PAM Research Report

Enhancing 21st Century Competencies in Physical Education, Art and Music: PAM Research Report

Copyright ©2016 Ministry of Education, Singapore All rights reserved.

All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. No part of it may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Physical Education and Sports Teacher Academy (PESTA) and the Singapore Teachers’ Academy for the aRts (STAR).

Published by Physical Education and Sports Teacher Academy (PESTA) Singapore Teachers’ Academy for the aRts (STAR) 2 Malan Road Singapore 109433 http://www.pesta.moe.edu.sg http://www.star.moe.edu.sg ISBN: 978-981-09-8447-2

Contents 01

Foreword

03

Acknowledgements

06

Chapter 1 Introduction to PAM Research Siew Ling CHUA, Kok Boon LIM, Hanif ABDUL RAHMAN

18

Chapter 2 Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore Anthony LEOW, Gwendoline Wendy KOH, Hanif ABDUL RAHMAN

44

Chapter 3 Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching Kok Boon LIM, Chor Howe TEO, Bee Lian KEHK, Victoria LOY

70

Chapter 4 Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom Siew Ling CHUA, Hui Ping HO, Chee-Hoo LUM, Chai Jing TAN

96

Chapter 5 Conclusion Siew Ling CHUA, Kok Boon LIM, Hanif ABDUL RAHMAN

foreword 1

Bringing out the best in our students has always been our main goal and this means developing them holistically, in all aspects – moral, cognitive, physical, social and aesthetic.

International benchmark studies in recent years have affirmed Singapore’s success in providing quality education to our students. There is more we can do to ensure that the quality of education we provide continues to be progressive and grounded by the current and future needs for our students. The move towards student-centric, valuesdriven education makes learning engaging and versatile in meeting the varied learning needs of our students in the 21st century.

The establishment of Physical Education and Sports Teacher Academy (PESTA) and Singapore Teachers’ Academy for the aRts (STAR) in 2011 was a significant milestone to enhance the quality of teaching in Physical Education (PE), Art and Music education.

Since then STAR and PESTA have nurtured a teacher-led culture of continual learning through mentoring programmes, various professional development opportunities and research.

Educational research generates professional knowledge from evidence-based practices and provides a sound basis for innovation and change.

The PE, Art and Music (PAM) Research is one such example.

A collaborative venture between MOE, PESTA, STAR, schools and the National Institute of Education, the PAM Research sought to determine the pedagogical principles and practices that would support the development of the 21st Century Competencies (21CC) in PE, Art and Music. Together, the team of researchers have started to define what can be considered as the Singapore approach to the infusion of 21CC in these subjects.

I congratulate the teams who have worked on this research and I am confident that their findings will go a long way towards the provision of quality education for our students. As you read this, I hope that you will be inspired by the insights that these teams have gathered and take up the challenge to make advancements of your own towards pedagogical innovation.

Mr Wong Siew Hoong Director-General of Education Ministry of Education, Singapore

2

Acknowledgements This research was possible through the contributions of the following people and schools:

PAM RESEARCH COMMITTEE (2012 to 2014) (Designations presented are as of 2012 to 2014)

Advisor Prof Lee Wing On

Dean / OER, NIE-NTU

Assistant Advisor Prof David Hung

Associate Dean / OER, NIE-NTU

Chairpersons Mrs Rebecca Chew Ms Melanie Martens Mrs Teo Khin Hiang Mr Tan Teck Hock

Academy Principal / STAR (from 15 Dec 2012) Academy Principal / PESTA (from 15 Dec 2013) Former Academy Principal / STAR (till 14 Dec 2012) Former Academy Principal / PESTA (till 14 Dec 2013)

Members Mr Ong Kim Soon Mr Low Eng Teong Mr Melvin Chng

Deputy Director / PESEB Deputy Director / AEB Curriculum Policy Specialist / Curriculum Policy Office

PE Subject Team Mr Hanif Abdul Rahman Dr Isabella Wong Mdm Wendy Koh Mr Shang Thian Huat Dr Anthony Leow Mr Timothy D’Cruz Ms Connie Yeo Dr Susanna Ho

Master Teacher (PE) / PESTA, Principal Investigator Sub-Dean / HPLD, NIE-NTU (Research Advisor) Programme Manager / PESTA Programme Manager / PESTA Programme Manager / PESTA Programme Manager / PESTA Senior Specialist (Physical Education) / PESEB Senior Specialist (Outdoor Education) / PESEB

Supported by Miss Phyllis Thia Mr Teng Tse Sheng Mr Roskhaider Mohd Saat Ms Helen Low

Programme Manager / PESTA Programme Manager / PESTA Programme Manager / PESTA Programme Manager / PESTA

Art Subject Team Mr Lim Kok Boon Ms Kehk Bee Lian Mr Teo Chor Howe Mdm Victoria Loy Ms Grace Kwa

3

Programme Director (Art) / STAR, Principal Investigator Lecturer / VPA, NIE-NTU (Research Advisor) Senior Specialist (Art) / AEB Master Teacher (Art) / STAR Programme Manager (Art) / STAR

Supported by Ms Tang Hui Jing Mdm Chun Wee San Mr Lee Pheng Guan Mdm Ira Wati Sukaimi Dr Koh Bee Kim Ms Dee Chia Ms Jane Hoe Mr Nathanael Tan

Programme Manager (Art) / STAR Programme Manager (Art) / STAR Programme Manager (Art) / STAR Programme Manager (Art) / STAR Senior Specialist (Art) / AEB Senior Specialist (Art) / AEB Arts Education Officer (Art) / AEB Arts Education Officer (Art) / AEB

Music Subject Team Mrs Tan-Chua Siew Ling Asst Prof Lum Chee Hoo

Mrs Li Yen See Ms Ho Hui Ping Ms Agnes Tan Chai Jing Dr Koh Chee Kang Ms Lee Chin Sin Mr Lim Seng Yuen

Programme Director (Music) / STAR, Principal Investigator Assistant Professor / VPA, NIE-NTU, Coordinator of UNESCO-NIE Centre for Arts Research and Education Master Teacher (Music) / STAR Programme Manager (Music) / STAR Senior Specialist (Music) / AEB Senior Specialist (Music) /AEB Arts Education Officer (Music) / AEB Arts Education Officer (Music) / AEB

Supported by Mrs Joanne Yeo Mr Lennie Chua Ms Sheryl Sim Mdm Suriati Suradi

Programme Manager (Music) / STAR Programme Manager (Music) / STAR Programme Manager (Music) / STAR Master Teacher (Music) / STAR

INTERNATIONAL PANEL (IP) MEMBERS (2013 to 2014) (Designations presented are as of 2013 to 2014)

PE Mrs Daisie Yip Dr Isabella Wong Dr Judith Rink Mr Kiran Kumar Gosian Ms Melanie Martens

Dr Ralph Pim

Mr Tan Siew Tiong

Cluster Superintendent (Retired), MOE Sub-Dean / HLPD, NIE-NTU Emeritus Professor, University of South Carolina, USA Principal, Sembawang Primary School Former Principal, St Anthony’s Canossian Secondary School (Current Academy Principal / PESTA) Professor, Physical Education / Director of Competitive Sports (Retired), United States Military Academy, West Point, USA Principal, East Coast Primary School

Art Prof Karen Lee Carroll Dr Richard Hickman Dr Winston Ang

Dean, Centre for Art Education, Maryland Institute College of Art Reader in Art Education, Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge Blue Dot Art Consultant

4

Ms Kehk Bee Lian Mr Low Joo Hong Mr Yang Tien

Lecturer / VPA, NIE-NTU Principal, Siglap Secondary School Deputy Director (Animation), Nanyang Polytechnic

Music Dr Scott Shuler Dr Eric W. Favaro Dr Lum Chee Hoo

Mr Eric Peter Stead Mrs Clara Lim-Tan Mrs Constance Loke

Arts Education Specialist, Connecticut State Department of Education, USA Arts Education Consultant, Canada Assistant Professor / VPA, NIE-NTU, Coordinator of UNESCO-NIE Centre for Arts Research and Education Senior Lecturer / VPA, NIE-NTU Principal, CHIJ (Kellock) School Principal, Haig Girls’ School

SCHOOLS Admiralty Primary School Anderson Primary School Anderson Secondary School Anglican High School Beacon Primary School Bedok View Secondary School Bukit Panjang Primary School Canberra Secondary School Cedar Girls’ Secondary School Chongzheng Primary School Clementi Town Secondary School Edgefield Primary School Endeavour Primary School Holy Innocents’ High School Keming Primary School Maris Stella High School (Primary) Naval Base Primary School Ngee Ann Primary School Radin Mas Primary School River Valley Primary School Seng Kang Primary School St. Andrew’s Junior School St. Andrew’s Secondary School St. Gabriel’s Secondary School West Grove Primary School Zhenghua Primary School

5

01

Introduction to PAM Research Siew Ling CHUA, Kok Boon LIM, Hanif ABDUL RAHMAN 6

10

Section Title Section Title

1 - Introduction to PAM Research

BACKGROUND In 2010, the Ministry of Education (MOE)

Education and Sports Teacher Academy (PESTA)

announced a new framework to be implemented

and the Singapore Teachers’ Academy for the

in Singapore schools, the purpose of which is

aRts (STAR) in 2011, to support the in-service

to enhance the development of 21st Century

professional development of Physical Education

Competencies (21CC) in students, which will

(PE), Art and Music teachers, testifies to MOE’s

underpin the holistic education provided by

commitment to strengthen PAM education.

schools. This was done with the objective of

When STAR and PESTA were launched in 2011, the

achieving student outcomes where a student

academies envisioned their role as key engines

becomes an active contributor, a concerned

to enhance the quality of PAM education, which

citizen, a self-directed learner, and a confident

would contribute to the Whole-of-Government 1

person.

efforts to ensure sustainable economic growth,

In the same press release, MOE also announced

world class living environment, strong families

its commitment to strengthen the quality of

and a cohesive society. This is aligned to the

Physical, Art and Music (PAM) education as

broader government agenda that involves:

“these subjects enable students to develop

a. MOE’s strategic focus in building 21CC and values in students;

physical robustness, enhance their creative and expressive capacities, as well as shape

b. The focus of then Ministry of Information,

their personal, cultural and social identity”

Communication and the Arts (now Ministry

(MOE, 2010). The establishment of the Physical

of Culture, Community and Youth) on

Con fid en tP ation, Collaborat c i n ion u e m a m n di Co n

on r fo

m

Civil Lite ra

s Skill on ati

Self-Awareness

Se cy ,G

lf-

ne r ear dL cte s and Cross-cul re t e ne s u r r di al s wa kil lA ls ba lo

rs

Self-Management

ed rn ce Con

C

iti ze n

Relationship Management Cr

itic al a nd

g kin Inventive Thin

ve Co nt rib uto r

Responsible DecisionCore Values Making Social Awareness

Ac

ti

Framework for 21st Century Competencies and Student Outcomes

1

Whole-of-Government efforts allow government agencies to tap on diverse knowledge, viewpoints and ideas

from across the public sector, with officers from different agencies coming together to broaden and deepen policy development, and to deliver services to citizens in more synergistic ways (Zainal, 2011).

8

transforming Singapore into a Distinctive

social capital for nation building. PAM subjects

Global City for the Arts from the Renaissance

serve as important platforms through which

City Plan; and

life skills can be taught. MOE postulates that

c. The focus of then Ministry of Community

equipping students with life skills will better

Development, Youth and Sports (now

position them to take advantage of opportunities

Ministry of Social and Family Development)

in a globalised world, build social cohesion and

and then Singapore Sports Council’s (now

personal commitment to the community, and

Sport Singapore) initiative of Vision 2030 to

therein, develop Singapore’s social capital.

further develop a Sporting Singapore.

In 2012, STAR and PESTA met with the Arts Education Branch (AEB) and Physical & Sports Education Branch (PESEB), MOE, and the National Institute of Education (NIE) to discuss a collaborative two-year government-funded research study to establish the significance of PE, Art and Music in the development of 21CC. The study, which was referred to as “PAM Research”, was designed to examine the impact of PE, Art and Music pedagogies on the delivery of the 21CC and PAM student outcomes. A committee, comprising representatives from various MOE divisions and NIE, was set up with Professor Lee Wing On (then Dean, Office of Education Research, NIE) and Professor David Hung (Associate Dean, Office of Education Research, NIE) acting as advisors. The subject teams for PE, Art and Music were formed to conceptualise the research process and methodology, to develop the evaluation guides, and to implement the research in subject-appropriate ways.

RESEARCH PURPOSE 9

While there is current international discourse (Voogt & Roblin, 2012; Schleicher (ed.), 2012; Dede, 2010; Shuler, 2011) on what constitutes 21st century skills and competencies, it is recognised that implementing 21CC poses pedagogical challenges for teachers. research

sought

to

understand

This

subject-

appropriate pedagogical principles that better deliver the 21CC, and draw the links between PAM subjects and the development of 21CC. These research findings would provide information to MOE on the design of professional development programmes and the support structures needed for the delivery of the PE, Art and Music curricula, and 21CC. It also aimed to inform PAM teachers and coaches on good teaching practices that could foster the development of 21CC and aid in the achievement of student outcomes.

Lastly, it is hoped that the insights gained from the research would help enhance the holistic education of our students through PAM and raise the capacity of the PAM fraternity.

METHODOLOGY

This research adopted a Case Study approach (Yin, 2009) incorporating both quantitative and qualitative elements to allow for an in-depth and

This research establishes the significance of PAM

holistic study, which takes into consideration the

in developing the 21CC that would constitute the

intricacies of ground situations and contexts.

Final (July to September 2014).

characteristics of effective pedagogies,

between these stages, professional

and consequently incorporate these

development interventions, in the

characteristics into the teaching and

form of mentoring, workshops and

learning of PAM. A total of 12 PE, 12 Art

networked learning, were conducted

and 12 Music teachers, from primary

based on the recommendations of the

and secondary schools, participated

International Panel.

in the research. The teachers involved in this research study were of varying teacher profiles so that findings would allow for translating, scaling and implementing

future

professional

development programmes.

The

International

Panel

In

provided

an overall description of the impact of PAM pedagogies, and advised on the principles for student-centred PAM

learning

that

nurture

21CC

and PAM student outcomes.

The

As part of the study, the teachers and

International Panel’s observations and

their respective classes were observed

recommendations became part of the

by an International Panel, and guided

data collection of this research study,

by evaluation tools designed by the

and were analysed in conjunction

respective subject teams. The purpose

with other data sources including

of the International Panel was to

teachers’ and students’ questionnaires

present an objective perspective of the

administered by the respective subject

PE, Art and Music teaching practices,

teams.

and observe student behaviours in Singapore’s primary and secondary classrooms.

During

the

The data collection stages and research processes are summarised in the flow chart in Figure 1.1 (Research Processes

school

visits,

the

International Panel also examined

Flow Chart). The processes are: a. Pre-

and

Post-Research

other artefacts from the teachers, such

Questionnaire

as schemes of work and lesson plans.

PAM teachers to examine their

To triangulate data from the lesson

understanding and perspectives

observations, the International Panel

of teaching methods and teaching

members conducted both interviews

practice, the factors influencing

with the teachers and focus group

the

discussions with students.

outcomes, and to gather feedback

The school visits were conducted in three stages over a two-year period: Baseline (January to March 2013); Interim (July to September 2013); and,

1 - Introduction to PAM Research

It was designed to understand the

administered

achievement

of

to

The purpose of the International Panel was to present an objective perspective of the PE, Art and Music teaching practices, and observe student behaviours in Singapore’s primary and secondary classrooms.

student

on the professional development interventions in nurturing 21CC; b. School visits by the International Panel to provide an objective account of the following through

10

lesson observations, focus group discussions

c. Professional development interventions to

and interviews:

clarify teachers’ understanding of 21CC, and,

•

Teachers’ pedagogies that seek to

provide support and guidance in nurturing

nurture 21CC

21CC in PAM education through mentoring,

•

Students’

observable

behaviour

workshops and networked learning.

demonstrating 21CC through PAM

Figure 1.1: Research Processes Flow Chart Baseline Stage (Jan-Mar 2013): Questionnaires, and International Panel visit Professional Development Interventions Interim Stage (Jul-Sep 2013): Questionnaires, and International Panel visit Professional Development Interventions Final Stage (Jul -Sep 2014): Questionnaires, and International Panel visit Consolidation and Report

International Panel The International Panel comprised three teams (PE, Art and Music); each consisting of local and overseas subject pedagogues, academics, and school leaders, identified by the academies

observations at school visits, the process allowed for a mediation of insider and outsider perspectives on the pedagogical moves and observable student-outcomes.

as possessing in-depth knowledge or having

In summary, the role of the International Panel

experience of the Singapore PAM education

was to:

contexts, and who are well regarded in their

a. Provide an overall description of the impact

respective subjects. Another criterion was that

of PAM education pedagogies on the delivery

they should possess a good understanding

of 21CC and student outcomes;

of 21CC. As both the international and local members in each team were required to discuss

11

and provide a consensual assessment of their

b. Identify

the

improvement

strengths for

21st

and

areas

century

for PAM

respectively.

to enhance the strengths and make

subject team focused on the social

improvements; and

and emotional competencies of self-

c. Provide input on directions of PAM

1 - Introduction to PAM Research

education, and recommend ways

For example, the PE

awareness, self-management, social

education pedagogies, and make

awareness,

recommendations on professional

making, and relationship management

development programmes and the

in the MOE 21CC framework.

support structures that are needed

was a deliberate decision made to

for the delivery of the curriculum

examine how PE could develop social

and development of 21CC.

and emotional competencies and the

responsible

decisionThis

affective domain, which seemed to be

Research and Evaluation Guides The PE, Art and Music subject teams developed the PAM PE Research Guide and the Art and Music Evaluation Guide for the International Panels to provide guidance on the research and evaluation processes. Since the research was about nurturing 21CC, the operational definitions for observable 21CC behaviours in students were

a less discussed area in PE teaching (Weiss, 2011, p. 4). For Art and Music, the subject teams focused on the 21CC outcomes of civic literacy, global awareness and cross-cultural skills, critical and inventive thinking, and communication,

collaboration

information skills.

and

The aim was to

explore broader pedagogical principles and leverages to nurture 21CC.

adapted from the indicators in the

The PE Research Guide dwelled on

“Standards & Benchmarks for 21st

three main areas that were viewed

Century

the

by the PE subject team as crucial

“Standards and Benchmarks for Social

Competencies”

and

to the understanding of affective

and Emotional Learning” by MOE. The

development within PE. These areas

other key considerations were that the

were: (a) Teacher’s belief and practice;

student behavioural indicators should

(b) Teacher’s pedagogical principles;

be guided by syllabus outcomes and

and (c) Students’ competencies. Four

also measure 21CC in subject-specific

guiding pedagogical principles on

areas.

The indicators should also

effective PE teaching and learning

be sufficiently broad for qualitative

that promote affective development

comments and feedback to be made by

were

teachers and the International Panels.

These principles were: (a) Positive

The teams designed the guides in unique ways, guided by the beliefs and objectives of PESTA and STAR

incorporated

in

the

The aim was to explore broader pedagogical principles and leverages to nurture 21CC.

guide.

Learning Environment; (b) Effective Communication; (c) Engaged Learning; and, (d) Skilful Management.

Key

teacher practices that corresponded

12

to the guiding principles were also included to guide the International Panel in their lesson observations.

Examples of these key

teacher practices are: (a) Establishing positive teacher-student

relationships

(Positive

Learning Environment); (b) Giving feedback appropriately (Effective Communication); (c) Facilitating reflection (Engaged Learning); and, (d) Establishing expectations and routines to

encourage

pro-social

norms

(Skilful

Management).

Questionnaires The PE questionnaires were designed to understand: (a) Teachers’ perceptions of their pedagogical principles and practices; and, (b) Teachers’ ability to develop social and emotional competencies.

The design of the

PE questionnaires was based on theories and concepts found in the The Skillful Teacher (Saphier, Haley-Speca & Gower, 2008) and the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) Effective Social and

As for the Art and Music evaluation guide, this

Emotional Learning Programmes Guide (CASEL,

was designed to guide the International Panel

2013). Data from the first questionnaire aimed to

in evaluating and providing feedback on the Art

inform the team on teachers’ views of the impact

and Music pedagogies and resultant observable

of PE and Sports on the affective development

student behaviours. It provided indicators for

of students, and on their pedagogical principles

lesson observations and guiding questions for

and practices used to foster students’ affective

focus group discussions and interviews with

learning. The second questionnaire aimed to

students and teachers. The evaluation framework

provide data on teachers’ perceptions of their

was framed by the seven principles of student-

level of competence in developing social and

centred arts learning, which were derived from

emotional competencies in their students, and

lesson observations (local and overseas) by

how they attempted to develop these social

STAR, feedback from AEB, and dialogue with

and emotional competencies in their students

teacher-leaders from October 2011 to May 2012.

during PE lessons.

These principles included: (a) Knowing students

were administered to the 12 PE teachers at the

(psychology and development in art / music); (b)

Baseline and Final stages of the research.

Making learning relevant through contextualising learning of the arts; (c) Providing choices and empowering students to make decisions (in the arts processes, learning goals, and criteria of success); (d) Facilitating reflection-in-action, reflection-on-action and critical thinking; (e) Facilitating creativity in art and music making; (f) Creating a ‘flow’ (fluency, pacing, aesthetic flow); and, (g) Creating a conducive arts learning environment (e.g. organisation for instruction, collaborative learning).

The two questionnaires

In addition, a student questionnaire, adapted from the Rating Tool for Social and Emotional Competencies

(RTSEC)

developed

by

the

Guidance Branch, MOE, was designed to gather information on students’ perceptions of their social and emotional competencies. It was also administered at the Baseline and Final stages of the research to 12 students within each of the sample classes.

All three questionnaires were piloted before they were administered. Responses from the

13

were

triangulated

identified teachers stood in terms of

with data collected during lesson

their teaching practices compared

observations, focus group discussions

to the rest of their Art and Music

with students, and teacher interviews.

colleagues in Singapore, and informed

The collected data provided the

the

research team with information on

perception of their teaching practices.

teacher beliefs and teacher practice,

The Art and Music questionnaires were

teacher pedagogical principles, and

administered at the beginning of the

student competencies.

research (November 2012 – January

The Art and Music questionnaires were developed and designed to understand teachers’ perspectives of their own teaching practice in relation to the seven principles of student-centred arts learning as described in the evaluation guide.

The design of questions for

each of the principles was guided by underpinning theories. For example, the teacher moves in The Skillful Teacher (Saphier, Haley-Speca & Gower, 2008) were used to frame the questions for the principle on creating a ‘flow’.

Artful thinking palette from Project Zero was used to define the critical thinking dispositions in Art. Literature on creative processes by Petty (1997), Sternberg & Williams (1996), Burnard (2012), and Odena (2012) were used to define the questions on facilitating

Three versions of the questionnaire piloted

prior

to

the

administration. As the questionnaire was also administered to other Art and Music teachers, the data from the questionnaire allowed the research team

to

team

on

teachers’

2013), and toward the end of the research (July – August 2014).

Research Ethics Research

ethic

protocols

were

adhered to throughout the study. The research participants gave informed consent, and were allowed to decline participation

or

withdraw

the study at any time.

from

Classroom

observations, focus group discussions and interviews, and the recording of these sessions proceeded with parental consent and student assent.

Data

collected was kept confidential, and subsequent reporting of data ensured

Overall, the PAM Research confirmed the unique contributions of PE, Art and Music to the nurturing of 21CC.

anonymity was preserved.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the PAM Research confirmed

creativity.

were

research

1 - Introduction to PAM Research

questionnaires

understand

where

the

the unique contributions of PE, Art and Music to the nurturing of 21CC. This chapter broadly sets out the rationale, context and methodology for the research. The remaining chapters aim to elaborate further on the processes and share the key findings that will be useful for the teaching of PE, Art and

14

15

Music, as well as the professional development

effective Art teaching practices.

of teachers. Chapter 2 discusses the evidence

discusses the four pedagogical leverages for

of how PE could catalyse the development of

Music in the fostering of students’ 21CC. And

social and emotional competencies and the

finally, Chapter 5 summarises the key learning

five affective learning opportunities. Chapter

that is common across the PE, Art and Music

3 discusses the development of 21CC through

studies.

Chapter 4

1 - Introduction to PAM Research

references Burnard, P. (2012). Musical creativities in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning. (2013). Effective social and emotional learning programs: Preschool and elementary school edition. Retrieved 27 August, 2015, from http://www.casel.org/preschool-and-elementary-edition-casel-guide Dede, C. (2010). Comparing frameworks for 21st century skills. In J. Bellanca & R. Brandt (Eds.), 21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn (pp. 51-75). Bloomington: Solution Tree Press.

Ministry of Education. (2010). MOE to enhance learning of 21st Century Competencies and strengthen Art, Music and Physical Education. Retrieved 1 January, 2015, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/press/2010/03/moe-to-enhance-learning-of-21s.php Odena, O. (2012). Musical creativity: Insights from Music education research. England: Ashgate Publishing Limited.

Petty, G. (1997). How to be better at creativity. London: Kogan Page Ltd. Saphier, J., Haley-Speca, M. A., & Gower, R. (2008). The skillful teacher: Building your teaching skills. United States of America: Research for Better Teaching, Inc. Schleicher, A. (Ed.). (2012). Preparing teachers and developing school leaders for the 21st century: Lessons from around the world. OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264174559-en Shuler, S. C. (2011). Music education for life: The three artistic processes: Paths to lifelong 21st-century skills through music. Music Educators Journal, 97(4), 9-13.

Sternberg, R. J., & Williams, W. M. (1996). How to develop student creativity. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Voogt, J., & Roblin, N. P. (2012). A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century competences: Implications for national curriculum policies. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 44(3), 299 – 321.

16

Weiss, M. R. (2011). Teach the children well: A holistic approach to developing psychosocial and behavioral competencies through physical education. Quest, 63(1), 55-65. doi: 10.1080/00336297.2011.10483663 Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Zainal, K. (2011). Reviewing Whole-of-Government collaboration in the Singapore Public Service. Ethos, 9, 11-18.

17

1 - Introduction to PAM Research

02

Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore Anthony LEOW, Gwendoline Wendy KOH, Hanif ABDUL RAHMAN

18 14

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

INTRODUCTION Recent education policies and curriculum

understand how to effectively meet the learning

documents

the

needs of 21st Century students without losing

development of 21CC as a cross-curriculum goal

sight of the primary purpose of PE that addresses

and place the goal at the centre of the education

students’ psychomotor development.

in

Singapore

process in Singapore schools.

promote

All subjects,

including PE, are required to contribute to the development of 21CC and the desired student outcomes as delineated in the MOE Framework for 21CC and Student Outcomes. This growing emphasis on outcomes beyond academic achievements is the result of a confluence of factors, including shifting perceptions and mindsets among Singapore’s political leaders that started with the vision of “Thinking Schools, Learning Nation”, as advocated by former Prime Minister Mr Goh Chok Tong (Goh, 1997).

The cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains are integral aspects of a student’s education and as such, it will be remiss of a PE teacher to neglect any one domain in his or her lessons. Unlike the psychomotor and cognitive domains where learning can be clearly defined within a PE classroom, the same cannot be said of the affective domain. The affective domain is difficult to define, owing to its subjective, imprecise and personal nature (Pope, 2005).

However, this lack of clarity associated with the affective domain cannot be attributed to a

This chapter addresses the question of how PE

lack of concern among PE teachers, educators,

can be an integral part of the total curriculum

or psychologists as evident in recent studies

within Singapore schools in fostering the

(e.g., Jacobs, Knoppers & Webb, 2013; Webster,

development of the 21CC and its associated

Mindrila & Weaver, 2013). According to Rink

desired student outcomes. More specifically, we

(2014), “Affective objectives describe student

look at the evidence of PE as one of the prime

feelings, attitudes, values, and social behaviours”

sites for facilitating students’ development of

(p. 6). While this general recognition that affect

21CC and how PE teachers can catalyse this

is associated with “feeling tones” (Krathwohl,

growth process. We will make the argument

Bloom & Masia, 1964) may be useful to a layman,

that PE is one subject that holds great potential

it provides neither the definition nor information

in developing students’ core values and Social

needed to develop a comprehensive notion

and Emotional Competencies (SEC) as there

about how specific educational objectives, or in

are ample opportunities for social interactions

this case 21CC, might be positioned in a school’s

among students, and between student and

PE programme.

teacher, within lessons (Bailey, 2006; Hellison, 2011; Theodoulides & Armour, 2001). This chapter also presents data from empirical work undertaken with the participating schools and their two-year professional learning journey with PESTA. The impetus on developing students’ 21CC in a globalised world is unlikely to dissipate and therefore, teacher educators, school leaders, policy writers and PE teachers need to better

There is a lack of data evaluating the extent to how PE teachers make sense of the curriculum objective to develop their students in the affective domain (Jacobs et al., 2013). Although MOE policy and curriculum documents in various subjects highlight the desired educational goals of 21CC and student outcomes, little is known about how PE teachers understand the

20

curriculum goals related to 21CC and how they try to accomplish these curriculum goals, if at all.

Various researchers have argued that the achievement of the affective goals is seldom straightforward and unproblematic but is heavily contingent on the PE teacher (Bailey, 2006; Vidoni & Ward, 2009). While the literature is replete with examples recognising its importance, the concept of affective learning in PE is often overlooked, ignored, or labelled as “too difficult” to be an elemental component of quality PE lessons. It is clear that further understanding is needed on the mechanisms through which students’ affective development can occur through PE. As Gibbons and Bressan (1991) have highlighted, “Curriculum theorists within physical education have not been particularly helpful in providing teachers with definitions and conceptual frameworks for thinking in productive ways about the affective dimension in general and affective outcomes in particular” (p. 79). This chapter is an attempt to offer an analytical framework within which to locate the affective aspects of PE.

Benjamin Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy has been widely recognised as a lingua franca for educators in determining learning objectives and as a foundational and essential element for curriculum and evaluation (Krathwohl, 2002).

On the contrary, the affective domain has been largely overlooked due to the emphasis on the acquisition of academic skills and many educators have shied away from the affective domain because of its complexity (Adkins, 2004).

Although we strive to develop an understanding of the needs of the diverse learner and appreciate

Against this backdrop, the research design

diversity within our schools, we often do not pay

concentrated on the development of students’

enough attention to and emphasise meeting the

SEC through PE and sought to understand:

diverse needs of each child we teach, especially

a. The PE pedagogical principles and practices

within the affective domain.

that contribute to the effective development of 21CC and student outcomes; and b. The effects that planned infusion and facilitation of 21CC in PE have on students’ affective development.

21

21ST CENTURY COMPETENCIES AND THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

CASEL is a leading organisation working to build demand and capacity for Social and Emotional Learning (SEL). Taking a leaf from CASEL, MOE defined the key domains of social and emotional skills as depicted in Table 2.1.

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

Table 2.1: Key Domains of Social and Emotional Competencies Key Domains of Social and Emotional Competencies

Description

Self-Awareness

Identifying and recognising emotions Accurate self-perception Recognising strengths, needs and values Self-efficacy Spirituality

Social Awareness

Perspective taking Empathy Appreciating diversity Respect for others

Self-Management

Impulse control and stress management Self-motivation and discipline Goal setting and organisational skills

Relationship Management

Communication, social engagement and building relationships Working cooperatively Negotiation, refusal and conflict management Seeking and providing help

Responsible Decision-Making

Problem identification and situation analysis Problem solving Evaluation and reflection Personal, moral and ethical responsibility

Source: Guidance Branch, MOE (http://intranet.moe.gov.sg/guidancebranch/sel_website/Pages/selrespack.aspx#ResPack) According to MOE, the teaching and facilitation

to inconsistency in purpose and actions.

of SEL in Singapore schools is guided by four

• Principle 2: SEC should be taught to students

principles:

to ensure that they acquire the competencies,

• Principle 1: Values are at the core as they guide

knowledge and dispositions that will help them

and provide the purpose for one’s behaviours.

face future challenges.

Values refer to the core values that are being

of competencies are Self-Awareness, Social

explicitly taught in the curriculum. Enactment of

Awareness,

actions without grounding in values would lead

Management, and Responsible Decision-Making.

The five key domains

Self-Management,

Relationship

22

Teaching of SEC to students can be explicit,

Coaching students through conflict situations;

through

(d) Encouraging cooperation among students;

infusion

or

through

teachable

moments2 .

and, (e) Modelling respectful and appropriate

• Principle 3: Schools play an important role

communication, and exhibitions of pro-social

in the teaching of SEC because school leaders

behaviours (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).

and teachers are important role models of these competencies. Furthermore, the school environment is an important enabler of student learning that supports the teaching and learning of SEC. • Principle 4: Children equipped with SEC, anchored on sound values, will be able to demonstrate good character and citizenship.

SEC is a critical part of our students’ learning to prepare them to navigate the challenges of the 21st Century. Together with the core values, SEC forms an integral part of MOE’s Framework for 21CC and Student Outcomes. The teaching and facilitation of SEC, together with positive and supportive relationships within the school community,

in

particular,

teacher-student

relationship, support and increase students’ learning, motivation and school success.

Conflicts

and

disruptive

behaviours

are

minimised in an optimal classroom climate where smooth transitions in between learning tasks, respectful communication and problemsolving in a supportive environment are heightened (La Paro & Pianta, 2003). On the other hand, students display lower levels of on-task behaviour and performance when teachers lack the resources and skills to effectively manage the social and emotional challenges within their classrooms (Marzano, Marzano & Pickering, 2003). Like Jennings and Greenberg (2009), we hypothesise that the quality of TSR, student and classroom management, and effective SEL programme implementation mediate curricular and student outcomes. We further postulate that in order to effectively facilitate students’ acquisition of SEC in the classroom, one must possess the pre-requisite knowledge and skills

As Eccles and Roeser (1999) suggest, a student’s

to be an effective teacher in his or her chosen

formal learning is largely shaped by his or her

subject; in this case, PE.

teacher, and this includes the acquisition of SEC. Socially and emotionally competent teachers have the potential to facilitate pro-social behaviours in their classroom through various means, such as: (a) Developing positive and supportive teacher-student relationships (TSR); (b) Establishing and implementing behavioural guidelines that promote intrinsic motivation; (c) 2

RESEARCH DESIGN

Teaching and learning have all too often been seen as either synonymous, or directly related

Knowles (1970) stated that each developmental task produces a ‘readiness to learn’ in students which at its peak

presents a “teachable moment”. Lawson and Flocke’s (2008) literature review across social science and medical disciplines databases show that 81% of the references for “teachable moments” has been used synonymous with “opportunities”. In this study, teachable moments are characterised as casual moments (unpremeditated

23

opportunities) arising within situations that present moral choices and ethical challenges (Reuben, 1997) which can be used to facilitate affective learning.

understanding to how participants

relationship (Tom, 1984). In order to

make meaning of a situation or

gain a deeper understanding of the

phenomenon (Lichtman, 2006).

interface between the teaching and learning of the affective domain, we need to recognise the constant struggle between (or synthesis of) the two sets of discourses. Situated within the teaching and learning nexus, the most desirable mode of inquiry in studying the interaction of the PE and 21CC discourses, is that of the qualitative paradigm. Arguing for the use of the qualitative paradigm in researching the social world, Heyman (1983) proclaimed:

Essentially, the interpretive paradigm is concerned with contributing to a better understanding of “what is happening here?” and “what do these events mean to the people engaged in them?”

(Erickson, 1986, p. 124).

It adheres

to the fundamental tenet that social reality is constructed and sustained through the subjective and intersubjective experiences of the actors to interpret and negotiate meanings about the world (Ting-Toomey, 1984).

This underlying principle formed the

Quantitative studies provide no remedy

crux of this study in investigating

for the indexicality of the social world…

the participants’ (both teachers and

this is repeatedly shown in the failure of

students) perspectives on the effects

these studies to provide useful accounts

of intentional efforts in facilitating

of teaching and learning without

affective learning through the PD

extensive provision being made to

interventions.

allow for contextual details of individual situations (p. 432).

In concurrence with Heyman (1983), an

interpretive

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

through a simple cause and effect

research

design

METHODOLOGY

A PE International Panel (IP) comprising

(Macdonald et al., 2002; Schempp

both

& Choi, 1994; Sparkes, 1994) was

pedagogues, and school leaders with

chosen for this study to investigate in

PE training, was formed to observe 12

depth the following: (a) How teachers’

teachers and 12 randomly selected

pedagogical principles and practices

students in their classes in three

facilitate the effective development of

stages over a one-and-a-half-year

21CC in students; and, (b) The effects

period:

of the professional development (PD)

2013); Interim (July to September

interventions on students’ affective

2013); and, Final (July to September

development.

2014).

The

interpretive

international

and

local

PE

…social reality is constructed and sustained through the subjective and intersubjective experiences of the actors to interpret and negotiate meanings about the world (TingToomey, 1984).

Baseline (January to March

To

control

participant

study design is used when the goal

variability, the classes involved in the

of the researcher is to gain a deeper

study deliberately remained intact

24

throughout the duration of the study. Four key

These principles and practices were drawn

considerations informing the choice of schools in

from both PE and general education literature

this study were:

(CASEL, 2013; Hellison, 2011; Rink, 2014; Rink &

1. The level of education - primary or secondary;

Hall, 2008; Saphier, Haley-Speca & Gower, 2008;

2. A fairly well-staffed PE department made up of

Weare & Gray, 2003). An evaluation framework

experienced teachers (n>5);

included in the Guide provided indicators for

3. The school’s previous involvement with PESTA

lesson observations and guiding questions for

projects; and

focused group discussions (FGD) and interviews

4. The research participants’ willingness and

with students and teachers.

informed consent.

Data on teachers’ beliefs and practices was

The PAM Research (PE) Guide was developed

collected from teacher questionnaires and

to foster a coherent understanding of the

lesson observations. This data was triangulated

inter-relationship of the core values, SEC

with responses from both the teacher interviews

and the emerging 21CC among members

and the student FGD. Interviews and lesson

of the International Panel. The Guide also

transcripts were coded and analysed, and a

operationalised the dimensions of emerging

peer check (Lichtman, 2006) was conducted

21CC and established a common understanding

with members of the PE subject team and

on the guiding pedagogical principles and their

International Panel to increase the veracity

accompanying teacher practices that advance

of the data collected. Data on students’

students’ affective learning (see Table 2.2).

perceived SEC was collected from students

Table 2.2: Guiding Pedagogical Principles and Teacher Practice for Affective Teaching

25

Guiding Pedagogical Principles

Teacher Practice that Promotes Students’ Affective Learning

Positive Learning Environment Creating a caring and participatory learning environment.

• Establish positive teacher-student relationships • Empower students with autonomy and choice • Create a conducive climate for student participation

Effective Communication Giving clear instructions and useful feedback; modelling good behaviour.

• Provide concise and specific instructions / teaching cues • Give feedback appropriately • Model Social Emotional Competencies

Engaged Learning Engaging students meaningfully and guiding them in practice.

• Embed affective learning experiences through appropriate performance tasks • Facilitate reflection • Facilitate transfer of learning • Facilitate success in learning

Skilful Management Managing students with clear boundaries and routines.

• Establish expectations and routines to encourage prosocial norms

conducting lessons to foster their discussion and

and student’s self-perception rating tool for

development. This study is essentially a typology

SEC adapted from the Rating Tool for Social and

(Goetz & LeCompte, 1984) and thus, both inductive

Emotional Competencies (RTSEC) developed by

and deductive content analyses were adopted

MOE Guidance Branch (MOE, 2012). A Teacher

(Suter, 2012).

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

and teachers through the teacher’s perception

Case Study Report was then produced for each teacher.

As part of the research process, PD

interventions were conducted for the 12 teachers in response to findings and International Panel recommendations at each stage of the research.

From the Baseline study, it was established that teachers lacked clarity on what constituted affective learning and affective development in PE. Therefore, in order to enhance teachers’

RESULTS

RQ 1: What are the PE pedagogical principles and practices that contribute to the effective development of 21CC and student outcomes?

Positive Learning Environment

competencies in facilitating their students’

A caring and participatory learning environment

affective development, the initial focus must be

is crucial to students’ affective development. It

on their overall delivery of PE. Teachers needed

addresses social awareness and relationship

to, first and foremost, be skilled and proficient

management within the SEC domains. It also

in achieving the psychomotor objectives of PE.

extends into the 21CC through the display of socio-

Findings suggested that PE as an effective platform

cultural awareness and sensitivity, and students’

for affective development could only exist in a

ability to communicate and collaborate effectively.

symbiotic relationship with quality PE teaching.

All the PE lessons observed in the three stages

Hence, the first round of PD intervention was

exhibited positive learning environments, and this

focused on examining teachers’ understanding

observation was corroborated through FGD with

of affective learning in PE and improving their

students. It was observed that the quality of the

competencies in delivering quality PE lessons.

learning environment established by the teachers

The PD interventions took the form of discussions

was dependent on the following:

with teachers, workshops, and mentoring of teachers through lesson observations by the PD

a. Depth of Teacher-Student Relationship (TSR)

team from PESTA.

Positive TSR enabled the teachers to facilitate

Thereafter, at the Interim Stage, teachers’ delivery

learning, such as making connections with

of quality PE, according to the four guiding pedagogical principles (see Table 2.2), became a primary PD focus area to provide them with the tools and strategies to be more effective teachers.

At this stage, further arrangements were made for the teachers to observe fellow participants from both primary and secondary schools

students through small-group activities and addressing students by name.

The teachers’

concern for students’ needs and wellbeing further cemented the TSR bond. Good TSR and teachers’ positive reinforcement created a positive learning environment that facilitated the internalisation of SEC and values in students. At FGDs, students

26

were able to cite instances of positive teacher

b. The teacher provided clear instructions and

role-modelling of SEC and articulate how values

useful feedback

were manifested through their actions during PE;

feedback to students, teacher effectiveness was

students

initially hampered by little wait time provided

Autonomy and choice at the Baseline Stage was carried out mainly through students working in teams, selection of equipment and goal setting.

It was not initially evident that teachers were prepared to empower students in other ways that would encourage them to take greater ownership of their learning. However, there was significant improvement in the Final Stage (see Table 2.3); and

Teachers

emphasised

inclusivity

in

PE

students were provided a safe and encouraging environment to make mistakes and work Teachers

were

their communication skills. Feedback was often not task-specific, lacked timelines and was impersonal. They were also mostly directed at addressing the psychomotor domain and the management of activities. Teachers provided clearer instructions, and timely and more personalised feedback with sufficient wait time in the Final Stage; and

for affective learning

throughout the stages and ensured that

collaboratively.

to facilitate students’ responses and develop

c. The teacher used appropriate teaching cues

c. Climate for student participation

generally

encouraging in their instruction and students were also engaged in carrying out the planned tasks and activities.

At the Baseline Stage, teaching cues for tasks were communicated more at the class level than at individuals and mainly for psychomotor skill development.

There was limited verification

of students’ understanding and instances of

inaccurate

verbal

stage of the study.

In the area of teachers’ communication, there

Engaged Learning

affective development:

and

Engaging students meaningfully and guiding them in practice, especially towards affective

a. The teacher was a role model for good behaviour regard

cues

demonstrations. The use of teaching cues for

Effective Communication

With

teaching

affective learning was observed only at the later

were three key aspects that influenced students’

27

In terms of giving instructions and providing

b. Level of autonomy and choice provided for

development, are essential. In the beginning, most

teachers

perceived

that

affective

development was best done through pep to

role-modelling,

teachers’

talks and teachable moments, and it was not

management of students generally displayed

necessary to plan for them in PE. Therefore,

respect, care and concern, and these traits

in the initial stages when high value teachable

were consistent with the promotion of affective

moments presented themselves during the

learning outcomes in students;

lessons, the teachers did not always seize them,

directed at recalling psychomotor cues

negative behaviour while failing to

with little extension into the cognitive

capitalise on positive examples.

and affective domains. There were also

Performance

tasks

design

and

development

were

at

times

pitched,

hence

hindering student learning.

It was

inappropriately

observed at the Baseline Stage that there was inadequate planning of performance tasks in the use of space, equipment and grouping, resulting in fewer opportunities for students to experience a wider range of emotions (e.g.

success

and

failure)

during

lessons. It was generally recognised that a feeling of relative success in PE was important to engage students emotionally

and

develop

them

positively in the affective domain.

few instances of teachers facilitating the transfer of affective learning beyond the PE context throughout the three stages.

As a result, the

internalisation of 21CC through SEC could be limited. After the final PD intervention, more teachers attempted to facilitate reflection and capitalise on high value teachable moments for the cognitive and affective domains.

Skilful Management Managing

students

with

clear

boundaries and routines is vital to good classroom management and the safe conduct of PE. Expectations and routines for class behaviour and

ideal

organisation were established well in

platforms that are best suited for

all lessons. It was, however, not clear

affective development in PE and they

as to how the expectations and routines

were regularly incorporated in most

could support the development of

of the lessons observed throughout

students’

the

Pair

and

group

work

are

affective

development.

however,

Generally, there was an over-emphasis

did not facilitate the dynamics of

on maintaining order and control by

social awareness and relationship

the teachers during the Baseline and

management

when

Interim Stages with little opportunity

opportunities presented themselves

for students to exhibit sound reasoning

during pair and group work till the later

and responsible decision-making. To

stages of the study. At the Baseline and

enhance students’ internalisation of

Interim Stages, most teachers did not

positive behaviour, teachers need to

appear to possess the range of skills

transfer autonomy and control back

to facilitate individual and small-group

to the students through planned

collaborative, critical and reflective

performance tasks that require self-

thinking during lessons. While some

regulation and conflict resolution as

teachers facilitated reflection at the

seen in the Final Stage.

stages.

Teachers,

effectively

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

but chose instead to address students’

It was generally recognised that a feeling of relative success in PE was important to engage students emotionally and develop them positively in the affective domain.

end of the lesson, these were mostly

28

The Final Stage served to validate Baseline and

that the guiding pedagogical principles and the

Interim findings and surface additional factors

corresponding teacher practices identified for

that facilitate or inhibit the development of

the study were essential for the development

21CC in students. Confirming the findings from

of 21CC. The findings are presented in Table 2.3

the Baseline and Interim Stages, there was

below:

strong evidence to support the postulation

Table 2.3: Findings on Pedagogical Principles and Practices Pedagogical Principles

Teacher Practice Baseline Stage

Final Stage

Positive learning environment

Only two teachers were observed to empower their students with autonomy and choice during their lessons.

• Five teachers were observed to consciously incorporate autonomy and choice to enhance their students’ learning experiences.

Although all teachers had good TSR, only five teachers created conducive environments that promoted student participation.

• All teachers created conducive environments within their PE classes and maintained good TSR. This was attributed to their increased awareness of the need to have greater student ownership on participation that was achieved through the deliberate planning and provision for more activity time. Other than maximising student participation, this purposeful planning also resulted in greater autonomy and choice for the students.

• This was an important change for some teachers who articulated at the Baseline Stage, the difficulty in transferring control to students.

• Student FGD and lesson observations corroborated that students’ development of SEC were attributed to a positive learning environment resulting from teachers’ positive reinforcement and good TSR. Teachers recognised the importance of positive TSR to facilitate student learning.

This was exemplified in their successful modelling of SEC that they felt was contingent on positive TSR.

Effective

29

Only four teachers were observed to provide concise and specific instructional cues

All teachers were conversant with providing teaching cues for the psychomotor domain. Seven teachers were also observed to have developed competency in planning for and providing teaching cues for the affective domain specific to the PE lesson.

Teacher Practice Baseline Stage

Final Stage

Engaged learning

Only two teachers were able to exhibit beyond a superficial and perfunctory approach to teaching the affective domain while the rest relied predominantly on teachable moments to accomplish their affective learning objective.

11 teachers were able to engage students meaningfully and guide them in practice by applying the skills and knowledge (e.g. the five ALO) acquired through the PD workshops, lesson observations and Communities of Practice (CoP) discussions (Wenger & Snyder, 2000).

Only two teachers made an effort to facilitate reflection in their lessons.

• Eight teachers attempted to facilitate students’ reflection during lessons. However, while open-ended questions were employed, there was insufficient wait time given, hence compromising the depth of student critical thinking and learning. Teachers were also unaware that developing a structure to check for student understanding could be an effective form of formative assessment.

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

Pedagogical Principles

• There was little attempt to facilitate the transfer of learning in all stages (i.e., Baseline, Interim and Final).

Teachers were not very successful in contextualising the relevance of the affective learning beyond PE.

Skilful management

All teachers had established routines and instructional organisation.

All teachers had established routines and instructional organisation that increased participation. Teachers had also begun to decrease their level of control, allowing students more personal responsibility.

RQ 2: What are the effects that planned infusion and facilitation of 21CC in PE have on students’ affective development?

belief

It provides a deep

understanding of the teacher’s pedagogical principles and his or her practices. It was observed at the Baseline Stage that while all teachers

Teacher Belief Teacher

of pedagogical practices.

involved in the research study believed that PE explains

the

underlying

conviction that drives teacher action and choice

provided an authentic platform for the affective development of students, they initially cited the

30

following reasons for not planning structured

introduced the idea of scope and sequence to the

affective development in their lessons:

teachers in the teaching of values in PE during

a. Psychomotor learning outcomes are of

the Interim Stage. For example, in scoping the

higher priority in PE lessons;

teaching of respect, we asked them to think

b. Time constraints limit focus of lessons to high priority outcomes; and c. Affective

development

through

they want to teach the students (e.g., respecting is

the rules and respecting the opponents).

perceived as best achieved through teacher

PE

Concurrently, they were also asked to think

role modelling and capitalising on teachable

about the breadth and depth of the value to be

moments.

covered at any one time (e.g., over a unit, term

Despite a strong belief in the value of affective development in PE, there was a diverse understanding amongst the teachers of what affective development in PE meant. For example, SEC and values inculcation were understood by the teachers to be synonymous with ensuring character development.

While the teacher’s

survey revealed that teachers felt confident teaching SEC, they also requested for guidance, resources and training to facilitate affective development in PE. In the PE lessons observed, there was a need for better planning and explicit teaching for affective development.

Teacher Planning Stemming from teacher belief, teacher planning was the next step in translating the teachers’ conviction into action. From the lesson plans submitted at the Baseline Stage, only four teachers planned for affective development in PE.

or year), and how the “content” of the value would manifest as SEC and observable student behaviour. In sequencing the value, we were able to get the teachers to think about when to introduce the value and the order in which the content was presented to the students over time.

More importantly, this enabled teachers to plan a developmental progression for the teaching of the value. For instance, the teaching of respect in a Primary One class would be pedagogically dissimilar to the teaching of respect in a Primary Six class.

We also introduced and facilitated their understanding of existing definitions, and standards and benchmarks of the emerging 21CC and SEC by MOE Curriculum Policy Office (CPO) and MOE Guidance Branch respectively.

In alignment with the broader agenda of MOE, teachers were encouraged to tap on these existing resources when planning for affective

However, they lacked clarity and details on how

learning in their lessons.

those outcomes could be achieved. Formative

Teacher Practice

assessment for affective development, a key element to check for students’ learning, was also

It was also noticed that while teachers had

not evident in all the lessons observed.

attempted to include affective learning in their

To address the lack of clarity on how affective outcomes could be achieved, the research team

31

about their definition of the value and what

lesson plans, they met with some challenges in implementing them at the start. they

could

proceed

towards

Before

successful

opportunistic and often left to chance. Cleland

To achieve greater clarity and specificity

and Pearse (1995) found that students were

in planning, teachers first needed to be

more successful when teachers intentionally

equipped with the required content-specific

designed tasks to elicit specific thinking skills

knowledge and skills that could facilitate

throughout the lesson.

higher affective development in the different

team also concurred that in order for affective

learning areas. Clear objectives, that include

learning to be effectively layered, it has to be

the expected behaviour, conditions, and criteria

intentionally planned for and implemented

for achievement, were built into teachers’

during the PE lessons. Throughout the two-year

instructional plans.

Such plans have to be

study, this team analysed and found empirical

supported by appropriate teaching strategies in

evidence for four other strategies that teachers

order to achieve the desired outcome.

may employ in enhancing affective learning

From the Baseline Study, it was observed that the affective learning experiences in the teachers’ lessons were highly contingent on the manifestation of “teachable moments”.

However, these “teachable moments” were

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

implementation, some input was necessary.

On this note, the

in their lessons, rather than waiting for that elusive “teachable moment” to happen. These strategies, including teachable moments, have been termed Affective Learning Opportunities (ALO) and are defined in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Definitions of Affective Learning Opportunities Affective Learning Opportunity

Definition

Explicit Teaching

Use of planned tasks, with a specific set of cues for the expected affective outcomes.

Content Settings

Settings occurring frequently or naturally in PE with the potential for affective teaching and values inculcation.

Didactic Interactions

Specific approaches and interactions between the PE teacher and a specific student or group of students to act or behave in a certain affective manner; or, teacherstructured interaction between students or groups of students.

Communication Styles

General disposition of the teacher’s communication style has an effect on the way students react and relate to the PE tasks that they have to do.

Teachable Moments

Unanticipated positive or negative events the teacher takes advantage of to reinforce a certain aspect of affective teaching.

32

In all the four schools, students’ self-perception

Without responsibility, you cannot complete

of their SEC corresponded with the teachers. It

something in a good way. Without integrity, you

was observed that students who had good TSR

are just lying to yourself.” (Student FGD, 2014)

with their teachers had a higher perception of their SEC.

Students’ perception of their

ability to self-manage appeared to mirror teachers’ ratings on students’ ability on selfmanagement. Where appropriate instructional cues on task management and organisation were provided, students were generally able to remain engaged in their assigned tasks. It is unclear, however, the extent to which the

could influence him in the future, he replied: “Maybe in the future when I am working and then the boss gives me a task, I must be responsible for that task. This is because if I am responsible, the manager may have a better impression of me and I might get promoted.” (Student FGD, 2014)

teacher’s choice of pedagogical practice had

The student had evidently internalised the

influenced the students’ ability to self-manage.

affective learning and was able to see the link

Students’ perception of their social awareness

between what he learnt and how he would apply

and relationship management, which they

this learning in the future.

rated highest among the five SEC domains, was observed through their ability to work well during group activities.

Comparing the Baseline and Final Stages results of students’ self-perception rating tool for SEC, a general increasing trend was observed for all students. None of the students recorded a decrease in all five domains. The students with the highest increase in perceived SEC were from one primary and one secondary school class. The two teachers from these respective classes also demonstrated the biggest increase in competency in the area of teaching emerging 21CC. During FGD, their students were able to articulate evidence of emerging 21CC (critical and inventive thinking, and communication and collaboration skills) during PE. When asked about the importance of being taught values in their PE lessons, one student offered: “Responsibility, respect and integrity are like the foundation of life. If you have those three core values, that means that you have good character.

33

When prompted on how his learning of values

DISCUSSION: DEVELOPMENT OF 21CC THROUGH PE

While PE provides a natural “conduit” to promote affective learning, PE teachers must implement quality programmes and employ teaching strategies that intentionally and purposefully address the affective domain and the development of 21CC in their students.

According to Hansen (2008), “The most effective PE curriculums are those that incorporate all three

domains

(psychomotor,

cognitive,

and affective) of teaching and learning” (p.

9). However, this can be a very challenging endeavour when you are faced with 40

teaching PE differently and in a positive

if not all, Singapore classrooms.

way. For example, the students cited

Notwithstanding

complex

examples of how teachers were giving

intricacies of such a daunting task, it

the

them more opportunities to work

is critical to acknowledge the inter-

collaboratively in groups and allowing

relationships within the domains, for

their voices to be heard. Five teachers

all learning has affective components

reflected that their participation in this

(Woodford, 1979).

research study had also strengthened

It is evident from the various data sources at the Final Stage, there are strong benefits in teaching 21CC (i.e., values, SEC and emerging 21CC) in PE. At the Baseline Stage, teachers’ interviews and questionnaires suggest that they were unsure of how to incorporate and plan for affective learning in their lessons. They relied predominantly on teachable moments and encouraging students to exhibit particular affective behaviours

without

teaching them.

consciously

At the conclusion of

the study, it was apparent that all, but for one teacher, were confident to plan for and embed explicit teaching of the affective domain into their lessons. The 11 teachers primarily used the values of

their belief that PE is an authentic platform for 21CC development. This belief was further reinforced by the perceived success, and heightened confidence, they felt in implementing the new knowledge learnt through the PD intervention workshops and discussions within their CoP.

For

these teachers, they were able to balance the need for maximal activity time and psychomotor development, yet

effectively

layering

affective

development within their lessons.

The teachers remained unequivocal in their belief that psychomotor learning remains their first priority in the PE classroom, and this should rightly be the case.

respect, responsibility, integrity, and

Very often, when PE teachers are

care to frame their affective learning

asked how they incorporate affective

objectives and teach, or facilitate, these

learning into their PE lessons, the

values through the development of SEC

answer is predominantly “teachable”

and emerging 21CC.

moments where they then focus their

The more advanced teachers were able to plan and facilitate the development of emerging 21CC in their lessons, primarily focusing on collaboration and critical thinking. This was corroborated by students during the FGD where they articulated that their teachers were now

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

students, as is the norm in most,

For these teachers, they were able to balance the need for maximal activity time and psychomotor development, yet effectively layering affective development within their lessons.

attention on the negative situations to illustrate to the students what not to do. However, it is entirely possible, as demonstrated in this study, for teachers to increase their capacity and develop their competency in planning for and teaching to enhance the affective domain.

34

First, teachers need to demonstrate and model explicit expectations of the kind of learning environment they expect from the students.

The pedagogical principles and practices that

As demonstrated in this study, research studies

emerged from this study constitute a compelling

to determine the significance of affective

set of guidelines for professional practice. They

learning and teaching can provide insight into

define specific concepts that teachers can select

the practical implications for learning outcomes

in situating their teaching practices for student

in various fields (Holland, 2006). The key to

development in the affective domain.

fostering an affective learning culture within PE

Second, they need to understand and seek to assimilate the ALO into their pedagogical repertoire. The ALO hypothesised in this research study was based on the observations made from the Baseline and Interim Stages of the study. The primary function of the ALO was to help teachers identify pertinent opportunities for affective learning during the lesson planning stage and develop them further, in anticipation of their possible enactment during lesson delivery. The study established that the set of ALO has proved to effectively help PE teachers plan and embed affective learning into PE curriculum without compromising the achievement of psychomotor outcomes, as seen at the Final Stage.

The teachers reflected that the affective learning structure (in relation to the MOE Framework for 21st Century Competencies and Student Outcomes) learnt throughout this study has benefitted them with regard to the documentation of expectations, for themselves and the students.

As Gibbons et al. (2002)

has stated, “Students ultimately take more responsibility for their actions and learning if they are aware of the expectations” (p. 31). By foregrounding these expectations, it engenders a sense of accountability for the teachers as they facilitate students’ affective development, and

35

CONCLUSION

lessons lies in the intentionality of such efforts.

The findings derived from this study suggest that establishing and maintaining a positive learning environment, effective communication, engaged learning, and skilful management are necessary in developing 21CC in students.

In a study

conducted by Russel (2004) on the effects of the affective domain on classroom culture, students reported that their learning was facilitated by laughter, praise, encouragement, a helpful and cooperative peer group, and by ‘good’ teaching.

Conversely, learning was hampered if they were made to feel uncomfortable or humiliated by disruptive peers and by ‘bad’ teaching.

While research has also shown that a caring and participatory learning environment in PE leads to higher affective learning outcomes (see Gibbons & Bressan, 1991; Heidorn & Welch, 2010; Webster et al., 2013; Woodford, 1979), teachers need help to learn how to plan and facilitate affective learning through performance tasks that incorporate greater choice and autonomy.

These tasks serve as significant platforms for students to generate ideas and explore possible actions. By interacting with peers, and managing the complexities of the decision-making and execution of the physical task, students exercise sound reasoning and decision-making.

for the students as they strive to achieve these

While the pedagogical principles and practices

expectations.

hypothesised in this study were informed by

their learning and enable their development

to effective teaching, they have proven to be

as confident and competent movers. While it

an emerging conceptual framework for the

may seem less of an undertaking to formulate a

infusion of 21CC in PE.

The principles and

comprehensive list of characteristics associated

practices derived from this research will give PE

with affective learning (e.g. feelings, values,

teachers a construct to situate their practices in

attitudes and social behaviours), the list will

affective learning. Stenzel (2006) advocates that

be a futile pursuit if each characteristic exists

intentional intervention at the affective level

in isolation, with no apparent relationship to

needs to be strategically planned in order to

the others.

produce desirable results.

be to develop a conceptual framework that can

The development of 21CC in students is a longdrawn process and the odyssey in delivering quality PE can be exacting. However, it is the teacher’s professional responsibility to provide students with an enjoyable PE experience that develops their values, knowledge, skills, and a love for the subject. This will maximise

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

literature within and outside of PE with regard

A more worthwhile venture may

organise the various affective characteristics and descriptors in a meaningful and integrative way, as what we have attempted in this study.

Future research should pursue other variables that could further distinguish the transfer of learning from values to SEC and culminating in the acquisition of 21CC.

36

references Adkins, S. (2004). Beneath the tip of the iceberg. American Society for Training and Development, 58(2), 28-33.

Bailey, R. (2006). Physical education and sport in schools: A review of benefits and outcomes. Journal of School Health, 76, 397-401.

Cleland, F., & Pearse, C. (1995). Critical thinking in elementary physical education: Reflections on a yearlong study. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, 66(6), 31-38.

Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning. (2013). Effective social and emotional learning programs: Preschool and elementary school edition. Retrieved May 5, 2015, from http://static1.squarespace.com/static/513f79f9e4b05ce7b70e9673/t/526a220de4b00a92 c90436ba/1382687245993/2013-casel-guide.pdf Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning. (2015). Social and emotional learning core competencies. Retrieved June 8, 2015, from http://www.casel.org/social-and-emotional-learning/core-competencies/ Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. (1999). School and community influences on human development.

In M. H. Bornstein & M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced textbook (4th ed., pp. 566-638). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Erickson, F. (1986). Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 119-161). New York: Macmillan.

Gibbons, S. L., & Bressan, E. S. (1991). The affective domain in physical education: A conceptual clarification and curricular commitment. Quest, 43, 78-97.

Gibbons, S. L., Robinson, B., Bruce, P., Bremen, K., Lundeen, L., Mouritzen, J., . . . Wejr, C. (2002). Using rubrics to support assessment and evaluation of personal and social outcomes in physical education. Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators, 15(4), 28-33.

Goetz, J. P., & LeCompte, M. D. (1984). Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research. Orlando: Academic Press.

37

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

Goh, C. T. (1997). Shaping our future: Thinking schools, learning nation. Retrieved May 6, 2015, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/1997/020697.htm Hansen, K. (2008). Teaching within all three domains to maximize student learning.

Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators, 21(6), 9-13.

Heidorn, B., & Welch, M. M. (2010). Teaching affective qualities in physical education.

Strategies: A Journal for Physical and Sport Educators, 23(5), 16-21.

Hellison, D. (2011). Teaching personal and social responsibility through physical activity (3rd ed.). Champaign: Human Kinetics.

Heyman, R. D. (1983). Basic issues in the interpretive paradigm: A response to Messrs.

Heap, Mumby, and Olson. Curriculum Inquiry, 13(4), 429-433.

Holland, D. (2006). Contemplative education in unexpected places: Teaching mindfulness in Arkansas and Austria. Teachers College Record, 108(9), 1842-1861.

Jacobs, F., Knoppers, A., & Webb, L. (2013). Making sense of teaching social and moral skills in physical education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 18(1), 1-14.

Jennings, P. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79(1), 491-525.

Knowles, M. S. (1970). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy [2.1, p. 63]. New York: Cambridge Book Company.

Krathwohl, D. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory into Practice, 41, 212-218.

Krathwohl, D., Bloom, B., & Masia, B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook II. Affective domain. New York: McKay. La Paro, K. M., & Pianta, R. C. (2003). CLASS: Classroom assessment scoring system.

Charlottesville: University of Virgina Press.

Lawson, P. J., & Flocke, S. A. (2009). Teachable moments for health behavior change: A concept analysis. Patient Education & Counseling, 76(1), 25–30.

Lichtman, M. (2006). Qualitative research in education: A user’s guide. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

38

Macdonald, D., Kirk, D., Metzler, M., Nilges, L. M., Schempp, P., & Wright, J. (2002). It’s all very well, in theory: Theoretical perspectives and their applications in contemporary pedagogical research. Quest, 54(2), 133-156.

Marzano, R. J., Marzano, J. S., & Pickering, D. J. (2003). Classroom management that works.

Alexandra: ASCD. Pope, S. (2005). Once more with feeling: Affect and playing with the TGfU model. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 10(3), 271-286.

Reuben, S. C. (1997). Making the most of teachable moments. In S. C. Reben, CHILDREN OF CHARACTER: Leading your children to ethical choices in everyday life. Santa Monica: Canter & Associates.

Rink, J. (2014). Teaching physical education for learning (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Rink, J., & Hall, T. J. (2008). Research on effective teaching in elementary school physical education. The Elementary School Journal, 108(3), 207-218.

Russel, M. (2004). The importance of the affective domain in further education classroom culture. Research on Post-Compulsory Education, 9(2), 249-270.

Saphier, J., Haley-Speca, M. A., & Gower, R. (2008). The skilful teacher: Building your teaching skills (6th ed.). Acton: RBT Research for Better Teaching Inc. Schempp, P. G., & Choi, E. (1994). Research methodologies in sport pedagogy. Sport Science Review, 3(1), 41-55.

Sparkes, A. C. (1994). Research paradigms in physical education: Some brief comments on differences that make a difference. British Journal of Physical Education Research Supplement, 14, 11-16.

Stenzel, E. J. (2006). A rubric for assessing in the affective domain for retention purposes.

Assessment Update, 18(3), 9-11.

Suter, W. N. (2012). Introduction to educational research (2nd ed., pp. 93). Newbury Park: Sage Publications Inc. Theodoulides, A., & Armour, K. (2001). Personal, social and moral development through team games: Some critical questions. European Physical Education Review, 7, 5-23.

39

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

Ting-Toomey, S. (1984). Qualitative research: An overview. In W. B. Gudykunst & Y. Y. Kim (Eds.), Methods of intercultural communications research (pp. 169-194). Beverley Hills: Sage.

Tom, A. (1984). Teaching as a moral craft. New York: Macmillan.

Vidoni, C., & Ward, P. (2009). Effects of fair play instruction on student social skills during a middle school sport education unit. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 14, 285-310.

Weare, K., & Gray, G. (2003). What works in developing children’s emotional and social competence and wellbeing? Retrieved May 5, 2015, from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130401151715/http://education.gov.uk/ publications/eorderingdownload/rr456.pdf Webster, C. A., Mindrila, D., & Weaver, G. (2013). Affective learning profiles in compulsory high school physical education: An instructional communication perspective. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 32(1), 78-99.

Wenger, E., & Snyder, W. (2000). ‘Communities of Practice: The Organisational Frontier’, Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 139-145.

Woodford, R. C. (1979). The importance of the affective domain in the education of physical educators. Quest, 31(2), 285-293.

40

TRANSLATING THEORY inTO PRACTICE The four pedagogical principles and their

• Determine the sequence for the content of the

corresponding teacher practices in the research

selected values

study have been established as essential for the

»» What is the order in which the content

infusion of affective learning into PE lessons.

should be presented to students over time?

How this translates into application within PE

»» Is there a developmental progression?

lessons requires teachers to first determine the scope and sequence of the values that they have

• Identify the psychomotor content on which

selected, the depth and breadth of the value to

the scope and sequence of the selected values

be covered, and the developmental progression

can be seamlessly taught

of the “content” to be taught. Next, teachers would need to identify pertinent opportunities for affective learning during the lesson planning stage, and develop them further through the five Affective Learning Opportunities (ALO).

Infusing affective learning in PE should be seamless and not compromise the achievement of the psychomotor outcomes, and the following points will give you some insights into how this can be accomplished through some thoughtful planning and purposeful facilitation.

Planning for Affective Learning • Select values to be taught »» Are they specified in the PE syllabus? »» Are they values identified as “school values”?

• Determine the scope of the selected values »» Consider what the “content” is - e.g. social and emotional competencies (SEC), emerging 21st century competencies (21CC), expected observable student behaviour »» Consider the depth and breadth of the

41

• Determine which teacher practices within the pedagogical principles and ALO could be utilised to facilitate the teaching of the affective content and how they could be utilised In the MOE PE Syllabus, Learning Outcomes (LOs) have been defined for each of the Core Values (Respect, Responsibility, Resilience, Integrity, Care and Harmony) and presented in the form of related SEC and emerging 21CC.

Utilising the Principles and Practices While the principles guide you on what should be in place for students’ affective learning to occur, their corresponding teacher practices give you an operational understanding of what should be done.

• Establishing a positive learning environment »» Develop good teacher-student relationships (TSR) - e.g. know your students, call on them by their names »» Provide

them

with

opportunities

for

content to be covered - e.g. within a unit,

autonomy and choice beyond just a choice

by the end of the year, by the end of an

of equipment or group members - e.g.

education level (primary, secondary, pre-

setting personal targets, choosing tactics for

university)

game play

»» Facilitate reflection - e.g. question rather

participation - e.g. make “failure” non-

than tell students about affective content,

threatening by removing consequences for

provide time and opportunities for students

it, share examples of good effort in spite of

to think about their actions and/ or

failure to encourage participation

responses »» Facilitate transfer of learning - e.g. get

• Effective communication »» Provide concise and specific instruction / teaching cues for affective outcomes and expected behaviour

students to suggest examples beyond PE where desired behaviour would apply, get students to share when they have exhibited behaviour beyond PE

Sample: “As you work in groups, you will need to respect your team mates by allowing everyone to share their views and listening to all opinions before you make a decision, as a

»» Facilitate success in learning - e.g. enable students to work within their ability range so that they can gain better self-awareness and experience a sense of achievement

group, about the tactics you are going to use

• Skilful management

in the game.”

»» Establish expectations of student behaviour -

»» Give feedback appropriately - e.g. praise

e.g. respecting others by giving everyone the

students for the effort made and be specific

chance to voice their opinions or concerns,

about why the praise was given

taking responsibility for your mistakes by

Sample:

raising your hand to acknowledge your error

“I

liked

the

way

that

»» Establishing routines to encourage pro-

disagreement among your team mates. You

social norms - e.g. reporting for class on

gave everyone a chance to share their side of

time which shows respect for peers and the

it before offering them ideas on how to settle

teacher, collecting and returning equipment

you

handled

it. Good job!”

safely which shows respect for routine and

»» Model social and emotional competencies e.g. model conflict resolution when dealing with disagreements among teams during the lesson • Engaged learning »» Embed affective experiences in appropriate performance tasks - e.g. pair work with peer feedback on the forehand strike to create self and social awareness within the value of respect

2 - Effective Affective Learning: The Case of Physical Education in Singapore

»» Create conducive environments for student

care for others

Utilising ALO The ALO provides a lens for teachers to recognise possibilities within their practice for affective learning.

• Explicit teaching – the use of planned tasks, with a specific set of cues for the expected affective outcomes »» Select the affective learning outcome and

42

decide on the specific affective objective(s)

a specific student or group of students to act

for the lesson

or behave in a certain affective manner; or,

»» Define what the desired behaviour would be »» Design a task or tasks that would create opportunities for the desired behaviour to be practised and reinforced - e.g. through the context of the task, through the content setting, etc. »» Reinforce

students or groups of students »» Establish

a

positive

teacher-student

relationship »» Facilitate

student

reflection

through

questions that help students consider how desired

behaviour

through

they or others feel about the situation, the

feedback, assessment and within the lesson

impact and appropriateness of their actions

summary

or the actions of others, their next course of

»» Facilitate the transfer of learning beyond PE • Content setting – settings occurring frequently or naturally in PE with the potential for affective teaching and values inculcation »» Student organisation - e.g. individually, in pairs, in groups »» Environment

-

e.g.

non-threatening;

empowering with autonomy and choice;

action, etc. »» Facilitate the positive reinforcement of success in learning - e.g. be specific when offering praise so students understand why they are receiving it and can maintain the behaviour, avoid using terms like “good job” or “that’s fantastic” without qualifying why it is so good or fantastic

and the context of the activity which may

• Teachable moments – unanticipated positive

be competitive with self, competitive with

or negative events the teacher takes advantage

others, collaborative in pairs

of to reinforce a certain aspect of affective

• Communication

styles

–

the

general

disposition of the teacher’s communication style has an effect on the way students react and relate to the PE tasks that they have to do »» Consider the tone you use to address students - e.g. harsh and aloof, firm yet approachable »» Consider the language used - e.g. words with positive nuances or negative ones, words that cast labels »» Consider role modelling the appropriate attitude,

affective

competencies

and

expected behaviour • Didactic interactions – specific approaches and interactions between the PE teacher and

43

a teacher-structured interaction between

teaching »» Consider highlighting positive teachable moments and not just the negative ones »» Ensure that the learning within the teachable moment is facilitated - e.g. draw attention to the expected behaviour, get students to identify desired behaviour and state why it is desired, highlight links between skills and values within the moment and with application to real life »» Consider the planned tasks and try to predict possible teachable moments based on your experience so that you are better able to recognise and use them when they occur

1 - Introduction to PAM Research

03

Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching Kok Boon LIM, Chor Howe TEO, Bee Lian KEHK, Victoria LOY

44 40 14

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

INTRODUCTION The capacity for art teaching in fostering values,

what researchers have explored and discovered

social

and

in relation to our study of how 21CC and student

creativity, has long been spoken for, debated

outcomes can be developed through the Art

and researched in the field of arts education

curriculum in schools:

and

emotional

competencies,

(Eisner, 2002; Hetland & Winner, 2004). Despite diverse views on how creativity should and could be defined and measured (Sternberg, 2012; Sawyer, 2012), the benefits of an enlightening arts education to encourage creativity, whether in the context of schooling or beyond, is seldom disputed.

A classroom culture of care, trust, compassion and acceptance (Cummings, 2010; Nodding, 1995) is foundational and expected of good teaching.

Sensations, feelings and emotions

become stimuli for representation in art, and

This chapter discusses how 21CC and student outcomes may be developed through the Art curriculum. Key existing ideas from the literature, information about the research questions, and case study methods, are presented. Lastly, this chapter discusses the findings from the crosscase analyses and their relation to current inservice professional development practices for art teachers, our Art syllabus, and pre-service teacher training.

in turn, art can elicit an affective response. In fact, art making is a process of affective and cognitive synthesis (Abbs, 1989; Addison, 2011).

As Sir Herbert Read (1943) puts it, art education possesses a sociocultural dimension capable of developing fully balanced personalities in children (Thistlewood, 1993).

Art learning

engages students in deep and meaningful inquiry.

When opportunities for personal

response to visual and social experiences are provided (Gude, 2000), art classes form an

21CC AND ART

The Art curriculum - referring to the content, pedagogy and assessment of art - offers opportunities for implicit and explicit teaching of values, affective competencies and 21st century skills. In schools, a thematic curriculum organised around social issues and concerns, and a favourable learning environment, has the potential to influence students’ attitudes, behaviours and values (Cummings, 2010).

Likewise, a classroom atmosphere conducive to a continuous exchange of ideas, mutual respect, tolerance of differences, and teacher encouragement of self-reflection, discovery and learning in art, is likely to lead to students’ personal growth.

Affective Learning

The following areas reveal

integral part of a holistic education.

Cross-cultural and Social Awareness Access to images and description of artworks from around the world provide contexts for students to develop Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-Cultural Skills. As students learn about art-making and the contexts in which artists make art, they learn about other cultures. They gain an understanding of the unique contributions of artists in expressing social and cultural phenomenon of life from different settings through the artworks they create or study. As students experience art, in their making and talking, they learn also about themselves and the world around them.

As

Shimamura (2013) puts it, “art reminds us of the past and how we apply our own experiences

46

and recollections to interpret artworks”. If

schools refers to a domain of dispositions and

students are exposed to artworks that respond

cognitive skills, consistent with literature claims.

to social, economic, political, philosophical,

According to Scriven and Paul’s (1997) definition,

environmental or cultural issues of today, they

critical thinking3 can be seen as having two

have the opportunity to learn beyond just art

dimensions: first, a set of processing skills that

content.

create information and beliefs; and second, an

Creative Thinking The association between creativity and art education has long been substantiated by literature in the art field (Craft, 2001; Jewitt, 2008). While creativity is not unique only to the domain of art education, the activities that students engage in when they learn art are often strongly associated with aspects of creativity.

For instance, the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (non-verbal) assesses problem solving, unusual perspectives, generating and extending of ideas, and visual and drawing skills. These skills are also evident when an artwork is put together. In addition, research supports claims that art teaching can strengthen students’ critical thinking (Adams et al., 2006; Greene et al., 2013; Housen, 2001; Project Zero, n.d.) through facilitative questions, teaching of problem solving skills (Randi, 2010), and developing students’ imagination (Eisner, 2002a; Matthews, 1997; Randi, 2007). Project Zero’s famed Artful Thinking project and Visible Thinking projects have shown that different thinking routines can improve students’ critical thinking, and develop other thinking dispositions such as openmindedness, curiosity, reasonableness.

Critical Thinking

internalised habit to use these process skills to guide action and behaviour. From Lai’s literature review on Critical Thinking (2011), critical thinking can be taught and developed from a young age, and there are general and domainspecific skillsets; although explicit teaching is required for students to be able to transfer their learning and apply them in another domain.

According to Adams et al. (2006), observation and interpretation are two critical thinking sub-skills most often used by students when they looked at and talked about works of art. This is consistent with Greene’s et al. study (2013) which found a strong co-relation between improvements in critical thinking and conducting open-ended, student-centred tours at a museum and followon art classroom activities. As students engage in individual and group art-making, other subskills like evaluation, association, problem finding, comparison and flexible thinking increase in use. From John Matthews’ (1997) study, he found young children exercising and developing different critical thinking competencies when they draw. He proposes that children’s “scribbling” and drawing are evidence of children’s investigation of their perception and feelings. They are also children’s way of developing representational and communication strategies.

Critical and Inventive Thinking in Singapore

3

47

Defined as the “intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing,

synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action” (Scriven & Paul, 1987).

Teaching of art is apt to foster students’ Communication,

Collaboration

Information Skills

in

three

and ways.

First, art is capable of serving as a conduit for self-expression and visual communication.

Visual

literacy

is an outcome of art education of Singapore

schools

(CPDD,

2008).

training at the National Institute of Education.

For cooperative learning

to be effective, teachers create positive interdependence within the group, hold individuals accountable for the group’s progress and each other’s learning, model face-to-face interaction, and instil appropriate group processes that foster teamwork (Smith, Sheppard, Johnson & Johnson, 2005).

From Singapore’s primary and lower

Third, the process of art-making

secondary art syllabuses, visual literacy

frequently takes the maker through

is understood as the ability to analyse

information

and appreciate an image, and the

development. Art teachers have the

ability to communicate ideas, feelings

opportunity to guide these processes by

and experiences through the creation

introducing different activities an artist

of images (CPDD, 2008). It is commonly

might go through: investigating primary

acknowledged that Art teachers can

or secondary sources thoroughly and

develop

literacy

systematically, exploring materials and

through two interrelated activities

technical processes, and relating these

and encounters: first, the analysis and

to an artistic intent or a visual problem

decoding of a wide range of visual

encountered. In the instance where

stimuli; and second, communicating

internet-based research or images are

ideas through artworks, design and

used in these processes, the art teacher

craft.

has the opportunity to guide students

Second,

students’

teaching

visual

of

art

often

entails assigning group work for a collaborative artwork, or a sequence of learning activities where cooperation and collaborative learning can take place. As teachers create opportunities for students to participate in group discussion and dialogues on art, they learn about art communally.

Cooperative

learning

strategies,

such as think-pair-share routines, are taught as part of teachers’ pre-service

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

Communication, Inter-personal Skills and Information Gathering

gathering

and

ideas

to sieve through information on the Internet, and the ethical and respectful

As students engage in individual and group art-making, other subskills like evaluation, association, problem finding, comparison and flexible thinking increase in use.

use of Internet found images.

PURPOSE While

the

literature

review

acknowledges that 21CC and student outcomes can be developed through the

art

curriculum,

a

research

of Singapore art classrooms can provide details that could deepen our

48

understanding of the topic. The two research

capture the complexity of classroom teaching

questions that guided the research were:

(Sternhouse, 1979), where the phenomenon

RQ1. What, why and how do Art pedagogical practices and principles contribute to effective fostering of 21CC and student outcomes?

2009).

It would otherwise be impossible to

make causality claims between art teaching and students’ emerging 21CC in a pre- and post- experimental research, given that other

RQ2. What resultant 21CC and student outcomes were observed in the Art classroom?

classes and opportunities beyond school have

In this research, the definitions of 21CC and

rich descriptions or insightful explanations

student outcomes follow those described by the

(Yin, 2012). The case study is useful for both

Ministry of Education, Singapore (CPO, 2012).

generating and testing of hypotheses (Flyvbjerg,

The next segment describes the research’s

2006) and generalisability, when strategic, critical

context and tools used for data collection.

cases are selected. In this research, a hierarchical

METHODOLOGY

This research used a pragmatic, interpretivist position and based on an approach that recognises that knowledge is a human construct,

the potential to contribute to students’ emerging 21CC. Additionally, case studies, bounded by its real-world contexts, have the potential to provide

theme of pedagogical practices that foster 21CC was identified. Examples of real-world practices that were “most likely” and “least likely” to foster 21CC were identified through multiple-cases.

Cases

and the subject imposes meaning on the object

In this multiple-case, instrumental study, the

(Cohen et al., 2011, p. 15). This involves the belief

General Art classrooms from Primary One up

that only by studying the individual’s accounts of

to Secondary Two was chosen as the site, and

how they made sense of what was happening,

relevant teaching actions and resultant student

then can a researcher make sense of actions

behaviours observed were chosen as the object

and events that unfold, and give an interpreted

of study. 12 qualified art teachers, eight from

account. Also, as Booth, Colomb and Williams

primary schools and four from secondary

(2008) reminds us, “facts are shaped by those

schools,

who collect them and again by the intentions of

sampling (Patton, 1990). Only general art classes

those who use them” (p. 135).

from government and government-aided schools

A case study approach was used to gain a deeper understanding of teaching strategies used and resultant student behaviours across a sample of classrooms of 12 art teachers in primary and secondary schools. The use of case studies was necessary as these are particularly suited to

49

and contexts are not easily separable (Yin,

were

selected

using

purposeful

were chosen, rather than upper secondary art or “Advanced-Level” art classes, because these affected the most number of students in the education system, and the findings could inform teaching at other levels, through the lens of differentiated instruction.

• Sustained coaching and mentoring to provide

of cases was typically an hour, where lessons

timely feedback for teachers’ application of

were taught once a week over a year. Schools

professional learning.

were guided by a national curriculum, with each school having autonomy to plan what was taught across the levels. The schools involved could be described as well staffed and the art programmes were generally well supported by school leaders, evident from the range of art-related school-based programmes, the resources available in the art classrooms, and the generous display of art pieces.

This collection of cases was selected so that it provided the structural representation that matched the research purpose. Having multiple cases, or collective case studies (Hamilton & Corbett-Whittier, 2013), allowed for more robust data collection and explanatory data to support subsequent generalization claims, providing greater confidence in our findings (Yin, 2009).

These

opt-in

professional

learning

opportunities were recommended to teachers in this research based on their professional learning needs. These professional learning needs were determined after the Baseline study, which found that art instructional lessons were generally overly teacher-centred, despite the best intentions and positive teaching attitudes.

Data Collection Data collection consisted of classroom lesson observations, interviews with teachers and students, questionnaires for teachers, and collation of artefacts, such as lesson plans and images of student artworks. These were used to examine the multifarious phenomena that constitute the art pedagogical practices and principles, and 21CC student outcomes,

Professional Development Intervention

and allowed for data triangulation. The data

Over the course of this two year research, the

field-notes and observations, was guided by a

12 teachers also attended different types of

research guide. Besides the subject team and

professional development intervention. These

three teams of lesson observers, a specialist

were broadly categorised as:

group providing external perspectives to the

• Pedagogy-based pedagogical

workshops

repertoire

by

to

widen

introducing

teaching strategies that were new to teachers in this research; • Studio-based,

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

The general art class observed in this collection

collection across cases, and standardisation of

subject team was also convened. This consisted of two overseas renowned educators, three local pedagogues from institutes of higher learning, and one school Principal. This formed an expert consensus panel, or International

intensive

art

making

workshops to deepen the understanding of the subject discipline and enhance ability to demonstrate art-making processes; and

Panel, providing the measurement standards for this new domain of knowledge, namely, 21CC in art teaching in the context of this research.

50

Data Analysis

summary of findings was conducted at each

The data analysis followed an inductive process, beginning with individual cases.

The data

collected was organised into a code matrix; with notes and memos written to find patterns in the data. Emerging themes and sub-categories of

noteworthy

practices

(well

performed

or

missed

opportunities),

and

contextual

relationships to 21CC conceptual categories were made.

To utilise the rich data collected,

interview transcripts, field-notes and videorecorded lesson observations were read against the preliminary list of emerging themes that developed from initial coding memos. For the cross-case analysis, a matrix of collated ratings and qualitative comments from each lesson

within the subject research team, as well as with the International Panel. These summary findings were shared with teacher-participants to check on the trustworthiness of the interpretation, ensuring respondent validation of findings.

These also allowed the researchers to gauge the internal generalisability of the findings; whether the findings applied to other general art classes beyond those directly studied. At the end of the research, the findings were also shared with a purposeful sample of teacher-leaders, as a way of verifying the findings, and checking the external generalisability of the findings beyond the boundaries of the cases.

observation were compared, and commonalities

Researcher bias and reactivity were minimised

and differences that surfaced were used for

as the research team consisted of members

extensive discussions by the research team.

from different backgrounds and institutional

The data analysis process was iterative, moving back and forth from categorising, connecting and contextualising strategies. matrices

were

combined

Coding and

with

narrative

summaries (quotes and images) to achieve an understanding of the classroom activities; that neither could have provided alone. An effort was made to distil what was observed to explain unique art pedagogical practices. The resultant findings from the cross-case analysis could be evaluated as theory building or a “working hypothesis” (Cronbach, 1975; Flyvbjerg, 2006), which could build other new case studies or lend itself to generalisation of application to other art classrooms.

51

phase of the research. Meetings were conducted

affiliations.

Values and expectations of the

researchers were debated before coming to a consensus on shared assumptions, refining the contents of the research guide to reflect these.

The presence of the overseas educators further provided an external cultural lens to examine classroom practices that kept researcher bias in check too.

RESULTS

A. Findings on Art Pedagogical Practices and Principles (RQ1) From the Baseline study, it was observed that teachers had established strong rapport with

To address the trustworthiness of the qualitative

their students and were able to demonstrate

components of this case study, a review and

appropriate

introductions,

art-making

and

a. Effective Art Teaching Practices:

However, art instructional lessons

subject specific teaching practices

were, in general, overly teacher-

that

centred.

practices,

and

lesson

This contrasts with the

findings in the Final phase. After a series of professional development interventions were conducted, it was observed

that

practices

changed

incrementally over the span of one and a half years, with marked improvement in the application of student-centred teaching strategies.

The

statistical

quantitative

analysis ratings

of

the

by

the

qualitative comments recorded in the field notes, validated the correlation student-centric

teaching

principles and students’ development of emerging 21CC across art lesson units and over time. In particular, two notable things stood out: • Teachers’ ability to make learning relevant

by

contextualising

art

lessons

was

associated

with

students’ development of facets of Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-Cultural Skills; and • Teachers’

and

with

art-making

therefore,

were

intuitive to art teachers; and b. Effective Teaching Practices: nonsubject

specific,

foundational

teaching practices that were readily identifiable by any experienced classroom teacher.

In general, opportunities for students to

International Panel, and the coding of

between

resonate

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

closures.

discussions,

ability

to

develop aspects of 21CC were provided across many lesson units over time. To develop 21CC intentionally, teachers ought to be able to design appropriate performances

tasks

and

learning

activities, contextualise learning from multiple entry points, and use big ideas to frame inquiry.

Effective Art Teaching Practices I. Encourage ideas generation and conceptualisation of artistic work Teachers who placed emphasis on the process of generating ideas and conceptualising artistic work were

Teachers who placed emphasis on the process of generating ideas and conceptualising artistic work were more likely to develop students’ critical and inventive thinking skills.

more likely to develop students’ critical and inventive thinking skills. Observed

facilitate

creativity was strongly associated with students’ development of facets of Critical and Inventive Thinking Skills.

We delineated two sets of inter-related pedagogical practices across the cases:

teaching practices included: • Using

sketchbooks,

designing

worksheets and other strategies (e.g. questioning strategies) to generate ideas; • Designing

activities

for

peer

interaction and learning;

52

• Incorporating “serious play” as a way of setting the stage for creative thinking; • Allowing

time

for

exploration

“local food”, “self-representation”, “storytelling” of

and

experimentation with materials in order to generate ideas;

research to deepen understanding of concept, theme or idea; and

consider more extensive themes connected to contexts. For less effective teachers, there were mismatched themes to media, reflecting a lack of in-depth experience with the medium. To

were

able

to

imagery, themes and styles specific media, build

would elevate their effectiveness.

understanding of an art form through multiple

Art demonstrations and production of prototypes

entry points.

They were able to connect

helped students envision artistic processes and

students’ experiences and appreciation of the

work. Effective teachers used demonstrations

art form, its materials and processes within

to inspire possibilities, and not simply just

and across lesson units. They had the ability

showing how something was completed. Making

to probe student responses and help students

prototypes allowed the teacher to anticipate

come to their own conclusions. They commonly

what challenges students may encounter.

used selective questions, instead of posing

was encouraging to see more teachers making

many questions that had a tendency to disrupt

prototypes as a sign of personal investment

students’ thinking and action (i.e. flow, or “in-

and gaining experience with the media before

it-ness”). This all supported a higher level of

introducing them to the class. To bring this to

artistry, which hinged on exploration and play,

another level of effectiveness, these teachers

as opposed to excessive instructional teaching

also made greater use of students’ works as

that could limit opportunities for students to

examples to demonstrate what was expected

learn from exploration and experimentation with

and what was possible. However, while there

materials and processes.

was a greater use of stimulus materials (i.e.

To aid students in conceptualising artistic work, effective teachers used themes, big ideas, questions, metaphors, “problems” and concerns to frame investigations rather than media or formal concepts (Elements of Art, Principles of Design). Themes and big ideas were frequently used and there was a conscious attempt to link

53

an over-reliance on “identity”. Teachers could

counter this, deeper research into the kind of

• Orchestrating in-process peer feedback. teachers

and “emotions”. However, there seemed to be

Science, society and culture, local and global

• Using knowledge from other content areas or

Effective

“playground”, “family and peer relationships”,

It

tactile, visual, multimedia), their usage lacked critical engagement. Furthermore, less effective teachers were unable to gauge the effectiveness of the learning activity as they were not only new to the medium, but had also not attempted or familiarised themselves with the method and procedures demanded of the students.

them to students’ lives. For example, terms

Effective teachers developed and used questions

that were used to evoke relevance included

to unpack prototypes and student artworks

These

Effective teachers created a safe environment

facilitative questions used by the teachers often

for learning and risk-taking. This encompassed

focused mainly on techniques to decode the

a range of general teaching practices and

works. Yet, teachers could have spent more

strategies, including the use of classroom

time on research and in finding suitable artist

management routines, establishing strong

exemplars. They often fell back on discussing

student rapport, mutual respect, positive tone

traditional artists, which could limit students’

of voice and body language, and spending

exposure to the art world. As a way forward,

time learning about students’ background,

teachers would need to use their chosen

interests and learning styles. Student voice

stimuli more effectively and critically. Instead

was

of asking questions that required students to

judgmental teacher responses. These teachers

describe visual appearances of artworks only,

also designed effective performance tasks that

the teachers would have been more effective

stretched students’ thinking and skills, and

if they were to ask more probing and thought-

used on-going assessment and other strategies

provoking questions.

to advance students’ learning. Less effective

There were missed opportunities to involve students in developing assessment criteria based on exemplars. Doing so would have empowered students to take ownership of their learning, by first understanding how the criteria were established, and how art-making might be evaluated.

environment teachers

used

available

space

creatively, and often re-arranged classroom furniture to facilitate individual or group learning.

accompanied

by

non-

practices tended to be largely procedural in nature and dominated by teacher talk. The teacher dictated the pace of learning, set art tasks that over-emphasised technical skills rather than creation, and resulted in disinterested and disengaged students.

III. Document teaching and learning as part of an

II. Create a lively, visually inspiring art learning Effective

encouraged,

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

to inspire and motivate students.

Their art classrooms featured

numerous displays of process and products.

Displays included past and current students’ works, various types of visual stimulus in the form of books, charts, photographs, posters, printed images and objects. In some instances, displays included photographs and texts by students, illustrating the artistic processes they undertook to conceptualise an artwork and what they had learnt previously.

artistic learning cycle Effective teachers used observing and noticing as an active part of their instruction and ongoing assessment in the classroom. Process and products of learning were documented and shared. The use of documentation as a process requires the translation of observations, actions and verbal responses into tangible artefacts. As such, the act of close observation, active listening and recording conversations, and activities in the classroom, allowed teachers to understand their students in new ways. Documentation supported the building of conceptual knowledge and collaboration across and beyond classrooms. Making the ‘thinking’ of a learning group visible allowed

54

students to build on what others know. Less

Effective teachers also used classroom displays

effective teaching practices failed to capitalise

and exhibitions to enhance group learning.

on documentation to review students’ prior

Students can decide how an exhibition of

learning. The following documentation practices

student-work is to be put together, play

were observed:

complementary roles to organise the exhibition,

• Using students’ writing process and writings to formulate thinking and record thinking; • Using student photographs to record instances

As they interact, they share their strengths and develop their weaker skills. In small groups, they can develop their interpersonal skills, and learn

of artistic process as part of the formative

to deal with conflict.

assessment strategy;

Effective Teaching Practices

• Using student visual journals to encourage documentation of art learning; and • Using worksheets with thinking routines, and other thought-provoking questions related to the learning activity to document studentreflection.

I. Understand learners and learning well Effective art teachers learnt about their students over time and used that knowledge to inform lesson design and classroom teaching. Designing developmentally-appropriate instruction should be based on knowledge of artistic, aesthetic, social, emotional and cognitive development

IV. Plan for group learning and collaborative art-

of the learner. This principle holds that the

making

art teacher should strive to know students’

Effective teachers used various forms of art-

prior knowledge and skills, family and cultural

making and presentation that benefit from group

background, interests and learning habits, and

learning and group perspectives. Where group

where they are at in their learning process. Doing

learning was well guided, students could engage

so helps in the following ways: (a) Informs the

with a topic, and deepen their understanding of

lesson design (e.g. choice of stimulus, selection

the subjects explored. To do so consistently and

of specific instructional objectives, pacing, and

effectively, students have to be taught how to

task design); (b) Explains students’ challenges

learn together. Teachers should therefore design

(e.g. identification of common misconception);

tasks that benefit from group perspectives,

and, (c) Guides the next instructional step (e.g.

facilitate conversations that deepen learning,

feedback, next lesson design).

and form groups intentionally.

55

and foster peer support in the entire process.

Effective art teachers established good student

Effective teachers allocated time and space

rapport and relationships, and showed genuine

for students to interact and learn from each

care and concern for students. Good teachers

other through discussion, questions, critique

saw themselves as role models, modelling good

and working on the same task. While teachers

learning behaviours, humility, and inquiry.

planned group-based art projects, more could be

Teachers and students had mutual respect and

done to foster deeper collaboration.

trust, which enabled them to learn from each

students develop skills to learn

learning both dynamic and satisfying.

independently.

Effective

art

teachers

explicitly

modelled how experts learn.

Good

• Teachers

took

advantage

of

“teachable moments” or “ready-

teachers modelled and demonstrated

to-learn moments”.

how skilful artists approached learning,

questions encouraged students to

new ideas and information.

When

confront and respond to what they

teachers talked about their own inquiry

were doing, address misconceptions,

process, note taking or where they

or to deepen learning.

found answers to their own questions, the students were led to see how learning could be hard or messy, even for experienced learners. This brought some enlightenment, assurance and confidence to the students for their own learning journey.

Asking apt

II. Understand the curriculum and content well Effective art teachers were observed to be purposeful; aligning learning objectives,

assessments

instructional

activities.

and Effective

art teachers designed lesson units

Effective art teachers embraced learner-

more carefully. They identified and

centred teaching, placed learners in the

scaffolded differentiated instruction

centre of the learning process, shaping

for key concepts, ideas, and skills in

the content, activities, materials, and

art, for different groups of students.

pace of learning. Students were able

The

to do more discovering when teachers

performance tasks served towards

practised student-centred art teaching,

what was intended, cognisant of

as opposed to restrictive rote learning.

students’

These traits were observed:

psychomotor developmental stage.

• Students had autonomy to shape their task, art form or material, and their “approach”. This is consistent with literature on choice-based art

These

instructional

art

activities

artistic,

and

cognitive

teachers

and

managed

to

students build and demonstrate their understanding.

Effective art teachers used on-going

encourages students’ cooperation

assessment

and ownership.

teachers and students about the

opportunities to learn independently or from one another, and helped

Effective art teachers learnt about their students over time and used that knowledge to inform lesson design and classroom teaching.

design performance tasks that helped

teaching, where providing choice

• Teachers provided students with

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

other; thus making teaching and

that

informed

both

students’ current understanding and how to proceed with subsequent teaching and learning (Black, et

56

al., 2003; Blythe et al., 1998). Good on-going

students gained greater self-awareness and

assessment practices observed were:

social awareness.

• Having

good

situational

awareness

of

We observed different ways of demonstrating

students’ learning, based on behaviour and

Civic literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-

work-in-progress of students;

cultural Skills (CGC), Critical and Inventive

• Criteria for performance tasks were clear, relevant and public. These were listed on presentation slides or printed as hand outs; and

Skills in the art classroom, depending on the age of the students. These were different from the examples initially conceptualised by the research team. For example, an age appropriate

• Feedback occurred frequently in conjunction with performance of understanding during class time. Feedback provided students with information not only about how well they had carried out their performance task, but also how they might improve it.

B. Findings on Student Behaviour and Student Outcomes (RQ2)

indicator of “displaying socio-cultural awareness and sensitivity” (CGC) for lower primary students was finding out about their classmates through art-making and art discussion, and helping one another in aspects of social and academic learning.

In instances where the theme for

art-making drew from local culture, students’ sensitivity to national and cultural identity was observed to be developed.

Making art with a suitable theme and focus in

Aspects of fostering active civic community life

mind lends itself well to bringing out students’

and global awareness, or deepening of students’

awareness of themselves. Contextualised art

understandings in these domains, were not

themes that focus on identity (e.g. Portraiture),

immediately apparent in the art lessons observed

relationships (e.g. friends and family), and

or lesson unit plans collected.

places (e.g. playgrounds), lend themselves

students learnt about art and artists from

well for students to explore and reflect upon

countries other than Singapore, they acquired,

their emotions, strengths, weaknesses, and

in small parts, an understanding of different

values. In effective classes, students were able

cultural meanings ascribed to colour, objects,

to articulate their own emotions and feelings,

actions and images. “Seeing is not simply a

and empathise how their peers thought and

passive reception of stimuli but also involves

felt about artworks with strong subject matter,

active construction of meaning” (Felten, 2008).

colour, lines, and shapes. Students learnt about

This is consistent with research on students’

their peers and showed respect for different

acquisition of visual literacy, where the active

viewpoints by responding appropriately to peer

decoding of images from other cultures raised

comments.

awareness of cultural associations affiliated to

By responding appropriately to

questions of identity, purpose, and aspirations,

57

Thinking and Information, and Communication

these images (Yenawine, 1998).

However, as

investigated, discussed, and drawn from as

for students to display 21CC across a lesson

inspiration for art production. While art-making

unit that stretched over weeks rather than in

allowed students to communicate visually and

one lesson. In instances where Civic Literacy,

express themselves artistically, CCI would be

Global Awareness and Cross Cultural Skills

fostered when meaningful, collaborative art

(CGC), and Communication, Collaboration and

tasks are guided by contemporary community

Information (CCI) were not observed, they were

art exemplars.

Similarly, personal inquiry

not intended learning outcomes. Despite this,

from

sources

aspects of cordial cooperation, respect for peers,

documentation, ideation, exploration, and

and turn taking to speak were observed, and

experimentation over a period of time in

this pointed to evidence of communication and

an extended project, would lend itself for

collaboration skills being exercised. Teachable

students to acquire information management

moments were put to advantage, reminding

skills, guided by the teacher through artistic

students of the intricacies of working together

processes, methods, and tools.

and experiencing success from collaboration.

Likewise, verbal communication skills were not emphasised, since student presentations were evaluated for art ideas, rather than the metacognition behind their instrumentation.

The use of Information and Communication Technologies in learning was absent from classroom teaching.

Instead, these were

implied or carried out as research homework, or in some instances, the scope of research was bound by what the teacher could provide in the form of pre-printed images, sampled from the Internet.

primary

through

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

In general, there were opportunities provided

drawing,

Effective art teaching naturally lends itself strongest to nurture students’ Critical and Inventive Thinking by challenging students’ thinking

through

authentic

inquiry

and

personal engagement in art. Data collected suggests that students were engaged in critical thinking, decision-making and metacognition when the art task was engaging and challenging, which is consistent with other empirical research (Adam et al., 2006; Greene et al., 2013). Additionally, challenging and engaging art tasks provided students the opportunity to manage complexity and ambiguity, where

For all aspects of 21CC to be developed

they do not have the immediate solutions to a

intentionally through art, performance tasks

visual, material, or conceptual problem. The

and learning activities would need to be

qualitative data suggested that teachers’ and

designed with 21CC intent in mind. Teachers

peers’ probing questions helped individual

ought to be able to contextualise learning from

students overcome these problems. Moreover,

multiple entry points, and use big ideas to frame

where visual exemplars were available, they

inquiry, while mitigating constraints of time.

allowed students to tinker and experiment

Authentic CGC could perhaps be nurtured when

with different solutions to a problem. These

a range of related artefacts, artists, and artworks

were also attributed to a safe environment for

from diverse cultures, are deliberately selected,

learning and risk-taking.

58

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS Art Educators

To this end,

strong student-centric teaching practices are more likely to provide opportunities to nurture 21CC.

In general, these opportunities bear

the best results when provided across many lesson units over time. To foster 21CC is likely to require enculturation (Ritchhart & Church, 2011) over the duration of compulsory schooling, and across disciplines and domains. In order for this to be successfully carried through, teachers need to see themselves as connectors to help students make connections between different domains of knowledge. They will also need to embrace complexity, ambiguity, and challenges that different classrooms have, and even see themselves as instigators, who set high expectations and challenge their students to take things further (Marshall, 2005).

Based on research observations and STAR’s brief professional development interventions with teachers, the following factors relate to pedagogical change and improvement necessary to see the development of 21CC through the

• Establishing a common language amongst art teachers by moving tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge is essential. Descriptions networked learning and resultant constructive feedback, as well as professional reflection.

There should be a common understanding that achieving emerging 21CC outcomes should not be limited to art classes, but should be an endeavour that permeates the school’s culture and all subject disciplines. Likewise, the aims and purposes of art education should be honoured, instead of simply pursuing only 21CC student outcomes.

Art Syllabuses In the context of Singapore in which national syllabuses provide the curricular directions for the different subjects, the art syllabuses could make explicit alignment of the emerging 21CC to the syllabus aims and learning outcomes.

Clearer articulation of the content in terms of knowledge, skills, and values, in relation to the syllabus outcomes and the 21CC could help teachers scope and design the kinds of learning activities and experiences the students should go through. Illustrative lesson exemplars and student outcomes could be incorporated into

teaching of art:

the resource packages to support teachers in

• Professional development should focus on

While all these seem logical and important

shifting teacher-centred educational beliefs to learner-centred educational beliefs; • Applied practice, evidence, and experience over time, is likely to change the way teachers

59

teaching; and

of effective art teaching could contribute to

Art, when taught well, offers a unique platform for students to develop 21CC.

view and think about effective art classroom

planning and implementing their art lessons. from a curriculum perspective, there are assumptions, tensions, and challenges that need to be examined. For instance, on “who decides what are important aims and outcomes

the complexities and ambiguities they

the

the

face; and in the process create their

curriculum planners, teachers, and

relationship

between

own meanings and make sense of the

other stakeholders require constant

worlds they experience.

negotiation and calibration in order to

(1956, p. 9) stated:

ensure the fidelity of the syllabuses’ implementation.

As Dewey

The child is the starting point, the centre, and the end… Moreover, the

There is also the on-going debate on

subject matter never can be got into the

the rationale, outcomes-based model

child from without. Learning is active.

of curriculum design predominant in

It involves reaching out of the mind. It

many education systems, including

involves organic assimilation starting

Singapore’s,

oversimplifies

from within. Literally, we must take our

education into a scientific activity that

stand with the child and our departure

focuses on pre-determined ends and to

from him. It is he and not the subject

change behaviours (McKernan, 2007).

matter which determines both quality

Educational objectives and outcomes

which

and quantity of learning.

could be argued as “end points”, an end to itself, or “turning points”, where there is an opportunity to learn new, learn anew, and behave differently.

Dewey advocated the latter, “They are not ends or termini of action at all.

They are terminals of deliberation, and so, turning points in activity” (McKernan, 2007, p. 73).

Teachers have to see themselves as decision makers and curriculum planners,

not

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

or the content of the art syllabuses?”,

“implementers”

(Harnack, 1968), in order to create turning points for every student. As such, in their planned and enacted curriculum, their students should and must always be placed in the centre of teaching and learning. The focus should then be the active engagement of their students’ minds and developing the thinking dispositions to connect

Pre-Service Teacher Training The development of students’ 21CC demands that art teachers must be well aware of the nature of visual arts and possess understanding of the deeper meanings and values of art in society. In addition, teachers must be able to translate and represent these skills, knowledge, and values of art to their students appropriately.

Descriptions of effective art teaching could contribute to networked learning and resultant constructive feedback, as well as professional reflection.

What

this suggests for pre-service teacher training is that trainee teachers need to have a good command of subject knowledge. They need to understand what practice in Visual Arts entails and be engaged in first-hand experiences so that they can in turn provide quality art experiences for their students.

However, the challenge

with pre-service training in art is the constant debate on what constitutes

60

“foundations” in art. The vast multitude of art

be a critical link between theory and practice.

forms coupled with limited curriculum time

Trainee teachers should be given the space,

often means that only certain art practices can

support, and guidance during their practicums

be introduced to trainee teachers.

to put into practice what they have learnt during

Ensuring that trainee teachers have both breadth and depth of the subject knowledge is critical and that their experience in art learning be relevant to school context cannot be overstated. This foundation in subject knowledge will serve as an important base from which pedagogical content knowledge can be developed since research has shown that teachers’ grasp of subject knowledge can often influence their pedagogical content knowledge

(Carlsen,

1987;

Carlsen,

1997;

CanbazoĞLu, DemİRellİ & Kavak, 2010).

Thus, the current

practicum support structure will need to be reviewed to provide better opportunities for such learning.

Limitations The real challenge that remains for this research team is that of translating the research findings into practice. Although we have endeavoured to synthesise relevant findings triangulated from different data sources, the evidence collected may limit the research claims for the following

Unfortunately, there is no consensus among

three reasons. First, lesson observations were

researchers on how best to develop teachers’

snapshots of classroom teaching, and might not

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) during

fully represent teachers’ teaching competencies.

pre-service training. Some argue for PCK to

Deeper longitudinal data could yield different

be taught distinctively, separate from subject

identified principles and leverages. Second, the

knowledge (Kapyla, Heikkinen & Asunta, 2009),

research team acknowledges that research is a

while others (Lederman, Gess-Newsome et al.,

complex learning task, where the iterative data

1994) opine that compartmentalising these two

analysis process means that the information

knowledge bases actually indicates the weak

is synthesised, and nuances of each case may

understanding of PCK itself. The latter group

be lost. The “thick description” (Geertz, 1973)

believe that PCK is developed with more teaching

may be of interest to some readers, but are

experiences and increased use of the knowledge

unavailable in this report. Third, the detailed

structures that exist within the domain itself. This

findings are bound by the context of the cases,

current research in fact managed to associate

and generalising the application to other

improved student-centred teaching approaches,

classrooms would require adaptation and

seen in the second phase of the research, with

remodelling to suit new contexts.

effective professional development intervention.

Certainly, art education methods classes should be made more prominent in trainee teachers’ pre-service training to provide trainee teachers with a basic understanding of various studentcentred teaching approaches. Practicums can

61

their pre-service training.

New empirical research studies could deepen our understanding of art teaching in the context of Singapore art classrooms and address gaps from this research. First, research on how art learning is sustained across levels (i.e. Primary One to Six) could give insight to strategies art

Such research could provide support for art

sequence

teachers interested in providing personalised

their

instructional

programme.

This research could also identify challenges and issues faced on the ground and inform professional development policy and course content. Second, it was observed that different teachers had different benchmarks for how they evaluated their students’ work and what they defined as “aesthetic qualities”. We could benefit from a deeper understanding of what constitutes “aesthetics sensibility” and how it can be nurtured. Third, while learner-centred teaching is advocated, little empirical research is conducted on how group learning can

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

teachers use on the ground to scope and

learning but are daunted by large class sizes.

The ultimate goal of describing the effective practices in this chapter began with the hope that they will make their way into the pedagogical

repertoire

of

Singapore

art

teachers. We hope this chapter provides the granularity and detail of interest to educators within and outside the field, providing an invaluable snapshot of what counts as quality art teaching today, and how these might apply in other classroom teaching contexts.

overcome large class sizes for specific art forms.

62

references Abbs, P. (1989). A is for aesthetics: Essays on creativity and aesthetic education. London: Routledge-Falmer.

Adams, M, Foutz, S., Luke, J., & Stein, J. (2006). Thinking through Art: Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum School Partnership Program Year 3 preliminary research results, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. Retrieved February 26, 2015, from http://www.gardnermuseum.org/FILE/403.pdf Addison, N. (2011). Moments of intensity: Affect and the making and teaching of art.

International Journal of Art & Design, 30(3), 363-378.

Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & William, D. (2003). Assessment for learning: Putting it into practice. England: Open University Press.

Blythe, T. and Associates. (1998). The teaching for understanding guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Booth, W., Colomb, G., & Williams, J. (2008). The craft of research. (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

CanbazoĞLu, S., DemİRellİ, H., & Kavak, N. (2010). Investigation of the relationship between pre-service science teachers’ subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge regarding the particulate nature of matter. Elementary Education Online, 9(1), 275-291.

Carlsen, W. S. (1987). Why do you ask? The effects of science teacher subject-matter knowledge on teacher questioning and classroom discourse. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. Retrieved from ERIC databse.

(ED293181) Carlsen, W. S. (1997). Never ask a question if you don’t know the answer: The tension in teaching between modeling science argument and maintaining law and order. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 32(2), 14-23.

Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education (7th ed.). Oxon: Routledge.

63

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

Craft, A. (2001). An analysis of research and literature on creativity in education. Report prepared for the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Retrieved February 26, 2015, from http://www.creativetallis.com/uploads/2/2/8/7/2287089/creativity_in_education_report. pdf Cronbach, L. J. (1975). Beyond the disciplines of scientific psychology.

American

Psychologists, 30(2), 116-127.

Cummings, K. (2010). “So What.” “Who Cares?” “Whatever.” Changing adolescents’ attitudes in the art classroom. Visual Arts Research, 36(1), 55-67.

Curriculum Planning and Development Division (CPDD). (2006). Art syllabus teachers guide. Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Curriculum Planning and Development Division (CPDD). (2008). Art syllabus: Primary & lower secondary Art. Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Curriculum Planning and Development Division (CPDD). (2008). Lower secondary Art resource kit. Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Curriculum Planning Office. (2012). 21st Century Competencies standards and benchmarks. Singapore: Ministry of Education. Retrieved February 26, 2015, from http://21cc.opal.moe.edu.sg/cos/o.x?c=/21cc/pagetree&func=view&rid=1930 Curriculum Planning Office. (2013a). MOE 21CC framework (2014 onwards).

Singapore:

Ministry

of

Education.

Retrieved

February

26,

2015,

from

http://21cc.opal.moe.edu.sg/cos/o.x?c=/21cc/pagetree&func=view&rid=1929 Curriculum Planning Office. (2013b). 21st Century Competencies standards and benchmarks.

Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Dewey, J. (1956). The child and the curriculum: The school and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Eisner, E. (2002). The arts and the creation of mind. United States of America: Yale University Press.

Felten, P. (2008). Visual literacy. Change, 40(6), 60-63.

Flyvberg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(2), 219-245.

64

Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books.

Greene, J., Kisda, B., & Bowen, D. (2014). The educational value of field trips.

Education Next, 14(1), Winter 2014.

Retrieved May 10, 2014, from

http://educationnext.org/the-educational-value-of-field-trips/ Gude, O. (2000). Investigating the culture of curriculum. In D. Fehr, Real world readings in art education: Things your professor never told you. New York: Routledge.

Hamilton, L., & Corbett-Whittier, C. (2013). Using case study in education research. London: Sage.

Harnack, R. S. (1968). The teacher: Decision maker and curriculum planner.

Scranton:

International Textbook Company.

Harvard Project Zero. (n.d.). Artful thinking: Stronger thinking and learning through the power of art. Cambridge: Harvard Graduate School of Education. Retrieved Feb 26, 2015, from http://www.rcsthinkfromthemiddle.com/uploads/2/3/4/1/23418034/artfulthinking finalreport.pdf Harvard Project Zero. (n.d.) Artful thinking. Project Zero at Harvard Graduate School of Education, Traverse City Area Public Schools. Retrieved January 2014, from http://www.pzartfulthinking.org/index.php Harvard Project Zero. (n.d.). Project zero: Visible thinking. Retrieved September 9, 2013, from http://www.pz.gse.harvard.edu/visible_thinking.php Hetland, L., & Winner, E. (2004). Cognitive transfer from arts education to non-arts outcomes: Research evidence and policy implications. In E. W. Eisner & M. D. Day (Eds.), Handbook of research and policy in art education. Mahway: Erlbaum.

Hetland, L., Winner, E., Veenema, S., & Sheridan, K. (2013). Studio thinking: The real benefits of visual arts education (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.

Housen, A. (2001). Aesthetic thought, critical thinking and transfer. Arts and Learning Research Journal, 18(1), 99-132.

Jewitt, C. (2008). The visual in learning and creativity: A review of the literature. London: Arts Council England.

65

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

Käpylä, M., Heikkinen, J.-P., & Asunta, T. (2009). Influence of content knowledge on pedagogical content knowledge: The case of teaching photosynthesis and plant growth.

International Journal of Science Education, 31(10), 1395-1415.

Lai, E. R. (2011). Critical thinking: A literature review. Pearson. Retrieved February 25, 2015, from http://images.pearsonassessments.com/images/tmrs/CriticalThinkingReviewFINAL.pdf Lederman, N. G., Gess-Newsome, J., & Latz, M. S. (1994). The nature and development of preservice science teachers’ conceptions of subject matter and pedagogy. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(2), 129-146.

Marshall, J. (2005). Connecting art, learning and creativity: A case for curriculum integration. Studies in Art Education, 46(3), 227-241.

Matthews, J. (1997). How children learn to draw the human figure: Studies from Singapore.

European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 5(1), 29-58.

McKernan, J. (2007). Curriculum and imagination: Process theory, pedagogy and action research. London and New York: Routledge.

Noddings, N. (1995). Teaching themes of care. Phi Delta Kappan, 76(9), 675–679.

Randi Korn & Associates. (2010). Educational research: The art of problem solving Volume 1 Report. New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. Retrieved February 26, 2015, from http://media.guggenheim.org/lta/pdfs/aps_final_report2010.pdf Read, H. (1943). Education through art. London: Faber & Faber.

Ritchhart, R. & Church, M. (2011). Making thinking visible: How to promote engagement, understanding, and independence for all learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Sawyer, K. (2012). Explaining creativity: The science of human innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schon, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (1987). Defining critical thinking. Retrieved February 27, 2015, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766

66

Shimamura, A. (2013). Experiencing art: In the brain of the beholder. New York: Oxford University Press.

Sternberg, R. (2012). The assessment of creativity: An investment-based approach.

Creativity Research Journal, 24(1), 3-12.

Sternberg, R., & Williams, W. (1996). How to develop student creativity. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Sternhouse, L. (1979). Case study in comparative education: Particularity and generalisation. Comparative Education, 15(1), 5-10.

Student Development Curriculum Division (SDCD). (2012). 2014 syllabus for Character and Citizenship Education (Primary). Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Thistlewood, D. (1993). Herbert Read: A critical appreciation at the centenary of his birth.

Journal of Art & Design Education, 12(2), 143–160.

Yenawine, P. (1998). Visual art and student-centred discussions. Theory into Practice, 37(4), 314-321.

Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Yin, R. K. (2012). Application of case study (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

67

3 - Development of 21CC through Art in Singapore Schools: Re-Assessing Singapore Art Teaching

TRANSLATING THEORY inTO PRACTICE Lesson planning is critical to set the stage for learning.

Teachers need to design units of

lessons that challenge students’ thinking by providing opportunities for authentic inquiry.

Through personal engagement in art, students can become more confident, self-directed in learning, and empathetic toward social and cultural issues. From the findings presented in this chapter, the following are tips to create art classrooms that best develop students’ emerging 21CC over time.

Encourage ideas generation conceptualisation of artistic work

and

research to deepen understanding of the concept, theme or idea; and • Orchestrate in-process peer feedback.

Create a lively, visually inspiring artlearning environment Strategies include: • Create a safe environment for learning and risk-taking by employing strategies such as establishing strong student rapport, mutual

• Use sketchbooks, worksheets and other strategies (e.g. questioning strategies) to generate ideas;

respect, positive tone of voice and body language, and spending time learning about students’ background, interests, and learning styles;

• Design activities for peer interaction and learning;

• Treat the art classroom like an art studio or art laboratory, where creative teaching and

• Incorporate “serious play” as a way of setting the stage for creative thinking;

students’ understanding of an art form;

concerns

for

exploration

to

frame

investigations; time

Allow lesson structures

to mirror how artists learn and work, such as

of

discussions, and exhibitions; and • Use available space creatively and often

• Use themes, big ideas, questions, metaphors, and

learning happens.

facilitating art demonstrations, art making, art

• Provide multiple entry points to build

• Allow

• Use knowledge from other content areas or

the use of classroom management routines,

Strategies include:

“problems”

• Develop and use questions to probe thinking;

and

experimentation with materials in order to generate ideas; • Use art demonstrations and make prototypes;

re-arrange classroom furniture to facilitate individual or group learning.

Document teaching and learning as part of an artistic cycle Strategies include: • Use observing and noticing as an active part of instruction and on-going assessment in the classroom;

68

• Use students’ writing process and writings to formulate thinking and record thinking;

Thinking by challenging students’ thinking,

• Use student photographs to record instances of an artistic process as part of formative assessment strategy;

documentation of art learning; and Use worksheets with thinking routines, and other thought provocative questions related to the learning activity to document student-reflection.

and

Strategies include: • Allocate time and space for students to interact, learn with and from each other through talk, discussion, questioning, critique, and working on the same task; and • Plan art tasks, or art making and presentations that benefit from group learning and group perspectives.

Adopt a growth mind-set and critically examine how well your lessons are carried out and received. Find opportunities to try a strategy described in this chapter that is new to you, and find opportunities to learn about how other teachers have allowed their aesthetics sensibility to be sharpened as they continue to deepen their experiences in art making. Take time to rekindle your understanding of the aims and purposes of art education.

Remember that effective art teaching naturally lends itself strongest to:

69

through authentic inquiry and personal engagement in art; and • Inspire students to communicate/express

• Use student visual journals to encourage

Plan for group learning collaborative art making

• Nurture students’ Critical and Inventive

themselves visually about self and about their world-views.

04

Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom Siew Ling CHUA, Hui Ping HO, Chee-Hoo LUM, Chai Jing TAN

70

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

INTRODUCTION The focus on student-centricity and the nurturing of 21CC (MOE, 2010a/2010b) has received increasing attention in Singapore in the past five years. At the MOE Work Plan Seminar in 2011, then Minister for Education Heng Swee Keat pointed to ‘student-centric, values driven education’, which marked a shift in education priorities, articulating the need to “make our education system even more student-centric and sharpen our focus in holistic education” (Heng, 2011). With this focus, the professional development of music teachers, through the work of the Singapore Teachers’ Academy for the aRts (STAR), has sought to examine how formal music pedagogies such as Kodály, Orff and Dalcroze, as well as informal and non-formal music teaching approaches, could be delivered with a student-centric orientation. Some music

b. What resultant 21CC and student outcomes are observed in the Music classroom?

This chapter also describes the methodology of the music component of the PAM research, and presents both the quantitative and qualitative findings of the pedagogical practices that contribute to the fostering of 21CC through learning music.

It will also introduce the

supporting literature associated with these findings. The discussion is intended to stimulate further ideas of how music lessons could be made student-centric and engaging for our 21st century music classroom in Singapore.

METHOD

The focus of the case-study research (Yin,

teachers have also worked with the academy on

2009) was to examine the teaching practices

action research and applied an eclectic use of

of 12 music teachers (seven primary and five

music teaching approaches to engage students.

secondary) of varied teaching competencies

The efforts of these music teachers have been

and experiences in relation to the proposed

documented in essays that feature student-

seven guiding principles of student-centred

centric practices (Chua & Ho, 2013; STAR, 2014).

arts learning.

At the Ministry level, the music component

from lesson observations (local and overseas)

of the PAM research was conceptualised and

by STAR, feedback from Arts Education Branch

implemented to study the impact of music

(MOE), and dialogue with music teacher-leaders

pedagogies on the delivery of 21CC and music

from October 2011 to May 2012. The principles

learning outcomes.

were:

This chapter presents the key findings for the

a. Knowing

Music component of the PAM Research, which was guided by the following questions: a. What, why and how do Music pedagogical practices and principles contribute to effective fostering of 21CC and student outcomes?

These principles were derived

students

(psychology

and

development in music); b. Making

learning

relevant

through

contextualising learning of the arts; c. Providing choices and empowering students to make decisions (in the arts processes, learning goals, and criteria of success);

72

d. Facilitating reflection-in-action, reflectionon-action and critical thinking;

Collaboration and Information Skills

e. Facilitating creativity in art and musicmaking; f.

Critical and Inventive Thinking / Communication,

Creating a ‘flow’ (fluency, pacing, aesthetic

Most students are able to: •

music elements/features, and/or compare

flow); and, g. Creating

a

environment

conducive (e.g.

arts

learning

organisation

for

music performances/creations •

tools) •

Reflect upon their singing/playing/creating

examination of students’ outcomes in relation to

and make adjustments so as to improve

pedagogic practices, data was collected through

on their fluency and expression in singing/

observation of both the teaching strategies as well as students’ behaviours, questionnaires

playing/creating •

Evaluate ideas generated and use them to

for teachers, and interviews with teachers

develop further into larger musical ideas or

and students. While the observation of the

pieces of music

teaching was guided by the principles above, the

•

observation of student behaviours was guided team for this research project, which mapped

Collaborate with others respectfully in group setting to work towards a group goal (e.g.

by a framework developed by the music subject

performing/creating a piece of music) •

Communicate and manage musical ideas

the General Music Programme (GMP) syllabus

responsibly, including those from digital

learning outcomes to the 21CC. The observable

sources, through performing, creating and

student behaviours specified in the framework

responding, individually and in groups

are listed below:

A Music International Panel comprising both

Civic Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-

international and local music pedagogues,

Cultural Skills

and school leaders with music training, was

Most students are able to: •

Sing/play music from local, regional, and global music traditions/genres/styles

•

Make reference to ideas and stylistic features from different traditions/genres/styles in music-making (performing or creating)

•

Distinguish and describe musical features of different music traditions/genres/styles

•

Engage in and show respect for the music repertoire they work with

73

Individually generate and experiment with sounds and musical ideas (e.g. using ICT

instruction, collaborative learning).

Since the research question required an

Listen critically and make observations of

set up to observe the participating teachers in three stages over a one-and-a-half-year period: Baseline (January to March 2013); Interim (July – September 2013); and, Final (July to September 2014).

Observations were guided

by an Evaluation Guide which outlined the indicators of teacher delivery and observable student behaviours based on the above guiding principles and framework. Each International Panel member gave a rating to the level of evidence observed for each principle, and then

intervention worked on strengthening teacher

qualitative descriptions of the lessons observed.

beliefs that underpin a student-centric music

Their ratings were also informed by other data

education through discussions, workshops, lesson

including: (a) Teachers’ self-perception of their

observations, and mentoring by the professional

practice in terms of each of the principles through

development team at STAR.

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

agreed on the ratings that must be supported by

a questionnaire; and, (b) The International Panel members’ interview with the music teacher and a group of students at the end of each lesson so as to achieve a better understanding of the lesson in the context of the teacher’s practice and the curriculum, as well as students’ experiences in their music lessons.

The process allowed for

DATA AND RESULTS

Comparing the responses of the participants at

a moderation of perspectives by members of

the Baseline and Final stages of the research,

the International panel as they weighed in with

the results showed a statistical significance in

their own knowledge and experiences, using

the improvement of ratings in four of the seven

the Evaluation Guide as a starting point for their

principles (contextualising learning, empowering

discussions.

students,

As part of the research process, professional development

interventions

were

conducted

for the 12 teachers in response to findings and recommendations at each stage of the research.

For example, at the Baseline Stage, professional development

was

focused

on

broadening

perspectives and pedagogical repertoire to

facilitating

critical

thinking

and

reflection, and facilitating creativity). In addition, there was a statistically significant improvement in the overall scores.4 Comparing students’ observed emerging 21CC behaviours between the stages, the results also showed a statistically significant improvement in ratings of the overall observed 21CC behaviours 5.

facilitate creativity and critical thinking, and to

The results were analysed using linear regression

deepen understanding of musical and creative

to identify the extent to which the delivery

At the Interim Stage, Assessment

with student-centred principles predicted the

for Learning became a focus area to provide

development of each of the emerging 21CC.

participants with the tools and strategies to

The results6 from the study of the case study

monitor and assess student learning more

participants indicated that:

effectively.

a. Facilitating critical thinking predicts the

processes.

4

The professional development

The results from the one way ANOVA test were: Contextualising learning, F(2, 27) = 3.47, p = .04, r= .45; Empowering

students, F(2, 27) = 7.36, p = .00, r= .59; Facilitating critical thinking and reflection, F(2, 27) = 5.04, p = .01, r= .52; and Facilitating creativity F(2, 27) = 11.05, p = .00, r= .67). There is a statistically significant improvement in the overall scores F(2, 27) = 4.42, p = .02, r= .50.

5 6

The result was F (2,27)=3.795, p = .035, r = .47 There was multi-collinearity observed in the principles (knowing students and creating a conducive environment) for

the tests conducted. It suggests that these variables have some shared characteristics and are confounding. Hence, they are removed from the computation.

74

development of critical and inventive thinking7; and, b. Facilitating creativity and creating a flow predicts the development of communication, collaboration and information skills8.

It was observed that the more effective and engaging music lessons tended to be the ones that created aesthetic experiences for students, rather than the pursuit of technical knowledge and skills.

These tended to be lessons that

provided opportunities for students to encounter music in ways that allowed them to express ideas musically, manage creative ambiguities, as well as discern quality and articulate qualitative dimensions of music. Such learning experiences gave voice to students to communicate their expressive selves in musically authentic ways.

MUSIC PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICES THAT NURTURE 21CC

Based on the three stages of lesson observations and interviews with students and teachers, the team concluded that there were music pedagogical practices which were effective in the fostering of 21CC and student outcomes.

From the seven principles of student-centred arts learning, four of them emerged from this research as pedagogical leverages, which work in tandem towards nurturing the musical voice of students. They are represented in the framework given in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Music Pedagogical Leverages for Developing Emerging 21CC Aesthetic Musical Flow

Musical Communication & Cultures

Musical Creativity

Provide Meaningful Choices & Empowerment

Critical Thinking in Music

Facilitate Creative

Musical Voice of Students

Develop Reflection of and

8

75

Musical Collaboration Facilitate Collaborative

Responding to music

7

Process

Group Work and Musical Ensemble

The results were statistically significant, F (5, 26) = 8.409, p = .00 and are as follows: β (SE)

95% CI

Intercept

-.404* (.527)

(-1.488, .678)

Facilitating critical thinking

.512* (.238)

(.023, 1.002)

Adjusted R 2 = .544 The results were statistically significant, F (5, 26) = 12.558, p = .00 and are as follows: β (SE)

95% CI

Intercept

.132 (.481)

(-.856, 1.120)

Facilitating creativity

.805 (.195)

(.404, 1.206)

Creating a flow

.473 (.433)

(.110, .836)

Adjusted R 2 = .651

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

a. Musical Communication and Cultures Music embodies culture and is a natural leverage to provide exposure to a variety of local and global repertoire, making explicit connections between music and its larger socio-cultural contexts. These engender the emerging 21CC of Global Awareness and Cross-cultural skills.

Music is also a valuable means by which students express themselves, communicating their ideas through performing, creating and responding.

b. Critical Thinking in Music To develop critical thinking in music, teachers empower students to respond to, interpret and analyse musical works and concepts. They also use critical thinking strategies to help students reflect on the creative decisions that they make. As musical experience is fundamentally a qualitative one, critical thinking in music is also about discerning quality, understanding the qualitative dimensions of, and making judgements of music.

c. Musical Creativity As a means of expression, Music is a natural avenue to develop creativity. To reap the benefits of creativity, teachers plan for the entire creative process (generating, clarifying, developing, refining, evaluating ideas) and allow sufficient time for the process to take place over a series of lessons. They make room for open-ended tasks through exploration within parameters guided by learning objectives, which allows for diversity of outcomes and differentiated learning.

They encourage students to provide alternative musical interpretations through performing, responding and creating.

d. Musical Collaboration Musical collaboration is an authentic musical practice found across cultures around the world.

In a music ensemble, students experience collaboration for which music naturally provides the context, and develop collaboration skills such as establishing group goals and tasks, listening attentively to themselves vis-à-vis the whole ensemble, giving feedback, as well as group accountability. Teachers become facilitators and co-learners in the social dimensions of learning.

They systematically teach students the organisational structure, approaches and processes to successful group work, and nurture collaborative skills.

The above pedagogical leverages need to

following section will elaborate on each of these

be ensconced in a safe and vibrant learning

pedagogical leverages and how they resonate

environment with students experiencing a ‘flow’

with scholarly literature findings, as well as

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) of musical experiences,

present examples of classroom practices from the

where the focus is on aesthetics dimensions as

case studies that were observed.

students listen, perform and create music. The

76

Musical Communication and Cultures Music embodies culture and there is a variety of local and global repertoire for which teachers could make explicit connections between music

of issues such as context, modes of transmission, dimensions of interaction, and approaches to cultural diversity.

and its larger socio-cultural contexts, hence

Articulations by students who participated

contributing to nurturing of cultural awareness.

in the research study served to illustrate an

This perspective resonates with scholarly

approximation to musical communication and

writings on the valuing of cultural diversity in

culture.

music teaching. For example, Banks’ et al. (2001) articulation of essential principles for teaching and learning in a multicultural society pointed to the need for teachers to “help students acquire the social skills needed to interact effectively

Some of our classmates are not really into music but when we do things together (in music class), they are exposed to different types of music so maybe they will start having an interest in music.

with students from other racial, ethnic, cultural,

Beyond using a varied repertoire of world

and language groups.” In approaching world

musics and active music-making in collaborative

musics in education, Campbell’s (Campbell

settings to motivate and interest students in

& McCarthy, 1996) concentric circles model

music classes, a student also pointed out that,

(beginning with the inner circle of the musical self moving out towards musical training and musical outreach) serves as a critical reflection on how music teachers can deal with issues of diversity and inclusion within the music classroom. The musical self is primarily concerned with the teachers’ familiar musical heritage alongside a valuing of students’ musical preferences and heritage. The key is in the acknowledgement of every individual’s own musical identity.

Ethnomusicologists

(Wade,

2012;

We learn how to respect the cultures…when we hear the music we can understand what problems they face in the country.

Clearly, students are getting a sense that music is about understanding culture and about opening their minds to respect the diversity around them.

Students through their experiences in music classes, also begin to value the pervasiveness of music and how “music is a big thing in many

Bakan,

2011; Miller, 2012; Schippers, 2009) and music educators (Volk, 1998; Campbell, 2005) have also articulated several ways of engaging with world music that develop students’ musical knowledge

countries, something in their everyday life when they’re working or doing celebrations” and appreciating that they have their own musical culture to share with others, “to reach out to people in other countries” (student interviews,

in inclusive and active ways. Schippers (2009),

2013).

for example, has suggested a Twelve Continuum

Critical Thinking in Music

Transmission Framework for understanding diverse

In broader literature discussions of critical

environments. This framework aims to raise

thinking, the concept has evolved over time

awareness of choices the teacher could take in

and its roots can be traced back to the Socratic

music

77

the teaching of any music with an understanding

transmission

in

culturally

ago.

strategy observed was the facilitating

Etymologically, the word ‘critical’ is

from

2,500

of critical thinking through open-

derived from the Greek words: ‘kriticos’

ended and intellectually engaging

(meaning discerning judgement) and

questions. Another strategy observed

‘criterion’ (meaning standards), which

in the case studies was the facilitating

implies the development of ‘discerning

of

judgement

based

years

where

students

standards’.

were made “aware of one’s thinking

Critical thinking has been variously

as one performs specific tasks and

defined (Lipman, 1995; Ennis, 1987,

then using this awareness to control

Kuhn, 1999; Paul, 1989; Scriven & Paul,

what one is doing” (Jones & Ratcliff,

1996) and has been associated with

1993, p. 10). For example, a teacher

problem solving, higher-order thinking,

modelled by ‘thinking aloud’ the

reasoning,

abstract

on

metacognition

thinking

and

guiding questions as she worked with

reflection. Recent discourse regards

the students on a class composition

critical thinking as context-specific, and

task. This provided a model for the

involves diverse sets of thinking skills

students who periodically referred to

that operate within a particular domain

the guiding questions demonstrated

of experience (Woodford, 1996). Thus,

by the teacher when they created their

in music instruction, this view of critical

music in groups.

thinking suggests that music teaching ‘is less about teaching general and/or specific thinking skills and knowledge than it is about fostering in students a disposition to develop their musical individuality’ (Woodford, 1996, p. 29).

This view is also associated with a sociological perspective that critical thinking in music is connected with the construction of one’s musical identity as one engages in making musical decisions and explorations.

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

Method

The observations from the case studies brought to mind Gardner’s (1993) useful reminder that “musical thought is more than thinking about music, it is thinking in music”. Hence, when designing music tasks, teachers needed a high level of understanding of the connections between musical concepts and principles, and musical compositions (Wiggins 2001).

This

would enable students to achieve

Music embodies culture and there is a variety of local and global repertoire for which teachers could make explicit connections between music and its larger socio-cultural contexts, hence contributing to nurturing of cultural awareness.

their learning objectives and goals as

Observations from classroom practices

they engaged in performing, listening

in the case studies found that critical

and creating.

thinking strategies have been used

summarises

to help students reflect on creative

where the case study participants

decisions and empower them to make

could have considered alternative

informed judgements in creating,

ways to explore how critical thinking in

making and presenting music.

music could be extended:

One

The following table suggested

strategies

78

Observed Approaches

Alternative Approaches

Teacher sets clear objectives when

Teacher sets clear objectives when designing a

designing a music listening task which

music listening task which requires students to

requires students to listen for a particular

listen for a particular musical feature of the work.

musical feature of the work. Students

While the focus is still on the musical characteristics

complete a worksheet on what they had

of the piece they heard, students represent their

heard.

understanding through movement or graphic notation.

Teacher provides a specific parameter for

Without restricting students to just the simple

a music creating task in which students

application of notation, students could also explore

are to compose a rhythmic ostinato for

and experiment ideas which include more complex

a piece of music using rhythm notation

rhythmic patterns, and present these through a

(e.g. ta and ti-ti). Students must be able to

performance and/or a combination of graphic and

notate the rhythmic ostinato.

conventional notations.

Teacher teaches the class a new piece of

Teacher facilitates students’ identification of

music by asking students to repeat the

melodic contours and formation of new pieces of

piece line by line. Once the piece is learnt,

music through analytical listening. Teacher also

teachers decide on how it should be

facilitates students’ decision on how it (the new

performed.

piece of music) should be performed.

Teacher decides on the specific criteria

Teacher co-constructs the assessment criteria for

for assessment for the music task, with

the task with the students and provides positive

assessment often carried out by the

models and samples. To actively engage students

teacher.

in their learning, they are involved in peer and selfassessment.

Musical Creativity Discussion on creative thinking in music by music educators has been vibrant. Using the 4Ps framework of Person, Process, Product and Place (Rhodes, 1961; Runco & Pagnani, 2011, Hickey & Webster, 2001; Odena et al., 2004), this section discusses the observations from the case studies in relation to the development of creative thinking in music. The multi-faceted contributions from the field of music education

79

include understanding the composing strategies

used by students (e.g. Kratus, 1991; Younker, 2000); their compositional thought processes (e.g. Burnard & Younker, 2004; Younker, 2000; Wiggins, 2002); the developmental pathways of their creative output (Swanwick & Tillman, 1986); as well as assessment of creativity in compositions

and

improvisation

(Rusinek,

2012; Fautley, 2005; Hickey, 2001).

Bolden

(2009) looked at the teaching-composing practices through a case study, while Welch and Odena (2012) examined music teachers’

music classrooms, Dairianathan and Lum (2013) noted that there was less focus on the creative music-making activities compared to performing activities.

Person: Value the creative potential of students The idea that creativity is the domain of ‘special’ and ‘creative people’ is a thing of the past.

Research supports that every child has creative

Definitions of (musical) creativity abound and

potential and thus “the technique of getting ideas

are still being debated (Ryan & Brown, 2012;

can be learned and can be taught” (Rhodes, 1961,

Webster, 1990). Guided by the research questions

p. 306)10. In order that the creative potential in

and Singapore’s GMP syllabus, this study takes

students “manifest as performance” (Runco &

‘creativity’ to denote new concepts or ideas

Pagnani, 2011, p. 64), valuing what students bring

(Rhodes, 1961; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Eisner,

into the music classroom is crucial. This therefore

1971, cited in Odena et al., 2004), and more

means taking on a student-centric orientation

specifically, “imagination successfully manifested

towards music teaching-learning, which puts the

in any valued pursuit” (Odena & Welch, 2009, p.

focus on drawing from students’ prior experiences,

417; cited in Ryan & Brown, 2012). In a musical

skills and knowledge, as well as their responses

context, this would be ‘musical imagination’ and

during lessons.

the ability to think in sound. Webster proposed for creative thinking in music to be seen as the “mental processes associated with creative production” (1990, p. 22).

While musical creativity is often associated with composing or improvising activities9 – the act of creating musical materials - it is not limited to them. As Burnard puts it, “the presence of music is not a necessary condition for having creativity, but having creativity is a necessary condition for having music” (2012, p. 8). Creativity can pervade all aspects of musical activities where students are given the flexibility to make decisions about the music that they listen, respond to, and perform; such as through movements or stories.

9

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

perceptions of creativity. In terms of Singapore’s

Process: Broaden notions of and give time to the creative process Scholars have in the past investigated the processes of creativity and one such model is the four-stage creative process by Wallas (1926), which has been adapted by music educators for composing (Hickey & Webster, 1990; Burnard & Younker, 2004). The four-stage creative process includes: Preparation (which is the gathering of materials or ideas, observing, and defining the creative problem); Incubation (which involves thinking about parts and relationships, stepping away from the creative problem to create ‘think time’ for the assimilation of ideas); Inspiration/ Illumination (which is the ‘aha’ moment when a

For the purpose of this study, this report takes improvisation to be music “which is model-bound, rapidly created,

and simply conceived,” and composition is viewed as “music which is carefully thought out.” (Nettl, 1974, p. 17; cited in Campbell, 1990, p. 44).

10

One can read more about the differences between eminent creativity, labelled as “Big C” creativity, which designates

the “monumental and socially lauded accomplishments of eminent individuals” (Runco & Pagnani, 2011, p. 64) and “small c” creativity, used to describe more routine endeavours that pervade everyday life, which can be argued for musical expression and creation, as a human endeavour.

80

great idea is surfaced); and Verification (which is

out more fully. Such projects are often more

the bringing together of ideas and trying out of

meaningful and engaging for students (Wiggins,

the creative product). Reconceiving the model

2002).

so that it is less linear, Burnard and Younker (2004) also proposed a more cyclical and organic adaptation of the four processes (preparation, incubation, inspiration and verification) to mirror more closely the music composition pathways.

Recent discourse on the creative processes called for rethinking of musical creativity and put forth the notion of multiple creativities in music (Burnard, 2012). For instance, musical creativity could be observed beyond the musical composition, as there are differing musical practices in the world of musics where creativity is not observed in formal acts of composition (Finnegan, 2007; Burnard, 2012).

The socio-

cultural view of musical creativity proposes that situated musical creativity is generative and involves acts of creation or co-creation in social contexts (Lave & Wenger, cited in Burnard, 2012). Examples included collaborative creativity (where ideas are generated from joint creative endeavours), empathic creativity (where it involves the ability to have emotional and experiential responses to the feelings of others), and performance creativity such as in improvisational genres (Burnard, 2012, p. 15-16).

Product: Design authentic creative tasks that focus on thinking in sound A key principle of music teaching-learning is that ‘sound comes before symbol’ (Swanwick, 1999).

Wiggins (2002) pointed out that “students need opportunities to conceive of their original music as it will sound and not as it will look on paper” (p.

86, original italics). The key for music educators to consider is how holistic compositional and improvisational tasks could be designed to foster such creative thinking, and thinking in sound. Bolden (2009) suggests that composing assignments need to connect students to the ‘real world’, in order that they be meaningful to them. Wiggins (2002) cautioned against tasks that require students to ‘think about music in an isolationist rather than holistic manner’ (p. 85), such as using only certain pitches or rhythmic fragments, as ‘students thinking in sounds are often unaware of which pitches or rhythms they are using. They are simply singing ideas in their heads’.

For Wiggins, the best

creative problems are “those that deal with the parameters of the context, where teachers set some of the characteristics of the context, and

Observations of lessons in this research suggest

students are free to develop what they perceive

that teachers need to see the creative process

to be appropriate thematic materials to fill that

beyond music composition, and to provide

context” (ibid)11. Examples of creative tasks

time and space for students to incubate and

include creating music to convey a particular

develop their ideas, and to work collaboratively

mood expressed in a short silent video, and

in the creative process. When creative projects

creating a jingle composition to advertise a

are conceived in authentic and holistic ways,

product.

they could allow for the creative process to pan

11

81

Some examples of holistic creative problems Wiggins (2002) gave included creating a piece that generated a particular

mood or audience response (e.g. happy, scary) or to compose or improvise in a particular form, texture, meter or mode.

The environment is an important third teacher (Eillis & Strong-Wilson, 2007). Based on the findings from this research, a conducive environment facilitated peer-to-peer and teacherstudent interactions for creative tasks.

The set-up of music rooms, with sufficient space for music-making in both large and small group settings, encouraged group interactions.

By

conducting music-making in a circle, for example, the teacher created an inclusive environment that gave voice to students.

social

relationships

community

and

environment.

Therefore, students are not solitary constructors of their knowledge, but they learn through social interactions as members of their prevailing cultures (Gray & MacBlain, 2012).

As active

agents of learning, they learn best while actively constructing their own understanding,

rather

than

being

passive receivers. In other words, “... learning should be partnered with creative activities that allow students to demonstrate command through action” (Webster, 2011, p. 422).

‘Zone of Proximal Development’, which

In the context of the general music classroom, musical creativity is closely related to musical collaboration. As mentioned above, more recent studies have looked at the social dimensions of musical creativity: “musical creativity arises in and as social practices” (Burnard, 2012, p. 7). Collaborations in music practices recognise the diverse perspectives

broader

that they build with those in their

Another important notion is Vygotsky’s

Musical Collaboration

cultural

the

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

Place: Create environments that facilitate interactions

of

musical

creativities (Campbell, 1990; Rusinek, 2012). Music is frequently created and performed in collaboration with others in folk and popular genres.

Collaborative music creating takes as its basis, both social learning theories and social perspectives of learning (Wenger, 2009; Vygotsky, 1978). This notion puts forth that learners coconstruct their understanding through

points out the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. Students learn when assisted by a ‘More Knowledgeable Other’, who could be a peer or a teacher. In a collaborative setting, such learning takes place naturally.

(2000)

Miell and MacDonald

observed

more

successful

musical collaborations when there was friendship in the groups of their

…teachers need to see the creative process beyond music composition, and to provide time and space for students to incubate and develop their ideas, and to work collaboratively in the creative process.

study, because of the high level of mutual engagement facilitated by that friendship (cited in Rusinek, 2012, p.

188).

Barrett (2006) distinguished between cooperative

and

relationships,

suggesting

collaborative that

in

the former, “each makes specific contributions to a shared task”, while

82

collaborative activities are those in which

A key educational significance of music and

“participants see themselves as engaged in a

arts education is the development of aesthetic

joint task” (John-Steiner, 2000; cited in Barrett,

sensitivity. Aesthetics is linked closely to the

2006, p. 198). Sawyer (2006) highlighted that

arts in terms of its association with imagination,

a characteristic of collaborative creativity of a

perception and sensation (Allsup, 2010, p. 43).

group is when the result cannot be associated

Reimer (1965) has defined aesthetic sensitivity

with any one person, where the “whole is

as the ability to “(1) perceive the artistic content

greater than the sum of the parts” (p. 148). In

of works of art, and (2) to react feelingfully to

the vignette described below, the collaboration

this content” (p.34). Thus, developing aesthetic

led to a composition, which was organically put

sensitivity through the arts can be considered

together by all the students through listening

a part of the humanising process, of perceiving

to one another, responding to what they heard,

and responding to artistic experiences with a

and contributing to the ensemble at the same

depth of feeling (George & Hodges, 1980).

time.

Other pedagogical approaches such

as informal learning (Green, 2008), and nonformal approaches (Mok, 2011; D’Amore, n.d.), as observed in teachers’ lessons in the research process, are examples of how collaborative learning could take place in the music classroom, mimicking real-life practices of musicians and much of music transmissions across many cultures.

Through musical collaboration,

students are given opportunities to participate in musical experiences authentic to ensemble music-making, while learning skills and concepts such as watching the teacher/conductor/student leader, listening, and responding to one another.

Aesthetic Musical Flow Scholars have acknowledged the importance of the centrality of the music experience in music teaching and learning (Swanwick, 1999; Reimer,

83

Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) notion of flow, “a state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience is so enjoyable that people will continue to do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it” (p. 4), presents itself as a possible way to think about how aesthetic sensibility might be approached in the music classroom. Some key elements in achieving flow include: (i) Clear goals every step of the way; (ii) Immediate feedback to one’s actions; (iii) Balance between challenges and skills; (iv) The merging of action and awareness; (v) Distractions being excluded from consciousness; (vi) No worry of failure; (vii) The disappearance of self-consciousness; (viii) A sense of distortion of time; and, (ix) The activity becomes an end in itself (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

2003; Elliott, 2005; Barrett & Webster, 2014), and

Csikszentmihalyi pointed out from his study

such experiences include listening, creating

on talent development (1996) that flow, which

and performing music (Wiggins, 2001). These

provided students with optimal experiences,

processes of music allow our students to interact

‘motivated students to keep improving in hopes

with music and “necessitates the constant

of achieving the same intensity of experience

discovery and rediscovery of ways of making and

again’ (p.253).

taking music” (Jorgensen, 2008).

experience through engagement in the arts, then

If one translates this flow

an arts flow experience locked onto imagination,

students in the musical experience, to make clear

results in an intense and optimal aesthetic

the music concepts and elements taught, and to

experience, might likewise motivate students to

engage students’ imagination and emotions while

keep developing their artistry in hopes of achieving

they respond to, create, and perform music.

the next intense aesthetic experience. The term ‘aesthetic flow’ might be used to describe such an engagement process.

Swanwick’s (2012, p. 38) view of music as a form of discourse laced with metaphorical functions: “(i) transform tones into ‘tunes’, gestures; (ii) transform

To facilitate aesthetic flow in the music classroom,

these ‘tunes’, these gestures into structures;

the music teacher would first need to ensure that

and (iii) transform these symbolic structures

the musical experience provided for students

into significant experience”, serves to further

consider key elements of flow already mentioned

illuminate perhaps a more linear processing

above, like having musical challenges appropriate

towards aesthetic flow with which a music teacher

to the musical skills of students, having clear

might engage students through “materials,

musical goals, providing immediate feedback to

expression, form and value12” to approximate

students’ musical actions, and helping students

aesthetic sensitivity. Other considerations include

to merge their musical actions with their musical

the setting up of a physically inviting environment

awareness.

in the music classroom that is suited to the

Beyond an attempt to facilitate a flow experience for students, in order to allow music-making and music learning to approach and embody an aesthetic sensitivity (to imagine, to perceive and

musical genre being introduced and ensuring that transitions between musical activities are seamless and well-thought out so that the musical flow is not disrupted.

respond, and to feel), the music teacher needs to

The above resonates with the International

consider a number of factors other than providing

Panel’s observation that the more effective and

knowledge about concepts and elements of music

engaging music lessons observed tended to be

to students.

the ones that created aesthetic experiences for

A key factor in this facilitation is the manifestation of musically expressive behaviours by the music teacher both in modelling for students and in activating or facilitating students’ music-making.

Being musically expressive is more than a function of technical music proficiency as it also involves an engagement with the imagination and emotions.

This can involve the use of gestures, visual imagery

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

perception, reception and ‘feelingfulness’, which

students, rather than just the pursuit of technical knowledge and skills.

Vignette of a Music Lesson The following vignette describes a segment of a music lesson observed in this research, where the above pedagogical leverages are inter-woven with an aesthetic musical flow.

and metaphors by the music teacher to excite 12

According to Swanwick (2012), awareness and control of (a) sound materials include “distinguishing between timbres,

levels of loudness, duration of pitches, technical management of instruments or voices”; (b) expression or expressive character is shown in “atmosphere, musical gesture, the sense of movement implied in the shape of musical phrases”; (c) musical form is shown in “relationships between expressive shapes, the ways in which musical gestures are repeated, transformed, contrasted or connected”; and (d) personal and cultural value of music is shown in “autonomy, independent, critical evaluation and sustained commitment to specific musical styles” (p. 71).

84

Creating a Rainforest In this 12-minute segment of the lesson, the music teacher led the class in creating the soundscape of a rainforest, an activity to relate the soundscape of a rainforest to the cultural context of Venezuela.

Sound Exploration While seated in rows, the teacher asked, “Can you have a think through, how could we possibly create sounds of rain drops?” A student snapped his fingers. “Show me again”, as teacher walked towards him, and mirrored him in clicking her fingers. “Thank you very much! Anybody else?”

Chuckling sounds and soft whistling heard in the background.

Teacher aide pointed to another student, who offered tongue-clicking sounds. “Tap lightly on the floor”, another student offered. “Very nice”, teacher responded. “What else?”

“Whistle? For the birds? Show me?” teacher asked. Several short whistles were heard.

Then teacher started musicking, asking students to start with finger snapping (the whole class started) and progressed to tapping the floor. She then asked the class to try a student’s suggestion of tongue clicks, and with different vowels. Students were not sure how to do that.

Teacher explained and demonstrated how to click the tongue, while voicing different vowels.

Students watched with engaged attention, and were then able to replicate the sounds.

“Not too bad…any other ideas, how can we create rain sounds?” Mid-way through one of her sentences, the teacher gasped and pointed to a student, “Haa! Show me!” A student demonstrates a soft clap (with three fingers on the palm). Teacher then led the class to clap with three, four fingers, and experimented with intensity.

“Not too bad, not too bad...” teacher responded, then asked students to get into double circles.

Scenario-setting Teacher described a scenario of a rainforest, and told the class that the task was to re-create the soundscape of a rainforest. She started reciting a simple story and invited students to build on that. “Imagine you are walking in the rainforest, and suddenly you hear a raindrop, and it goes “splat” on a very huge green leaf, and it goes “cluck” <clicked tongue>. And as you walk a little more, you hear another raindrop fall into a puddle behind you <clicked tongue>. As you walk a little more, you feel more raindrops falling on your head and your body, and on the plants around you. Without you realising it, suddenly, it becomes a huge, huge downpour, and it wouldn’t stop until a few seconds later. Slowly the rain stopped and tapered off. The sun starts to shine between the leaves… and all is well!”

85

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

After reciting the story, she took out a rain stick (“Ms Ng and I made it”) and sat at the centre of the circle, and encouraged the class to “give it a shot”. “Let’s start off with a few rain drops, I leave it up to you if you would like to use finger taps, tongue clicks, snaps <snapped finger>. Let’s try to start off with a very slight drizzle.”

Leading the Soundscape Creation As the class quietened down, she counted them in. As and when students felt ready, they started to join in with a variety of sounds. “Take your time”, teacher said. “What’s the difference if your rain drops fall on a leaf, or what’s the difference if it falls on a puddle of water?” She encouraged students to explore different timbres.

“What if your rain got a bit heavier, your rain drops got a little fatter? Suddenly your raindrops get more intense!” Students responded by creating louder, faster claps and clicks. Some were tapping on the floor. “A little bit more!” the teacher coaxed, and a crescendo of raindrops was created.

“And soon we have a very heavy downpour!” Most students were tapping on the floor by then. The volume did not get any louder, and gradually the students stopped tapping as if it was part of a musical flow. “And then it stopped?” the teacher asked.

Revision / Re-creation “I like how you started the rain drops…” The teacher took this moment to reflect on the sound creation of the stage of ‘heavy downpour’ and asked if they had other ways of creating even heavier rain drops. “What’s the difference between clapping like this <three-fingered clap> and this <a fullpalm clap>?” “Sounds like thunder”, a student responded.

“Shall we try to the highest point and let the rain dwindle to a drizzle?” She led the class through a downpour, but stopped the class mid-way to address the fact that everyone was doing full-palm clapping. She encouraged the class to still keep to a variety of timbres (clicks, snaps, claps).

Conclusion Upon the next try, the sounds were much more varied, and she then slowly led the rain to a drizzle.

“Do it on your own”. The rain stopped gradually to a silence, which was broken by a student asking, “Are there birds in the forest?” The class laughed and the teacher suggested that the student could create the sound of a bird cooing.

86

In this activity, the teacher’s facilitation of a

was conceptualised as a holistic one, where

co-constructed

students

students had an oversight of the vision of what

the opportunity to express themselves and

was to be created – a soundscape of a rainforest.

communicate their ideas through performing,

The teacher set some characteristics for the

creating and responding. It was carried out in

context for composition and allowed students

the context of learning about music in Venezuela,

to respond with thematic materials to fit the

in which the teacher guided the students to

context. The composition task was anchored

experience the soundscape of rainforests,

in sound. She encouraged critical and creative

and thereby relating it to the landscape of the

thinking in sound, rather than starting from

country.

notation – “Music teachers should not miss an

soundscape

gave

The teacher scaffolded and led a co-creative process of music-making as she narrated a

sound” (Hickey & Webster, 2001, p. 21).

downpour in the rainforest, deploying what

During the process, the teacher also engaged

Burnard might have termed ‘collaborative

students in reflection and making modifications

creativity’ and ‘performance creativity’ in her

to their created sounds as they collectively

approach. She created an inclusive and safe

imagined and produced the different elements

environment with students sitting in a circle,

of the rainforest. They were constantly making

and invited responses from them through

musical decisions and thinking in music.

encouraging verbal and non-verbal language.

The creative environment was further enhanced by her lively descriptions to help students visualise the rain in the rainforest.

Therefore, from the vignette above, one can see how these dimensions of critical and creative thinking in music, collaboration and communication were interacting organically in

By using the sound materials generated by her

the lesson. That was perhaps why there was a

students (clicks, snaps, taps, claps), she valued

sense of free-flowing musical thought, which

their contributions as collaborator-composers.

generated an almost autonomous musical flow

By giving them the autonomy to decide which

to the composition, as seen when the students

sounds and when to contribute them to the

decided, at one point, to pause the composition

collaborative composition, she generated a

by themselves.

sense of ownership for the creative process.

Wiggins (2002) talked about the ‘creative process as meaningful musical thinking’ (p. 79), and learning becoming meaningful when students feel that their ideas are valued and personalised.

87

opportunity to encourage students to imagine

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

While the creative process was brief for this

At the heart of these pedagogical approaches is

lesson (which did not necessarily follow the four-

the focus on student-centricity and empowering

stage composition process mentioned above),

the students’ musical voice, which is core to the

what is crucial to note is that the creative task

development of a musical child. Autonomy and the student voice has been the focus in various

behaviours, impacts the way a lesson is conceived

and Harrison’s (2010) book Whose Music Education

and how the pedagogies are enacted in the

Is It? Students’ musical voice can be empowered

classroom.

with teachers’ orientation for student-centricity, as well as an orientation toward evidencing students’ learning and responsive teaching.

We can all play a part to furnish our students with quality music education, which can contribute to their holistic education. School leaders could

When the students’ musical voice is the cornerstone

create a supportive environment in engendering

of the pedagogical approaches, it entails that

the pedagogical leverages, such as the provision

their musical choices and musical decisions are

of a music room that supports collaborative

respected and valued. When they take ownership

interactions of students, and time for quality

of their learning and develop autonomy, they are

music lessons to take place. In addition to this,

more likely to grow in confidence, as a self-directed

both school leaders and teacher educators

learner and active contributor in terms of the 21st

could also create time and space for teachers’

century outcomes. They are able to develop their

professional

own musical identities, hence, contributing to

teachers to keep in constant contact with musical

their overall holistic development as individuals.

experiences; as teachers’ musicianship and

Pedagogical leverages for the fostering of 21CC work in concert to nurture the musical voice of students. The music teacher is key in translating the

pedagogical

leverages,

together

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

education initiatives as documented in Finney

with

providing an enriched aesthetics experience for students. Being well-anchored in the discipline, as well as the ability to model musically expressive

development

and

for

music

pedagogical repertoire would impact the quality of students’ musical experiences. Music teachers could also engage in constant reflection on their own teaching practices with respect to the above pedagogical leverages and suggestions, and make positive changes to their practices each time. To this end, we can each make a difference to our students’ education and experiences.

88

references Allsup, R. (2010). Philosophical perspectives of music education. In H.F. Abeles & L.A. Custodero (Eds.), Critical issues in music education: Contemporary theory and practice (pp. 9-60). New York: Oxford University Press.

Bakan, M. (2011). World music: Traditions and transformations. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Banks, J., Cookson, P., Gay, G., Hawley, W. D., Irvine, J. J., Nieto, S.,… Stephan, W. G. (2001).

Diversity within unity: Essential principles for teaching and learning in a multicultural society.

Phi Delta Kappan, 83(3), 196-203.

Barrett, M. (2006). ‘Creative collaboration’: An ‘eminence’ study of teaching and learning in music composition. Psychology of Music, 34(2), 195-218.

Barrett, J. R., & Webster, P. R. (Eds.). (2014). The musical experience: Rethinking music teaching and learning. United States of America: Oxford University Press.

Bolden, B. (2009). Teaching composing in secondary school: A case study analysis. British Journal of Music Education, 26(2), 137-152.

Burnard, P. (2012). Musical creativities in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Burnard, P., & Younker, B. A. (2004). Problem-solving and creativity: Insights from students’ individual composing pathways. International Journal of Music Education, 22(1), 59-76.

Campbell, P. S. (1996). Music, education, and community in a multicultural society. In M. McCarthy (Ed.), Cross currents: Setting an agenda for music education in community culture (pp.

4-33). College Park: University of Maryland.

Campbell, P. S. (2004). Teaching music globally: Experiencing music, expressing culture. New York: Oxford University Press.

Chua, S. L., & Ho, H. P. (Eds.) (2013). Connecting the stars: Essays on student-centric music education. Singapore: Singapore Teachers’ Academy for the aRts, Ministry of Education.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper and Row. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Perennial.

89

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

D’Amore, A. (Ed.) (n.d.) Musical Futures: An approach to teaching and learning (Resource Pack, 2nd edition). London: Paul Hamlyn Foundation.

Dairianathan, E., & Lum, C. H. (2013). Learning as you go: A non music-specialist teacher’s journey through creating and making music in a primary school. In C.H. Lum (Ed.), Contextualized practices in arts education: An international dialogue on Singapore. Singapore: Springer.

Elliott, D. J. (Ed.). (2005). Praxial music education: Reflections and dialogues. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Strong-Wilson, T., & Ellis, J. (2007). Children and place: Reggio Emilia’s environment as third teacher. Theory into Practice, 46(1), 40-47.

Ennis, R. H. (1987). A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. In J. B. Baron & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. Fautley, M. (2005). Baseline assessment of pupil composing competencies on entry to secondary school: A pilot study. British Journal of Music Education, 22(2), 155-166.

Finnegan, R. (2007). The hidden musicians: Music-making in an English town. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Gardner, H. (1993). Creating minds: An anatomy of creativity seen through the lives of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi. New York: Basic Books.

George, W., & Hodges, D. (1980). The nature of musical attributes. In D. Hodges (Ed.), Handbook of music psychology (pp. 401-414). Lawrence: National Association for Music Therapy.

Gray, C., & MacBlain, S. (2012). Learning theories in childhood. London and California: SAGE Publications.

Heng, S. K. (2011). Opening address by Mr Heng Swee Keat, Minister for Education, at the Ministry of Education (MOE) Work Plan Seminar, on Thursday, 22 September 2011 at 10.00am at Ngee Ann Polytechnic Convention Centre. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/speeches/2011/09/22/work-plan-seminar-2011.php Hickey, M. (2001). An application of Amabile’s Consensual Assessment technique for rating the creativity of children’s musical compositions. Journal of Research in Music Education, 49(3), 234244.

Hickey, M., & Webster, P. R. (2001). Creative thinking in music. Music Educators Journal, 88(1), 19-23.

90

Jones, E. A., & Ratcliff, G. (1993). Critical thinking skills for college students. University Park: National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment.

Jorgensen, E. R. (2003). Transforming music education. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Kratus, J. (1991). Characterization of the compositional strategies used by children to compose a melody. Canadian Journal of Research in Music Education, Special ISME Research Edition, 33, 95 – 103.

Kuhn, D. (1999). A developmental model of critical thinking. Educational Researcher, 28, 16-25.

Lipman, M. (1995). Thinking in education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. (2014). Essential questions: Opening doors to student understanding.

Alexandria: ASCD. MENC. (1986). The school music program: Description and standards. Reston: MENC. Miller, T. E., & Shahriari, A. (2012). World music: A global journey. New York: Routledge.

Ministry of Education. (2008). General Music Programme syllabus. Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Ministry of Education. (2010a). MOE to enhance learning of 21st century competencies and strengthen Art, Music and Physical Education. Retrieved 1 January, 2015, from http://www.moe.gov.sg/media/press/2010/03/moe-to-enhance-learning-of-21s.php Ministry of Education. (2010b). Nurturing our young for the future: Competences for the 21st century. Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Ministry of Education. (2014). 21st century competencies. Retrieved from http://www.moe.gov.sg/education/21cc/ Ministry of Education. (2015). General Music Programme syllabus. Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Mok, O. N. A. (2011). Non-formal learning: Clarification of the concept and its application in music learning. Australian Journal of Music Education, 1, 11-15.

Moore,

G.

(2009).

Socio-cultural

perspectives

on

multicultural

music

education:

Reappraising the content of music curricula. Paper presented at the 6th International Symposium on the Sociology of Music Education, Mary Immaculate College, 5 – 9 July.

Paul, R. (1989). Critical thinking in North America: A new theory of knowledge, learning and literacy. Argumentation, 3, 197-235.

91

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

Prawat, R. S. (1996). Constructivism, modern and postmodern. Educational Psychologist, 31, 215225.

Reimer, B. (1965). The development of aesthetic sensitivity. Music Educators Journal, 51(3), 33-36.

Reimer, B. (2003). A philosophy of music education: Advancing the vision (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Rhodes, M. (1961). An analysis of creativity. The Phi Delta Kappan, 42(7), 305-310.

Runco, M. A., & Pagnani, A. R. (2011). Psychological research on creativity. In J. Sefton-Green, P. Thomson, K. Jones & L. Bresler (Eds), The Routlege International Handbook of Creative Learning.

New York & London: Routlege.

Rusinek, G. (2012). Action-research on collaborative composition: An analysis of research questions and designs. In A. Odena (Ed.), Musical creativity: Insights from music education research.

London: Ashgate.

Ryan, T. G., & Brown, K. (2012). Musical creativity: Measures and learning. Journal of Elementary Education, 22(2), 105-120.

Sawyer, K. R. (2006). Group creativity: Musical performance and collaboration. Psychology of Music, 34(2), 148-165.

Schippers, H. (2009). Facing the music: Shaping music education from a global perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.

Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (1996). Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking. Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766 Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (2003). Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking. Retrieved from http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/410 Singapore Teachers’ Academy for the aRts (2014). Essays in music pedagogical research: Studentcentricity in the 21st Century. Singapore: Ministry of Education.

Swanwick, K. (2012). Teaching music musically. New York: Routledge.

Swanwick, K., & Tillman, J. (1986). The sequence of musical development: A study of children’s composition. British Journal of Music Education, 3, 305-339.

Wade, B. (2012). Thinking musically: Experiencing music, expressing culture. New York: Oxford University Press.

92

Webster, P. R. (1990). Creativity as creative thinking. Music Educators Journal, 76(9), 22-28.

Webster, P. R. (2011). Children as creative thinkers in music: Focus on composition. In S. Hallam, I. Cross & M. Thaut (Eds.), Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wiggins, J. (2001). Teaching for musical understanding. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Wiggins, J. (2002). Creative process as meaningful music thinking. In T. Sullivan & L. Willingahm (Eds.), Creativity and music education. Alberta: Canadian Music Educator’s Association National Office.

Wiggins, T. (1995). If a thing’s worth doing, it’s worth doing badly. In Leith-Philip & Gutzwiller (Eds.), Teaching musics of the world: Second International Symposium (pp. 193-196).

Woodford, P. (1996). Developing critical thinkers in music. Music Educators Journal, 83(1), 27-32.

Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Younker, B. A. (2000). Composing with voice: Students’ strategies and processes, and the influence of text on the composed music. Canadian Music Educator, 41(3 & 4), 91-99.

93

4 - Pedagogical Leverages for the 21st Century Music Classroom

TRANSLATING THEORY inTO PRACTICE that relate to the four pedagogical leverages. It

Facilitating music learning with the following pedagogical leverages

is recommended that these strategies be carried

Musical Communication & Cultures

out in a safe and vibrant learning environment,

Provide Meaningful Choices & Empowerment

with students engaged in a ‘flow’ of music

• Help students connect the music they learnt

experience. The strategies should contribute

with: their daily lives; who they are; the larger

to a broader music curriculum plan with a focus

socio-cultural context; other disciplines; and

This section suggests music teaching strategies

on achieving the syllabus objectives, and as

provide opportunities for real life application;

far as possible, be carried out with the intent

• Facilitate students’ expression of their

to empower students and give voice to their

music ideas through listening, creating and

musical ideas.

performing; and

Knowing your students to create a safe and vibrant learning environment • Administer questionnaire to understand your student profile; • Learn the names of your students, calling

• Facilitate

students’

ownership

of

their

learning such as providing choices (e.g. in tasks, selection of repertoire or instruments, participating in deciding how they could be assessed).

upon different students by their names each

Critical Thinking in Music

lesson;

Develop Reflection of and Responding to Music

• Keep track of your students’ learning and make notes of where they are at in their learning process; • Consider the variety of learning styles (e.g.

• Facilitate with open-ended questions and intellectually engaging questions; • Facilitate student improvisation to solve musical problems;

kinaesthetic, visual) and general student

• Facilitate student reflection on the creative

profile to plan engaging learning experiences;

decisions that they make, or how their music

• Use strategies to check your students’

should be performed;

understanding during each lesson; evidencing

• Facilitate student interpretation and analysis

their learning through a variety of modes such

of music works (for example, observing and

as through playing music, singing, notating or verbalising/writing of reflections; and • Use the knowledge you have of your students to sequence and scaffold varied learning activities.

describing music elements/features); • Facilitate student comparison of music performances or creations; • Facilitate student development of music ideas/ concepts; • Facilitate student planning or assembly of ideas into a whole;

94

could represent their music ideas such as

Engaging students in a ‘flow’ of music experiences

through movement or graphic notation;

• Pre-empt problems that students might face

• Facilitate different ways in which students

• Facilitate student co-construction of the assessment criteria, self-assessment and/or peer evaluation; and visible through use of thinking routines.

learning is built; • Plan transitions from one activity to another

Facilitate Creative Process

(for example, musical routines);

• Expose students to a variety of stimuli; to

generate

ideas

spontaneously such as through brainstorming or improvisation; • Guide students to clarify the meaning or purpose of their ideas; • Have students think about how each part relate to the whole in their creative work; • Facilitate

students’

exploration

and

experimentation of materials and processes; • Provide students with time and space to develop their ideas; • Facilitate students’ independent evaluation of their ideas; and • Create an environment that allows students’ contributions to be respected and valued.

Musical Collaboration Facilitate Collaborative Group Work and Musical Ensemble • Have students collaborate in creative projects or performances; and • Develop collaboration skills amongst students (for example, establishing group goals, listening to one another).

95

from earlier activities in a lesson; • Pace the lesson so that the momentum of the

Musical Creativity

students

prepare strategies to deal with them; • Design lesson activities to build upon or evolve

• Facilitate student ability to make thinking

• Encourage

which might lead to disengagement and

• Use fillers to prevent disruption of momentum; • Prepare to modify lesson to cater for on-thespot needs of students during the lesson; • Use an appropriate level of music challenges to motivate and engage students throughout the lesson; and • Provide authentic learning experiences (e.g. tasks that have opportunities for real life application; opportunities to collaborate; tasks that allow diversity of outcomes and perspectives; tasks that integrate listening, performing and creating) that are relevant to the times.

1 - Introduction to PAM Research

05

conclusion Siew Ling CHUA, Kok Boon LIM, Hanif ABDUL RAHMAN

96 14

97

contributions to develop students’ 21CC. When

the impact of Physical Education (PE), Art

deliberately planned and well taught, PE, Art

and Music pedagogies on the delivery of 21CC

and Music have the potential to provide students

and PE, Art and Music student outcomes. The

with a spectrum of transferrable 21CC.

process, which involved lesson observations by

findings from this study have shown that PE

three International Panels comprising local and

instruction has the potential to develop students’

overseas pedagogues, academics, and school

values, and social and emotional competencies,

leaders in the respective subjects, provided a

alongside the student outcomes in the PE

moderated outside-in perspective of the PE, Art

syllabus. Equally, Art and Music teaching has

and Music lessons in Singapore. The professional

the potential to develop many aspects of Critical

development (PD) interventions as a result of

and Inventive Thinking skills, Communication,

the recommendations by the respective panels,

Collaboration and Information skills, and Civic

and the experiences of the PD team of teacher

Literacy, Global Awareness and Cross-Cultural

educators, consultants and mentors, provided

skills if they are planned for, and rationalised

much needed insights and learning for the PD

alongside the syllabus content deliverables.

work in the context of 21CC development.

The subject teams have also outlined key

In this publication, Chapter 1 has set the context of the research and outlined the research purpose, methodology and tools. After which, Chapters 2 to 4 have shared the findings of the PE, Art and Music research teams. In this concluding chapter, the common threads found in the respective studies are drawn together and presented here

5 - conclusion

The PAM research study sought to discover

The

pedagogical principles and leverages that could nurture the 21CC in the context of PE, Art and Music lessons in Singapore. Besides the suggested pedagogical principles and teacher actions, how well 21CC development could be facilitated and demonstrated is dependent on the teachers’ beliefs and students’ readiness.

in three key ideas: first, the subject disciplines

At first glance, the pedagogical principles and

and their unique contribution to the nurturing of

leverages cited may seem generic (See Table

21CC; second, the implications for PD; and third,

5.1). The resemblance could be attributed to

the iterative process of changing teacher beliefs

the comparative use of the same MOE 21CC

and teaching practices, and hence growing the

model, benchmarks, and affiliated Desired

professional identity of teachers.

Outcomes of Education in the Singapore context.

Additionally, it points to a common core of

PE, ART AND MUSIC CONTRIBUTION TO 21CC

good teaching practices which were negotiated and recommended by the International Panels and subject teams after the two year research process.

From the discussions of this research, the subjects of PE, Art and Music have unique, catalytic

98

Table 5.1: Pedagogical Principles and Leverages across PE, Art and Music Teaching at a glance PE

Art

Music

• Positive Learning Environment • Effective Communication • Engaged Learning • Skilful Management

• Encourage ideas generation and conceptualization of artistic work • Create a lively, visually inspiring art learning environment • Document teaching and learning as part of an artistic learning cycle • Plan for group learning and collaborative art making

• Embody Musical Communication & Cultures • Facilitate Musical Creativity • Foster Musical Collaboration • Empower Critical Thinking in Music

Yet,

the

In the Art chapter, to document teaching and

pedagogical principles and leverages outlined in

scrutinising

the

description

of

learning was akin to putting a teaching portfolio

the preceding chapters suggest specific nuances

together. Yet, an artistic mode of documenting

unique to the subjects.

These pedagogical

was shown to paint a more iterative process and

principles and leverages respond to how the

place emphasis on the process, more so than the

subjects are taught in the context of our schools.

physical portfolio. Documentation can be an

Each subject requires certain disciplinary

artistic process in itself.

content to be taught in a certain mode, and being responded to in a certain way. In the context of the cases studied, they were identified to explain how the respective subject teachers might begin to undertake the task of actualising students’ potential for learning and facilitate the development of students.

the

Music

chapter,

the

pedagogical

leverages such as Musical Creativity or Musical Collaboration were situated in authentic musical practices. Facilitating musical communication highlighted the need for teachers to make explicit connections between how Music is construed, appreciated, and situated within a

In the PE chapter, while the Affective Learning

musical tradition, and its larger socio-cultural

Opportunities (ALO) contains elements of the

contexts. Critical thinking in Music was used

‘planned teachable moments’ as described by

instead of Critical thinking about Music to give

Komarnicki (2004), they extend beyond the mere

emphasis on and valuing of critical thinking in

reinforcement of a desirable character trait as he

the subject-specific area. For example, when

described. The research study has shed light on

students improvised through music-making

specific teaching strategies that PE teachers can

activities, they were led to experience critical

use to enhance affective learning in their lessons.

thinking in music.

These strategies enhance a teacher’s repertoire

specificity of these nuances at face value, if not

of facilitation techniques when teaching to the

in an imaginative way, we might find scope for

affective domain intentionally, instead of an

improving current good teaching practices used

over-reliance on sporadic and spontaneous

in different contexts.

teachable moments that may not even occur during the lesson.

99

In

This

research

By noticing the subject-

potentially

advances

our

understanding of the complexities underlying

big implications for PD that both PESTA and STAR

possibly acknowledges the argument that 21CC

learnt from the research experience.

consists of knowledge, skills and attitudes that have been honoured in good teaching before the turn of the century, as seen from the familiarity of the findings. We might argue that 21CC are the outcomes of a good curriculum, past and present, which prepares learners to be future facing.

Second, the assessment of 21CC is complex and billowing. Researchers and educators must be prepared to articulate, with a certain amount of granularity and evidence, how their subject and instructional methods develop 21CC in practice and over time. Third, in our urgency to develop students’ 21CC, educators must remember the aims and purposes of the subject, instead of pursuing only 21CC student outcomes. In this way, we can claim to provide our students with a holistic education - a curriculum that provides equal opportunities and allows everyone to discover their strengths and talents.

Firstly, the PD of teachers in this area cannot be explicitly exclusive to 21CC development. Our experience showed that pedagogies relating to the development of 21CC must be situated within acceptable good pedagogies of the subject itself.

Deep knowledge on the subject discipline, good understanding of the syllabus content, and strong awareness of the subject disciplinarity that entails the forms of human activity to seek, develop and produce knowledge (Minati & Collen, 1997), serve as foundation for good teaching to take place. Teachers must not lose focus on the need to deepen their subject matter knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge to deliver the learning outcomes pertaining to the content. Thereafter, the development of 21CC ought to be layered over the students’ learning experiences. The physicality of PE, and the artistic and musical experiences of Art and

IMPLICATIONS ON PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Music, should remain key to students’ learning.

intervention process has been the PD of teachers.

opportunities that are specific to their interests,

The key central effort of the research’s Beyond just looking at the intervention as a treatment given to the research participants, the PD efforts were intended to grow teachers’ capacity to deliver better PE, Art and Music lessons, as well as to develop the pedagogies to enhance students’ 21CC development through these subjects. As teacher academies, with the main responsibility being to deliver and facilitate PD of PE, Art and Music teachers, there are two

5 - conclusion

the development of students’ 21CC. First, it

Secondly, the PD of teachers is enhanced when situated in communities of practices (CoP).

Being in a group with like-minded and interestdriven teachers allows for a forging of a common identity, which in turn allows teachers to maintain connection with peers, have an understanding of the expertise within their community, identify and allows knowledge to be shared (Wenger & Snyder, 2000). In the PE project, the existence of the three teachers within the same school allowed for a CoP to exist within the school itself. Thereafter, the two primary schools were brought together to form a larger CoP. As the project extended, the primary and secondary school teachers combined to form an even larger CoP. The teachers were able to share and learn

100

from one another’s experiences, while gradually

beginning of the year, which made the teachers

moving from a small and less-threatening

more cautious, setting their expectations

environment, towards embracing a larger and

low. Notably, the art tasks and activities set in

richer CoP. The Art and Music teachers were also

the secondary classes over-emphasised basic

members of a larger CoP respectively. Similar

technical skills, resulting in unimaginative art

to the PE CoP, the Art and Music teachers were

making processes and art products. Teachers

provided access to new knowledge, collaborated

felt that it was more important to regulate and

directly, used one another as sounding boards,

pre-determine the outcome of the art products

and even ‘taught’ one another. This fostered

to achieve the objectives of their art lesson

trust and a greater sense of common purpose.

plans, giving little time for students to explore materials and ideas. In most instances, students

TEACHER BELIEFS

their ideas, thoughts, and reflections. However, the Interim stage of the study observed some changes in these teachers’ instruction practices.

These could be attributed to teachers’ critical

Implicit in the insights gained from the PD work

reflection in their review of their own video-

in this study, is the understanding that teachers

recorded lessons, and their focus on making

have strong beliefs and rationale for how they

small changes to their practice, facilitated by the

teach, and that their perceived identities as PE,

PD team. In instances where teaching practice

Art or Music teachers influence their classroom

were less student-centric, the content of the

instruction. The need for the teacher to maintain

lesson was relatively new to the art teacher. By

discipline and control in the classroom, for

the Final phase of the study, lessons observed

example, affected the extent of exploration

were visibly more student-centric. The change

and experimentation that their students were

observed in these teachers’ practice over

empowered with. However, teacher beliefs and

the three phases was likely the result of their

their identity as PE, Art and Music teachers were

eagerness to learn, their positive attitude for

constantly being reconstructed and renegotiated

student-centred lessons, the critical reflection of

through social interactions and practices (Burke

their own practice, and the growing confidence

and Tully, 1977; Hargreaves, Miell & Macdonald,

of their teaching. This resulted in a shift in

2002). How teacher beliefs changed with their

their conception of effective art instruction. By

teaching practices in the course of PD over the

the end of the study, the teachers had greater

three phases of the study are described below.

confidence in themselves and their students, and

In

101

were not given ample opportunity to articulate

the

Art

study,

Baseline

observations

were willing to set higher standards accordingly.

revealed that some teachers in the case studies

In the Music study, one concern at the start of the

underestimated the potential of students,

study had been the lack of musically engaging

which resulted in low expectations for student

experiences in music lessons. Observers found

performance.

This was possibly due to the

that students could be more musically engaged

uneven entry level of students. In addition to

if teachers paid attention to creating an aesthetic

this, the lesson observations were made in the

experience for their students as a result of music-

affective development in their lessons were that

focus on providing the teacher participants with

psychomotor learning outcomes were seen to

experiences of creative and collaborative music-

be of higher priority in PE lessons, and affective

making, and how these could be facilitated

development through PE was perceived as

in music lessons. By the Interim phase of the

best achieved through teacher role modelling

research, the International Panel observed that

and

teachers took more risks to incorporate creative

There was uneven understanding amongst

and collaborative classroom work, but the focus

the teachers of what affective development

was sometimes slanted towards non-musical

in PE meant.

creativity instead of musical creativity. Much of

understood social and emotional learning

the creative work did not go beyond the stage

and values inculcation as synonymous with

of idea generation. By the Final phase of the

ensuring character development.

research, the International Panel observed that

perception of their students’ level of social and

while teachers believed in the notion of student-

emotional competencies also affected the types

centricity and empowering their students’

of instruction and practices used during lessons.

musical decisions, what needed strengthening

For example, direct instruction and teacher-

was the facilitation of an aesthetic musical

centred practice were used to maintain control

flow in music lessons, for a musically engaging

over student behaviour in instances where

lesson. How this could be facilitated might be

teachers perceived their students as having a low

a complex combination of teachers modelling

level of social and emotional competencies. As

musically expressive behaviours, focusing on

such, there was a lack of planning and delivery

the aesthetic dimensions of music, developing

of affective development amongst the case

a repertoire of strategies and musical routines to

studies at the Baseline stage. By the Interim

support smooth transitions, and stepping back

stage, teachers attempted to include affective

and allowing aesthetic learning to take place in

learning in their lesson plans, but were usually

the students without unnecessary interference.

not very successful in implementing them. They

These recommendations suggested that music

seemed to require content-specific knowledge

teachers need to be able to weave musicianship

and skills that could facilitate higher affective

into their pedagogical practice, and that

development in the different learning areas

could perhaps be achieved by setting sights

of the PE syllabus. However, by the end of the

on conceiving their professional identity as a

Final stage, most teachers were confident in

‘musician-teacher’, one who facilitates musical

planning for and embedding explicit teaching

understandings through direct experiences with

of the affective domain into their lessons. The

music, to engage students more deeply through

teachers also reflected that their participation

meaningful and authentic artistic experiences.

in the study had strengthened their belief

For the PE study, it was observed at the start of the study that while all teachers involved believed that PE provided an authentic platform for the affective development of students, the reasons why they did not plan structured

capitalising

on

teachable

5 - conclusion

making. The teacher educators at STAR began to

moments.

For example, some teachers

Teachers’

that PE was an authentic platform for 21CC development, and that their students were able to develop affectively.

While some of these

teachers remained unequivocal in their belief that psychomotor learning remained their first

102

priority in the PE lessons, they were able to

to embark on this would be a worthwhile

successfully layer affective development within

journey that respects teacher agency and

their lessons without compromising students’

professionalism.

psychomotor development.

From the above PD experiences for PE, Art and Music, it can be seen that the journey to change pedagogical practices was a complex one, since it involved shifting and renegotiating teacher identities, which were linked to their beliefs and influenced by their pedagogical experiences, as well as their self-perceived abilities and confidence to execute the teaching strategies.

As the research findings show, constant critical reflection and the iterative process of making small changes to their teaching practice upon reflection, in addition to exposure to various other practice and strategies, could change the way teachers view and think about effective classroom teaching.

Such a process would

likely require sustained coaching and mentoring through lesson observations or co-teaching.

Although it would entail time and resources,

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The research study has affirmed MOE’s position that PE, Art and Music are subjects that contribute in their own unique ways to the development of 21CC. Hence, strengthening the quality of PE, Art and Music education in schools is a commitment to providing a holistic education that would prepare students to thrive in a fast changing and highly connected world.

Professional

development efforts will need to take a longerterm view to grow PE, Art and Music teachers’ professional identity, even as small and iterative steps are taken to develop competencies and strategies to enhance the teaching of these subjects.

references Burke, P. J., & Tully J. C. (1977). The measurement of role identity. Social Forces, 55(4), 881-897.

Hargreaves, D. J., Miell, D., & MacDonald R. A. R. (2002). What are musical identities, and why are they important? In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves & D. Miell (Eds.), Musical identities. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Komarnicki, J. W. (2004). How to teach toward character development. United States of America: Infinity.

Minati, G., & Collen, A. (1997). Introduction to systemics. Walnut Creek: Eagleye Books International.

Wenger, E., & Snyder, W. (2000). Communities of practice: The organisational frontier.

103

Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 139-145.