CHAPTER TWO

FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURES IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA (A MASTER’S RESEARCH PROJECT)

Information Systems Failures and Successes are independent of geography (Lemon, et. al., 2002), hence, the fact that there are rising cases of failures show significantly that generalizations have not been as effective as envisaged (Avgerou, 2019) towards curbing particularly the failures. It is a known fact that the World Wide Web and the Internet are process facilitators irrespective of geographical spaces (Yakubu and Dasuki, 2018); however, cases have been made to show huge investments in e.g. Learning Management Systems (LMS) that have faced a high rate of technological failures (Al-Azawei, 2019). The case does not end there, as other factors reflect dissatisfaction in the services and the exploitation of interactive features of social networking sites (SNS) with direct reference to developing countries (Al-Azawei, 2019). Research figures show that in a span of 16 years there is little improvement that cannot be seen as very significant given the number of Information Systems that have not been successful within the same span of time (Hughes, Rana and Simintiras, 2017). This is suggestive of the fact that generalizations on the factors responsible for Information Systems failures need to be better understood, and contextualized with regards occurrences of failures and their basic or complex most significant remedies (Hughes, Rana, and Simintiras, 2017). Avgerou (2019) sees the need for improving on methodology and theory, contextualized generalizations, comparative complementarity and alternate perspectives of theory in relation to technological and action underpinnings. From synthesized literature, developing countries are the focal-point of Information Systems researches today as elaborated by: Avgerou (2019); Aro-Gordon (2016); Audu, Gambo and Yakubu (2017); Hughes, Rana and Simintiras (2017); Nunamaker et. al., (2015); Dalal and Pauleen (2018); Al-Azawei (2019); Yakubu and Dasuki (2018); Yildrim and Bediroglu (2018); Azeta at. al.(No Date); Oravee, Zayum and Kokona (2018); Shagari (2017); Joshua (2010); Iyengar (2016); Nielsen and Sæbø (2016); Guerriero (2015); Bello and Obinne (2012); Dwivedi et. al. (2015); Gichoya (2005); Ismail and King (2007); Nauman, Aziz and Ishaq (2005); Ojoko and Ojoko (2017); Avgerou (2008); Heeks (2002); Vaidya, Myers and Gardner (2013); Walsham, Robey and Sahay (2007), - in relation to failures and a need for improvement through diversified and integrated mechanisms (Nielsen and Sæbø, 2016). This is in consonance with perceived failure occurrences and experiences in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Some of the consequential outcomes of these are investments of huge amounts of financial resources to implement inefficient systems in the least, or failed systems at worse (Sadoughi, et. al., 2013). Whatever the case, it is important to note that failure or success is contingent on contextual criteria or

FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURES IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA (A MASTER’S RESEARCH PROJECT)

parameters, and in the case of Information Systems, failure or success lay on the system in question achieving the purpose for which it was created (Sadoughi, et. al., 2013). 2.2 INFORMATION SYSTEMS RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS IN RELATION TO NASARAWA STATE NIGERIA This study is therefore a semblance of toxicology and interventionist research on Information Systems failures in developing countries with particular reference to Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Avgerou in her 2008 review on developing countries and Information Systems (IS) pointed out clearly how an attempt has been made by developing countries to benefit from the Information Communications Technology exposé. Three discourses in implementation and related socio-organizational coexistent changes in IS were identified to include: transfer of technological knowhow subjected to socio-indigenous settings; socially entrenched behaviors; and interventions related to technological/organizational transformations based on economic and political global undertones (Avgerou, 2008).If these are characteristic of IS endeavors in developing countries, then there is a missing link as to why most of the IS endeavors end up inadequate or failed, and this research study attempts to establish that missing link with particular reference and consideration of Nasarawa State, Nigeria as a segment within a developing country. 2.3 CONCEPTUAL/THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The expanse and incidence of arguments and enquiries in the IS field in relation to its failures in developing countries presents an enormous ‘cookie jar ’ of elements to consider (Samuel, 2020) dynamic as they are. However, the importance of really understanding the strategic underpinnings of Information Systems researches in developing countries cannot be overemphasized (Avgerou, 2008).There should be some form of reinforcement in establishing whether local actions use the transfer of technological know-how to replicate or reengineer IS to suite the environmental settings available. For instance, some countries currently offer self-driving car services and it is believed that this is only possible in more organized settings. In Nigeria, particularly the Federal Capital Territory (used in this instance because of Nasarawa State’s proximity to the FCT) it is possible to drive around the city of Abuja using an app like Google Maps or a good navigation system in conjunction with the internet. In Nasarawa State, except for Karu which shares a border with the FCT, the possibility for that is highly limited despite the fact that a geographic information system Agency exists. The argument is that if

FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURES IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA (A MASTER’S RESEARCH PROJECT)

manned cars can hardly be navigated with a geographic information system in place, then how much more self-driving cars which are more reliant on the geographic positioning systems? This leads to the conclusion that self-driving cars may not be able to utilize the geographic information system in Nasarawa State, Nigeria based on the following premises: the setting is not organized; reckless driving and disobedience to traffic is paramount; the unrefined nature of road networks; and the information system not being adequate enough to provide the needed necessary information for self-driving cars to operate successfully (this is an analogy). This brings us to an important point raised by Avgerou (2008) that recommends linking the commonly obtainable in IS research fields with peculiarities in the subfields, even while looking from the perspective of a general IS knowledge (Samuel, 2020). This has the capacity to boost and broaden global perspectives as related to Information Systems failures from a significantly generalized/generalize-able point of view (Samuel, 2020).Focusing on the benefits of Information Systems that are applicable to developing countries, Kanungo (2001) in his research discovered six apparent benefits of village info-knowledge shops in the milieu of information villages to include contextual elements such as: market and economic societies, organizations of government and nongovernmental organizations, institutional sub-divisions, industrial outlets, national level information and weather related centers, and non-segregated gender of farming class (Samuel, 2020) – one context he did not consider explicitly is the unemployed which is an important contextual consideration. Kanungo’s (2001) research objectives attempted to determine levels at which prevailing inferences of Information Systems particularly of management pertinently denote inter-organizational and emancipatory dispositions (Samuel, 2020). The research focused on shared issues/generalizations that are beyond context, on the principle of larger explanatory frameworks that subsume specific theories (Kanungo, 2001). However, Kanungo’s (2001) framework is contradictory where Avgerou’s (2008) framework is concerned (Samuel, 2020), discouraging a framework which is inappropriate in the application of theories developed elsewhere purposefully for underlining explicit understanding in another, but centers on researching from the basic towards a more ornate and comprehensive research (Samuel, 2020).This research study wishes and attempts to build on the 2008 conceptual framework of Avgerou, which allows for a more elaborate and thorough enquiry into possible IS failure factors in Nasarawa State, Nigeria (Samuel, 2020). The study attempts to uncover any gap (s) that is/are likely to exist in the formation of multiple instances of info-knowledge village

FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURES IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA (A MASTER’S RESEARCH PROJECT)

shops that unveil high costs and ineffective benefits to the people and government of Nasarawa State in addition to its limited sensitization benefit manifests (Kanungo, 2001; Samuel, 2020). To analyze this further, the research environment will be used as an example in the context of its: multi-cultural; ethnic; and wide community spread (Samuel, 2020). There are over 300 such communities in Nasarawa State from 13 Local Government Areas and about 18 Development Areas (Nasarawa State Government, 2019). Following Kanungo’s (2001) research exhibits, if the Nasarawa State government where to create info-knowledge village shops in over 300 communities, the cost burden will be overwhelming, considering there are other budgetary elements to spend on (Samuel, 2020). According to Aranyossy, Blaskovics, and Horváth, (2018) spending on Information Technology related endeavors to a large extent accounts a higher percentage of total corporate investments exceeding 30% in 2005 in the United States and 25% in European Union countries. The expectations are primarily for value creation, and this spending is likely to soar world-wide to about $3.5 billion in 2016 (Aranyossy, Blaskovics, and Horváth, 2018). Even with such spending, 18% of IT related projects experienced failures and 43% of IT related projects experienced challenges with expectations of a multiplier effect on the risks with regard larger, higher complex projects with level of 40% (Aranyossy, Blaskovics, and Horváth, 2018). This has inspired deeper exploration of the issues at hand and their possible solutions from different angles and perspectives (Aranyossy, Blaskovics, and Horváth, 2018). In their research, which examined underlying assumptions of the universality of success and failure factors in East Central Europe with specific reference to Hungary, they make a comparative analysis of IT project failure factors from a non-US perspective (Aranyossy, Blaskovics, and Horváth, 2018). However, it is worth noting that IT related researches are indispensible of the United States from the perspective of technology, the internet and the World Wide Web. In that light, this research work explores failure factors from an African perspective but at the same time reflects on different regional, national and international perspectives. To work from an enlightened perspective that exhibits vision and increases awareness with the problem area (Nunamaker, Chen and Purdin, 1991) in relation to ISs, the Nasarawa State government can decide to create an IS infoknowledge base that can serve as a central solution from the perspective of the multicultural, ethnic and lingual nature of the associated population (Samuel, 2020). The Nasarawa State government can take this study research as a help towards enlightened perspectives and insights to identify what it is dealing with in an attempt to deal

FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURES IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA (A MASTER’S RESEARCH PROJECT)

effectively, decisively and appropriately with issues that relate to Information Systems in the State. 2.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF AN ADEQUATE INFORMATION SYSTEM Hinging on the UN-Habitat ’s (2012) flagship report, which indicates enormous rural urban migration in developing regions by the year 2030, it is inevitable to ensure Information Systems are highly adequate enough to enhance developmental planning/decision procedures and Smart City concepts in Nasarawa State. Putting into consideration the ability to be able to solve the challenges of both rural and urban poverty, cities absent of slums, with proper health care, better security, inclusivity, power, water, sanitation, reasonably priced transport (UN-Habitat, 2012) etc. it is important to note the obvious inspiration and motivation of the research, in its attempt to examine the Information Systems failure issues associated with Nasarawa State, Nigeria in the context of developing nations (Samuel, 2020).This research work takes into cognizance the 1995 city consultative forum that focused on Information Systems especially in the context of the environment (Daniel and Obadiah, 2015). It goes a long way in establishing that fact that it is only when we know what we are dealing with, that we are able to do something about it; this adage speaks in volumes where Information Systems failure experiences are concerned (Samuel, 2020). And it is imperative to note that Information Systems concerns should not be limited to the environment or Citizenship (The Social Context) alone (Samuel, 2020). This research work will consider Smart City concepts in the perspective of the Social Context and the Digital Technological Innovation Component (Samuel, 2020) against Joss, Mathew and Dayot’s (2017) enquiry that viewed Smart Cities in the perspective of Citizenship alone. It is important to note that a holistic approach is fundamental in combining both components for a better understanding of IS and Smart City concepts in relation to Nasarawa State, Nigeria.

2.5 THE NOTION OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURE What is it that constitutes an Information Systems failure? This question is one that will resonate in the minds of stakeholders such as the political actors and the rural poor of Nasarawa State. It is essential to note that when a system is said to be a failed system, it is obvious that the finished product does not align with the perceived benefits (Gichoya,

FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURES IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA (A MASTER’S RESEARCH PROJECT)

2005) – with specific reference to the desire of the stakeholders in general (Samuel, 2020). Nonetheless, a system may also be seen as failed if it does not see completion (Nauman, Aziz and Ishaq, 2005) and if the individuals involved have a wrong mentality/ outlook and understanding of the system as a whole (Samuel, 2020). According to Gichoya (2005) the following premises: 1. Unsuitable Infrastructure; 2. Unenthusiastic Staff; 3. The existence of bureaucracy; and 4. Poor project and change management. Could they be the pertinent factors responsible for the associated issues of Information Systems, information dissemination and Smart City concepts in Nasarawa State being labeled as inadequate or as failed, or could it be the suppositions postulated by Avgerou (2008) that are relatively linked to developing countries which include: 1. Techno-knowledge transfer process and socio-indigenous adaptation conditions 2. Socially embed action procedures; and 3. Techno-organizational intervention procedures linked with global transformative politics and economics? According to Kaur and Aggrawal’s (2013) assertions summarizing Wilson and Howcroft’s elucidations on the classification of Information Systems failure types the following exhibit their summary: 1. Project type failures (a failure attributed to non-compliance with agreed ideals ranging from agreed time periods, budgets and functionalities). 2. System type failures (a failure attributed to low performance projections, operational time lag, and projected usage). 3. User failure type (a failure attributed to user confrontation/opposition, deficiency in ability and capacity building, associated complexities with the new system). And as explained earlier Information Systems failures can occur technically or socially devoid of respect for neither position as with governmental or non-governmental

FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURES IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA (A MASTER’S RESEARCH PROJECT)

establishments; SMES; larger companies; or world reputed countries (Kaur and Aggrawal, 2013). It is important to note that IS failures are not linked to developing countries alone (Lemon, et. al., 2002) however, a higher percentage of the IS failures and incompletions (Heeks, 2002) can be associated to developing countries (Samuel, 2020). These failures can be attributable to general issues, factors, influences, impacts and intricacies (Nauman, Aziz, and Ishaq, 2005), nevertheless, developing countries it is believed experience influence factors that are multi-factorial (Dwivedi, et. al., 2015) and context specific (Samuel, 2020). In trying to establish emphasis, Information Systems failures are likely to occur anywhere (Samuel, 2020).Kaur and Aggrawal (2013) in their enquiry of indepth literature review articulated how Information Systems failures occur as technical or social failures. This research enquiry investigates the social and technical insinuations from a holistic standpoint of Information Systems failures in Nasarawa State, it is very likely that there involves an intertwining attribute of these socio-technical features in relation to Information Systems failures in the State (Samuel, 2020). 2.6 CRITICAL PREMISES TO EXPLORE IN RELATION TO FAILURE FACTORS The research study will focus on 6 key themes that are critical to information systems the world over, but will do this in the context of Nasarawa state. Key issues among others to look at with regards failures include in the context of: resources and communications Process; affecting the efficacy and efficiency of information systems – Improvement; affecting stability and maturity of information systems - Technology (Kaur and Aggrawal, 2013); where - access to generated data and information is accessible and fast for relative communities; for smart-city concept inclusions for the provision of novel and beneficial – services; transparent, administrative mechanisms that allow – creation of tools that affirm calculated benefits (Avgerou, 2008). These themes will also be explored from any emerging sub themes.

2.7 OTHER CRITICAL CONSIDERATIONS The percentage at which scholars focus on urban habitations and the corporate domain as conveyed by Kanungo (2001) and Brandt et. al., (2016) is alarmingly higher than the focus on rural habitations (Samuel, 2020). This research work intends to factor in the rural poor while investigating Information Systems failures in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. This is because the rural poor as it is together with developing countries remain an

FACTORS INFLUENCING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FAILURES IN NASARAWA STATE, NIGERIA (A MASTER’S RESEARCH PROJECT)

inclusive portion of a biosphere within which a surge of digital life (Brandt et. al., 2016) will wash over in a not so distant future (Samuel, 2020). Taking it from another IS angle, considering smart cities from a global viewpoint with urban life and the private sector as the leading fundamental elements is a major inadequacy (Brandt et. al., 2016); this is an attribute that can likely be propagated from worldwide IS scholars to indigenous sub fields (Avgerou, 2008; Samuel, 2020) as is presumed to be the current condition within Nasarawa State (Samuel, 2020). Technology has been established to be very central where Information Systems and Smart City deliberations are concerned, for instance the Internet of Things, Big and Open Data which function as drivers aimed at improving the quality and efficacy of services (Brandt et. al., 2016). It has the potential for improving the quality of life in addition to features that can deplete the digital divide (Kanungo, 2001). According to Kanungo (2001) this is not a complete reality owing to factors that impede the process such as colossal costs, unaffordable infrastructure and other context associated factors. To be more explicit in relation to these context associated factors it is essential that the frequency and disparity of fresher technology be mentioned as part of it (Samuel, 2020). In addition to the frequency and disparity of fresher technology, technological adoption is another feature that is pertinent and should have been included in the summary of Kaur and Aggrawal (2013), based on the submissions of Brandt et. al., (2016) of technology playing a very indispensable role, in relation to Information Systems concerns. Nasarawa State, Nigeria has the inherent potential of understanding Information Systems and putting them in place to enhance Smart City concepts by examining the likelihood of these factors and other factors being responsible for Information Systems failures and inadequacies in the state (Samuel, 2020); to this effect, the research enquiry will attempt to answer questions that revolve around IS failures in Nasarawa State such as displayed in below: