SpecialSection:Gender,PowerandUseofevidenceinpolicy
FunnyEvidence:FemaleComicsaretheNewPolicy Entrepreneurs
ChristopherL.Pepin-Neff TheUniversityofSydney
KristinCaporale
AssumptionCollege
Thelastdecadehasseenon-goingissuesofgenderinequityaswellasarguablythegolden ageoffemalecomics.FromTinaFeyandAmyPoehler’srenditionsofSarahPalinandHillary Clintonin2008,toAmySchumer’scritiqueofUScollegerapeculture,thisisanextraordinary timetoconsidertheroleoffemalecomicsinpolicymaking.Thisarticlewillexaminethis periodbylocatingthesecomedicskillswithinthepolicyentrepreneurliterature.First,itwill reviewpolicyentrepreneurshipelements;secondlyitwillproposeaframeworkforpolicy entrepreneurshipthatbuildsonintersectionalfeministprinciples.Lastly,itwillapplythe frameworktofemalecomic’sinfluenceonpoliticalissues.Inall,wearguethatfemalecomics canserveaspolicyentrepreneursinpublicadministrationbyusingtheiridentitytolocate themselvesasrelevantactors,attachingsolutionstoproblems,biasingpoliticaloutcomes, benefitingfromtheirengagement,andintroducingnarrativesthatchangetheemotional habitusofanaudienceandinfluencethebroaderpublic.
Keywords: intersectionalfeminism, policyentrepreneurship, comedy, publicpolicy
Introduction
Thisarticleisapolicyentrepreneurshiptheorybuildingexercisethatwillexaminethewayfemalecomicsusetheircomedytodefineproblemsandsolutions.Thisanalysissitswithin intersectionalfeminismtoappreciatethemany wayspeoplecanimpactchange.JulietWilliams definesintersectionalfeminismas,‘aform offeminismthatstandsfortherightsand empowermentof all women,takingseriously thefactofdifferences among women,includingdifferentidentitiesbasedonradicalization,sexuality,economicstatus,nationality,religion,andlanguage.Intersectionalfeminism attendstothewaysinwhichclaimsmade
Acceptedforpublication:August27,2017
inthenameofwomenasaclasscanfunctiontosilenceormarginalizesomewomen byuniversalizingtheclaimsofrelativelyprivilegedwomen’(Dastagir2017).Importantly, thisincludesgenderqueer,non-binary,and transgenderwomen.Asaresult,descriptions offemaleorwomencomicsincludethese identities.
Theimpactofindividualactorsonthepolicy processhasbeenalong-standingissueinpoliticalscience.AnalysesbyDahl(1961)looked attheroleofdifferenttypesofelites,Walker (1974,1977)examinedtheactionsofUSSenatorsandMintromandVergari(1996)reviewed therelationshipbetweenentrepreneursandadvocacycoalitions.Anissueinthisanalysisis howthefeaturesofentrepreneurshipimpactthe policyprocessandwhyonetypeofactor,rather thananother,fitsthesemoments.
Kingdon’s(1984,1995)workonpolicyentrepreneursservesasastartingpointforthis analysis.InhisMultipleStreamsTheory,he identifiespolicyentrepreneursas‘advocates whoarewillingtoinvesttheirresources–time,energy,reputation,money–topromote apositioninreturnforanticipatedfuturegain’ (Kingdon1995:179).Hearguesthatthedevelopmentofpolicyalternativesisacentralcomponentofpolicymaking.Morerecentwork byZahariadis(2007)definesentrepreneursas ‘powerbrokerswhoaremanipulatorsofproblematicpreferences’(Zahariadis2007:74).In eachconception,therolesofcausalnarratives (includingcomedicnarratives)areimportant inattachingaproposedsolutiontoaproblem condition.
Recentpolicyentrepreneurshipliteraturehas focusedontheformalandinformalpositions ofactors.Thejobsandstatusofpolicyentrepreneursofferdifferentissuejurisdictions andlevelsofaccess.Sunstein(2006:206) notesthat‘thevoiceofaninfluentialpoliticiancomeswithamplifiers.’Inadditionto Walker(1977),ScottandCarter(2002)have alsoanalysedtheroleofmembersofCongress influencingforeignpolicy.Examplesofunelectedpolicyentrepreneurshiphavealsobeen seeninanumberoffields.Thisincludes authors’bookssuchas TheJungle byUptonSinclair(1906),RachelCarson’s Silent Spring (1994),andRalphNader’s Unsafeat AnySpeed (1965),eachofwhichdirectly ledtopolicychanges.Moreover,Mackenzie (2004)hasdemonstratedtheroleofstatelevelbureaucratsasentrepreneursintheAustraliancontextbyreviewingtheroleofthe formerQueenslandDirectorofCabinet,Kevin Rudd.
Consideringtheroleofpolicyentrepreneurs isimportantforseveralreasons.First,small groupsofactors’contestproblemsandsolutionsthatinfluenceallaspectsofthepolicy process,includingagendasetting,thedevelopmentofpolicyalternatives,venueallocation,implementation,andpolicyevaluation. RochefortandCobb(1994:14)notethat‘for manytypesofsocialproblems,onecanidentifyawell-delineated,specializedcommunity ofoperatives.’
Secondly,thisanalysisisimportantbecausethedefinitionofentrepreneurshipisan unsettledandevolvingissueinpoliticalscience literature.SchneiderandTeske(1992:737) notethatRiker’s(1986)analysis‘transforms thenotionofentrepreneursfromthestudyof heroicfigurestothestudyofalargerclass ofindividualswhohelppropelpoliticaland policychanges.’Lastly,refiningwaystoidentifypolicyentrepreneurshelpsinformthepolicyprocess.Locatingentrepreneurswithinthe policymakingprocessiscomplexanddifficultbecausemanyactorsfailpubliclyintheir policyentrepreneurship,whileothersaresuccessfulandinvisible.Policyentrepreneurship reliesontheattributesoftheindividualandthe contextofthepolicywindow(Kingdon1995; Mackenzie2004).
Inall,theactionsofpolicyentrepreneurs seektodefinenewissuesandredefineoldissuestoprejudicethepolicymakingprocess. Thisarticlemovesforwardwithareviewof thefeaturesofpolicyentrepreneurshipandexpandsitsanalysisbyincorporatingintersectionality.
Intersectionality(Crenshaw1991)isimportantbecauseofthewayitinformsthewaypoliticalactorsarticulateproblemsandsolutions andthewaypowerdynamicsareconsidered. Itisatheorythatrespondstothewayfluid, heterogeneousidentitiesaremadehierarchicalandstand-aloneelementsbythepowerful insocietytoreturnpowertothemselves.Intersectionalityacknowledgesthatbecausewe havesimultaneousandheterogeneousidentities,theseidentitiesinteractandcrossinways thatamplifymultipleoppressionsandmakea disadvantaged,stigmatizedenvironmentworse forsomeandthewayhierarchicallyadvantaged identitiesareprivileged(Jonesetal.2014:5; Strolovitch2007:26).Itchallengesthenotion thataperson’smulti-facetedidentitycanbereducedandprioritizedbysociety,law,policy, andthemediatoasingleidentitythatbestsuits thewaythoseinpowerwouldliketoaddress oppressionasameanstoremaininpower.
Therefore,mediaaffirmatively,ifunwittingly,oftenservestomaintaintheoppressive regimesofeliteactorswhenitbothacceptsthe premisethatidentityisone-dimensionaland
thenwhenitseekstoengagewithorremedy the‘problemidentity’(SchneiderandIngram 1993).Inthisway,thereisastrategichierarchy tothewayidentitiesanddiscoursesareused toreinforcepowerdynamicsthatisolate,other, andoppressthetargetidentitywhileseeming tohelpthem.Discourseiscriticalinestablishingwhatfacetsofidentityarevalued,inwhat order,andhowitwillbediscussedinaway thatothersthetargetandreturnspowertothe powerful.Thisisaprocesswhereanidentityis renderedtolerablefordiscussionandthepublicagenda.Thisprocessofsocietalbleaching turnsheterogeneous,multi-facetedpersonsinto one-dimensionalobjects.Peoplewillbetaken oncertaintermsandnotothers.Complexity andfluiditywillbeavoided.Emotions,laughter,andthetolerableorcontestabletargetsof laughterareatissueinthisarticle.Emotions andemotionalityfoldnicelyintointersectionalitybecauseacoretenetofemotionalityin publicpolicyisfirstthatitishierarchicaland secondthatinstitutionsareusedtoarrange thedistributionofpenalty-inducingemotions andpolicyinawaythatreturnspowertothe powerful.
Thissetupestablishesahierarchyofidentitythatbothprivilegescertaingroups and the wayidentitiesaretalkedabout,andlaughed about,togivepowerbacktothoseinpower. Soforinstance,themediadon’ttalkabout mentalillnessbecauseitmakespeoplefeeluncomfortable.Andwedon’ttalkaboutpoverty toomuchbecauseitmakespeoplewhoare notpoorfeeluncomfortable.Andwetalk aboutgaypeoplethroughsexorfashionbecausethatdiscursivepositioningkeepsheterosexualsastheacceptednorm.Andtelevision hoststalkaboutsurgeriesforgenderreassignmentsurgeriesfortransgenderpeoplebecause consideringtransgenderidentityasamedicaloperationratherthanasenseofselfreaffirmsbinaryidentities.Soinstitutionalpower dynamicspickandchoosewhichidentityto talkaboutandhowtotalkaboutit–sothat thoseinpowercanfeelcomfortable.Allthe while,thisignorestherealmulti-dimensional partsofourselves(forallpeople)thatoperatetogether.Itignoresparticularlybadoppressionspeoplefaceanditletsthemedia
offthehookinthewaytheypresentdifferent groups.
Changingtheunderlyingpowerdynamicis whatisneededandthiscanbedonethrough comedicnarrativeswhenpeoplearenotreduced,problemsaremultidimensional,and privilegeisacknowledged.Levy(1997:ix) notesthat‘humorasahumanactivitycrosses–anddoublecrosses–manylinesandboundaries,includingthoseofgender.’Weargue thatfemalecomicscanserveaspolicyentrepreneursinpublicadministrationbyintroducingdisruptivenarrativesthatlocatethem inthesolution-makingprocess,offersolutions thatreturnpowertothepowerlessandchange the‘emotionalhabitus’(Gould2009:32)ofan audienceandinfluencethebroaderpublic.
ChallengingtheBroadInterpretations ofPolicyEntrepreneurship
Theexpandingliteratureonpolicyentrepreneurshiphasledtoanincreasingand evolvinglistofentrepreneurialcharacteristics. ThisincludesfeaturesnotedbyKingdon(1984, 1995),RobertsandKing(1991),Mackenzie (2004),SchneiderandTeske(1992),Walker (1977)andMintromandNorman(2009), whichprovidevaluableinformationonentrepreneurialattributes;however,criticalreviewsarealsoneeded.Wechallengethebroad interpretationofpolicyentrepreneurshipby highlightingfivekeyelementsthathavebeen discussedasnecessary,andsuggesttheyare betterunderstoodascharacteristicsoflikely success.Theseinclude: Innovation; Expertise; Coalitionbuilding; Patienceandresilience;and Astrongdefenseoftheideaafter adoption.
Interrogatingentrepreneurshiphasoccurred fromitsstartandthereisevidencetosupport theevolvingnatureoftheconceptwithinpoliticalscienceliterature.Forinstance,Mintrom andVergari(1996:424)notethatpolicyentrepreneurship‘willberefinedintheyears
ahead.’ThiscanalsobeseeninRoberts andKing’s(1991:149)proposaloffourentrepreneurialactivitystructuresthatinclude ‘creative,intellectualactivities’suchasidea generationanddissemination,‘strategic’actionsincludingdevelopingaplanofaction,and heuristics,‘mobilizationandexecution’such asgainingmediaattention,andformingcoalitions,andlastly,‘administrativeandevaluative’ functionstoenactandreviewtheprogram.In addition,MintromandVergari(1996:422)suggestthreerequirementsofpolicyentrepreneurship,stating:
First,theydiscoverunfulfilledneedsandsuggest innovativemeanstosatisfythem.Thus,theymust bealerttoopportunities(Kirzner,1973).Second,entrepreneursbearthereputational—and, frequently,someofthefinancialandemotional— brisksinvolvedinpursuingactionsthathaveuncertainconsequences.Third,theyservetoresolve collectiveactionproblemsbyassemblingandcoordinatingnetworksofindividualsandorganizationsthathavethetalentsandresourcesnecessary toundertakechange.
Whilethesearevaluableempiricalcontributions,itiscriticaltodistinguishbetween attributesthatmakeactorsentrepreneursand thosethatmakethesuccessofentrepreneurs morelikely.Thisisadifficulttaskbecause multipleactorscanhaveanimpactwithina policydomain,indifferentwaysandatdifferenttimes.Asaresult,reviewingcaseswhere theseelementsaresuccessfulorunsuccessful providesusefuldata.
First,andperhapsmostcontroversially,the promotionofinnovativeideasisnotarequirementofentrepreneurship.Whileinnovation withinsocialsciencehasbeenapopularsocialsciencetopic(DownsandMohr1976), thereareampleexamplesofentrepreneurship basedonoldideas.Forexample,FormerBritish PrimeMinisterMargaretThatcherisseenas apolicyentrepreneur(Barzelay2001:66)regardingherroleinpushingtoshrinkthesize oftheBritishcivilservice.However,theidea ofcivilservicereformwasnotnewornovel (Wildavsky1966).Still,definitionsofinnovativeentrepreneurshipremain,includingthe caseforpublicentrepreneurshipbyMacketal.
(2008:235,emphasisadded),whoidentifyentrepreneursas,‘anyelectedofficial,bureaucraticemployee,non-profitmanager,orprivate citizenwhoisperceivedbyhis/hercolleagues andfriendstobeinstrumentalinfostering innovative changetomodifythewaythatpublic entitiesoperate.’Indeed,whileentrepreneurs maywellhaveinnovativeideas,theissueat handiswhetherentrepreneurshiprequiresit. Wearguethatthisisnotanecessaryfeature. Entrepreneursoftenattacholdsolutionstonew problemsandtherelianceoftraditionalpolicies overinnovationiscommon.
Secondly,expertiseisnotarequirement ofentrepreneurship.Therearecountless examplesofill-informedentrepreneurswho successfullyattachsolutionstoproblemson thebasisofaccessorpowerdespitetheirignorance.Weissert(1991)andMackenzie(2004) notethatexpertiseisusefulbecauseithelpsentrepreneurstomouldanissue’simageanditsfuture.Anexpertentrepreneurmaybeabletotalk aboutanissueinmorepositiveandconvincing ways;however,thisshouldbeconsideredan attributeofsuccessratherthananecessity.For instance,‘thinktanks’provideavaluablerole asentrepreneurs(RobertsandKing1991); however,theymaynotprovideexpertisebut ratheramobilizationstrategy.In2005,the KansasStateBoardofEducationdebatedaproposaltobantheteachingofevolutioninpublic schools.Leadingtheeffortandtestifying beforetheBoardwastheDiscoveryInstitute staff,whoadvocatesneo-Darwinianteachings, referredtoasIntelligentDesign.Theyargued thattheirpositionwasthatallofscienceshould betaught,includingDarwinianevolution,and anyevidencetothecontrary(Slevin2005). Thiswasanexampleofentrepreneurshipwhere tacticswerepresentininfluencingtheagenda, andpolicyoutcome,ratherthanissueexpertise.
Thirdly,thefocusontheneedforcoalition building(MintromandVergari1996:423)ignorestheroleof closed policyentrepreneurshipthatseekstobeinvisibletoachievetheir outcomes.Indeed,havingacoalitionmayhurt anentrepreneur’seffortsbehindthescenesbecauseitcandrawattentiontotheissuein waysthatgeneratehurdlesratherthanpromoteenactment.Forexample,formerUS
CongressmanBobDornan’s(R-CA)covertinclusionofalegislative‘rider’tobanHIVpositiveservicemembersfromremaininginthe militaryin1996wasdoneonthebasisofhis individualcommitteemembership(Neffand Edgell2013).Oncethisbecamepublic,Republicanleadersapprovedareversalthatrepealed thelaw.Dornanresponded,stating,‘[t]hisdisgustingactofcowardicewithmypurported leaderscavingintoapro-homosexual,draftdodgingpathologicalliarintheWhiteHouse ispathetic’(Martinez,1998).Thus,itwasthe lackofacoalitionthatmadetheinitialeffort successful.Inaddition,closedentrepreneurshipalsoinvolveskeepingissuesoffthepolicy agenda.Indeed,followingthedeathofformer SenatorJohnChaffee(R-RI),CarlPope,executivedirectoroftheenvironmentalgroupthe SierraClub,stated“[n]oonewilleverknow howmanybadthingsdidnothappeninthelast threeyearsbecauseJohnChafeewasthere” (Clymer1999).
Fourthly,resilienceisseenasacrucialelementofentrepreneurship(Kingdon1995; Weissert1991).Kingdon(1995)writesthat ‘probablythemostimportant,successfulentrepreneursarepersistent’(Kingdon1995: 181).However,therearetimeswhenpoliticalwindowsopenandentrepreneurshipmay occurwithoutlong-termstrugglesortheneed forpatience.UnitedStatesPresidentBarack Obamawaselectedin2008withmajorities ofhispoliticalpartyinboththeHouseof RepresentativesandtheUSSenate.Ifhewas consideredanentrepreneuronanyissueduringhisfirsttwoyears(includinguniversal healthcare,therepealof‘don’task,don’t tell’ortheSTARTtreaty),thiswasnotthe resultofgreatresiliencebutratherparticularlyfavourablepolicyenvironments.Thisis consistentwithWeissert’s(1991)analysisof statelegislators.Shenotesthatthoseactorswithout‘expertiseandpersistence,’who actduringopenpolicywindows,arenotentrepreneursandarebetterdescribedas‘policy opportunists’(Weissert1991:264).
Lastly,onemarkofentrepreneurshipisthe wayactors‘defendtheirviews’(Snare1995: 415).Thishighlightsanimportantroleof entrepreneurshipinprotectingsolutionsand
ideasfromattacklongaftertheyhavebeen implemented.However,astrongdefensemay notbeenoughorevenberequiredtoensure thatactiontakesplace.Forinstance,President Kennedy’sentrepreneurshipin1961toadvance spacetravelandlandamanonthemoonin1969 (Schulman1975)isnoteddespitehisassassinationin1963.Inaddition,AmericanVicePresidentRichardCheneywasachiefproponentof theuseof‘enhancedinterrogationtechniques’ byintelligenceofficialstogatherinformation aboutpotentialthreats(GellmanandBecker 2007).However,despitehisstaunchdefence, oneofPresidentObama’sfirstactsin2009was toissueanexecutiveorderbanningtheuseof tortureinfutureinterrogations(Paust2010).
Inall,entrepreneurshipisanevolvingconcept.Earlierdefinitionsprovideusefulmeasuresforconsideringtherolesofactorsand indicatorsofsuccess.Indeed,theroleofpolicydefenceprovidesausefultoolofentrepreneurialidentificationbecauseoftenthe easiestwaytorecognizetheseactorswithinthe policyprocessistolookforthosedefending theideaafteritspassage.However,itremains importanttoisolatecorecharacteristicsmoving forwardandensurethattheactionsofindividualscanbedemonstrated(Botterill2013).
ProposingFiveCoreAttributesofPolicy Entrepreneurship
Weargueforadefinitionofentrepreneurship thatincludesintersectionalfeminismbasedon howactorsshapechange.Areviewoftheliteratureidentifieshowfemalecomicsareplaying entrepreneurialrolesalready.Thisbuildsonthe researchregardingtheroleofmediaentertainmentonthesocio-politicalinstitutions.Forinstance,BenoitandAnderson(1996)lookatthe competingnarrativesbetweenVice-President Quayle’scritiqueofsingle-motherhoodand thetelevisioncharacterandprogram Murphy Brown.Dow(2001)lookedattheperformativenatureofEllenDegenerescomingoutas lesbianonthetelevisionprogram Ellen,and Reed(2007)examinedthecreationofqueer identity.Bruni(1999)examinedthekissbetweenMarielHemingwayandRoseanneBarr.
Morebroadly,MarshandTindall(2010)examinedtheroleofcelebritypoliticsinthepolicy processoutsidetheirwork.Loaderetal.(2015) lookatcelebritiesandsocialmediawhileGamsonandModigliani(1989),Schulte(2008), HollingerandLanza-Kaduce(1988),andNeff (2015)lookattheroleofmoviesonpolicy development.
Centraltothisanalysisisconsideringentrepreneurshipintermsofthewayideasorsolutionsarebroughttolifebyactors.Building onexistingliterature,fiveessentialtraitsfor policyentrepreneurshipareproposed:
Servingasarelevantactor(Kingdon 1995);
Attachingtheirsolutiontoaproblem (Mintrom2000);
Biasingpoliticaloutcomes(Botterill 2013;HowlettandRamesh2003);
Gainingsomethingfromtheirengagement(Kingdon1995;Schneiderand Teske1992);and
Changingtheemotionalhabitusofsociopoliticalstructures.
Thefiveattributesinthisdefinitionassume varyingdegreesofentrepreneurshipandsuccess.Indeed,thefailuretohaveanyoneof thesewouldresultinadvocacyratherthanentrepreneurship,whichrequiresananalysisthat scalesthecharacteristicsthathavebeennoted. Inall,thesecategorizationsaidinidentifying actorsandtheirrolesinthepolicymakingprocess.Thisincludesemotionalincentivesfrom societalnormsandroutinestolaughatthe ‘right’jokes,atthe‘right’time,andinthe ‘right’way.
EntrepreneurshipRequiresBeingSeenasa RelevantActorbyOtherDecisionMakers
Locatingoneselfwithinanissuedomainiscriticaltoentrepreneurshipbecausethereneedsto beareasonwhypeopleshouldlistentothe entrepreneur(Kingdon1995).Thisincludes makingaclaimoflegitimacyonanissueby virtueorcredibility,authenticity,orresponsibility.ScientistshaveissuedcallstoactionregardingenvironmentaldamagefromClimate
Changeduetotheirresponsibility‘onour watch’(Guptara1999:197).Anotherexample mayincluderesponsibilitybasedonjurisdictionalposition.Policyentrepreneursgainpower andlegitimacyfromcomedyasatrustedsocial institution.
Femalesarecontributingnarrativesabout women’sbodies,mentalhealth,assault,abuse, domesticviolence,sexualitythatsimplywould notbechangingnationaldiscoursesifwomen hadnotusedtheirartandvoicetochangethe emotionalstructureofsociety.Importantly,femalecomics’livesrepresentdifferentplaces inanintersectionalhierarchyofidentity,with lessinitialpower.Theyoperateandinfluence thepublicandpolicyinuniquewaysfromthis position.Inshort,themessengerisasimportantasthemessageandwomenhaveaunique abilitytodisruptsocialconventions,‘destabilizethemalegaze’(Burginetal.1993:60), andillustratehowpoliticsisshapedfrompersonalexperience.Ahmed(2015:172)notes, ‘women’stestimoniesaboutpain–forexample, testimoniesoftheirexperiencesofviolence–arecrucialnotonlytotheformationoffeministsubjectsbuttofeministcollectives.’The policyentrepreneurshipbyfemalecomicsis thereforeuniquebecausethisconsciousnessraisingtranslatestheirexperiencesintopublic knowledgethroughsatire,critique,anddisruptionsintheunderstandingofanormorasystem ofpower.Moreover,thegolden-ageoffemale artistsisnotlimitedtocomicsortheUnited States,andincludesAlisonBechdel,thecartoonist,author,andplaywright;AmySchumer, WandaSykes,MindyKaling,LeslieJones, TinaFey,MargaGomez,AmyPoehler,Nakkiah Lui,MelissaMcCarthy,ShiraleeHood,KristenWiig,MargaretCho,KathyGriffin,Gretel Killeen,JuliaZemiro,StellaYoung,andMagda Szubanskitonamejustafew.
Femalecomicshavebecomepolicyentrepreneursascomedyhasbecomeapublic interestinstitutionthatmaintainspopularconfidence.In2016,thePewResearchCenterreportedthat‘U.S.adultsareroughlyaslikely tolearnaboutthepresidentialelectionfrom anissue-basedgroup’swebsite,app,oremail (23%)orfromlatenightcomedyshows(25%) asfromanationalprintnewspaper(23%)’
(PewResearchCenter2016).ThisisconsistentwithHardyetal.(2014)whosestudy showedthatviewingofthesatiricalColbert Reportinformedviewersaboutpoliticalactioncommittees(Hardyetal.2014).Thishas beenseenmostrecentlyinlightoftheTrump Administration.TheChristianScienceMonitorhasnoted,‘throughoutthe2016presidentialelection,Oliverandothercomedianssuch asStephenColbert,TrevorNoah,SethMeyers, andSamanthaBeeofferedrespitetomillionsof Americansfromanespeciallyfraughtpolitical season’(Hinckley2016).Yet,thistrendgoes beyondAmericanpolitics.Forbesreportedin 2017that,‘apowerfulwaveofwomenincomedyhasgainedmajortractioninIndiaoverthe lastfewyears’(Mangaldas2017).
Sonotonlydocertainwomenincomedy garnermoreconfidencethangovernmentinstitutions,theyalsohavetheirownbullypulpit,tointroducenarrativesandbringattention. TheNewSouthWalesparliament’sreactedtoa newsscandalwhena2005tapedinterviewrevealedDonaldTrumpdescribingactsofsexual assaultonwomen.GreensMPJeremyBuckinghamtabledamotioncondemningTrump’s wordsandactions.ThemotionwaspassedunopposedandnotedthatthestateParliament, ‘agreeswiththosewhohavedescribedMr Trumpas“arevoltingslug”unfitforpublic office.’Theterm‘revoltingslug’isrelatedto comedianRosieO’DonnellcallingTrumpan ‘orangeslug,’afteraverypublicseriesofarguments(Gerathy2016).
EntrepreneurshipcanbeSeenintheWay SolutionsareAttachedtoProblems
Theuseofcausalnarrativesasapoliticalinstrumenttoattachsolutionstoproblemsdistinguishesentrepreneurshipfromothermore benignbehaviour.Orputanotherway,whena causalstoryisusedbyanactortoprejudice thepoliticalprocess,entrepreneurshipistakingplace.Asaresult,wearguethattheinnovationofentrepreneurship,whilenotmandatory fortheideastheypromote,canbeseeninthe waystheyconnecttheirsolutionstoproblems toachievepoliticaloutcomes(Mintrom2000).
Thedecisionofwhichproblemstoattachsolutionstoisoftencalculated;however, becauseeventscanbebothexpectedand unexpected,thisisnotalwaysthecomplete choiceoftheentrepreneur.Consideringthe roleofproblemconditionsisimportantbecause Kingdon(1995:182)notesthat‘aproblemcapturestheattentionofimportantpeople,andparticipantshooktheirproposalsontoit,arguing thattheyrepresentsolutions.’Entrepreneurs canattempttoattachsolutionsbygeneratingproblemsthatneedsolving(Lupiaand Menning2009),takingadvantageoffocusing events(Birkland1998),utilizingroutinepolicy windows(Walker1977),orexploitingpolicy failures(BrandstromandKuipers2003).Asa result,Mackenzie(2004:372)suggeststhatan actor’s‘alertness’topotentialmomentsofopportunityisakeyattributetothesuccessof entrepreneurs.Thisskillallowspoliticalactors tonotonlyrecognizeapproachingpolicywindowsbuttomaximizethemwhileopen.
OneexampleofattachingsolutionstoproblemsinvolvedAmySchumer’swayofaddressingsexualassault.Inaparodyofthetelevision program‘FridayNightLights’,Schumer’shusbandportraysahighschoolfootballcoachwho explainsthattheteams’gameplanfortheseasonwillinvolve‘Noraping,’towhichoneof hismaleplayersresponds,‘butweplayfootball’(Schumer2014).Theskitensueswhere playerssuggestsituationswhererapecouldbe allowedandthecoachcontinuallyanswersno toraping.AmySchumerisansweringtheproblemofaculturethattoleratessexualassault byattackingthatculture.Norapingisseen asaradicalproposition,whichhighlightsthe waywomenandgirlsareobjectifiedbysociety.Indeed,somesitcomsareabletoinfluence politicalopinion.Inparticular,whenasitcom showedpositiverepresentationsofwomenand displayedpositivegenderrelationships,data showsviewersweremoresympathetictoward womenandmorelikelytosupportreproductiverights(Holbertetal.2003).Thestudybuilt ontheliteraturewhichsuggeststhat‘politicaldiscourseisnotonlyfoundinnightlynews programs,morningnewspapers,andpolitical advertising,butinawiderangeofentertainmentmediaoutlets’(Holertetal.2003:57).
NewZealandcomicAlisonBrineactedasa policyentrepreneurusingcomedytomakea seriouspointaboutsexualassault(McConnell 2016).WhiledifferentthanSchumer,thisarticleprofilesthewaysthatcomedyaspolicy entrepreneurshipispowerfulandattractsinternationalmediaattention.
EntrepreneurshipisReflectedinthe ManagementofPoliticalOutcomes
Policyentrepreneurshipincludesinfluencing politicalandemotionaloutcomes.Theimpact ofthatentrepreneurshiphasthecapacityto changetheemotionalhabitusandsocietalperceptionsofissuesbasedonaninteractionbetweenthestage,thestyle,theviralnatureof thesketch,theaudience,andthetopic.Thisis consistentwithCareyetal.(2017)whonote, ‘Insupportingpolicyimplementationincrossboundarycontexts,language,symbolsandobjects,emotions,identityandpracticesmakeimportantcontributionstotheefficacyofthese processes.’The‘Feyeffect’hasbeendiscussed intheliteratureregardingwayTinaFey’simpersonationofSarahPalinduringthe2008PresidentialPrimaryonSaturdayNightLivewas perceivedtohavehadanegativeimpacton Palin’sfavourabilityratingsandsubsequently causedadeclineintheRepublicanpresidentialticket(Baumgartneretal.2012).Baumgartneretal.(2012)foundthatamongstitscollegeagedsample,Fey’simpersonationhelped ‘prime’Palinasa‘hick’inthemindsofviewers andaffectedherabilitytoinfluencethesamplegroupsvote.Inaddition,onSaturdayNight Live,MelissaMcCarthy’sversionofWhite HousePressSecretarySeanSpicerhasalso createdpoliticalpressureonthecurrentadministrationgivenheraggressive,anti-media portrayal.ItwasreportedthatPresidentTrump wasparticularlydispleasedwithSeanSpicer becausehehasbeensosuccessfullyparodied byawoman.
ThefirstofaseriesofAustralianshortviral internetsketchescalledthe, MinisterforMen critiquesthedecisionofthepreviousAbbott Governmentindowngradingthepositionof ‘MinisterfortheStatusofWomen’tothe‘Min-
isterAssistingthePrimeMinisterforWomen’ (SydneyOperaHouseTalksandIdeas2015). Thissketchseriesisagoodexampleofthe waythatfemalecomicsareabletogenerate mediaandarguablyinfluencepolicydecision. ThesketcheswerereleasedinearlyFebruary 2015andlaterthesameyear,TonyAbbott’s successorre-instatedthepositionof‘Minister forWomen’.
Entrepreneurshiprequireshavingthecapacitytoaccessdecisionmakersfortheirissue, eitherbecausetheyarethedecisionmaker, havetheconfidenceofthedecisionmaker, orhaveaccesstoalliesandnetworksthatinfluencethedecisionmaker(Zahariadis2007). Theentrepreneurfunctionsasthedecisionbrokerthroughouttheprocess,eventhoughthey mayhaveanoutsideorclosedposition.This requires:1.)anunderstandingoftheneedsof playerswithinthesystem;2.)theskilltoleverageone’sstrengthsontheprocess,and3.)influencewithintheinstitutionalstructuresand venuesdecidingtheissue.Inshort,policyentrepreneurshipcannotexistwithoutaccessto, andanunderstandingof,politicalprocessesbecausepolicyentrepreneursareagentsthatshepherdchange.
Accessisoftenafunctionofskill.Theabilitytobrokerdecisionsrequiresanunderstandingofthepolicyprocess,includingactorsand systems.Thisincludesidentifyingandnegotiatingaroundcompetingproblemsandsolutions(Kingdon1995:18;Mackenzie20041). MintromandNorman(2009:652)refertothis as‘socialacuity.’Indeed,entrepreneurscan recognizetheconcernsofvaryingviewpoints (MintromandNorman2009)andmanagethe fearsandneedsofotherplayers(Bardach1972) becausepolicyactorscannotbrokeroutcomes iftheydonotunderstandwhattheothersides want,fears,andwhy.Beingabletobrokerthe solutionisessentialbecause,asSnare(1995: 416)notes,‘ifcompromisebreaksdownnodecisionislikely.’
Moreover,understandingthepositionsand feelingsofotheractorsallowstheentrepreneur tobebetteratsellingtheirsolutionasthebest option.Forinstance,HoustonandRichardson(2000)comparethecompetitionbetween actorsontheissueofairbagsafety.They
highlighttheroleofDr.RichardMartinez oftheNationalHighwayTrafficandSafety Administrationasasuccessfulentrepreneur. Keytobeingseenaseffectivewashisexpertiseandabilitytodeflecttheconcernsfrom congressionalmembers,toadvancemoreregulations(HoustonandRichardson2000).
Oneadditionalwaythatpolicyentrepreneurs managetheirissuethroughtheprocessisby tailoringtheirproblemandsolutiontomore favourablevenues(BaumgartnerandJones 1993).Ifaproblemisalignedwithinan entrepreneur’spolicyjurisdiction,thisallows theactortolocatethemselvesmoreeasilyin thesolution-makingprocess.Forexample,US SenatorJohnMcCainisaseniormemberofthe SenateArmedServicesCommittee.Recently, heidentifiedaproblemwiththeoversightof unmanneddroneaircraftbeingoperatedbythe CentralIntelligenceAgency.Hestated,‘[w]hat wereallyneedtodoistakethiswholeprogramoutofthehandsoftheCentralIntelligenceAgencyandputitintotheDepartmentof Defense’(Bresnehan2013).Thiswouldmove theissuetoajurisdictionunderhispurview.
EntrepreneursBenefitFromTheir Engagement
Thewayactorsbenefitfromtheiractionsisa definingfeatureofentrepreneurship.SchneiderandTeske(1992)highlightthebenefits orprofitsgainedasakeymotivatingfactor inentrepreneurialaction.Similarly,Jones (1994:182)notesthatentrepreneurs‘seemto deriveparticularbenefitsoutoftheleadership activities.’Thetypeofbenefitsoughtisrelated toarangeofmotivationsandmayberelated totheissueortheirposition.Kingdon(1995) statesthatentrepreneursare‘motivatedby combinationsofseveralthings:theirstraightforwardconcernaboutcertainproblems, theirpursuitofsuchself-servingbenefitsas protectingorexpandingtheirbureaucrat’s budgetorclaimingcreditforaccomplishment, theirpromotionoftheirpolicyvalues,and theirsimplepleasureinparticipating.’Indeed, whilesomeentrepreneursmayseek‘the collectivegood’(Jones1994:197),others
desiresimplerecognition.Ifapoliticianisthe leadingentrepreneur,thenre-electioninterests arelikelyaleadingoutcomegoal.However, ifascientificconservationistservesasthe entrepreneur,thenboththeperceivedpublic needsandtheirownconservationminded approaches’aremorelikely.Inboth;however, thebenefitistheirs.Thus,whilepositions donotdetermineentrepreneurship,theydo informconsiderationsaboutpotentialrewards.
Inaddition,MintromandVergari(1996) highlightthewaythismotivationimpactsthe scopeofthepolicychangesought.Theyhighlightakeydistinctionbetweenpolicyadvocatesandpolicyentrepreneurs,suchasthedifferencebetweenenvironmentallobbyistswho maybehappywithanychangetoairpollutionlaws,whilepolicyentrepreneurswould seekmoreenduringgoals,suchaseliminatingairpollutionfromcoalplantsinthestateof Massachusetts.Inshort,entrepreneursworkto create‘dynamicpolicychange’(Mintromand Vergari1996:423).However,notallentrepreneursarecreatedequalandthisreinforces thevalueinunderstandingthecontextualfactorsthatadvancetheirinterests.
EmotionalHabitus,Policy Entrepreneurship,andFemaleComics
Bourdieu’s(1977)conceptof‘habitus’isdefinedas‘thesociallydevelopedcapacityto actappropriately’(RawolleandLingard2008: 731).MarchandOlsen’s(1995:30–31)‘logic ofappropriateness’isbroadlyconsistent,inthat theactionsofpolicymakingare‘drivenbyrules ofappropriateorexemplarybehaviour,organizedintoinstitutions’(MarchandOlsen2004: 2).Gould(2009:32)arguesthatan‘emotional habitus’ofappropriatenessexistedforthelesbian,gay,bisexual,andtransgender(LGBT) communitiesaroundtheirrightsandtheissue ofHIV/AIDSinthemid-late1980’s,butthat thiswasrupturedbyaSupremeCourtruling (Bowersvs.Hardwick) thatuphelddiscriminationagainstLGBTQpeople.Shewrites:
‘Hardwick magnifiedandbolsteredanemergent, newconstellationofaffectsandemotions,effectivelyauthorizingsentimentsandexpressionsof
gayrageandindignationanddirectingthemtowardthegovernment’sheadds,‘thenewemotionalpracticesandnewsentimentsaboutgay selvesandaboutdominantsocietycreateda new,counterhegemonicemotionalhabitusand challengedthelimitsofthepreviouspolitical horizon’(Gould2009:134).
Thesocialorganizationoflaughterisakey setofrulesandregulationsthatcanbechallengedbychangestoanemotionalhabitus. Changeintheemotionalhabitusaroundanissuecanalterthearrangementoffeelingswithin society,politicalinstitutions,andpolicymaking forthatissue.Publicpolicyandpolicyimplementationplaysakeyroleinchallengingor reproducingnormsthatsetforthhowgroups areviewedandwhichemotionalrulesapply.
ThishaslongbeenknownbyblackfeministssuchasAudreLorde,whonotes,‘Black womenareexpectedtouseourangeronlyin theserviceofotherpeoples’salvationorlearning.Butthattimeisover.Myangerhasmeant paintomebutithasalsomeantsurvival,and beforeIgiveitupI’mgoingtobesurethatthere issomethingatleastaspowerfultoreplaceit ontheroadtoclarity’(Lorde2012:132).She adds,‘Everywomanhasawell-stockedarsenalofangerpotentiallyusefulagainstthose oppressions,personalandinstitutional,which broughtthatangerintobeing’(Lorde2012: 132).Itisalsoimportanttonotethatemotionsandemotionalexpressionsaretwodifferentthings.Indeed,expressionscanbecoerced, repressed,andregulated.OrasMayaAngelou wrote,‘BlackAmericans,forcenturies,were obligedtolaughwhentheyweren’ttickled&to scratchwhentheydidn’titch’(Angelou1977).
Inshort,wearetalkingabout‘sociallyproducedformsofknowledge’fromdiscourse (Careyetal.2017:6).Careyetal.(2017:12) notethat‘ratherthanmerelydescribingthe world,feministperspectivesseektodevelop conceptualinsightsthatcanenablerealworld change.’Theexpressionofhumourforwomen comesataprice(Levy1997).Neff(2016)arguesthatwhentheengagementinvolvesthe socialandpoliticalworld,thispriceconstitutes emotionaltaxation.Neff(2016:1–2)defines emotionaltaxationas:
‘Emotionaltaxation orthe taxationofemotions istheemotionalcost,intentionalornot,thata policy,program,orschemeplacesonanindividualorgroupforenteringintothepolitical processoraddressingapoliticalissue.Theimpactofthisemotionaltax(theleveloftaxation) toenterthepolicyprocessisrelativetoanindividualorgroupspoliticalpower(i.edegreeof stigma),capacitytopaythecost,andcollective support.Asaresult,therewouldbeonekindof emotionalcostforsomeoneenteringapolitical processasapositivelyconstructedidentity(race, color,religion,gender,sexualorientation,gender identity,ability)andapotentiallyhigheremotionaltaxtoentertheprocessfromamarginalized community.’
Femalecomic’sinfluencesontheemotional habitusaroundanissuecanbeseeninSamanthaBeeusingcomedytomakeaserious pointabouttherapethreat.TinaFeyand AmyPoehleralsoshiftedtheemotionalhabitus aroundBillCosby’ssexualassaultallegations intheirGoldenGlobescommentary.While hostingtheprogramin2015theyaddressed theissueintheirmonologue.AmySchumer’s sketchpointedlyaddressedtheproblemofsexualviolenceagainstwomeninthemilitaryby choosingafemalecharacterinamilitaryvideo gameandfindsherselfdrummedoutofthe service.Thesearegoodexamplesofcomicsas policyentrepreneurs,usingcomedytomakea seriousissueaccessibleandrelatableregardless ofgender.
Inall,theimplicationsofthesecasesfor policyentrepreneurshiptheory-buildingargues forconsideringthewayculturalactorsdisrupt orreinforcetheemotionalhabitusofanissue andenableorinfluencethepublicandpolicies.Trustingovernmentinstitutionsislow andtrustincomediennesishigh.Thecontributionsthatwomeninparticularmakewithan intersectionalfeministapproachtopolicymakingisimportantbecauseitlooksathierarchies ofidentityandincorporatesanarrativethatis differentthanmenandworthyofattention.
Conclusion
Toanalysenarrativesinpublicadministration werelyontwoanalyticalframes:firstis
theliteratureonpolicyentrepreneurshipthat suggestsacontestedandevolvingframeof participantsthatmaydependonpolitical skillsorproducts.Secondistheliterature onintersectionality,whichisjoinedwith emotionalhabitus.Here,femalecomicswho disruptemotional,social,andpoliticalpatterns ofbehaviourthroughcomedythatdraws attention,orparodytoanissueareviewed aspolicyentrepreneursinpublicpolicyand publicadministration.
Thisarticlebuildsonthecurrentliteratureregardingtheroleofpolicyentrepreneurs ininfluencingthepolicyprocessandargues thata‘rethinking’ofpolicyentrepreneurship isneeded.Muchre-thinkingaroundKingdon (1984)hastakenplacerecentlyandthisprovidesacontributiontothiseffort.Theresult isanapplicationofpolicyentrepreneurship asatoolthattellsusmorethanthatanentrepreneurwaspresent.Rather,publicpolicy andpublicadministrationanalysisseekstoexaminetheimpacttheseactorshadandwhy. Indeed,thisshouldincludeprivateorunwitting entrepreneursthatplaycentralrolesinpolicy developmentaswellasthosethatperformbeforeoureyes.
Acknowledgments
TheauthorswishtothankSenthorunRajandthe EditorsofthisSpecialEditionfortheirhelpfulsuggestionsthroughoutthisprocess.Thisarticlebuilds onworkthatauthor(Neff)didonhis2014doctoraldissertationandanAPSAconferencepanelat ANUentitled:‘Rethinkingpolicyentrepreneurship: Identifyingfiveentrepreneurialtypesandthenarrow measuresofsuccess.’
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