evolution is relevant to the pace of change now facing global society.52

Enabling health promotion

PathwaysforPlay is offered as a resource to professionals and community advocates as a health promotion strategy for children, youth, and families, to counteract declining levels of children’s time outdoors and the negative health consequences for society. Over time, the health value will accrue to the whole community with multiple long-term benefits. Children’s health is declining because of poor diet and sedentary lifestyles. However, the CDC emphasis on daily physical activity means that the environment beyond school must be included in strategies to support children’s active lifestyles when not in school (the majority of time).

Health promotion is possible through the creation of networks of shared-use playful pathways connecting residential neighborhoods to destinations that are meaningful to children and families. At the same time, playful pathways expand the possibilities for inclusion of all members of the community and their healthy engagement with nature.

Increasing daily physical activity. An advantage of playful pathways is that their linear form is likely to support sustained moderate to vigorous activity by affording longer spans of movement and running opportunities on the pathway treads as compared to conventional playgrounds. This may highlight pathways themselves as important play destinations (as well as leading to appealing destinations such as playgrounds and parks).53

The creation of Safe Routes to School programs such as the “walking school bus”54 have achieved success but are often limited by the geography of homes in relation to school locations. In recognizing the constraints of school-based health strategies, groups of families are discovering that children can be attracted outdoors if it is fun – especially in natural settings where real adventures can happen. Groups across the country have organized themselves to spend playful times together at weekends, typically using local parks, playgrounds, trails, and greenways.55 The ShapeoftheNation report contains key guidelines for children and adolescents that list aerobic, muscle-strengthening, bone strengthening activities, appropriate by age,56 which can be designed into pathway play pockets.

u u Improving attention functioning. Spending time outdoors increases “involuntary attention,”57 which may be why time outdoors can also reduce the severity of ADHD symptoms in children.58 Even short walks in urban parks can increase concentration and lessen other ADHD related symptoms.59

Reducing stress and aggression. Time spent in green spaces, including parks, play areas, and gardens reduces stress and mental fatigue.60 Children who were exposed to greener environments in a public housing area exhibited less aggression and violence.61 Even a green view through a window reduces stress, increases level of interest and attention, and decreases feelings of fear and anger or aggression.62

Expanding inclusion

In recent years, children’s outdoor play territories have become highly restricted, mainly because of parental fear of social harm (perceptions that do not match the reality of reduced outdoor crime in recent years) and the real dangers of automobile traffic. This means that children’s play places such as playgrounds and pathways must be comfortable and attractive to adults, including grandparents, parents, and other family members. Playful pathways can be designed to attract and accommodate all age groups through access, location, form, and content of the pathway environment. Successful play environments are also inclusive of individuals from diverse cultural, ethnic, and racial backgrounds across broad socio-economic spectra.

Engaging nature

Increasing daily physical activity can be achieved easily when playful pathways are integrated into children’s neighborhoods. At the same time, research shows that being outdoors in natural surroundings can reduce stress and aggression among young people.

Play opportunities provide value to children and caregivers with disabilities by ensuring both physical and social access, while meeting Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements. However, there are many other “special needs” to be considered, including the needs of children with autism or grandparents with onset dementia. For children and adults using wheelchairs and other forms of adaptive equipment, playful pathway designs can offer easily navigated, inclusive play environments that satisfy universal design principles while extending opportunities for playful interaction afforded by a linear, “wheelable” environment.

The basic truth is that play in nature is good for children. Playful pathways provide a movement channel to draw children into and through natural surroundings such as stream corridors, which offer multiple opportunities to playfully enjoy natural surroundings. Access to sticks, stones, and a multitude of other natural loose parts like pine cones amplify play opportunities, including socio-dramatic play, social interaction, and cognitive stimulation. Pathway themes can spin off into unscripted children’s games if natural loose parts are available.

Inclusion is a distinct function of playful pathways, which can be located and designed to attract a broad range of users: individuals with special needs, older family members, children of all ages (strollers included), and users from diverse cultural backgrounds - all able to enjoy adjacent natrue.

Reinforcing environmental literacy

Playful pathways facilitate access to environments and ecosystems that may otherwise be closed to children and families.

Multiple learning opportunities may be activated during informal play, through pathway excursions as part of school curricular experiences, recreation programming, or during family trips. The linearity of playful pathway networks offers children close proximity and “continuous experience” of nature that may not be possible in rectilinear park space.

Playful pathways offer the potential for children to learn both through and about the natural world as the first essential steps towards caring for it. When connected to schools and nonformal institutions such as children’s museums, nature centers, and botanical gardens, pathways offer educators new opportunities to integrate environmental literacy across the curriculum. Experience of playful pathways may help the next generation to acquire strong environmental values that will redirect human culture in a more sustainable direction.

Research demonstrates that early experiences of nature provide long term memories and a positive disposition towards the natural world. Playful pathways have an important biophilic role as they are more likely to be located in places that offer children play experiences with natural materials.65

Childhood contact with nature contributes to shaping a lasting environmental ethic and an interest in environmental professions.63 Environmental education and scouting programs during the teen years also contribute to an ethic of environmental stewardship.64 Edward O. Wilson, eminent Harvard biologist, world expert on ants, and prolific writer about nature and society, coined the concept of biophilia, which assumes that people are born with a positive disposition towards the natural world – not surprising as we are entirely dependent on it.

Opportunities to spend substantial amounts of time in a given location allow for the discovery of meaningful components of the landscape and the development of an emotional attachment to that place. For many people, landscapes that are readily accessible are those that are near to their home; these places seldom fit the image of wild nature associated with traditional environmental education.

Paul Hellmund and Daniel Smith66

Reinforcing environmental literacy is offered in a multitude of ways by playful pathways, here sister and brother have walked the town trail down to the river to fish and play along the banks of the shallow mountain stream. Such experiences extend eco-knowledge gained at school and provide enrichment to share with classmates and teachers.

Walkable, bikeable community connectivity

Society is at a point in history where new thinking about the connection between neighborhood development and healthy child development is imperative. Childhood sedentary lifestyles are resulting in new, extreme public health challenges. The highly successful pattern of private autodependent suburban development that has dominated the real estate industry since the late 1940s is now recognized as unsustainable in terms of energy demands, resource consumption, and human health.67

More compact development options have been the response, many with historical urban precedents, their health benefits supported by “active living research.”68 Playful pathway networks need to be recognized as part of this new urban livability model. Running outdoors, children must find safe, playful pathways connecting them to a diverse world of friends and meaningful play destinations.

Pathway networks may contain a variety of components such as sidewalks, alleyways, pedestrian crossings, greenways, urban trails, nature trails, promenades, in-park trail systems, and educational campus/schoolground trails. The over-riding criterion is connectivity, which can ensure safe pathways for spontaneous outdoor play,

integrated with a network of places that are both compelling and meaningful to children and families.

In TheOptionofUrbanism,69 Christopher Leinberger argues that reversing the model of car-dependent suburbs is producing “reverse families,” including empty nest grandparents wanting to combine the cultural offerings of urban life and closeness of the extended family. By choosing to move around more on foot and bicycle they have more time for each other because less time is spent on driving. These new walkable/bikeable neighborhoods provide environments where families can grow in place, where children have friends close by, where adolescents do not have to rely on parents to drive them to “cool places” to hang out with their friends.70 As a strategic component of “walkable urbanism,” pathway infrastructures support progress towards cities as healthy habitats for children and families – as well as supporting long term, sustainable increase in property values.71

Timing for creating walkable, bikeable childhoods could not be better. Play can be infused in pathway development by retrofitting existing pathways and by creating new independent mobility routes for children and families, especially Safe Routes to School.72

Growing community social capital

Playful pathways provide opportunities for local groups to organize family nature explorations, which are growing in popularity across the country.73 Playful pathways provide a great way for community members of all ages to share time and place together, to get to know each other, to become more informed on local issues, and to contemplate collective action to improve children’s outdoor environments. Local pathways such as greenways, waterfront esplanades, and rail-to-trail facilities may provide an important aspect of local identity, sometimes with deep historic meaning, for example the American Tobacco Trail in Durham, North Carolina.74 As pathways become valued social places, repeat visits may become more likely, resulting in children spending more time playing outdoors. As residents feel a sense of ownership, they may be more likely to invest in further infrastructure improvements.

Growing community social capital can be stimulated when playful pathways connect neighborhoods to local destinations such as parks that attract a mix of residents who can hang out and get to know each other.

This family walked to the Kids Together Playground along the Hinshaw Greenway to celebrate a birthday, which are such popular events that all the usual locations were occupied. Nonetheless, the group still enjoys a gathering spot on one of the playground’s internal pathways.

* http://www.sjparks.org/Trails/TrailCount.asp

Hinshaw Greenway

CARY, NORTH CAROLINA - USA

The town of Cary, NC, greenway system links neighborhoods to parks and other important destinations. Residents report that this popular pathway system is well maintained and appreciated. The paved Hinshaw Greenway is a 1.66 mile segment that connects two parks across a busy freeway in the midst of residential neighborhoods. A group of volunteers conduct periodic user counts across the greenway system, walking the pathways and recording data such as the number, approximate age, gender, and groupings of users. Data indicates a higher proportion of child pathway users than reported elsewhere in the literature. The data gatherers also noted needed repairs and other issues requiring attention. User counts are an excellent way to calibrate pathway use, thus building evidence to support pathway development. San Jose, CA, has successfully used volunteer trail count data to secure grants for additional trail funding.*

A pilot study conducted by the Natural Learning Initiative investigated why children and families are drawn to the Hinshaw Greenway. Access to parks with attractive, well maintained playgrounds (meaningful destinations) was a major motivation. Linkage to a neighborhood gas station where children could go for refreshments was an added benefit. Adult users reported using the pathway for exercise, dog walking, and relaxation, (mentioned by children as well); however, the destinations were more often mentioned by children as their primary purpose for pathway use.

Hinshaw Greenway pilot study station where children are being asked to draw pictures of the pathway in order to understand what they found meaningful.

Pedestrian bridge spanning the eight-lane freeway, bejeweled with easily identifiable artwork.

This drawing shows how the Hinshaw Greenway connects children’s neighborhoods to parks and playgrounds.

The bridge and artwork was represented in nearly every child’s drawing. The bridge crossing offers children the thrill of feeling the rush of freeway traffic below.

Infusing play into pathways

Pathways for Play provides a new, linear form of play environment different to the typical clustered playground of manufactured play equipment. The linear form makes it easier to include play pockets and to mix specially designed, commercially manufactured components with natural elements to encourage discovery and continuous movement. Additional play pockets may be added periodically as funds become available over time or as the pathway is extended in length. This approach makes phased development easier. The linear form can be adapted to linear sites such as creek corridors and rail trails. Based on research from Kids Together Park, Cary, NC,75 playful pathway forms may be adapted to large parks, botanical gardens, and arboreta, to make them more attractive to family groups because strolling adults can exercise, enjoy the surroundings, and engage in conversation while children play.

The Hinshaw Greenway links neighborhoods and parks on both sides of a freeway.

Playing along the way

Research by the Natural Learning Initiative suggests that curving pathway alignments with secondary loops off the main pathway may more likely motivate pedestrian use76 as well as stimulate more intense physical activity by children.77 Pathways have a temporal dimension. Like musical scores, pathways are “played” by users. Adventurous adults as much as playful children enjoy linear recreational experiences because anticipatory perception keeps the mind alert – even more so if the trail rises and falls as well as curves.

Playful pathways provide a trajectory through threedimensional space, enjoyable by all family members. The smaller and more intimate the scale, the more enjoyable by children. Since urban pathways typically follow a smooth, relatively flat grade, they are easily accessible to people using mobility devices, enabling them to participate naturally in play activity.

“Looping pathways are your best friend,” says prominent greenway designer, Chuck Flink. They tend to offer the most satisfying pathway experience for users in general and kids in particular, because looping forms integrate continuity and scale, and provide a choice of distance ahead of time. Users may more likely be motivated to make a return trip in the opposite direction.

Children’s spontaneous, independent play requires interaction with intimate, diverse physical surroundings to fully activate the type of social interaction that is such an essential characteristic of play. Spontaneous play has a particular tempo linked to the scale of children’s immediate surroundings. Play spaces need to be small enough in scale to afford continuous interaction. If linear spaces are too large with insufficient diversity, they will not hold children’s attention. Several key factors can support the infusion of play into pathways.

u u

Meaningful destinations

Pathways connecting places where children (including organized school and youth groups) want to go, such as playgrounds and parks, will attract higher levels of use.

Sinuosity or curves

A measurable, positive factor stimulating interest for children. Curvy tread alignments can reduce pathway scale and provide a sense of exploration and intrigue for children who anticipate adventures that await them “around the next corner” as they move through a constantly shifting visual field. This type of temporal, progressive disclosure, so well understood by Japanese garden designers, makes the small seem larger than it is by packing diversity into a small space but in an ordered manner so that choices are presented sequentially. City parks retrofitted with curvy, playful pathways could offer increased play value and ensure that the repertoire of play experiences is not fully disclosed within moments of arriving. Children have to “work” to discover the play value along the way.

Infusion of play into pathways can be achieved in a multitude of ways. Here a play pocket maze offset from the primary pathway was created with small scale, looping lines of evergreen shrubs and treads. Short, intimate loops surfaced with sections of tree grate add innovative play value.

Historical/cultural features

Historical and cultural features can offer cultural identity and educational value for children, helping them understand where they live and to appreciate their cultural roots.

Built features such as tunnels, bridges, and overpasses may reinforce place identity, increase visual interest, and encourage movement and a sense of adventure. Landscape design can reflect local natural history by using plants that may have special significance; for example, tree species that represent forest industry or fruit trees that reflect agricultural production and could be managed by 4-H youth groups. Stonework could be quarried locally. Pathway artifacts such as bridges may reflect local history.

Cultural artifacts could reinforce local racial/ethnic traditions (Native American/Inuit, Hispanic, African American, and a multitude of Asian and European cultural expressions). Pathway experiences could be enriched by art works, including “earth art” and “playful art.”

Natural features

Natural features can add fascination, mystery, intrigue, and educational value for children. Rock formations/outcroppings, special landscape views, historic or specimen trees, wetlands, and other unique habitats may influence pathway layout and add physical identity and meaning to the pathway corridor.

Built features

Play elements, tunnels, bridges, overpasses, etc., will affect visual interest of the corridor while encouraging continuous movement, adventure, and a sense of place.

Cultural features integrated with playful pathways can offer intriguing diversions for all ages. In this example, a large scale sculpture offers a playful diversion for young users of this “art park” trail.

FAMILY FUN

and adequate visibility can be achieved through careful site layout, equipment selection, and naturalization strategies.

PLAY POCKETS

are the primary means for infusing linear PLAY VALUE into pathways by intentionally designing them to stimulate play through a sense of adventure, exploration, and discovery for the whole family in nature.

LEARNING

can be promoted through visible adventure and exploration in nature. Developmental considerations should be addressed through play pocket designs, educational signage, and playful activities.

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

can be achieved through innovative play pockets that engage the whole family while encouraging them to continue moving to explore the next discovery.

Planning Play Pockets: Ten critical considerations

Spacing - Are play pockets spaced at appropriate distances apart (5 to 10 minutes or approximately 300 to 500 feet) to encourage movement and discovery?

Setback - Are play pockets alternated and set back from the main pathway sufficiently to minimize conflicts with fast-moving bicycles?

Play value Have a variety of play elements been included to afford for children many types and forms of play (physical, social, emotional, cognitive, etc.)?

Loose parts and sensory stimulation Have surrounding plants been selected to provide natural loose parts to support children’s socio-dramatic play and discovery along the way? Have the play equipment, artifacts, and adjacent plantings been selected to maximize sensory stimulation of users of different abilities?

Learning - Does family-friendly signage promote play and extend learning in meaningful ways?

Usability Are play pockets designed to accommodate children and families of different ages and abilities in meaningful activities?

Caregiver comfort - Are play pockets shady with ample, comfortable seating for two or three family groups to relax and supervise while children play?

Amenities Have appropriate amenities (bike racks, seating, trash receptacles, drinking fountains, etc.) been considered to offer additional affordances for play so that families play longer and return often?

Safety - Does the play pocket equipment and safety surface in use zones meet American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) / Consumer Protection Safety Commission (CPSC) standards and guidelines? Are the pockets visible for supervision and easily maintained?

Naturalization and tree protection - Is the existing and/or installed landscape outside of use zones but as close as possible, so users feel immersed in nature? Are play pocket installations far enough away from the root zones of existing mature trees?

Sinuous playful pathway

Play pockets distributed at regular intervals along specified corridor section with defined entry and destination play pockets. Suitable for many contexts where right-of-way is sufficiently wide and visitorship justifies investment. Play pockets offer a potential upgrade of existing greeway.

Crisscross loop with rail-to-trail playful pathway

Secondary trail with play pockets added to specified corridor section. Suitable where right-of-way width allows (former siding, for example) and family visitorship justifies investment. Play pockets offer a potential upgrade of existing rail-to-trail greenway.

Cul-de-sac playful pathway

Playful pathway and play pockets created as a stand-alone project. Potential development on municipal, county, state, or federal parkland. Major destination required to assure users reach the end.

Subsidiary loop provides choice of shorter length.

Single looped playful pathway

Playful pathway and play pockets created as a stand-alone project. Potential development on municipal, county, state, or federal parkland – especially as a peripheral trail located in an urban park or school grounds. Closed loop assures users that they will return to entry.

Play pocket spur off-set

Play pocket is off-set (10 to 20 feet) from primary pathway tread, on a spur surrounded by buffer planting located so sightlines are not obscured. Seating and shade trees make the play pocket a comfortable resting spot for all users with potential for added site amenities such as picnic table, trash receptacle, and emergency call box.

Play pocket loop off-set

Play pocket is off-set (10 to 20 feet) from primary pathway tread, on a short loop buffered by planting located so sightlines are not obscured. Seating and shade trees make the play pocket a comfortable resting spot for all users with potential for added site amenities. A secondary playful pathway may be connected to other areas of discovery.

Pathway intersection node

Crossing of secondary and primary playful pathways creates a potential gathering and resting spot for all users to enjoy site amenities such as seating, picnic table, shade trees, trash receptacle, and emergency call box.

Multi-looped playful pathway

Playful pathway and play pockets created as a stand-alone elaborate project. Potential development on municipal, county, state, or federal parkland. Closed loop assures users that they will return to entry. Subsidiary loops provide choice of length and potential for repeat visits as children age and increase desire to explore further.

Compact looped playful pathway

Playful pathway and play pockets created as a stand-alone project where space is limited. Potential development on municipal, county, state, or federal parkland –especially in an urban park or school grounds, possibly around a central multipurpose field. Closed loop assures users that they will return to entry. Single loop is feasible length for children’s use.

Water body playful pathway

Playful pathway loop and play pockets created around a moderate sized water body (not so large as to deter use by families). Potential development on municipal, county, state or federal parkland. Closed loop form assures users that they will return to entry. Play value is enhanced by potential access to water and aquatic wildlife.

Flower playful pathway

Playful pathway and play pockets created as several mini-loops returning to a central destination where caregivers can relax yet keep an eye on things. Especially suited to the needs of early childhood or mixed age groups. Potential development on municipal, county, state, or federal parkland. Suitable for multi-theme or inter-linked theme development.

Primary trail

Secondary trail

Textural change in pathway surface

Corridor vegetation Seating

Creekside playful pathway

Secondary trail with play pockets created in specified corridor section, shown here on the bank opposite a greenway or major trail. Suitable where stream corridor width and FEMA floodway allows, and family visitorship justifies investment. Potential development on municipal, county, state or federal parkland. Play value is enhanced by potential access to water and aquatic wildlife.

Low plantings

Play pocket Water Parking and bathroom

Linear forms – may be more suitable for cyclists and can be made more interesting with installation of frequent play pockets.

Climatic region – offers educational potential. Temperature and rainfall affect diversity of plant and animal species.

Form Location Access Assessing playful pathway potential

Modal mix – increases accessibility. Is the pathway corridor accessible by foot and bike from users’ homes or is motorized transportation required to get to the “trail head”?

When infusing play into an existing or planned pathway, consider the context and variables that may affect the eventual play outcome.

Curving forms – make the pathway experience inherently more exploratory and stimulating to children because of the anticipatory excitement. Play pockets provide additional adventure.

Looping forms – add further interest by ensuring that users do not need to turn around and return by the same way they came. Disruptive, “when are we going back?” questions are avoided. Using play pockets in both directions encourages repeat visits.

Playful, curvy, sinuous pathways can be created in many forms, especially in urban contexts where the designer has a blank slate to work with. In this example, carefully selected rocks combined with a diversity of multi-textured horizontal plants lapping over the pathway tread offer a rich sensory interest for all ages. Larger trees set back from the tread provide a sense of enclosure but good visibility and visual separation from the urban surroundings.

Physiographic region – offers educational potential. Geology, soils, and topography affect corridor shape and tread width.

Urban/rural context – affects number of potential users in large, medium, or small metropolitan areas; in rural townships; and in open country.

Institutional context – offers benefits and constraints of contexts such as neighborhood park, botanical garden, nature center, and schoolground.

Corridor length – may affect perception of pathway as being too long to use or short enough to be easily usable. How long is the pathway?

Connectivity – can provide more options for young users as their play range expands, thereby encouraging them to retain user interest. How many meaningful destinations are connected?

Continuity – affects potential for safe exploration by protecting users from traffic and provides access to more play opportunities. Can the pathway be traveled without interruptions such as street crossings or grade changes?

Climatic and physiographic regions offer particular educational potentials and influences on pathway design according to local geology, rainfall, plant species, etc. Seasonal cycles may offer particularly attractive opportunities, as illustrated here. Connectivity and continuity are key requirements for infusing play into pathways. Meaningful places (greenway, school, park, and market) are connected to home base and friends’ homes. In the suburban layout illustrated here, cul-de-sacs (children’s safe havens) are connected to a community greenway. The Safe Route to School for the child in the yellow house includes sections of sidewalk and greenway, and spur to the school.

Tread slope, surface and width –will affect level of use, type of use, user group, and extent to which universal design criteria may be met. For example, a narrow tread could limit three individuals from being able to walk abreast, easily able to converse or groups of children being able to play together. A rough uneven surface may limit use by older adults using mobility devices. A steep grade would limit use by wheelchair users.78

Tread slope, surface, and width affect type and level of use, user group, and universal design effectiveness. Illustrated here, the broad, ten-footwide, gently sloping, asphalt-surfaced tread offers high capacity for diverse groups, including parents with strollers and individuals with special mobility needs. In this example, the adjacent residential internal sidewalk connects directly to the greenway, which connects to local parks (meaningful destinations) in both directions.

Separation from traffic – may affect both the perception of safety and actual protection from injury from motorized traffic.

Neighborhood context – may affect perception of crime and therefore level of use. Actual occurrence of crime may be quite different but that is not what potential users usually “read.” Abandoned buildings, neglected parks, potholed, and littered streets may deter use. Citizen patrols may increase feelings of security.

Level of maintenance – may affect perception of neglect and therefore level of use. A well-maintained, clean environment may encourage increased use.

Visibility – may make users feel more comfortable. Caregiver psychological comfort needs to be weighed against children’s desire to feel that they are in their own special place in an enclosed portion of the pathway invisible from outside. Site lines and vegetation management are important considerations for promoting safety.

Having crossed the narrow, low traffic internal residential street, this family “on wheels” continues in safety along the Rails-to-Trails Greenway.

Usability Safety Jurisdiction

Public pathways – may be affected by different regulations covering pathway installations at municipal, county, state, or federal levels of jurisdiction. For playful pathways installed in stream corridors, typically FEMA floodway regulations will limit the location of design elements allowed above ground level. Local floodplain regulations may further influence design decisions.

Private pathways – may be affected similarly by regulations, which still may apply to installations on private land or land held by nonprofit organizations. Use charges or membership requirements may apply.

Jurisdiction can be an important consideration when creating play pockets along a playful pathway. In this example, where the pathway follows a stream corridor, FEMA regulations defining the floodway could be an important factor potentially limiting installation of artifacts that would inhibit the flow of floodwaters.

Riverpoint Park is located on a former industrial site that overlooks the picturesque Tennessee River. It is a prominent destination for downtown cyclists and walkers, school groups, families, and individuals seeking an urban park experience for relaxation or exercise. A portion of the site is wooded. Large areas remain in turfgrass.

shady play pocket location in the forest brings play in to nature. The pocket is separated from the main pathway by a short distance which, in the future, could be landscaped with low growing vegetation to enhance visual appeal, create a physical buffer, and to provide loose parts for play.

Riverpoint Park

TENNESSEE RIVERPARK, CHATTANOOGA, TENNESSEE - USA

Chattanooga’s unique riverfront story has been recognized internationally as a series of successful public and private endeavors have helped create new national attractions, inspiring riverfront parks, new retail, restaurants and housing linked by a delightful riverfront park and trail system. Investments in outdoor recreation continue to foster pride from local residents, reconnecting members of the community with nature, while fueling economic development.

The City of Chattanooga and Hamilton County are dedicated to creating a family-friendly environment with play opportunities for children and decided to develop playful pockets along the existing South Chickamauga Creek Trail. Potential play pockets were initially located (gold circles below) using Geographic Information System (GIS) software with input from the Parks and Recreation Departments, which then produced a base for the final masterplan (right).

The final master plan shows proposed play pocket locations (numbered gold patches) chosen according to best practice guidelines and site constraints. Play pockets clustered near the pathway entrance take advantage of the environmental education value of the woodland setting, which also provides shade.

A large area of the park was recommended for reforestation (dark green). Chattanooga and Hamilton County, like many communities, are concerned about reducing their carbon footprints. Facilitating a return to a natural state promotes this policy by decreasing energy consuming turfgrass maintenance and adding carbon sequestration with the increase in trees.

Final master plan includes a major looping pathway, instead of the previous dead-end. Secondary pathways were added to provide circulation options for children moving between play pockets and future playground.

Signage provides families fun facts about the natural world while encouraging playful activities within the play pocket.

“We were so excited when we discovered the addition of play equipment and activities to do along the path. Our four lively children all found something to enjoy that matched their developmental levels. Riverpoint was already an amazing place, but we were wowed by these types of 'extras' that make our children so happy. What a gift that we can get them out of the house and away from the television, engaged with nature, being physically active, and enjoying family time.” These comments were expressed by Marzi Wiley, child psychologist, and her husband, Ben, pediatrician.

This

Initial master plan shows play pockets, which were located in GIS with aerial photography.

A family enjoys a playful spot nestled among the trees.

A play pocket around the corner motivates children to enthusiastically move to their next discovery.

Pathways for Play

Best practice design principles

Pathways for Play offers a powerful strategy for creating networks of play opportunities permeating the community, targeting the primary user groups:

u Independently mobile children

Family groups

Family groups most likely include parent(s) and child(ren) but also may include grandparent(s) or other relations. Growing in popularity across the country are self-organized groups of families enjoying the outdoors, often motivated by concern for their children losing contact with nature.79 Cycling family groups have the same motivation as walking but are able to extend their territory to a larger range of destinations.

u Organized youth groups

Out with friends, typically going “somewhere” (park, playground, neighborhood store, open space) is a viable image of a middle childhood active lifestyle as it was a generation ago – kids out playing independently. It needs to be deliberately supported today. One or more dogs may be part of the group – providing motivation for being “out.” Cycling groups of children have the same motivation as walking but are able to extend their territory to a larger range of destinations.

u

Schools could be frequent users of playful pathways with students engaged in “active curriculum” tasks from physical education to science and everything in between. In addition, summer camp, church youth, scouting, and any number of other organizations serving children and youth should discover new, exciting possibilities in playful pathways.

To motivate children, families, and youth organizations to get outdoors and engage in healthy, stimulating activity in natural surroundings, the PathwaysforPlay strategy is driven by five best practice design principles:

Infuse play and learning value into pathways Create shared-use, inclusive pathways

Infuse play and learning into pathways

• Provide a diversity of play opportunities to attract a broad range of children by age, ability, and racial/ethnic background and to support all developmental domains: psychomotor, social-emotional, sensory, communicative, and cognitive – to satisfy multiple maturity levels of children.

• Ensure varied levels of healthy, developmentally appropriate risk taking and challenge for all children so that play value matches levels of children’s skill development and supports opportunities for play along a continuum of skills.

• Manage hands-on nature as an important means for motivating play along the way by providing robust, naturalized settings designed to withstand and recover from intended play activity.

• Provide a mix of native plant materials that offer additional play value, shade, wildlife habitat, natural loose parts, and year-round visual interest in color, flowering/fruiting, texture, and fragrance.

• Locate play pockets at regular intervals as allowed by corridor width and other physical limitations, located off adjacent main tread to provide additional, substantial play opportunities, elements of discovery, and healthy physical activity through natural play prompts. Research potential easement restrictions (floodway and wetland delineations, utility and sewer rights-of-way, fire access, etc.) early on to avoid later legal issues. design principle

Playfulness can be infused into pathways in a multitude of ways. In this example, the pathway suddenly becomes a maze of giant grasses where children can have lots of fun.

• Space play pockets between 5 to 10 minutes apart or approximately 300 to 500 feet to accommodate the variable attention span and speed of movement of children. Consider alternating minor and major play pockets to attract younger and older children. For a six-year-old child, ten minutes is a long time. For an eleven year old it can be just the beginning. If play pocket spacing is too close, children may not become fully engaged before they want to move on to the next. If too far apart, children will lose motivation to keep moving.

• Emphasize curving pathway tread forms to motivate a sense of exploration and discovery and a feeling of something new “around the next corner,” motivating children to keep moving forward.

• Promote looped trails so that users do not have to return the same way they came and user interest is retained. Provide a range of time and distance options and communicate them so that visitors can make appropriate decisions according to time available and ages of children. Short loops of ¼ mile to 2 miles are achievable distances by children of different ages – and their parents.

• Include compact trail loops focused on the needs of toddlers and preschoolers, connecting play pockets appropriate to the scale of young children.

• Provide internal neighborhood links to connect pathways to dead-end streets and cul-de-sacs so that children can move around independently.

Incidental play can be stimulated by what adults may consider purely functional pathway attributes such as sprinklers. For children, the universal attraction of water can transform sprinklers into a play object. Could they be deliberately designed that way?

Create shared-use, inclusive pathways

• Create inclusive, universally designed pathways usable by people of all ages and abilities including walkers, cyclists, skateboarders, scooters, roller-bladers, equestrians, long distance hikers and bikers, and visitors using mobility or other assistive devices (including older adults). In northern latitudes, users may include cross-country skiers and skaters. Ensure that pathways are socially inclusive by income level and cultural background and meet accessibility guidelines for tread surface, width, and slope, passing space, etc.80

• Design to avoid conflict between children and fast-moving users including bicycle riders. Set back play pockets from shared use pathway tread(s) with, for example, a six-foot planted buffer (see page 22). Pathway tread markings should differentiate space for wheeled vehicles from pedestrian traffic. Depending on circumstances and budget, an additional tread may be provided for fast-moving users. Benches and bicycle stands can be provided at play pockets (offset for safety) for children and adults who want to stop and play. Appropriate warning and regulatory signs can reinforce safety considerations.

• Integrate pathways into the physical fabric of neighborhoods close to where children live for ease of use and to encourage independent mobility as children grow, extend their play territories, and become confident navigators of the outdoor environment.

Pathways integrated into the physical fabric of neighborhoods are more accessible to all residents, especially children, who are more likely to extend their independent mobility.

• Connect pathway network hierarchies (sidewalks to alleyways, to greenways, to trails, etc.) to provide seamless, safe, independent movement across networks.

• Create attractive, identifiable, informative entry zones with components such as wayfinding and pathway content information. Facilities may include parking, drinking fountain, and restrooms (especially for families with young children). Existing parks with these facilities may be prime sites for playful pathway installations.

• Ensure a mix of open and closed views, which research suggests are attractive to adults. Children are attracted by a mix of views within a corridor, which add to visual complexity and stimulate curiosity.

• Provide shade, either with shade trees or with shade structures along the pathway, including resting stops.

• Locate resting stops at regular intervals, with comfortable, shady seating, and possibly picnic facilities. Shaded resting stops are ideal locations for play pockets that offer interesting play opportunities and equipment for children and families. Resting stops integrated at regular intervals help pathways become more accessible and usable by a broader segment of the resident population, including families.

Connect pathways to meaningful destinations

• Connect pathways to meaningful play destinations by dispersing meaningful play pockets that motivate children and families to traverse longer distances, increasing with age.

• Link pathways to NatureGround®81 playground sites which provide children with naturalized, more attractive, and diverse play settings along the trail and at featured playground locations – as well as offering comfortable places for parents to relax.

• Develop pathways in stream corridors allowing children and families more intimate contact with fascinating aquatic environments.

• Develop child-friendly rails-to-trails pathways emphasizing the intrinsic interest to children of trains and rail transportation. Increase motivation and playfulness by adding “cross-loops”, and play pockets where possible (see page 23).

Stream corridors offer ideal pathway locations because of the diverse animal and plant life close at hand, which provide endless topics of conversation between children and adults. The animated sound and reflected light of running water adds a special quality to the experience. In this example, an overhang adjacent to the tread could provide a play pocket.

Locate pathways where children live

• Explore possible residential neighborhood locations to integrate playful pathways and residential pathway networks. Approach progressive developers who have an interest in highlighting the needs of children and families to consider integrating Pathwaysfor Play into their housing developments.

• Connect schoolgrounds and neighborhood and community parks – especially when linked to NatureGround® playground sites that combine manufactured play equipment with the living landscape for higher levels of play value, physical activity, and environmental sustainability.

• Provide playful outdoor educational systems within school grounds using peripheral trails and other forms of looped trail and implement in partnership with public health and related health promotion groups.

• Focus on childcare centers as community destinations for pathways, which can encourage children and teachers to take interesting, healthy walks in the surrounding neighborhood.

• Seek alternative locations in policy-sensitive, institutional housing developments, including public, military, and student housing, which may offer special prospects for playful pathways.

Peripheral, looped trails in parks and school grounds provide an easily accessible opportunity for children and family exploration in daily life. The school grounds illustrated here were designed with inter-looping pathways, including a multipurpose peripheral trail used by the early morning “walking club” to fulfill part of the children’s daily physical activity requirement. design principle

Apply interpretive themes for learning

Playful pathways may be themed by linking to local environmental, social or cultural topics, expressed physically with in-situ artifacts for learning through play.

Possible topics include:

Local social history that can be physically represented. Every community is famous for somebody or something.

Natural history, linking to local fauna, flora, or natural components of the ecosystem.

Children’s literature, linking to a location. The Beverly Cleary Trail, Portland, Oregon, provides a trail connecting many of the places featured in the Clearly books to the neighborhood where the author grew up.82

The 4-H Children’s Garden, Michigan State University, has several settings linked to children’s classic literature, including: Charlotte’s Web, Jack and the Giant Beanstalk, Peter Rabbit, and The Secret Garden 83

Mathematics, using sequences, classification of artifacts, or natural elements big/small/short/tall/tallest/colors or maze designs for discovering patterns, etc.

Science, using a multitude of plants, animals, and biological phenomena. Endless lessons are possible. Other aspects of nature such as sunlight and shadow, water flows, reflection, and refraction add richness and diversity –and potential for attracting science education funding.

Health, using step counts marked on the trail for different ages and different animals may attract health promotion funding.

Artwork can add a wonderfully interpretative expression to a playful pathway. In this example, large, colorful greenway entry panels illustrate seasonal change and the fauna and flora of the stream corridor. design principle

Sustainable landscape design, exemplifying best practice for water conservation, use of native plants, erosion control, and wildlife habitat enhancement, as recommended by the Sustainable Sites Initiative.

Art, locating playful artifacts or sculpture along a playful pathway or integrating art as a component in an outdoor art display (permanent or temporary) .

Environmental education, by exploring, discovering, and expressing the endless opportunities of the pathway corridor.

Interpretive signs and messages associated with themes should be designed to trigger playful learning activities for children and adults. Interpretive signs present information related to the physical content of the pathway corridor and play pockets, such as natural flora and fauna, history, culture, artwork or any other aspect of the environment, including take-home messages.

Information presented should relate to comprehension levels of children and adults, using a mix of text and visual material. A simple example would be a “nature scavenger hunt” along a pathway. A more elaborate example is the system of poetic statements “planted” among the exhibits at the Central Park Zoo (partnered with Poets House) to provide a vehicle for playful learning between children and adults.84 A high-tech example would be Geocaching, which puts interpretation in the creative hands of users.85

Messages should address all ages and stages of development. The target audience is primarily adults to provide them with background information and triggers to engage children on the spot, as well as to provide take-home information. Written messages for children should be minimal. Some messages may be provided with graphic material to trigger a playful activity or to help understand play pocket content. Messages may relate to both walkers and cyclists and should be installed at pathway entrances, play pockets, and other stopping points.

Artwork and related signs embedded in pathway landscape may interpret a local author or express a classical tale to stimulate children’s literary interests.

Users of all ages are guided by this universally designed wetland boardwalk, periodically widening to offer comfortable interpretive resting places and signs designed for easy readability by children and people that use wheelchairs. Low profile signs avoid blocking sight lines.

South Creek Linear Park

SPRINGFIELD, MISSOURI - USA

The Springfield R-12 School District and the Springfield-Greene County Park Board have worked diligently over the years to develop a strong collaborative relationship that continues to result in successful, cooperative projects that enhance the quality of life for the whole community. Jodie Adams, Director of the Springfield-Greene County Parks, is enthusiastic about infusing play into citizens everyday lives and sets a high priority on creating Springfield-Greene County’s first playful pathway. Adams, dedicated leader of a Gold Medal department, says, “We are responsible for enriching the lives of our citizens, especially children. The Parks Department is dedicated to being a leader in creating a healthy environment where people live, work, and play.”

The “blue” site (circled, top left map opposite), containing the South Creek Linear Park Trail, was selected because of its proximity to the Nathanael Greene/Close Memorial Park site which hosts the Springfield-Greene County Botanical Center and a new NatureGround playground. The existing trail winds through the creek corridor and is surrounded by lush vegetation. Development of play pockets was an easy task because the pathway frequently crosses park property where the corridor width is not an issue. Where the trail traverses negotiated easements on private property the corridor is typically limited to 30 feet in width. Additional width to accommodate play pockets would require legally challenging negotiations with landowners and neighborhood associations. Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to assemble base information.

For the master plan (bottom, left), additional pathway connectors were considered that would allow more users to reach the pathway directly from their homes, rather than crossing busy streets, so that children and their parents would feel more secure. If the planners and developers had considered pedestrians and cyclists before the neighborhood parcels were allocated, connectors could have been added without disruption. Adding connectors after land has been parceled out is more challenging. Fortunately, recent planning and zoning regulations in Springfield-Greene County require new developments to provide connections to existing pathways or to dedicate easements to future pathways. Also, sidewalks are required for access to existing or proposed greenways.

The master plan recommends the addition of loops to existing pathways in two locations: the schoolyard, which allows neighborhood users to take a looping, more interesting stroll; and for the new playground, which allows direct access from the playful pathway. Potential play pockets (green dots) are located at pathway entrances and exits (nodes) and at approximately 500-foot intervals along the way.

Play pocket locations (green dots) were selected using GIS and aerial photography. Spacing was adjusted to fit node locations and at open areas with favorable topography. Field verification was necessary to examine the actual sites and to make appropriate adjustments. A further limitation was the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Floodway corridor (dashed blue lines) which was mapped in GIS. In cases where it is not possible to avoid the floodway, a floodplain development permit may be obtained through local regulatory authorities.

Three Springfield-Greene County sites (circled flags) were considered for installation of playful pathways based on their proximity to existing greenway/linear park trails and schools. Trail development potential was assessed utilizing the Pathways for Play guidelines (chart right).

Representatives from city and county agencies worked together to plan the first Springfield-Greene County’s playful pathway.

The Springfield-Greene County Botanical Garden Center and Complex becomes a meaningful destination for families and school groups. A NatureGround playground is strategically placed at the trail head as an inviting destination that encourages families to also explore the various pathway play pockets, butterfly gardens, and planted mazes.

Pathways for Play: Best Practice Guidelines n Case Study

Trail development potential checklist.

Trail alignment showing potential play pocket locations.

The first phase of the playful trail containing five play pockets is located around Drummond Lake by Springfield-Greene County Botanical Center and Complex.

Friends climb and socialize in their new “trees” located in a play pocket along the pathway at the Nathanael Greene/Close Memorial Park.

Tributary pathway leads to a play pocket tucked into the forest with educational signage relative to the site.

Implementation building your pathways

A carefully considered, step-by-step planning process is essential for successfully building a community network of playful pathways.

Develop a master plan

Create partnerships

Conduct participatory planning and design workshops

Establish a budget

Select site-specific elements

Create a planting strategy

Conduct a fundraising campaign

Develop a master plan

PathwaysforPlay projects may entail entirely new construction, addition of secondary loops to increase play value for children or play value upgrades and enhancements to existing pathways.

u u Apply GIS and GPS tools.

Define pathway alignment and play pocket locations.

Pathway layout requires an engineer and/or landscape architect with expertise in pathway design. Looping, sinuous forms need emphasis. Technical issues such as drainage and tread surface material require special attention. Depending on the site location, a variable number of factors influence pathway layout and placement of play pockets.

Natural factors. Pathway sites range from “natural resource-based” (for example in a natural stream corridor), where the design team would carefully assess environmental impacts to meet or surpass local environmental impact standards for ecosystem-sensitive projects, to “landscape restoration-based” (for example in an urban redevelopment zone), where the design team would restore the landscape diversity to mirror local ecosystem services. Many sites lie midway between these two extremes, meaning they exhibit strong natural resource components but require substantial natural enhancement.

Legal boundaries and easements. Setting legal boundaries and verifying permanent legal conditions, such as easements, that may constrain pathway development, should be confirmed early in the process, including FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) “Regulatory Floodway” requirements.86

Access/entry points. Points of entry typically influence pathway layout and provide opportunities for dissemination of pathway information to users.

The combination of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) can assist effective pathway planning, play pocket location, design, and management, including verification of corridor legal boundaries and relevant easements. GIS data standards developed by the National Recreation and Parks Association can support coordination of pathway planning across multiple jurisdictions, which may contain diverse site conditions and ecosystem characteristics. GIS and GPS can also be used to measure user behavior linked to location and pathway design characteristics to assess effectiveness of meeting public health goals.87

Create partnerships Conduct participatory planning

Perhaps more than any other form of play environment, successful implementation of playful pathways requires partnership of many governmental and nongovernmental organizations. Because pathways are linear, they are more likely to cross or touch a variety of jurisdictions, which should be regarded as a strength. However, existing easements and other legal restrictions should be carefully studied and supporting arguments developed.

The stakeholder base should be cast as wide as possible so that a variety of interests are included in the planning process. Children need to be involved. Potential partners may include local businesses and civic groups, youth organizations, and church-related groups. Volunteers will be attracted by an inclusive, open process of engagement.

and design workshops

Establish a budget

38 and 39).

Design workshops provide an opportunity for a team of interdisciplinary stakeholders to work around the same table, including children and youth. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) supports young people’s participation in decisions that affect their lives, especially places that support their right to play (CRC, Article 31).88 David Driskell offers a variety of participation methods with children adaptable to a range of urban cultural and spatial contexts.89 A participatory approach will ensure that the ideas and perspective of children will be taken into account. The eventual strength of community commitment is more likely to achieve success. Typically, projects are easier to “sell” to local decision makers with robust community involvement, including children.

An advantage of playful pathway projects is that they can be implemented in phases. A “gift catalog” of play pockets and other playful enhancements can be established and used to implement the project as financial resources become available. Considerations should also be made for maintenance and sustainability over time.

Children, as the principal target of Pathways forPlay, need to be involved in the process through planning and design workshops, online community surveys, and school-based projects. Many participation strategies and methods are available, depending on the particular circumstances and constraints. Young people are guaranteed to invent ideas that adults could never imagine.

PathwaysforPlay NLI team members, Adina Cox (left, PhD student/research assistant and GIS expert) and Robin Moore (project director) discuss GIS pathway location criteria related to the Springfield, MO Case Study (pages

Select site-specific elements

u

Play pockets

Play elements for play pocket locations identified in the planning phase must now be designed in detail and components selected to reflect the range of stakeholder and user interests. Play equipment should offer a rich variety and continuum of activity

Safety surfacing for play pockets

In additional to play equipment, a crucial consideration for designing play pockets is the installation and maintenance of appropriate safety surfacing in use zones. Two types of safety surface are most commonly specified for play equipment safety zones: engineered wood fiber and poured-in-place rubber.

Engineered wood fiber safety surfaces are manufactured from harvested timber (a renewable resource) and vary in size, shape, and texture according to the type of processing employed, and adherence to ASTM guidelines. Primary advantages are ease of installation, the natural visual appearance, and the lower unit cost. Depending upon use, loose-fill surfaces require “topping off” or replenishment of approximately 25% of the material annually to maintain required depth for attenuation. A disadvantage may be instability.

Poured-in-place safety surfaces are manufactured from granulated synthetic rubber bonded with a liquid polymer, which hardens to provide an even, resilient surface topcoat poured over an undercoat, laid on a concrete subsurface. Primary advantages include multiple color choice, creating nature inspired designs in the surface, the possibility of installing on inclined

surfaces, accessibility, and permanence after installation. It is easy for children to run and move on poured-in-place surfaces, which may increase the level of vigorous physical activity. A disadvantage may be the higher initial cost, which may be offset over time, as the surface does not need the topping off required with loose-fill surfaces.

Alternative surfaces like loose-fill rubber, rubber tiles and even attenuating turf products can also be considered for use under and around the play pocket installations.

Play pockets can take many forms and benefit from a great variety of contexts. This example is located on the main pathway connecting major exhibits of the North Carolina Zoo, which are spread out over an extensive landscape. The play pocket, which reflects some of the critters and plants found at the zoo was created by a local metal sculptor working with an industrial designer. It is located opposite one of the restaurants so that caregivers can rest while their children play – or all can play and learn together.

Signage systems (non-interpretive)

Functional, non-interpretive signs may be installed in entrances, in pathway corridors, and at play pockets. They serve several functions:

u Regulatory signs – present notification of pathway rules, requirements, warnings or restrictions. This includes signs warning cyclists about the presence of children playing and posted legal speed limits so as to avoid conflict between potentially fast-moving bicycles and pedestrian children.

Informational signs – present general information in words and graphics (for those who cannot read) about the pathway, accessibility levels, play pockets, available programs, and presence of facilities such as restrooms and drinking fountains.

Directional signs – present wayfinding information by showing locations of play pockets, time and distance between them, and facilities such as parking areas, restrooms, and drinking fountains. They help users recognize a change in route or confirmation of correct direction. Directional signs usually include arrows and are located at pathway entries and all other decision points, and should be within reach for touch or Braille reading.

Welcome signs – indicate that the trail has been specifically designed with elements to encourage children’s play and exploration. Signs should encourage active play, although it may also be important to communicate safety rules as a risk management strategy.

Location signs – can support wayfinding by showing prominent landmarks within view.

Identification signs – present information in both words and graphics to identify specific features such as play pockets. Identification signs for accessible pathway entries should display the International Symbol of Accessibility and indicate the level of pathway accessibility as “accessible,” “usable” or “difficult.”

Site Amenities

Site amenities are crucial to the success of playful pathways.

Restrooms – functionally, restrooms are best located at pathway entrances close to parking (if appropriate).

Water fountains – as children tend to dehydrate more rapidly than adults. Fountains can be located at pathway intersections, in play pockets or other points of high traffic.

Seating – comfortable gathering and resting places make pathways and play pockets more attractive to adult caregivers.

Bicycle racks – essential amenities in play pockets and other pathway social areas.

Picnic facilities – add to comfort and sense of community, and support social capital.

Trash receptacles – strategically placed in social areas including play pockets.

Emergency call boxes – may be required to help promote safety and users feeling of security.

Signage systems are essential to the success of playful pathways and come in all shapes and sizes according to the function they serve. For any particular trail or local playful pathway system, consistency of style is an important consideration so that users realize they also are part of a comprehensive, nonmotorized movement network.

Create a planting strategy

Conduct fundraising campaign

A comprehensive pathway development strategy may require a planting plan developed by a licensed professional (landscape architect /designer, landscape contractor or horticultural expert), who can also develop a landscape phasing plan if the project requires multiple phases over time to account for budgets, seasonality, and resolution of legal issues, etc.

The searchable plant database at www.NatureGrounds.org offers valuable information for communities to identify child-friendly native plantings and special considerations for compact play environments such as play pockets, to offer additional play value.

Playful pathways are aligned to benefit from new funding opportunities that support children’s preventive health initiatives, particularly those focused on motivating children and families to be outdoors to increase their daily moderate to vigorous activity. Potential sources include:

Active transportation funds supported by the Centers for Disease Control Policy Recommendations and the White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity, which make a strong case for investment in new pathway infrastructure using the Federal SAFETEA-LU or SRTS construction funds to accommodate bicyclists and pedestrians incorporating Complete Streets principles. State and local funds can leverage support for facilities for children to walk or bike safely to places like parks, playgrounds, transit stops, and community centers –in new construction or redevelopment. u

Community public health funding related to children is a key prospect for playful pathways. Potential sources are local health organizations, including hospitals, state health promotion/ advocacy organizations, state departments of public health, and private foundations targeting childhood obesity prevention.

Design for inclusion for greenway, urban park renovation, and urban beautification funds offer unique possibilities to target specific needs related to a health and nature focus.

Outdoor education and curriculum development are potentially significant fundable initiatives for pathway related, science-based investments connected to schools, as well as programming support for after school programs and camps.

Green/environmental projects, especially for ecological restoration, are of heightened interest to a variety of funders interested in sustainability. Naturalized playgrounds and linear play pockets in nature can add value to larger environmental projects because of the potential for community organization and building social capital to help move larger environmental agendas.

Bicycle and pedestrian industry (manufacturers and suppliers of bicycles and all the accoutrements of walking and cycling). The Rails-toTrails Conservancy partnered with Washington, D.C.’s Beacon House to give away bicycles as part of a commitment to provide amenities, resources and opportunities to Ward 5 residents near the newly constructed Metropolitan Branch Trail.

u Corporate giving and private foundation grants are also worth exploring because of the intersection of health and childhood nature deficit issues. Identify corporations with giving histories that support children, families, and communities in the areas of health and nature. Included are insurance companies interested in contributing to community preventive health strategies or homebuilders interested in adding value to residential developments.

Getting people engaged and excited! Greenway funding included a community parade with local musical flavor and participation of park mascot.

Frameworks for Action: National Policy Initiatives

National policy initiatives provide powerful backing for PathwaysforPlay best practices program and address children directly. Visit www.PathwaysforPlay.org for further details of some initiatives that support policy and/or have funding potential for playful pathways.

Shape of the Nation: Status of Physical Education in the United States (2010). Latest study conducted by the National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) linking physical health status of K-12 children to current state standards for physical education, teacher certification, and student assessment.

The National Physical Activity Plan (not dated) Provides an umbrella policy statement that emphasizes the role of active transportation and components of the built environment including trails and parks for encouraging children to achieve recommended levels of physical activity.

The White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity (2010), Report to the President: Solving the Problem of Childhood Obesity Within a Generation.

Safe Routes to School (SRTS). An important health promotion and preventive health opportunity for children to meet the Centers for Disease Control daily activity goals.

Centers for Disease Control Transportation Recommendations (2010). Includes promotion of active transportation specifically underscoring SRTS and provision of neighborhood shared-use paths for children as pedestrians and cyclists, linked to parks, schools, and other meaningful destinations.

Non-motorized Transportation. The 2005 Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU), contains pedestrian and bicycle provisions related to SRTS (Section 1404) and the Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program (Section 1807).90

Complete, Green, Skinny Streets 91 Redefining streets as shared-use, green, human scale pathway systems linking the places where residents spend time, provides an important opportunity for children to increase time outdoors.

LEED-ND (Neighborhood Development) is the newest addition to the Green Building Rating System, LEED (Leadership in Environmental and Energy Design), developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), which provides a third party green building certification program and suite of standards for environmentally sustainable design, construction, and operation of buildings and neighborhoods.92

Sustainable Sites Initiative (SSI). A collaborative initiative of the American Society of Landscape Architects, the U.S. Botanical Garden, D.C., and the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Garden, Austin, Texas, intended to supplement the LEED-ND to both improve and regenerate ecosystem services at site level.

Sustainability

Building Community through Playful Pathway Networks

Over time, as pathway networks are extended and investment in play pockets increases, the playful pathway community of interest will expand and more strongly support use by children and families. Repeat visits will build social and political support for increased financial investment, including from public health. Actions to guarantee long term sustainability include:

• Design new pathways and renovate existing pathways to include children and families as a priority user group and increase play value.

• Affect design and planning policies to respond to the particular needs of children and families for transportation and close-to-home playful connectivity to people and places.

• Utilize pathways to help children, through play, learn active lifestyle habits and experience daily contact with nature.

• Participate in the PathwaysforPlay network at www.PathwaysforPlay.org.

Establish a volunteer program

A key aspect of sustainability is the creation of a viable community-based volunteer program.

a. Provide volunteer contact information, communicate the purpose, offer training, and define how volunteers can help. Recruitment can be motivated by the unique character and benefit of PathwaysforPlay projects.

b. Explore possibilities for associating a new project with local businesses, an existing nonprofit organization such as a health promotion group, an environmental conservation association, Master Gardeners, a trail-builders group, or a local Friends of the Parks.

c. Contact adjacent homeowner associations or neighborhood organizations to allay concerns and to get them on board as enthusiastic supporters.

d. Link with a local landscape restoration volunteer organization.

e. Contact 4-H, Boy and Girl Scouts or other youth organizations to participate in construction and to support the project in other meaningful ways.

f. Determine who has knowledge and who will be responsible for coordinating the required management and maintenance of the pathway project.

Develop public-private partnerships

Playful pathway sustainability will be strengthened by public-private partnerships between nonprofit groups promoting user interests and governmental entities responsible for acquiring new pathway corridors, laying down tracks, and coordinating continuity with street and related neighborhood pathway systems. Establishing joint management agreements provides a benchmark of sustainability. Although not strictly “public-private,” partnerships that involve bringing together school and parks and recreation systems with community organizations acting as a broker or as a third partner, can create a powerful model for change relevant to playful pathway development. The collaborative partnership in Springfield, Missouri, is an example (pages 38 and 39).

Promote pathway assets

Including children in the planning process fosters a sense of ownership and excitement (top).

It is critical to attract the interest and support of local elected officials and municipal or county officers by providing clear communication about the value of playful pathways early in the planning process. Equally important is strong grassroots support of individuals willing to speak out in support of the project, as seen here by Terry Whaley, Executive Director Ozark Greenways, at a ribbon cutting ceremony (bottom).

Develop a playful pathway management plan

u Building a strong community of interest and an effective public-private partnership is key to successful playful pathway managment and maintenance. Management frames the broader, long-term strategy of sustainable success. How many phases will it take to complete the project? How long will it take? What will the pathway look like in five, ten, twenty years? What is the maintenance and replacement plan for manufactured items? How will the corridor landscape be managed?

u Long-term project sustainability is a crucial role of a management plan particularly for the healthy development of the natural components of the site and lifecycle planning of manufactured components. Cost-effectiveness will be increased if management and maintenance of natural resources is linked to the management and maintenance routines for manufactured components.

u Annual inspections are required to assess the health of plantings, needed replacements of damaged or dead plantings, stormwater and drainage works, and functional modifications in response to changing circulation and pathway requirements, etc.

u Frequent maintenance inspections are required for manufactured play components.

u Development of a management plan will ensure the long-term healthy development of PathwaysforPlay projects. Depending on the project, the management plan may be developed by the parks and recreation department, school system, neighborhood association, nonprofit organization or through the collaboration of several such entities.

u An effective strategy to improve management and best practice design knowledge is to install working examples on the ground based on PathwaysforPlay best practices. Assess user needs and perform a “post occupancy evaluation” (POE) to determine success. Designs need to be implemented and evaluated as environments in use to advance the state of the art and to support ongoing development of best practice in pathway provision for children and families.

Sustainability Checklist:

Pathways are located in and/or connect directly to mixed use residential areas, therefore reducing car and bus dependency and increasing children’s independent mobility.

Pathway entrances or trailheads provide adjacent parking for safe pedestrian access.

Pathways have bathrooms and resting spots with comfortable seating.

Pathways connect to meaningful destinations.

Pathway scale is appropriate for children of all ages and their families.

Pathways have curves and loops to increase sense of playful exploration and discovery that children find attractive.

Pathways have sufficient play pockets or points of interest spaced between five and ten minutes apart to attract children to “play along the way” and to continue moving.

Pathway rules support children’s motivation to explore adjacent natural areas to play and have fun with their friends.

Pathways have mixed, open views to assure visual interest that accompanying adults find attractive.

Pathway messaging addresses parental apprehensions and promotes pathway safety. Messaging suggests that parental involvement is important for expansion of children’s outdoor territories and therefore pathway use.

Call to action

Pathways for Play Online Resources

Natural Learning Initiative (NLI) is a research and extension program of the College of Design, NC State University. The NLI mission is to promote the importance of the natural environment in the daily experience of all children and their families, through design, research, education, and dissemination of information. NLI works with multidisciplinary partners to implement the critical role of the natural world to support healthy child development, pro-social values, and motivation of learning across all subject areas.

NLI believes that understanding nature’s processes and their interdependence with human life is a critical educational task for creating an ecologically sustainable society. NLI collaborates with other researchers, designers, educators, environmental educators, planners, extension agents, politicians, and professionals working for and with children to offer design assistance to help communities create stimulating healthy places for play, learning, and environmental education.

NLI works with a variety of clients in the nonformal and formal sector of education, including: schools, parks and recreation systems, childcare centers, afterschool programs, federal, state, county, and municipal governments, residential developers, zoos, botanical gardens, children’s museums, and environmental centers.

www.naturalearning.org

Pathways for Play – www.PathwaysforPlay.org

American Planning Association (APA) – www.planning.org

American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) – www.asla.org

American Trails – www.americantrails.org

Complete Streets Coalition – www.completestreets.org

LEED-ND – www.usgbc.org

Let’s Move Outside! – www.letsmove.gov

National Center for Safe Routes to School – www.saferoutesinfo.org

National Recreation and Parks Association (NRPA) – www.nrpa.org

NatureGrounds® – www.NatureGrounds.org

North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE) – www.naaee.org

Rails-to-Trails Conservancy – www.railstotrails.org

Sustainable Sites Initiative – www.sustainablesites.org

Trail Builders Association – www.trailbuilders.org

Natural Learning Initiative photographs are copyrighted that appear on the following pages:

5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 42, 43, 44, 45, and 47.

Across the land, impressive investments are being made in new types of movement infrastructure. As part of this effort, children and families need to be firmly recognized as legitimate user groups. Related design and planning policies need to be created that respond to their particular needs for engaging with nature, community connectivity, and health promotion through play.

The purpose of PathwaysforPlay is to focus attention of the many interests involved in creating pathway networks and to highlight their potential as playful, active transportation routes for children and families. By their very nature, pathways connect people and the places where they play and learn. Planning and design of new pathways or re-thinking and renovating existing pathways can bring together the many interested stakeholders to carefully consider play value and children as a primary user group.

The creation of child-friendly pathway networks requires collaboration between a variety of governmental and nongovernmental responsibilities and interests. While challenging, the payoff in the formation of new relationships and shared understanding about the expanded role of pathway networks to accommodate the play and learning needs and enjoyment of children will bring added social and economic value to the community. Together we can make a difference.

To learn more about infusing play into pathway networks to encourage active lifestyles for children, families, and communities, visit PathwaysforPlay.org. Communities and individuals can learn more about playful pathways and share stories, photographs, and ideas. Visit and share your pathway experiences with the growing PathwaysforPlay social network –especially children.

End Notes

1. Louv, R. 2005. Last Child in the Woods: SavingOurChildrenfromNatureDeficitDisorder Chapel Hill, Algonquin Books.

2. Fabos, J. Ahern, J. 1995. Greenways: TheBeginningsofanInternationalMovement Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

3. http://www.cdc.gov/transportation/recommendation.htm.

4. Reynolds, K., Wolch, J., Byrne, J., Chou, C., Feng, G., Weaver, S., Jerrett. 2007. Trail Characteristics as Correlates of Urban Trail Use. Am Jnl Health Promotion 21(4):335-345

5. Opening remarks, Greenbuild Conference, Phoenix, Arizona, 2009

6. Martin S., Carlson S. 2005. “Barriers to children walking to or from school – United States, 2004.” JAMA 294(17), 2160 –2162. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/294/17/2160

7. National Trails System – Facts and History. http://www.nttp.net/resources/feds/40yearfact.html (accessed 8-8-2010).

8. The Natural Learning Initiative. 2009. NatureGrounds:PuttingNatureIntoPlay Chattanooga, TN: PlayCore. http://www.naturegrounds.org/guidelines.html

9. “The Flowing Terrain” and “Getting Through” – chapters in Moore, R. 1986. Childhood’s Domain:PlayandPlaceinChildDevelopment – offer field research case examples of children’s freedom to move around in a variety of urban communities (downloadable at www.naturalearning .org).

10. Frost, J., Brown, P., Sutterby, J., Thornton, C. 2004. TheDevelopmentBenefitsofPlaygrounds Olney, MD: Association for Childhood International.

11 Luepker, RV. 1999. “How Physically Active are American Children and What Can We Do about it?” InternationalJournalofObesity, 23(2): S12-17; Sturm, R. 2005. “ChildhoodObesity:What CanWeLearnfromExistingDataonSocietalTrends,” Part 1. PreventingChronicDisease [serial online] 2(1):1-9, www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2005/jan/04_0038.htm; Ginsberg, K. 2007. “The Importance of Play in Promoting Healthy Child Development and Maintaining Strong ParentChild Bonds.” Clinical Report, American Academy of Pediatrics, www.aap.org/pressroom/playfinal.pdf (accessed 8-8-2010).

12 Ibid.

13. Centers for Disease Control. 2009. “Physical Activity for Everyone: How Much Physical Activity do Children Need?” http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/children.html. Ameri can Academy of Pediatrics. 2009. “Promoting Physical Activity,” http://www.aap.org/family/physicalactivity/physicalactivity.htm. (both accessed 8-8-2010).

14. Cleland, V., Crawford, D., Baur, LA., Hume, C., Timperio, A., Salmon, J. 2008. “A prospective examination of children’s time spent outdoors, objectively measured physical activity and over weight.” IntJnlofObesity, 32:1685-1693; Jones, A., Coombes, E., Griffin, S., van Sluijs, E. 2009 Environmental supportiveness for physical activity in English schoolchildren: a study using Global Positioning Systems. IntJnlBehavioralNutritionandPhysicalActivity, 6: 42. doi:10.1186/14795868-6-42; Wen, LM., Kite, J., Merom, D., Rissel, C. 2009. “Time spent playing outdoors after school and its relationship with independent mobility: a cross-sectional survey of children aged 10-12 years in Sydney, Australia.” IntJnlBehavioralNutritionandPhysicalActivity 6:15. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-6-15.

15. Fjortoft, I. (2004). “Landscape and Playscape: the Effects of Natural Environments on Children’s Play and Motor Development.” Children, Youth and Environments, 14(2): 21-44, http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/14_2/article2.pdf (accessed 8-8-2010).

16 Ibid.

17. Moore, R. and Cosco, N. (2010). “Using behaviour mapping to investigate healthy outdoor environments for children and families: conceptual framework, procedures and applications.” In Ward Thompson, C., Aspinall, P. and Bell, S. (Eds.), InnovativeApproachestoResearching LandscapeandHealth:OpenSpacePeopleSpace2 (pp. 33-72). London: Taylor and Francis.

18. Cosco, N. 2006. Motivation to Move: Physical activity affordances in preschool play areas [dissertation]. Edinburgh, Scotland: School of Landscape Architecture, Heriot Watt University.

19. Reynolds, et al. 2007. Op. Cit.

20. Unreported data from a study using local volunteers to gather data supplied by Robert Bush. See Bush, R. 2010. “If You Build It Will They Come: Measuring Greenway Usage in Cary, NC.” Carolina Planning. Chapel Hill, NC: Department of City and Regional Planning, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Summer 2010.

21. The late Patricia Stokoe retired as a professional ballet dancer to create the field of “corporal expression” based on these and other concepts of the power of expression possible through the human body. Much of her work was with children.

22. Moore, R. 1986. Op.cit.; Hart, R. 1979. Children’sExperienceofPlace:Adevelopmental Study New York: Irvington Press.

23. Brown, S. 2009. Play:HowitShapestheBrain,OpenstheImagination,andInvigoratesthe Soul New York: Penguin (Avery). p.84

24. Moore, R. 2008. “Healthy Planet, Healthy Children: Designing Nature into the Daily Spaces of Childhood.” In Kellert, S., Heerwagen, J. and Mador, M. (Eds.), BiophilicDesign:TheTheory, Science,andPracticeofBringingBuildingstoLife Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.

25. “Walking and Biking to School, Physical Activity and Health Outcomes.” Research Brief. Active Living Research. San Diego State University. May 2009. http://www.activelivingresearch.org/files/ALR_Brief_ActiveTransport.pdf

26. Appleyard, B. 2005. “Livable Streets for Schoolchildren.” South Orange, NJ: National Center for Bicycling and Walking.

27. Carver, A., Timperio, A., Crawford. 2008. “Playing it safe: The influence of neighbourhood safety on children’s physical activity – A review.” Health and Place 14: 217-227; Howard, A. 2009. Keeping Children Safe: rethinking how we design our surroundings. Canadian Med Assoc Jnl on-line www.cmaj.ca.

28. Desapriya, E., Pike, I., Basic, A., Subzwari, S. 2007. “Deterrent to Healthy Lifestyle in Our Communities.” (Letter) Pediatrics 119 (5): 1040-1042; Sonkin, B., Edwards, P., Roberts, I., Green, J. 2006. “Walking, Cycling and transport safety: an analysis of child road deaths.” JnloftheRoyalSocofMedicine 99:402-405.

29. Two studies using interviews and written statements by 12-year-olds in Swedish cities, indicate children’s concerns about the restrictions on territorial movement imposed by traffic. Björklid, P. 2010. “Child-Friendly Cities – Sustainable Cities;” Nordstrom, M. 2010. “Children’s Different Views on Child-Friendly Environment.” Both articles in: Aleya, A-H., Mostafa, K., and Salah, S. (Eds). Environment,Health,andSustainableDevelopment Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe.

30. Warsh, J., Rothman, L., Slater, M., Steverango, C., Howard, A. 2009. “Are school zones effective? An examination of motor vehicle versus child pedestrian crashes near schools.” InjuryPrevention,15:226-229.

31. Liu, G., Colbert, J., Wilson, J., Yamada, I., Hoch, S. 2007. “Examining Urban Environment Correlates of Childhood Physical Activity and Walkability Perception with GIS and Remote Sensing.” In Jensen, R., Gatrell, J., McLean, D. (Eds). Geo-SpatialTechnologiesinUrban Environments. Berlin, Springer. Pp.121-139.

32. Hellmund, P., Smith, D. 2006. DesigningGreenways:SustainableLandscapesforNatureand People Washington, DC: Island Press. p.160

33. Louv, R. 2005. Op. Cit.

34. See Children and Nature Network (www.childrenandnature.org) for up-to-date research summaries.

35. Maryland Department of Natural Resources, (2009). “Maryland Partnership for Children in Nature: Report and Recommendations to Governor Martin O’Malley” and Maryland Children’s Outdoor Bill of Rights. http://www.dnr.state.md.us/cin/ (accessed 8-11-10)

36. The governor’s executive order calls for “Greening initiatives that create nature play areas within communities to provide outdoor experiences for children close to home” and can be found at http://www.kacee.org/files/Kansas%20Executive_Order_09-02%20Final.pdf (accessed 8-11-01).

37. Cooper, Allen (2009). “Children and the Outdoors: State Policy Solutions Guide,” http://www.nwf.org/BeOutThere/docs/Children%20and%20the%20Outdoors%20State %20Policy%20Solutions%20Guide%20-%20Final.pdf (accessed 8-11-10).

38. Page, A., Cooper, A., Griew, P., Jago, R. 2010. “Independent mobility, perceptions of the built environment and children’s participation in play, active travel and structured exercise and sport: the PEACH Project.” IntJnlofBehavioralNutritionandPhysicalActivity, 7:17.

39. Potwarka, L., Kaczynski, A. and Flack, A. 2008. “Places to play: Association of park space and facilities with healthy weight status among children.” JournalofCommunityHealth 33(5): 344-350. Kaczynski, A., Potwarka, L. and Flack, A. (2008). “Association of park size, distance, and features with physical activity in neighborhood parks.” Am Jnl Public Health 98(8): 1451.

40. Hellmund and Smith, 2006. Op. Cit. p.160

41. Research on trails located in three different states indicates that trail use is highest on trail segments that contain mixed views, street lights, good trail condition, and the presence of cafés and trail amenities. Reynolds, K., J. Wolch, et al. (2007). “Trail characteristics as correlates of urban trail use.” Am Jnl of Health Promotion 21(4): 335–345. Higher levels of use on a trail in Indiana were associated with segments that had open views, higher levels of greenness, and were located in mixed use neighborhoods. Lindsey, G., J. Wilson, et al. (2008). “Urban green ways, trail characteristics and trail use: implications for design.” JnlofUrbanDesign, 13(1):53.

42. Carson, Rachel. 1965. A Sense of Wonder New York: Harper and Row. p.45

43. Benedict, M., McMahon, E. 2006. Greeninfrastructure:LinkingLandscapesand Communities Washington, DC: Island Press.

44. Rivkin, Mary S. 2000. “Outdoor Experiences for Young Children.” ERIC Digest: ED448013 http://www.eric.ed.gov (accessed 8-11-10).

45. Kellert, Stephen R. (2004). BuildingforLife:DesigningandUnderstandingtheHuman-Nature Connection. Island Press.

46. United Kingdom Sustainable Development Commission (2007). EveryChild’sFutureMatters http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/publications.php?id=578 (accessed 8-11-10).

47. Marsh, P. (1999). Does camping enhance self-esteem? CampingMagazine 72(6), 36-40.

48. Taylor, A., et al. 2001. Op.Cit.

49. Cosco, 2006. Op.Cit. p.20

50. Ayers, J. 2005. SensoryIntegrationandtheChild Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services. p.40

51. Millar, G. 2010 ThePowerofCreativity:Resultsofthe50-YearFollow-Uptothe TorranceLongitudinalStudyofCreativeBehavior Bensenville, IL: Scholastic Testing Service.

52. Arendt, H. 1961. BetweenPastandFuture:EightExercisesinPoliticalThought. New York: Viking Press. Pp.192-193.

53. Moore 1986, Op.Cit., “The Flowing Terrain.”; For a demonstration of park pathways as an active, social setting, see Moore, R. and Cosco, N. 2007. “What Makes a Park Inclusive and Universally Designed? A Multi-Method Approach.” In Ward Thompson, C. and Travlou, P. (Eds.) OpenSpacePeopleSpace. London: Taylor and Francis.

54. Walking to school can be as informal as two families taking turns walking their children to as structured as a route with meeting points, a timetable, and a regularly rotated schedule of trained volunteers. A variation on the walking school bus is the bicycle train, in which adults supervise children riding their bikes to school. The flexibility of the walking school bus makes it appealing to communities of all sizes with varying needs.

55. http://www.childrenandnature.org/

56. National Association for Sport and Physical Education & American Heart Association. (2010). “2010 Shape of the Nation report: Status of physical education in the USA.” Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education.

57. Involuntary attention (in contrast to the task orientated “directed attention” of a typical classroom) occurs without conscious realization by the individual. The involuntary fascination of natural surroundings makes them particularly potent for children.

58. Kuo, F. and Faber Taylor, A. 2004. “A Potential Natural Treatment for Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder: Evidence from a National Study,” Am Jnl of Public Health, 94 (9): 1580-1586; Faber Taylor, A., Kuo, F. and Sullivan, W. Andrea et al. (2001). “Coping with ADD: The Surprising Connection to Green Play Settings,” Environment and Behavior 33: 54-77.

59. Ibid.

End notes

60. Wells, N., Evans, G. 2003. “Nearby nature: A buffer of life stress among rural children.” Environment and Behavior 35(3):311-330.

61. Kuo, F., Sullivan, W. (2001a). “Environment and Crime in the Inner City: Does Vegetation Reduce Crime?” Environment and Behavior, 33: 343-367; Kuo, F. & Sullivan, WC (2001b). “Aggression and Violence in the Inner City: Effects of Environment via Mental Fatigue,” Environment and Behavior 33:543-571.

62. Burdette, H., Whitaker, R. 2005. “Resurrecting Free Play in Young Children: Looking Beyond Fitness and Fatness to Attention, Affiliation, and Affect.” Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 159:46-50, http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/159/1/46 (accessed 8-11-10).

63. Wells, N. and Lekies, K. (2006). “Nature and the Life Course: Pathways from childhood nature experiences to adult environmentalism.” Children, Youth, and Environment 16 (1), 1-24, www.colorado.edu/journals/cye/16_1/16_1_01_NatureAndLifeCourse.pdf

64. Kellert, 2004. Op.Cit.

65. Moore, 2008. Op.Cit.

66. Hellmund and Smith, Op.Cit. p.181

67. Frumkin, H., Frank, L., Jackson, R. 2004. UrbanSprawlandPublicHealth:Designing,Planning, andBuildingforHealthyCommunities Washington, DC: Island Press.

68. http://www.activelivingresearch.org/ (accessed 8-15-10)

69. Leinberger, C. 2009. TheOptionofUrbanism:InvestingintheNewAmericanDream Washington, D.C.: Island Press.

70. Skelton, T., Valentine, G. 1998. (Eds). CoolPlaces:GeographiesofYouthCultures New York: Routledge.

71. See Leinberger, op.cit., chs 7 and 8, for discussion and examples of the economics of walkable urbanism.

72. National Center for Safe Routes to School. 2009. Many Steps…OneTomorrow:Reporton theFirstThreeYearsoftheNationalSafeRoutestoSchoolProgram. Chapel Hill, NC: National Center for Safe Routes to School www.saferoutesinfo.org/resources/collateral/status_report/SRTS_3-year_report.pdf

73. Children and Nature Network (www.childrenandnature.org/movement/natureclubs)

74. http://www.wakegov.com/parks/att/default.htm (accessed 8-29-10)

75. Moore & Cosco, 2007, Op.Cit.

76. Ibid.

77. Cosco, 2006, Op.Cit.

78. For additional, detailed guidance on universal pathway design related to children, consult Moore, R., Goltsman, S., and Iacofano, D. 1992. (Eds). PlayForAllGuidelines:Planning, DesignandManagementofOutdoorPlaySettingsforAllChildren Berkeley, CA: MIG Communications. Ch. 6, “Pathways.”

79. Children and Nature Network (www.childrenandnature.org/movement/natureclubs)

80. Proposed guidelines for non-motorized transportation facilities or Shared-Use Paths are included in the US Access Board Final Report of the Regulatory Negotiation Committee (1999) (http://www.access-board.gov/outdoor/nprm/) addressing Accessibility Guidelines for Outdoor Developed Areas, which eventually will be issued as ADAAG regulations by the US Department of Justice. In the meantime, a valuable reference is the ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Greenways and Trails (2007) www.state.tn.us/environment/recreation/pdf/trailada.pdf), issued by Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, Recreation Educational Services Division.

81. NatureGrounds® (http://www.naturegrounds.org/) is the companion program to PathwaysforPlay

82. www.trails.com/tcatalog_trail.aspx?trailid=HGW205-019 (accessed 8-14-10).

83. 4hgarden.msu.edu/tour/overview.html (accessed 8-14-10)

84. www.shapingoutcomes.org/course/cases/centralparkzoo.pdf.

85. Geocaching is a high-tech treasure hunting game played throughout the world by adventure seekers equipped with GPS devices. The basic idea is to locate hidden containers (which may affect play pocket locations), called geocaches, outdoors and then share experiences online. Geocaching is enjoyed by all age groups, with a strong sense of community and support for the environment. Participants in the PathwaysforPlay community will find Geocaching adventure resources and ideas for families to extend pathway activity at www.pathwaysforplay.org.

86. For more information, see http://www.fema.gov/plan/prevent/floodplain/nfipkeywords/floodway.shtm (accessed 8-14-10)

87. For an inspiring example, see Project CAPABLE (Children’s Activities, Perceptions and Behaviour in the Local Environment) http://www.casa.ucl.ac.uk/capableproject/ (accessed 8-14-10)

88. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm and www.ipausa.org (accessed 8-14-10)

89. Driskell, D. 2002. CreatingBetterCitiesWithChildrenandYouth:ManualofParticipation London: Earthscan.

90. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/legtealu.htm (accessed 8-14-10)

91. Girling, C., Kellett, R. 2005. SkinnyStreetsandGreenNeighborhoods:Designfor EnvironmentandCommunity Washington, DC: Island Press.

92. www.usgbc.org

Glossary of terms

Active transportation or nonmotorized transportation – transportation that encourages physical activity and health in an environment that fairly and equitably accommodates pedestrians, bicyclists, skaters, and other human-powered means of translocation, including the active component of public transit use. Active transportation may also support increased recreation, social interaction, environmental stewardship, and resource conservation.

Adaptive equipment (or assistive devices) – devices used to assist with completing activities of daily living such as walking, bathing, dressing, grooming, toileting, and feeding.

ADD/ADHD symptoms – inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. Individual children may exhibit one, two, or all three symptoms but not necessarily be diagnosed as a child with Attention Deficit Disorder or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.

Agency – being able to exercise intentional influence on one’s environment (closely related to self-efficacy and self-esteem).

Alleyway – a narrow street that is usually lined with buildings.

Bikeable – similar concept to walkable but related to the ease and enjoyment of using a bicycle to move around the built environment (within and beyond neighborhoods). Reliable assessment tool not yet available.

Biophilia – the assumption that human beings are born with an instinctive feeling of affiliation with nature.

Brownfield development – re-development of property, which was contaminated by the presence of a hazardous substance or pollutant. Cleaning up and reinvestment in these lands protects the environment, removes blight, and reduces greenfielddevelopment.

Built environment – encompasses all of the buildings, spaces, and products created or modified by people, including buildings, land uses, and transportation systems; and regulatory mechanisms such as building codes and zoning.

Carbon footprint – the sum of all emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2 produced by the activities of a group or individual over a period of time. Every activity dependent on fuel consumption, including driving, heating, the production of food and goods, etc., generates some amount of CO2 Carbon can be sequestered in forests or products or as fossil fuels and not released into the atmosphere.

Children’s spontaneous play – child-directed, voluntary, enjoyable, intrinsically motivated, spontaneous behaviors that may include imaginary interactions. Normally associated with development across all domains: psychomotor, cognitive, social-emotional, communicative, and sensory. Often employs props, tools, animals (live and fake), or toys. When structured, play becomes a “game with rules.”

Children’s facilitated play – retains the essence of spontaneous play but is facilitated by playprofessionals or playworkers with the aim of extending the range of experience within a thematic or cultural frame of reference – often co-created with the children, respecting their right to participate.

Childhood – period of life from birth to age 18 (as defined by the Convention on the Rights of the Child). Commonly subdivided into approximate maturity levels of early childhood (0 to 6/7 years); middle childhood (7/8 to 11/12 years); pre-adolescence (12/13 to 14/15); and adolescence (15 through17). Divisions can be marked by “rites of passage” in schooling, cultural traditions, and religious ceremonies.

Childhood obesity (or overweight) – a serious medical condition that affects children and adolescents when Body/Mass Index (BMI) exceeds the 95th percentile. Often leads to poor self-esteem and depression as well as life-long health problems such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol. Prevention through healthy diet and sufficient exercise is a key strategy.

Climatic region – meteorological conditions, including temperature, precipitation, and wind that characteristically prevail in a particular region.

Complete Streets – streets designed and operated to fundamentally transform the look, feel, and function of community roads and streets to enable safe multiuse by pedestrians, bicyclists, motorists, and public transportation users of all ages and abilities. Primary components include sidewalks, bike lanes, special bus lanes, comfortable and accessible public transportation stops, frequent crossings, median islands, accessible pedestrian signals, curb extensions, and ample landscaping including shade trees.

Connectivity – the ease with which destinations can be accessed by travelers. For adults, it is assumed that connectivity is a measure of connections to destinations, enhanced with increased density of intersections, shorter block lengths, and fewer cul-de-sacs. For children, criteria may vary as connectivity can be limited by traffic crossings and other barriers that do not affect adults. Cul-de-sacs or dead-end streets in particular are a positive attribute for young children.

Glossary of terms

Italics indicates term also listed

Continuity – the ability of travelers to reach destinations of choice by means of available transportation systems. Walking and biking continuity is enhanced by eliminating barriers to safe and convenient pathways that may include sidewalks, trails, shared-use paths, etc.

Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) – the first legally binding international instrument incorporating the full range of human rights – civil, cultural, economic, political and social, including the right to play (Article 31), for people under 18 years. The CRC came into force in 1989 as a universally agreed set of non-negotiable standards and obligations that set minimum entitlements and freedoms founded on respect for the dignity and worth of each individual, regardless of race, color, gender, language, religion, opinions, origins, wealth, birth status or ability.

Geographic Information System (GIS) – hardware and software used to collect, analyze, and report spatial data stored and referenced by its location in space.

Global Positioning System (GPS) – a system for determining geographic location using a receiver linked to satellites to generate spatial data that can be stored and utilized in a GIS.

Easement – a right given, sold, or leased to another person or entity to trespass upon land that the person or entity does not own. Traditionally given to utility companies for the right to bury cables or to maintain access to sewer lines. Easements are often used to create trails or pathways.

Energy expenditure – the amount of energy a person burns in the form of calories over a defined time period. The more active a person is, the higher the energy expenditure.

Environmental learning – self-initiated or facilitated learning resulting from playful, hands-on, interactive exploration of environments (built and natural) that includes learning about environments as well as through environments, which also provides a sense of environmental and cultural appreciation. Environmental context and direct interaction are key factors.

Esplanade –a long, open, level area, usually parallel to the seashore, a river or large body of water, where traditionally people go to walk but also to ride bicycles or skates, where the focus is social (to see, to be seen, to chat) rather than active transportation.

FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency) – federal agency under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security with a mission to support citizens and first responders to ensure building, sustaining, and improving a capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate hazards.

Floodway – channel of a river or other watercourse and adjacent land areas defined by FEMA reserved to discharge the base flood without cumulatively increasing the water surface elevation more than a designated height. Communities are required to regulate floodway development to ensure that no increases occur in upstream flood elevations.

4-H (Head, Heart, Hands, and Health) – a community of 6 million young people learning leadership and life skills in more than 3,000 counties in every state in the Union and over 80 other countries. Included are 3,500 staff, 518,000 volunteers, and 60 million alumni. Fun, hands-on learning activities, supported by the latest research of 106 land-grant universities, are focused on science, engineering and technology; healthy living; and citizenship.

Geocaching – an outdoor activity in which the participants use a GlobalPositioning System (GPS) receiver or other navigational techniques to hide and seek containers, called “geocaches” or “caches,” anywhere in the world.

Greenway – linear, vegetated space, frequently providing pathways for both pedestrian and bicycle use (and sometimes equestrian use), often linking and or traversing parks, open spaces, and other community recreation/education spaces, and cultural destinations in urban, suburban, and rural landscapes. “Greenway” can also refer to a vegetated corridor and the territorial needs of urban wildlife rather than people.

Greenfield development – literally new urban development in green fields (or woods) where none occurred before.

Greyfield development – similar to brownfielddevelopment except that the original property was not contaminated or polluted but was once developed and now is abandoned or outdated.

Health promotion – process of enabling people to increase control over and to improve their health. Now focused beyond individual behavior to include a broad range of social and environmental interventions.

In-park trail – a trail located within a park boundary.

Inclusion – accommodating persons with special needs, traditionally referring to disability but also expanded to include individuals otherwise excluded because of income, ethnic/racial background, religion or culture.

Independent mobility – where children go and what they do when out alone or with peers, with or without permission and knowledge of caregivers, through which range development occurs.

Interpretive sign – presents information (in the context of this publication), directly related to the physical content of a pathway corridor or play pocket, such as natural flora and fauna, history, culture, artwork or any other aspect of the environment, including take-home messages.

Involuntary attention – attention without conscious effort by the individual, prompted by particular phenomena, objects or environments, particularly natural environments that provide a restorative effect, relieving stress in individuals, including children. Thought to be associated with the intrinsic “fascination” of nature.

Kinesthetic – allows an organism to sense motion through space. See proprioceptive and vestibular

LEED-ND (Leadership in Environmental and Energy Design) Neighborhood Development – integration of principles of smart growth, urbanism, and green building into a system for neighborhood design. Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC).

Loose-parts – natural or manufactured objects of varying size and characteristics that attract children’s interaction and manipulation as play objects.

Master gardener – individual receiving basic training in horticultural subjects through a service program offered through Cooperative Extension in every state of the U.S.A. Participants agree to work in their communities to teach residents to cultivate garden spaces and manage landscapes sustainably using research-based information.

Meaningful childhood destinations – locations that children are attracted to and want to go to, such as playgrounds, parks, schoolyards, and neighborhood stores.

Mixed and open views – a variety of views that can hold the interest of users, particularly adults. Open views can provide glimpses of skylines, neighborhoods, the seashore, etc. A pathway that offers shade and seclusion mixed with open views is more interesting to users. See prospectandrefuge

Mixed use development – more than one type of use in a building or neighborhood such as combinations of residential, commercial, industrial, office, and institutional uses.

Modal mix – the availability of different transportation modes within a system or corridor, such as nonmotorized (walking and bicycling) with public transit.

National Trails System Act – (P.L. 90-543, as amended through P.L. 111-11, March 30, 2009), an Act of Congress, which established a national trails system including national recreation trails, scenic trails, historic trails, and connecting or side trails.

Native plant – a plant indigenous to a region or ecosystem, resulting from natural processes without human intervention.

Nature trail – a path through a natural area designed and often signed to draw attention to natural features of interest.

NatureGround® – a playground designed with the principle of mixing manufactured and natural play components to create an inclusive, friendly atmosphere.

Nonmotorized transportation. See active transportation.

Park zone – concept similar to school zone where traffic speed and other environmental factors are regulated and introduced to facilitate independent mobility and park access by children.

Pathways – general class of nonmotorized, active transportation infrastructure, including trails, sidewalks, footpaths, greenways, bikeways, promenades, esplanades, and shared-use pathways. May be paved or unpaved.

Pathway networks – system of interconnected pathways that allow for active transportation between point of origin and appropriate destinations.

Pathway, playful – any form of pathway, which includes specific components dedicated to use by children of all ages and their families.

Pathway, urban – collective term covering all forms or pedestrian/bicycle pathway located in urban contexts.

Pedestrian refuge – a small section of pavement or sidewalk surrounded by asphalt or other road materials, usually at a crossing midpoint, where pedestrians can safely stop before completing road crossing.

Perceived danger – the perception that a place or condition may be unsafe, whether there is actual danger or not. Behavior is often influenced by perceived danger as opposed to actual danger.

Physical activity – bodily movement that expends energy by exercising muscles in activities such as walking, bicycling, running, dancing, swimming, yoga, and gardening.

Physiographic region – broad-scale geographic subdivisions based on terrain, rock type, and geologic structure and history.

Glossary of terms

Italics indicates term also listed

Play affordances – attributes of the physical environment that children are spontaneously attracted to because they “read” the play value offered.

Play pocket – a designated space located near a pathway that affords children’s play. Play pockets may be large or small and contain manufactured play equipment or natural elements or both.

Play value – a measure of the extent an object or environment supports and sustains children’s play.

Playground – a piece of ground set aside for recreation, mainly for children, usually containing a mix of manufactured equipment and natural features such as trees, shrubs, and grass.

Play professionals or playworkers – trained professionals who work with children, wherever they and their caregivers spend time, using play processes in a wide variety of contexts (schools, playgrounds, parks, neighborhoods, museums, zoos, botanical gardens, and hospitals). Playwork subscribes to democratic principles of participation and inclusion; thus, children and playworkers collaborate in creating play programs that usually are not structured to meet prescribed outcomes.

Promenade – an open public space for walking, usually of limited length. Promenades can take the form of a wide sidewalk, usually with trees, cafés, restaurants, kiosks, and other amenities. See also esplanade.

Proprioceptive – allows an organism to sense where the various parts of the body are located and moving in space and moving in relation to each other. See kinesthetic and vestibular

Prospect and refuge – the ability to see (prospect) but not be seen (refuge), which appears to affect an individual’s perception of environmental safety and thus the level of psychological comfort. Assumed to be an inherited, biological human trait.

Railbanking – condition allowing a railroad to “bank” a corridor for future rail use if necessary. During the interim, trail use is a viable option.

Range or territorial development – continuous process through which children explore and discover the affordances of their everyday environment and become confident and competent with expanding their territory to explore and discover new experiences.

Right to play – seeConventionontheRightsoftheChild.

Safe Routes to School (SRTS) – first coined in Denmark in the 1970’s, the term now stands for a national and international movement to create safe, convenient, and fun opportunities for children to bike and walk to and from school. The U.S. Congress began funding the program in 2005. The ‘five E’s’ of the program include evaluation, education, encouragement, engineering, and enforcement.

Safety surfacing – engineered wood fiber, poured-in-place, sand, gravel, and other materials meeting defined standards, installed in the use zones of play equipment to protect children from injury from falls.

School Zone – defined area surrounding a school site where traffic speeds are regulated during defined hours. Other rules may apply to increase safety of streets, crosswalks, and other pedestrian and bicycle routes leading to a school.

School ground trail – trail or pathway installed on a school grounds, which may or may not be open to the general public.

Scouting – a worldwide youth movement with the aim of supporting children and youth in their physical, mental and spiritual development, so that they may play constructive roles in society. Nonformal education helps build courage, character and confidence with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities, including camping, woodcraft, aquatics, hiking, backpacking, and sports. Separate national and international organizations represent scouting for boys and girls.

Self-efficacy – self-beliefs determining how individuals feel, think, motivate themselves, and behave that affect their capabilities to influence life events. Related to agency.

Self-esteem – a person’s overall belief in or evaluation or appraisal of his or her self own worth. Also reflects abilities to deal with basic challenges of life. Usually considered an enduring personality characteristic or trait, although it is assumed to be able to be positively nurtured early in life. Related to agency and self-efficacy.

Sensory integration – “….the process of organizing sensory inputs so that the brain produces a useful body response and also useful perceptions, emotions, and thoughts.”

Ayers, 2005, p.28.

Shared-use path – paths designed to accommodate bi-directional mixed use, including pedestrians, bicyclists, joggers, in-line skaters, fitness walkers, people with dogs, wheelchairs, or strollers. Shared use paths connect other segments of active transportation systems, such as sidewalks. The American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHTO) Guide recommends a minimum tread width of 10 to 12 feet according to expected level of use.

Sidewalk – ribbon of hard, well-drained, typically impervious material (such as concrete, asphalt, pavers or brick), designed for pedestrian (and sometimes bicycle) use, located parallel or immediately adjacent to a street or other motorized traffic space, usually parallel to a curb and often separated by a planting strip of mown turf and/or plantings, including shade trees. Sidewalks typically are managed by municipal public works or transportation departments or by neighborhood associations.

Sinuosity (or curviness) – attribute of a pathway or trail tread that follows a curving alignment including return curves. Undulating topography accentuates the effect, which supports a sense of discovery “around the next corner.”

Social capital – the stream of benefits, including safety and security, friendship and community, a sense of civic identity, and spirit of cooperation that supports a willingness of people to engage in collective, civic activities. Over time, social capital builds social infrastructure.

Social marketing – activities directed towards achieving specific behavioral goals for a social good. Combines social science and selected commercial marketing methods to promote merit goods (e.g., daily exercise) or to avoid demerit goods (e.g., smoking).

Stream corridor – stream channel, floodplain, and transitional upland fringe, which may be as wide as 10-12 times the channel bankful width. Includes land area surrounding and including the stream that supports a distinct ecosystem, generally with abundant and diverse plant and animal communities.

Sustainable Sites Initiative (SSI) – an interdisciplinary effort by the American Society of Landscape Architects, the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center, and the United States Botanic Garden to create voluntary national guidelines and performance benchmarks for sustainable land design, construction, and maintenance practices.

Trail – continuous pedestrian/bicycle routes in a variety of contexts ranging from large scale, such as the 2,175-mile Appalachian Trail, to short trails in urban parks. The most common usage applies to non-urban park trails.

Trail tread – travel surface of a trail.

Trail, urban – pathways termed “urban trails” are rare compared to pathways termed greenways. An urban trail is a noncontiguous right-of-way traversing an urban area that may serve a particular function or theme. Examples include historic trails such as Freedom Trail in Boston or Asheville’s Urban Trail, a 1.7 mile pathway, which connects 30 stopping points related to public art and sculpture.

Universal design – an approach to design that produces buildings, products and environments that are usable and effective for most individuals, not just people with disabilities.

Urban infill – use of vacant land within a built-up area for development. May include reuse and renovation of obsolete or underutilized buildings and sites.

Vestibular sense – allows an organism to sense body movement, direction, speed, acceleration, and deceleration, and to attain and maintain balance. See kinesthetic and proprioceptive.

Walkable – similar concept to bikeable but related to the ease and enjoyment of walking around the built environment (within and beyond neighborhoods).

Characterized by mixed land uses, compact building, inviting pedestrian corridors, and a streetscape that is pedestrian-oriented that serves a range of users. By substituting walking, bicycling, and mass transit for auto travel, residents positively impact safely, pollution, and their carbonfootprint

Wildlife habitat – an area that offers feeding, roosting, nesting, breeding, and refuge for a variety of animal species native to the region.