The Death and Life of Lithium Waste
Introduction
In today’s rapidly evolving energy landscape, lithium, a vital component in rechargeable batteries, has taken center stage due to its paramount significance in green technologies such as electric vehicles and renewable energy storage systems. However, this escalating demand and widespread use of lithium presents an inherent concern: the management of lithium waste.
Left unattended, lithium waste can pose significant environmental and public health hazards. Lithium batteries that end up in common landfills can deteriorate and leak, resulting in the release of heavy metals and toxic chemicals into the environment. This can contaminate water sources, soil, and even the air we breathe, posing grave health risks to communities and disrupting delicate ecosystems. Moreover, the extraction and production of lithium result in substantial waste, from mining debris to chemical byproducts.
What and Why?
If not appropriately managed, these wastes can contribute to land degradation, biodiversity loss, and water pollution. Developing effective, sustainable solutions for lithium waste management can help us capitalize on its economic value through recycling and reprocessing while reducing reliance on virgin materials. This has the potential not only to reduce environmental harm but to generate economic benefits, create jobs, and promote technological innovation in the waste management and recycling sectors.
In conclusion, focusing on lithium waste and seeking comprehensive solutions to manage it effectively is pivotal. It’s not merely a necessity for environmental conservation but a significant opportunity to endorse circular economy principles, enhance resource efficiency, drive sustainable growth, and ultimately contribute to a low-carbon, environmentally resolute future.
What?
SOIL
Lithium waste refers to any discarded or residual materials, substances, or byproducts that contain Mining operations often require clearing vegetation and altering the landscape, leading to land disturbance and habitat disruption.
Tailings are the waste materials left over after valuable minerals have been extracted from the ore. They may contain residual lithium, other minerals, chemicals, and impurities.
TAILING
CHEMICAL
The lithium process often involves the use of chemicals such as acids, alkalis, or solvents. These chemicals can produce waste byproducts, including chemical residues and contaminated solutions
Categories Of Lithium Waste
contain lithium, a chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3.
Lithium mining and processing can lead to water pollution, especially when managing tailings and chemical waste.
Contaminants may affect aquatic ecosystems and drinking water sources.
WATER
AIR
Some mining activities, such as blasting and crushing, can generate dust and emissions, which may contribute to air pollution.
During mining, many rock and soil is excavated and removed, often referred to as "waste rock."
"E-waste" refers to electronic waste containing lithium-ion batteries or devices powered by such batteries.
E-WASTE WASTEROCK&
Where & When？
EXTRACTION
PROCESS
MANUFACTURING
DISTRIBUTION
RECYCLING
REUSE
Where & When？
EXTRACTION
Mining activities can have adverse environmental impacts, including land disruption, ecosystem damage, and soil pollution. and also lead to water pollution, as wastewater may contain harmful substances.
Salt Flat
Hard Rock
Direct Lithium Extraction Technology
Waste per Process
PROCESS & MANUFACTURING
In the production and manufacturing of lithium-based products, notably lithiumion batteries, a significant concern arises in the form of lithium waste. This waste encompasses various aspects of the production cycle, presenting challenges related to disposal, resource conservation, and environmental impact. At the end of their lifespan, lithium-ion batteries, integral to countless electronic devices and electric vehicles, become a notable source of lithium waste. Proper management of these spent batteries is essential to recover valuable materials, such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel, through recycling, thus reducing the demand for primary resource extraction and mitigating environmental harm. Within the manufacturing process, the creation of defective or reject batteries adds to the complexity of lithium waste management, requiring careful handling and disposal to prevent environmental contamination. Addressing the multifaceted issue of lithium waste is critical for sustainable technological advancement, necessitating responsible disposal practices, efficient recycling methods, and the development of greener manufacturing processes.
Refining Factory
Manufacturing Facility
Where & When？
DISTRIBUTION
Lithium waste during distribution typically includes packaging materials and transportrelated emissions, contributing to the environmental footprint of lithium-based products.
Distribution Center
Transportation
Market
Waste per Process
RECYCLE & REUSE
Recycling and reusing lithium-based products offer promising avenues for sustainability, but they also raise important considerations regarding potential lithium waste generation. While recycling lithium-ion batteries, for example, can recover valuable materials like lithium, cobalt, and nickel, the recycling process itself can generate some waste and emissions, primarily through the separation and refining of these materials. Proper management of these byproducts is essential to prevent secondary environmental impacts. Additionally, when lithium-based products are repurposed or reused, there's a possibility of eventual waste generation when the reused products reach the end of their extended lifespans. This waste may include components that are no longer functional or materials that can no longer be effectively repurposed. Therefore, while recycling and reuse are vital steps toward sustainability, a holistic approach is needed that considers not only the initial waste reduction benefits but also the potential for waste generation during the recycling and reuse processes.
Factory/ Market
Refining Factory
How?
Australia
The Death and Life of Lithium WasteThe Death and Life of Lithium Waste
The Charging Kiosk
Case Studies of Lithium Waste Treatment
Greenbushes Lithium Sigma Lithium
Uganda
Cases Distribution Map
United States Argentina Brazil
Environmental Justice
Thacker Pass
Salinas Grandes
Redwood Materials
PROJECT TYPE/USES: The Solar-Powered Charging Kiosk
LOCATION: Uganda
YEARS: 2019
ACTORS INVOLVED: Fenix International, ARED
KEY FEATURES:
Fenix International initiated a project to provide clean and affordable energy access to rural and off-grid communities in Uganda. They repurposed lithium-ion batteries to power solar charging kiosks known as “ReadyPay Go” stations.
The project has improved the quality of life for rural Ugandans by enabling access to electricity for communication, lighting, and powering small appliances. It has also reduced the use of kerosene lamps, contributing to environmental and health benefits.
Fenix International, in collaboration with local partners and investors, has successfully deployed these solar-powered charging kiosks.
REpurpose Lithium Waste
The kiosks are foldable and mounted on wheels, which Nyakarundi says makes it easier for women and people with disabilities to become agents.
The technology utilizes a 60watt photo-voltaic panel, which charges a battery that is then taken to the village on the back of a bicycle.
Known as “Shiriki hubs,” the mobile kiosks are powered by 100-watt solar panels and can charge up to 30 phones at one time. They can also serve as Wi-Fi hotspots
Cases
PROJECT TYPE/USES: Redwood Materials-Battery Recycling Facility
LOCATION: Carson City, Nevada, USA
YEARS: 2017
ACTORS INVOLVED: Redwood Materials
KEY FEATURES:
Redwood Materials, founded by a former Tesla executive, operates a state-of-the-art battery recycling facility. They specialize in recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles (EVs) and consumer electronics.
Redwood Materials uses a combination of mechanical and hydrometallurgical processes to recover valuable materials, including lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite, from used batteries.
The facility contributes to resource conservation and reduces the environmental impact of battery production by recycling critical materials.
Collection and Sorting
REprocess Lithium Waste
Redwood Materials' building a massive battery facility project at Tahoe Reno Industrial Center.
These old gadgets that will be recycled by Redwood Materials, a battery recycling and materials company based in Northern Nevada.
Valuable components recycled by Redwood Materials from old lithium-ion batteries.
PROJECT TYPE/USES: Sigma Lithium in Grota do Cirilo
LOCATION: Brazil
YEARS: 2022
ACTORS INVOLVED: Sigma Lithium
KEY FEATURES:
The project’s spodumene ore processing plant uses a proprietary and environmentally sustainable technology called dense media separation instead of floatation to process the ore into high-purity 6% batterygrade lithium concentrate. All but 10% of the water that is lost to evaporation is reused, and the plant will draw almost 100% of its electricity (renewable) from a nearby hydropower plant. Tailings from the processing plant are dry-stacked.The Grota do Cirilo plant also expects to reach net-zero carbon emissions by 2023.
Technology for Lithium Waste
2.
90% of the water that’s used in the processing plant will be recirculated back into the operation.
1.
All mining and processing will use clean hydro-electric power.
4.
Dry stack tailings will be recycled into the ceramics industry.
3.
No hazardous chemicals are used to separate the lithium from the host rock.
PROJECT TYPE/USES: Greenbushes Lithium Mine
LOCATION: Western Australia
YEARS: 1880-now
ACTORS INVOLVED: Talison Lithium
KEY FEATURES:
Greenbushes has long placed a focus on sustainability and environmental responsibility. Among its initiatives is a robust and ongoing rehabilitation and revegetation program. The mined areas are progressively rehabilitated with the local vegetation, and a floral seed bank is maintained to ensure restoration of the natural diversity in the landscape. The mine has stringent monitoring programs to understand and minimize the potential environmental impacts caused by the mining operations. This includes managing noise, vibrations, air quality, and water management to ensure minimal disturbance of the surrounding environment.
Revegetation and Rehabilitation
Management for Lithium Waste
WATER MANAGEMENT
2.
Measurement and reporting of water quality parameters in key water bodies is carried out on a weekly basis. Ground water monitors are monitored on a quarterly basis.
WASTE MANAGEMENT
4.
Talison Lithium recognises its should protect the environment by minimising waste and has a long term strategy to reduce the amount of waste generated.
1.
REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation involves initial earthworks to reform the landscape, improve drainage and promote root growth. Available rocks, logs or forest litter are spread to provide habitat for local fauna.
3.
EMISSIONS CONTROL
Talison Lithium has installed a noise monitoring station which is located on the sound wall between the mining areas and the town of Greenbushes.
Who
Government and Regulatory Agencies
- Regulatory oversight, permits, and environmental standards.
- Collaboration with local communities and stakeholders.
- Enforcement of waste management regulations.
Battery Recycling Industry
- Collection and recycling of used lithium-ion batteries.
- Recovery of valuable materials, including lithium.
- Closing the loop in the lithium supply chain.
- Lithium - Development - Compliance
Roles in the Waste
Transportation Sector EV Manufacturers
- Demand for lithium-ion batteries.
- Battery manufacturing processes and waste generation.
- The transportation of raw
- Movement of lithium concentrates
Roles in the Lithium Waste Cycle
Lithium Mining Companies
extraction, ore processing, and waste generation. Development and implementation of waste management plans. Compliance with environmental regulations.
Waste Management Service Providers
- Collection, transportation, and disposal of waste materials.
- Hazardous waste handling and treatment.
- Recycling and sustainable waste management solutions.
the Lithium Cycle
Local Communities and Stakeholders
- Monitoring and advocacy for responsible waste management.
- Engagement with mining companies and government agencies.
- Reporting and addressing concerns related to air and water quality.
Sector
raw materials to and from lithium mining sites concentrates and materials to processing facilities.
WHY WASTE IS NOT JUSTICE
AN ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE?
Justice
"We can't mine our way out of a climate crisis!"
- Thacker Pass
The safe storage of mining waste has been a critical part of the debate over a lithium mine in northern Nevada, and now environmental advocates are pointing to a report warning that flawed analysis of the mine may lead to failures that could unleash toxic slurry into the state’s watershed.
Place: Nevada, USA
Type: Clay mining
Time: 2023
Endangered Species
Waste rock
Thacker Pass & Salinas Grandes
"We don't eat lithium, nor batteries. We do drink water."
- Salinas Grandes
Communities’ rejection of new lithium projects in Jujuy comes as production increases in Olaroz, the first plant in operation. There, the environmental impacts have become visible. Water scarcity affects communities who depend on activities such as agriculture. Some areas in Jujuy and Catamarca where projects have already been approved have also been deemed critical for biodiversity.
Flamingo, Vegetation
Indigenous communities
Place: Jujuy, Argentina
Type: Salt flat mining
Time: 2010
Water depletion Habitat Disruption
• Solis, Jeniffer, Nevada Current June 30, and 2022. “State Upholds Thacker Pass Permit, Conservation Group Warns of Toxic Slurry in the Making.” Nevada Current (blog), June 30, 2022. https://www.nevadacurrent.com/2022/06/30/stateupholds-thacker-ppass-permit-conservation-group-warns-of-toxicslurry-in-the-making/.
• Solis, Jeniffer, Nevada Current July 20, and 2023. “9th Circuit Says Thacker Pass Lithium Mine Can Proceed.” Nevada Current (blog), July 20, 2023. https://www.nevadacurrent. com/2023/07/20/9th-circuit-says-thacker-pass-lithium-minecan-proceed/.
• “Why Is Thacker Pass / Peehee Mu’Huh So Important? | RenoSparks Indian Colony.” Accessed October 2, 2023. https://www. rsic.org/protect-thacker-pass-protect-peehee-muhuh/.
• Martín-Cabrera, Luis. “Indigenous Argentineans Resist Becoming ‘Sacrifice Zone’ for Ecocolonialism.” Truthout, December 6, 2022. https://truthout.org/articles/indigenous-argentineans-resistbecoming-sacrifice-zone-for-ecocolonialism/.
• BNamericas.com. “BNamericas - Argentina’s Supreme Court Creates Headwind f...” Accessed October 2, 2023. https:// www.bnamericas.com/en/news/argentinas-supreme-court-createsheadwind-for-jujuy-and-salta-lithium-projects.
• Dialogo Chino. “Communities Challenge Lithium Production in Argentina,” March 12, 2019. https://dialogochino.net/en/ extractive-industries/24733-communities-challenge-lithiumproduction-in-argentina/.
• “Indigenous Peoples in Jujuy, Argentina Living in Resistance and Demanding FPIC,” June 21, 2023. https://www.culturalsurvival. org/news/indigenous-peoples-jujuy-argentina-living-resistanceand-demanding-fpic.
• Sigma Lithium. “Grota do Cirilo.” Accessed October 2, 2023. https://sigmalithiumresources.com/grota-do-cirilo/.
• Talison Lithium. “Environment.” Accessed October 2, 2023. https://www.talisonlithium.com/environment.
• “Is ESG Sigma Lithium’s Secret Weapon? – 24/7 Wall St.” Accessed October 2, 2023. https://247wallst.com/commoditiesmetals/2021/09/13/is-esg-sigma-lithiums-secret-weapon/.
• Proactiveinvestors NA. “Sigma Lithium May Just Have the World’s Greenest Large-Scale Lithium Project at Grota Do Cirilo,” June 2, 2021. https://www.proactiveinvestors.com/companies/ news/951204/sigma-lithium-may-just-have-the-worlds-greenestlarge-scale-lithium-project-at-grota-do-cirilo-951204.html.
• Reno Gazette Journal. “Redwood Materials Gets $2 Billion Federal Loan for Mega Battery Facility near Reno.” Accessed October 2, 2023. https://www.rgj.com/story/news/money/ business/2023/02/09/redwood-materials-gets-2-billion-doeloan-for-mega-battery-facility-near-reno/69886953007/.
• Energy.gov. “LPO Offers Conditional Commitment to Redwood Materials to Produce Critical Electric Vehicle Battery Components From Recycled Materials.” Accessed October 2, 2023. https:// www.energy.gov/lpo/articles/lpo-offers-conditional-commitmentredwood-materials-produce-critical-electric-vehicle.
• Kolodny, Lora. “Redwood Materials Scores a New $2 Billion Loan to Build out Battery Recycling Facility in Nevada.” CNBC, February 9, 2023. https://www.cnbc.com/2023/02/09/ redwood-materials-nabs-2-billion-loan-for-battery-recycling-innevada.html.
Ecologies/ Economies
Introduction
The lithium mining venture in Salar de Atacama, Chile, examines the consequences of a project spanning 25 years set against the backdrop of a delicate desert ecosystem. This case sheds light on the secondary effects of lithium extraction on local wildlife and the interconnected food web. Nevertheless, it also underscores the commendable initiatives taken by the involved company, government authorities, and indigenous communities to address these challenges.
Thacker Pass, currently under construction, exemplifies the tension between industrial development and the preservation of cultural heritage cherished by indigenous communities. As it gears up to potentially become the largest lithium mine in the US, it stands at the forefront of the nation’s trade ambitions. However, this prominence comes in the face of staunch opposition from indigenous groups, farmer unions, and environmental organizations.
What and Why?
BlueOval Battery Park, in Michigan, USA is currently in planning and is uniquely positioned just a couple miles away from the heart of the nearest city center, Marshall. As such, the community of Marshall will feel the ecological and environmental impacts of the Battery Park keenly. Pollution of the Kalamazoo river, surrounding wetlands, and the wells which the community uses for potable water is a major concern along with the destruction of the habitats of vulnerable species.
In all cases, the impacts of these massive interventions upon the land pose real and serious dangers to both humans and nonhumans, altering the complex and fragile connections which hold our environment in balance. These cases also represent the injustices which are routinely committed against local and indigenous communities in the name of executing the “green energy transition.”
Sites at Scale
Salar de Atacama
Antofagasta, Chile
Salar de Atacama
What
The Salar de Atacama, which is the largest lithium operation in the world, located at the foot of the Andes Mountains in the eastern part of Atacama Desert in Chile. According to the SQM Lithium, the salt flats hold 90 percent of the Andean nation’s lithium reserves. SCL and SQM are the only two lithium producers in the Salar de Atacama.
Salar de Atacama includes:
- Marginal High Desert Climate
In contrast with other parts of the Atacama desert, the average rainfall is in a range between 5 and 120 mm/year in Salar de Atacama. (SQM Lithium)
- Brine
Beneath the salt crust of the Salar de Atacama, there are large deposits of a saltrich solution with about 30 percent dissolved salt content.(SQM Lithium)
- Lagoon
The habitat of several endemic and migratory species. There are three species of flamingo: Chilean, Andean, and James.
- Vegetation
The unique climate combined with the barrier of the Andes Mountains, makes the river more abundant at east of the salt lake . As a result, a vegetation zone formed, which also provided the survival conditions for the survival of indigenous communities
Salar de Atacama
Solar de Atacama
Where
Salar de Atacama has a lot of rare and endangered species, such as the nitrophila, fabiani Lizard and tamarugo Tree. There are different animals living in the desert, such as fox, bat, fulvus and so on. What’s more, Salar de Atacama has 3 kinds of flamingos: Andean flamingo, Chilean flamingo, and James’s flamingo.
These flamingos are feed on brine shrimp, algae and plankton. However, the average number of flamingos in the Salar de Atacama reduced by 20% in recent years, according to the Forestry Commission. It is because miners extracting water from the ground for lithium, coupled with climate change. In this situation, flamingos are short of food. The Chilean flamingo is considered a near threatened species and the other two are vulnerable species, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Terrain of Salar de Atacama
Least Vulnerable
Near Threatened Endangered
Nitrophila
Species
Chilla Fox
Culpeo Fox
Mouse-tailed Bat
Big-eared Brown Bat
Atacama Bat
Warty Toad
Fabiani Lizard
Paulina Lizard
Andean Seagull
Ctenomys Fulvus
Andean Gerbil Mouse
Peregrine Falcon
Lesser Rhea
White Carob Tree
Tortuous Mesquite
Tamarugo Tree
Chilean Flamingo
James’s Flamingo
Andean Flamingo
Constanza Lizard
Puna Lizard
Andean Lizard
Where
The Atacama has a long human history. It is one of the cultural centers of South American Indians. Affected by drought, indigenous settlements were confined to isolated oases at a distance from each other. From the diagram in the lower left corner, there are five towns around the SQM production site. They are located on riverbanks near vegetation on the eastern side of the basin. Each village was autonomous, made up of a group of related families, headed by a chief. (SQM, Lithium).
Protected Area
When
SQM
Acquired the North American company Amax and the Chilean company Molymet, which was renamed SQM Salar and began producing potassium sulfate and lithium
SQM
Presented an attractive international price for the operation
Produce lithium carbonate
Lithium chloride plant was brought on stream
Albemarle
Albemarle
SQM
Invested more than US$1.800 billion SQM
Superintendence of the Environment
Started a sanctioning process against SQM (Extracted more brine than the established quota)
SQM Investment of US$25 million Improve monitoring system
Sanctioning process stoped
Fivefold increase in lithium extraction
Inaugurat its third chemical conversion plant
(DLE) technology Expand lithium operations
Invested more than US$5 billion
Albemarle
Albemarle
Albemarle
How
National Lithium Strategy
Since the new Mining Code is in force, the exploitation and commercialization of lithium has been carefully regulated, and reserved by the state. As indicated, lithium was considered to be a strategic resource by the military government. (José Ignacio Morán, Chile’s newly announced National Lithium Strategy – What miners need to know)
Four forms of Lithium exploitation in Chile :
• Directly through the state.
• Through the state’s enterprises.
• By means of administrative concessions.
• By means of special operating contracts.
The only companies that are currently exploiting lithium in Chile are SQM and SCL. CORFO gave concessions to SQM and SCL, which allow these companies to exploit and extract lithium in Chile.
Doubts
• Chilean government doesn’t present the bill that proposes the creation of the National Lithium Company.
• The Chilean government lacks a definition of salt flats of “strategic value”
• The Chilean government doesn’t regulate salt flats that are not of strategic value. Conditions for private exploration bids are unclear
• Chilean government lacks a Network of Protected Salt Flats, where lithium cannot be explored or exploited.
Framework
Production Site
How
SQM Ecological Strategy
SQM has an ongoing protection, monitoring and control program in place near the site of the operation, as well as ongoing warnings.
1. Environmental Monitoring Program
Quillagua community collaborates with SQM in environmental monitoring program activities. SQM supports the maintenance of Rural Drinking Water Committee’s efforts and make improvements to supply the town of Quilagua drinking water. According to SQM sustainability report 2021, the plant produces an average of 40 sqm/day.
2. Ecosystem Services
SQM created an Environmental Group with the community to conduct trainings on hydrogeology and biota, site visits, and engage two external consultants on biotic monitoring.
3. Environmental Education
In 2021, SQM built a Environmental Education Center (CEDAM) in the Salar de Llamara to highlight local environmental heritage, and help visitors to learn about the natural and cultural processes of Pampa del Tamarugal. As a tourism site for the region, it will enhance its richness and call attention to the salt flat’s scientific value. According to SQM sustainability report 2021, a learning path with stations explains the local biodiversity, highlighting the existence of protected flora and fauna as well as the renowned cyanobacteria that led to the formation of life on the planet.
Ecological Strategy
Local Community Ecological Strategy
In the face of SQM’s lithium mining in the Atacama Salt Lake, the local environmental organization Un Alto en el Desierto has taken a series of measures to combat the drought caused by lithium mining. Local people have different attitudes towards SQM and some people protest SQM’s damage to the environment, some people still hope to achieve sustainable development through cooperation with SQM.
1. Fog Nets
Un Alto en el Desierto Foundation installed fog nets in Atacama Desert to harvest around 500,000 liters of water per year and revive the mountain region’s vegetation and launch new businesses to improve local families quality of life and adapt to drought.
2. Collecting Rains
Comminites make the most use of the less frequent rains, help retain water for livestock and prevent soil erosion and mudslides.
These pilot projects don’t have funding or political support to sustain them over the long term.
3. Opposition to Mining
Some indigenous residents oppose SQM’s exploitation, arguing that the companies have violated their land use rights and are part of a new colonization. However, given the new job opportunities and improvements in education and health care brought by SQM, some indigenous communities want to cooperate with the company and expect the Chilean government to introduce policies to protect the environment.
Cases
According to Environmental Justice Atlas, 33 Atacameno and Kolla communities formed organizations to oppose lithium mining. Opponents argue that the lithium mining companies are encroaching on their land and that the heavy use of water is exacerbating drought in the region. Although lithium mining companies have delayed their projects in the face of protests, the companies still want to ramp up production.
Government
Policy support
Lack of supervision
Lithum Extraction
Water Waste
Light Pollution
industral waste
Environmental Monitoring Education
Economy Development
Protest against policy
Environmental Justice
Mineral Ores and Building Materials Extraction
Waste Management
Fossil Fuels and Climate Justice/Energy
Water Management
Environmental Justic in Chile
Salar de Atacama
Andean civilizations
Sources
• Salar de Atacama:https://www.alluringworld.com/salarde-atacama/#:~:text=Salar%20de%20Atacama%20is%20 home,Chilean%20flamingo%2C%20and%20James’s%20flamingo.
• Lithium mining in the Salar de Atacama, Chile: EJAtlas, Ejolt, https://www.ejatlas.org/conflict/mineria-de-litio-en-el-salar-deatacama-chile
• Photo, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/pg/photo-gallery/a-view-of-thesalar-de-atacama-where-three-species-of-flamingos-live-
• Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe, https:// www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/publication/files/38961/ S1500861_en.pdf
• Chile’s newly announced National Lithium Strategy – What miners need to know, Morán, https://www.dentonsmininglaw.com/chilesnewly-announced-national-lithium-strategy-what-miners-need-toknow/
• Bárbara Jerez, Ingrid Garcés, Robinson Torres, Lithium extractivism and water injustices in the Salar de Atacama, Chile: The colonial shadow of green electromobility, Political Geography, Volume 87, 2021,102382, ISSN 0962-6298, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102382. (https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/pii/S0962629821000421)
• SQM Lithium | Solutions for Human Development | Lithium, Lithium production has made the Chemical and Mining Society of Chile SQM an actor of change in people’s quality of life, providing solutions for human development. We are present in the three great revolutions of the XNUMXst century: Energy, technology, and food. Environmental Goals By 2030 we will reduce brine extraction by 50%. MORE INFORMATION, https:// www.sqmlithium.com/en
• Salar de Tara - All You Need to Know BEFORE You Go (with Photos), https://www.tripadvisor.com/ Attraction_Review-g303681-d3320489-Reviews-Salar_ de_Tara-San_Pedro_de_Atacama_Antofagasta_Region. html#/media-atf/3320489/292164810:p/?albumid=160&type=0&category=-160
• Plant to Double Lithium Production/ Reduce Water Consumption, https://www.albemarle.com/news/albemarle-inaugurates-newplant-designed-to-double-lithium-production
• Lithium History: About us: SQM Lithium, https://www.sqmlithium. com/en/nosotros/historia-del-litio/
• South American Information, https://www.albemarle.com/locationscategory/south-america
• Lithium sparks disputes in Chile’s Atacama Desert, Guzmán, https://dialogochino.net/en/extractive-industries/37907-chileslithium-disputes/
• SQM 2021 Sustainability Report: Promoting a sustainable industry https://www.sqm.com/en/noticia/english-reporte-de-sostenibilidadsqm-2021-promoviendo-una-industria-sostenible/
Thacker Pass
PROJECT TYPE/USES:
Thacker Pass/Peehee mu’huh
LOCATION:
Humboldt County, Nevada
YEARS: 2021
ACTORS INVOLVED:
Lithium Americas, Indigenous people
Federal government, Local government
KEY FEATURES:
Thacker Pass is the largest known lithium deposit in the US and one of the largest in the world. The mine is a project of Lithium Nevada, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Lithium Americas Corp. The project has met resistance in the form of legal challenges and direct action. Development of the mine is driven by increasing demand for lithium used in electric vehicle batteries and grid storage of intermittently generated electricity from sources such as solar power or wind power.
Mining Assumption and Pollution
Found only at Thacker Pass
Conservation Area at Thacker Pass
Endangered Species
Kings River Pyrg
Trout Bobcat
Sagebrush
Bigfoot Sheep
Antelope
Golden eagle
Pygmy Rabbit
Burrowing owl
Cases
A Plan of Operations
Impact Statement
Notice of Intent of Environmental
Approving the Thacker Pass Lithium Mine
NGO (DGR): occupying Thacker Pass local rancher lawsuit about the project’s water use
NGO against BLM: threats to habitat
Indigenous: praying, dancing, and sharing food
hundreds of people attended a rally in Reno
Lithium America may excavate archaeological
Site of two Native American massacres captured by the U.S. cavalry in 1865 [DENIED]
Only one and a half year of Defect review
Lawyer to judge: reconsider massacre
Judge: massacre denied
BLM: Archeological Resources Protection permit
Winnemucca Indian Colony: lack of consultation
NDEP: air, water, mining permit
NGO: challenging water permit
District Court: denied lack of consultation
SEC: approvel water permit
Community Benefits Agreement (CBA)
NGO: international conference
Participants, sectors, communities are unequally distributed (landscape destruction, depreciating property values) and the benefits are appropriated by others
Theory framework
Distributive inequality
problem
Reservation determination
The potential benefits outweigh the costs Those who live near thacker pass are more supportive
Preserved Land
Forbidden land, never developed
Resource storage Scared/holy land
NIMRY YIMRY
Nimby
Totally ban
Environmental Justice
Environmental justice in its narrow sense does not provide a means of deciding what is prohibited As long as the consequences are fairly borne, any act of profiteering will be destroyed in the name of supporting green energy It should specify which means are completely prohibited
Ecocide Modern liberal theory
Materially dependent on local ecosystems, identity and cultural traditions are also closely tied to the natural environment
Cultural heritage
Defect review
Community engagement
A long enough review process
Adequate legislative protection
Sources
Paper
• Energy’. Environmental Justice 16, no. 2 (1 April 2023): 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2021.0088.
• Solis, Jeniffer, Nevada Current July 20, and 2023. ‘9th Circuit Says Thacker Pass Lithium Mine Can Proceed’. Nevada Current (blog), 20 July 2023. https://www.nevadacurrent. com/2023/07/20/9th-circuit-says-thacker-pass-lithium-minecan-proceed/.
• ‘Thacker Pass Lithium Mine’. In Wikipedia, 27 September 2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thacker_Pass_Lithium_ Mine&oldid=1177508591.
• ‘Thacker Pass Lithium Mine | NDEP’. Accessed 1 October 2023. https://ndep.nv.gov/land/thacker-pass-project.
• ‘Thacker Pass Lithium Project, Nevada Region, USA’. Accessed 2 October 2023. https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/projects/ thacker-pass-lithium-project-nevada-usa/.
• ‘The Key Ingredient to Millions of EVs Is Buried under a Former Volcano — but There’s Still a Lot We Don’t KnowThe Verge’. Accessed 2 October 2023. https://www.theverge. com/2023/8/30/23849619/lithium-ev-battery-thacker-passmine-mcdermitt-caldera.
• Uji, Azusa, Jaehyun Song, Nives Dolšak, and Aseem Prakash. ‘Pursuing Decarbonization along with National Security: Assessing Public Support for the Thacker Pass Lithium Mine’. PLOS ONE 18, no. 1 (24 January 2023): e0280720. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0280720.
Image
• https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwsmtnprairie/23661983405
• https://www.kgw.com/article/tech/science/environment/ thackerpass-
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• https://sierranevadaally.org/2021/05/17/dispatches-fromthackerpass-
• harms-of-the-thacker-pass-lithium-project/
• https://www.sciencenews.org/article/lithium-miningflamingotechnology-
• climate-changehttps://www.sciencenews.org/article/lithiummining-
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Blue Oval
What?
Ford Motor Company, in partnership with a number of other international companies, is in the process of greatly increasing their electric vehicle manufacturing capabilities. Three mega-sites which will become battery parks and electric vehicle centers form what Ford is calling the “Blue Oval.” Marshall, Michigan and Glendale, Kentucky will be the sites where Ford builds its battery parks. Stanton, Tennessee will be the site of Ford’s “Blue Oval City” electric vehicle center. Each of these sites are multiple hundreds to multiple thousands of acres.
500,000 EV trucks
40 gigawatt hours per 2 plants
35 gigawatt hours
Marshall, Michigan
Glendale, Kentucky
Stanton, Tennessee
Where?
To Chicago
Site boundary
Norfolk Southern Railway
Kalamazoo River
Conservational easement
Project Timeline
Battery production begins ~35 gigawatt hours
Sept.15
UAW strike
Eastern Massasagua projected extinct
Sept.14 2nd lawsuit dismissed
Sept.26
$65mil to project
Sept.25
Ford pauses project
5x chance heavy rainfall events
Indiana Bat projected extinct
Sites of Potential Contamination
How?
The proposed factory will impact the ecology of Marshall in many unpredictable ways, but there are at least three which are almost certain.
Light pollution, both from the factory and the trucks that will supply it will add to the nighttime light pollution, disturbing both humans and non-humans.
Chemicals may also leech into the soil and, with rain, are likely to migrate into the Kalamazoo River posing a threat to the plants which sustain the wetland ecosystem, and contaminating well water.
Deforestation, which has reportedly already begun, destroys the roosting places of the Indiana Bat, further displacing the already endangered animal.
Light Pollution
Chemical Infiltration
Deforestation
Who?
Some residents of Marshall have created the “Committee for Marshall - Not the Mega Site” which has brought lawsuits against the city which challenge the zoning. They also distrust partnerships with Chinese companies. The Union of Auto Workers went on strike at Ford and GM plants on Sept. 15, 2023. They are striking for cost of living wage adjustments and job security as their industry transitions to EVs. Ford is partnering with a number of international companies like CATL (China), who also supplies Tesla, and SK Innovation (South Korea). The Michigan State Government gave the Marshall Economic Development Alliance (MAEDA) ~$750 million to purchase and prepare the site. They also gave Ford a $210 million grant, and a 15-year tax break valued at $774 million. Once built, the animals, insects, plants, and microorganisms of Marshall may struggle to survive in their altered habitat. Vascular plants like wild rice play an important role in filtering the river water.
United Auto Workers
Marshall Township Planning Committee MAEDA
Wild Rice
Richard Lindsey
Wood Thrush
Indiana Bat
BlueOval Megasite
Ford Motor Co.
• “BlueOval Battery Park Michigan - Choose Marshall.” BlueOval Battery Park Michigan, September 14, 2023. https://choosemarshall.com/blueoval-batterypark-michigan/#reports.
• “BLUEOVAL Battery Park Michigan.” Ford Corporate, February 13, 2023. https://corporate.ford.com/operations/blue-oval-battery-park-michigan.html.
• Brad Neumann, Michigan State University Extension. “Local Government and Climate Change: Planning for Rainfall Intensification in the Midwest.” MSU Extension, January 21, 2022. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/local_ government_and_climate_change_planning_for_rainfall_intensification_i.
• Bruns McDonnell. “Protected Species Habitat Assessment.” Protected-SpeciesHabitat-Assessment, October 11, 2021. https://choosemarshall.com/wpcontent/uploads/2023/04/Protected-Species-Habitat-Assessment.pdf.
• Cincar Consulting Group, Burns & McDonnel, and Michael Baker International. “MEDC M-96: Final Traffic Impact Study and Preliminary Project Scoping Reports.” Supplemental Preliminary Geotechnical Evaluation Report, April 2023. https://choosemarshall.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/TrafficImpact-Study-and-Preliminary-Project-Scoping-Report.pdf.
• Duffey, Jason, Adam Mann, and Bethany Gregory. “The Indiana Bat.” GAI Consultants, October 27, 2022. https://gaiconsultants.com/the-indiana-bat/.
• “Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnake.” Potawatomi Zoo, August 10, 2022. https://www.potawatomizoo.org/animal/eastern-massasauga-rattlesnake/.
• EDRA of MI. “The Marshall Catl-Ford Blue Oval Megasite.” EDRA of MI, n.d. https://edraofmi.org/marshall.
• “The Federal Register.” Federal Register :: Request Access, September 30, 2016. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2016/09/30/2016-23538/ endangered-and-threatened-wildlife-and-plants-threatened-species-statusfor-the-eastern-massasauga#:~:text=Thus%2C%20the%20viability%20of%20 the,over%20the%20next%2050%20years.
• Friday’s Ford Footage | Blue Oval City | July 15, 2022. YouTube, 2022. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v6vqtFbc0WU.
• Hamilton, Jacob. “The Ford BlueOval Battery Plant Project to Be Built on a ‘Megasite’ in Marshall Township, Mich. Has Caused Tension within the Community.” mlive, May 1, 2023. https://www.mlive.com/galleries/ WEIFTBGJDBHBRPI7P72A24BR6I/.
• Harrelson, Kenneth Dwain. Photograph of a Monarch Butterfly. Monarch Butterfly. Wikipedia, May 29, 2007. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_
butterfly.
• Mann, Adam. Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis). Population Demographic Models for the Conservation of Endangered Indiana Bats at Risk to White-Nose Syndrome. USGS, February 1, 2016. https://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/ bats/indiana_bats.html.
• “Manoomin (Wild Rice).” Michigan Sea Grant, 2013. https://www. michiganseagrant.org/topics/ecosystems-and-habitats/native-species-andbiodiversity/manoomin-wild-rice/.
• “The Marshall CATL-Ford Blue Oval Megasite.” EDRA of MI, n.d. https:// edraofmi.org/marshall.
• Mitch, Captain. “Everglades Mammals Profile: The Least Shrew.” Captain Mitch’s Everglades Airboat rides, December 21, 2017. https://www. captainmitchs.com/least-shrew/.
• Noble, Breana. “UAW Strike at Detroit Three for 10 Days Could Cost Economy $5.6B, Report Says.” The Detroit News, August 17, 2023. https:// www.detroitnews.com/story/business/autos/2023/08/17/uaw-strike-detroitthree-cost-economy-anderson-economic-group/70609896007/.
• Press, Associated. “Michigan House Approves Veteran Service Fund.” WKAR Public Media, March 15, 2018. https://www.wkar.org/politicsgovernment/2018-03-14/michigan-house-approves-veteran-service-fund.
• Sequeria, Fernando Burgalin. “Wood Thrush.” eBird, n.d. https://ebird.org/ species/woothr.
Soil and Materials Engineers Inc. Phase I Environmental Site Assessment Report, January 18, 2022. https://choosemarshall.com/wp-content/ uploads/2023/04/Phase-I-Environmental-Site-Assessment-Report.pdf.
• Staff, Bridge. “UAW Strike 2023 Update: Fain Slams Ford for Halting Michigan EV Factory.” Bridge Michigan, September 25, 2023. https://www. bridgemi.com/business-watch/uaw-strike-2023-update-autoworkers-strike-datecontract-expiration-demands.
• Tolbert, Elanor. “BlueOval SK’s Huge EV Battery Plant in Hardin County Opens up Big Opprotunites - and Tough Tests.” Bizjournals.com, July 7, 2023. https://www.bizjournals.com/louisville/news/2023/07/07/blueoval-skopens-up-big-opportunities.html.
• “Viola Pedata Bird’s Foot Violet.” Prairie Moon Nursery, n.d. https://www. prairiemoon.com/viola-pedata-birds-foot-violet-prairie-moon-nursery.html.
• “Wetlands Map Viewer.” Wetlands map viewer, n.d. https://www.mcgi.state. mi.us/wetlands/.
Ganfeng A Lithium Superpower
What and Why?
Ganfeng Lithium Group is a Chinese company specializing in the production and distribution of lithium and related products. Lithium is a key component in rechargeable batteries, especially in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage systems. Ganfeng is one of the leading lithium producers in the world. The company is involved in various aspects of the lithium supply chain, including: extraction, lithium processing, battery manufacturing, global supply chain, and battery recycling. It is important to familiarize ourselves with Ganfeng because of its global reach through partnerships, investments and acquisitions. Ganfeng has a stake in some of the largest lithium mines in the world. Lithium is a key component for the global transition to a green energy future which is why it is important to understand a company with the reach as Ganfeng’s establishment in the lithium market at all stages. Additionally, Ganfeng is one of the few companies with the advanced technology to recycle used batteries and reaching closer to closing the lithium cycle.
What?
This guide will investigate Ganfeng Lithium Group and their impact within the lithium landscape. The lithium giant’s compound capacity is third globally and leading in China. It is also the worlds largest lithium metal producer.
Ganfeng is involved in multiple stages of lithium: battery supply chains, resource development, refining and processing, to battery manufacturing and recycling. It is one of the few companies making progress in closing the lithium cycle by recycling used batteries. It is also the sole company to have technologies to extract lithium from brine, ore and recycling.
Headquartered in Xinyu, Jiangxi it is traded in the Shenzhen and Hong Kong Stock Exchange with a market capitalization of $26 billion USD. The providence of Jiangxi is integral to the company’s establishment as it is the site of extraction, metal smelting, compound deep processing, lithium battery manufacturing, and recycling of used batteries. The only location with faculties to execute their entire lithium cycle.
This guide will explore four elements of Ganfeng’s lithium cycle, extraction, processing, battery production and battery recycling.
Extraction
Ganfeng
When?
Investment in Mariana lithium Project in Argentina
nvestment in Blackstar spodumene project in Ireland
Production of battery grade lithium hydroxide
Ganfeng Lithium established
Acquisition of Jiangxi Western Resources
Lithium Industry Co., Ltd.
Ningdu Jiangxi Ganfeng
Recycling Technology Co. was established
Set up solid state battery research & development center, built automatic polymer lithium production line
Invest in Reed Industrial Minerals Australia and acquired rights/ interests of its Mt. Marion spodumene project
Investment in Pilbara
Investment in Lithium
Ganfeng’s constructed their first lithium metal production base 2003 2015 2017
First generation of lithium battery R & production line
Listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange
Signed a supply contract with LG Chemical
Signed a strategic cooperation agreement with BMW Germany
Signed a strategic cooperation agreement with Tesla
Growth and Acquisition
Increased equity in Argentina’s Minera
Exar and Mexico’s
Bacanora
Established Ganfeng LiEnergy and integrated the lithium battery segment under it
Established Ganfeng Huizh
Acquired/invested in Lithea PPG & Niobium-Tantalum mine in Shangrao, Jiangxi
Started construction of Mariana Project in Argentina and Goulamina Project in Mali
Started construction of lithium refinery plants in Fengcheng, Dazhou and Shangrao
Started construction of 20GWh new lithium battery technology park in Chongqing
Reached strategic cooperation intentions with SVOLT, GAC AIO
2018 2020 2022
2019
Acquired a 22.5% project interest in Sonora Lithium, Mexico
Signed a cooperation memorandum with Volkswagen and its suppliers over next decade
Signed a long term supply agreement with BMW
2021
Invested in Goulamina project in Mali
Acquired Guangdong Huichuang New Energy
Established Ganfeng Sichuan and Ganfeng Fengcheng
Signed Product Supply Contract with Tesla
Shanghai
Where?
MALI
Goulamina Project
Partners: Leo Lithium
AUSTRALIA
Mount Marion Project
Partners: Mineral Resources
Pilbara Pilgangoora Project
Partners: Pilbara Minerals
Finniss Project
Partners: Core Lithium Limited
CHINA
Mangya Lake Project
Yiliping Lake Project
Balunmahai Lake Project
Ningdu Project
Shangrao Project
Jiabusi Project
IRELAND
Avalonia
Partners:
Jiangxi Metal smelting
Jiangxi & Sichuan Compound
Jiangxi, Guangdong, Zhejiang, Chongqing Lithium Battery
Jiangxi Recycling used batteries
A Global Corporation
IRELAND
Avalonia Project
Partners: International Lithium
Compound process
Zhejiang, Jiangsu & Battery manufacturing batteries
MEXICO
Sonora Project
ARGENTINA
Mariana Project
Incahuasi Project
Cauchari-Olaroz Project
Partners: Lithium Americas
SDLP Project
Partners: Arena Minerals
Where?
Lithium Products Manufacturing Bases
Lithium Battery Production Bases
Offices and R&D Center
Ganfeng
How?
Brine mining:
Brine operation plants are created prior to water being pumped into the pools. Pool beds are excavated and tarped for water-proofing and to avoid seepage. Brine water is then pumped from underground reservoirs into open air ponds. Over 90% of the original water content is lost through evaporation of salt, removing water, leaving behind lithium. It usually takes a year or more to fully evaporate. The lighter shade of blue the brine water turn the higher concentrate of lithium is found. Approximately 1,209 million liters of saltwater is pumped into brines per week.
Hard Rock mining:
Ore is extracted using conventional truck and shovel method with initial drilling and blasting operations. Lithium Spodumene concentrate involves initial crushing, roasting and further grinding of the ore. After it is extracted from these sites and transported to either storage plants or processing plants via trucks. Prior to mining Ganfeng and their parters establish roads in accordance with efficient travel distance and time. Ore mining does not produce as much lithium as brine.
Clay mining:
Lithium clay deposits are found around salt lakes. It is believed lithium clay contains lower grades compared to pegmatitic “hard rock” minerals such as spodumene, and the impurities in a sediment extraction process are much more complex than those from a spodumene extraction process. Lithium is extracted from clay minerals by acidification and salt roasting, though chlorination and alkalization methods are also attempted in some cases
Ganfeng
Brine
Hard Rock
Clay
How?
Ganfeng successfully invented sodium salt pressure leaching, sulfuric acid acidification roasting and other ore lithium extraction technologies, developed complex system sodium and potassium precise control, liquid-solid combined cycle demagnetization, “nanofiltration membrane impurity removal + chelating resin impurity removal” and other advanced impurity removal technologies, and applications. The Company utilizes fully automated and intelligent energy-saving equipment to achieve efficient and clean lithium extraction. Using concentrated brine as raw material, Ganfeng developed gradient coupling membrane separation, forced circulation evaporation crystallization, deep complexation to remove impurities and lithium precipitation, etc. to directly prepare battery-grade lithium carbonate and anhydrous lithium chloride, and recycle the crystallization mother liquor to realize brine Comprehensive co-production of high-purity lithium salt. The invention of temperature and humidity controllable multi-anode metal lithium electrolysis cell, low-temperature vacuum distillation purification, deep gas purification, air flotation slagging and impurity removal processes to prepare battery-grade metal lithium, which reduces energy consumption by more than 30% compared with traditional high-temperature vacuum distillation purification processes.
How?
Battery Production
Ganfeng produces batteries at multiple scales and stages: power batteries, energy storage system, consumer electronic batteries and solid state batteries.
Their power batteries are brick type cells to power electronics, modules and system batteries. They also have larger battery types for energy storage systems ranging from cargo container size to a condensed version. They also produce micro grid and computer room energy storage systems for more contained spaces. Consumer electronic batteries are the hidden batteries within our electronics and Ganfeng produces a large variety of them from Bluetooth headset to Bluetooth speaker, vacuum cleaner batteries, laptop batteries, phone/ tablet batteries to WIFI batteries to list a few. Finally, solid state battery has higher energy density than a Li-ion battery that uses liquid electrolyte solution, they can be used in cars to ensure long distance of travel.
How?
Safely and harmlessly dispose of used batteries to realize the recycling of resources; and in an efficient, clean, and sustainable way to help customers reduce environmental protection costs, increase customer benefits, and enhance corporate competitiveness.
Lithium battery recycling technology is mainly divided into waste lithium iron phosphate battery recycling technology and waste ternary battery recycling technology. The waste lithium iron phosphate battery recycling technology uses waste lithium iron phosphate batteries as raw materials to prepare lithium chloride solution through discharge, dismantling, crushing, acid leaching, and impurity removal
The production process efficiently separates the extracted product and by-products, reduces material consumption, improves resource recovery, and reduces The cost of the three waste treatment.
The main products of the lithium battery recycling project are batterygrade lithium carbonate, lithium hydroxide, and ternary precursor materials. The production equipment selected for the lithium battery recycling project has a high degree of automation.
The advantages on continuing lithium battery recycling is that it can solve the environmental pollution caused by waste lithium batteries; on the other hand, it can recover valuable metal elements such as lithium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese to realize comprehensive recycling of resources and alleviate Lithium resources are tight.
Dismantling line used batteries
Waste Li iron phosphate line
Waste ternary line
Precursor workshop line
Sources
• Cauchari-Olaroz - Lithium Americas. Accessed October 5, 2023. https://www.lithiumamericas.com/argentina/cauchari-olaroz/. Dempsey, Harry, and Edward White. “China’s Lithium Champion Ganfeng Mints Money but Walks a Fine Line.” Financial Times, August 19, 2022. https://www.ft.com/content/89ce0c75-6f0f4ff2-8ce8-62bf72c05f51.
• “How Much Water Is Used to Make the World’s Batteries?” Danwatch, October 3, 2022. https://danwatch.dk/en/ undersoegelse/how-much-water-is-used-to-make-the-worldsbatteries/.
• “Mariana Lithium Project, Salar de Llullaillaco, Argentina.” NS Energy. Accessed October 5, 2023. https://www. nsenergybusiness.com/projects/mariana-lithium-project/.
• Matich, Blake. “Mineral Resources Set to Double Mount Marion Lithium Capacity in Response to ‘Extraordinary Lithium Demand.’” pv magazine Australia, April 7, 2022. https://www.pv-magazineaustralia.com/2022/04/07/mineral-resources-set-to-doublemount-marion-lithium-capacity-in-response-to-extraordinarylithium-demand/.
• Matich, Blake. “Mineral Resources Set to Double Mount Marion Lithium Capacity in Response to ‘Extraordinary Lithium Demand.’” pv magazine Australia, April 7, 2022. https://www.pv-magazineaustralia.com/2022/04/07/mineral-resources-set-to-doublemount-marion-lithium-capacity-in-response-to-extraordinarylithium-demand/.
• “Mt Marion Lithium.” Mineral Resources, August 25, 2022. https://www.mineralresources.com.au/our-business/lithium/mtmarion-lithium/.
• “A New Way to Produce Lithium from Clay Deposits.” Mexico Business. Accessed October 5, 2023. https://mexicobusiness. news/mining/news/new-way-produce-lithium-clay-deposits.
• “Lithium Metals: Lithium Compounds--Ganfeng Lithium Co.,Ltd.” Lithium Metals|Lithium Compounds--Ganfeng Lithium Co.,Ltd. Accessed October 5, 2023. https://www.ganfenglithium.com/ about1_en.html.
•
• “Lithium Metals: Lithium Compounds--Ganfeng Lithium Co.,Ltd.” Lithium Metals|Lithium Compounds--Ganfeng Lithium Co.,Ltd. Accessed October 5, 2023. https://www.ganfenglithium.com/ about3_en.html.
• Ganfeng Lithium Co.,Ltd. Accessed October 5, 2023. https:// www.ganfenglithium.com/chuang1_en.html#:~:text=Using%20 concentrated%20brine%20as%20raw,lithium%20chloride%2C%20 and%20recycle%20the.
How to a Mine Repurpose
Title of your booklet
Introduction
The Many Lives of a Mining Site
What and Why?
A mine is a location where valuable minerals are extracted from the earth. After serving their purpose, mine decommissioning can be a complex problem because of the presence of environmental pollution, notably water pollution and land degradation. Mining involves using chemicals and heavy metals that can contaminate water sources, affecting aquatic life and nearby communities. Additionally, mining often results in land degradation and habitat destruction.
Reclamation and Remediation:
To mitigate these impacts, remediation and reclamation efforts are crucial. Remediation addresses pollution and restores affected water sources, while reclamation aims to restore the land for other beneficial uses. These efforts are essential for minimizing the environmental footprint of mining activities and ensuring a sustainable future.
What?
This guide aims to investigate the extent of damage that both active and inactive mines pose on the environment.
The impacts of mining can be understood over the various phases of a mine’s lifecycle. This includes the initial site preparation phase, followed the active operation of a mine, and terminating with the postoperation of a mine.
Three of the primary endemic issues with abandoned and derelict mines include:
- The production of waste materials that usually gather into large mounds or ‘spoils’. These often contain a mixture of chemically inert and reactive material.
- The production of reactive material or ‘tailings’. These deposits are fine-grain and can generate acid-mine drainage.
- The generation of acidic discharge water that contaminate natural waterways.
Spoils
Tailings
What?
Contamination of water alone poses a large risk to human life and every reliant ecosystem as a whole. Both open-pit and underground mines can come into contact with sources of ground water, thereby polluting it and limiting its usage by surrounding communities.
For surface water, contaminants released from mining may flow through steams and natrual ways, eventually contaminating groundwater. The process of refining ores can also be a source of contamination. Both of these methods drastically impact water quality for nearby communities and all aquatic life.
Water Pollution
Repurposing a mine varies depending on the type of mine. Common mine types include underground mines, commonly used along mineral-rich corridors, along with open-put mines, used in “poorer” sites (more rock, less mineral).
Recovering these resources requires the removal and disposal of far larger amounts of overburden material and waste rock, which has resulted in a global shift from restricted mine shafts that follow specific ore veins or enriched deposits, to large-scale open-pit mines
What?
Post-Mining Conditions
Physical Environment and Access:
High walls, fencing, and abandoned buildings symbolize community segregation, limiting their involvement in land use decisions and environmental remediation.
Environmental Impact:
Post-mining conditions (erosion, subsidence, landscape changes, acid mine drainage, and soil contamination) disproportionately affect marginalized communities, necessitating equitable management for environmental justice.
Social and Community Impact:
Open dumping of mining waste poses health hazards, underscoring the need for equitable waste management to protect community health and social well-being.
Economic Disparities + Community Involvement:
Mining-induced economic disparities can be mitigated through community involvement and inclusive decision-making, aligning with environmental justice principles.
What?
Abandoned mines are a global concern as they pose real or potential threats to environmental damage as well as human safety and health. Abandoned or inactive mines are generally sites where highly developed exploration, mining, or mine production ceased without rehabilitation.
ROCK ENVIRONMENT AND SOIL
VIOLATION OF ROCK ENVIRONMENT
LAND SURFACE CHANGING
VIOLATION OF SOILS
SOIL CONTAMINATION
Rehabilitation programs usually require more funds and resources. Therefore, several issues, such as who is responsible for providing the funds and doing the rehabilitation work, and what mechanisms exist in various jurisdictions to raise the funds, are raised. When no owners are identified or when they do not have enough money to pay, governments are forced to take care of it. In some countries, legislation has been created to fund the rehabilitation of abandoned mines.
The Many Lives of a Mining Site
HUMAN
METAL CUMULATION IN HUMAN BODIES
EASEMENT OF RAINFALL AND SURFACE WATER INFILTRATION
CHANGES OF GROUNDWATER FLOW
SURFACE WATER AND STREAM SEDIMENTS CONTAMINATION
GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
REDUCTIONS OF THE SURFACE WATER FLOW
Impact of Mining
DESTRUCTION OF FOREST AND OTHER PLANTS
CONTAMINATION OF GRASS AND MUSHROOMS
AIR CONTAMINATION
METAL CUMULATION IN ANIMAL BODIES
How?
A mine’s lifecycle may appear to be a straight line, starting from exploration and extraction and ending in abandonment. However, by virtue of rehabilitation, abadoned land mines can be given new life.
Mine’s Life Cycle
Through mimicing the surrounding undisturbed lands
Through repurposing abandoned land mines with new functions
Through remediating polluted material and hazardous matter
How?
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), more commonly referred to as Superfund, was enacted by Congress in 1980. This gave the EPA sudden authority to hold any responsbile party accountable for site contamination. In the event of there being no viable party responsbile, CERCLA would give the EPA all neccessary funds and authority to clean up the site.
The Superfund is the first of its kind in the US. The EPA administers the Superfund program alongside states and Tribal governments. The program has grown over time, creating a regulatory framework to protect human health and the environment from the dangers of hazardous waste. In the decades since its inception it has become broadly understood that the unregulated dumping of industrial and military waste has harmful impacts to public health.
The Process of Superfunds
These prohibitions and rules were established concerning closed and abandoned hazardous waste sites
This enables the EPA to hold responsible parties liable for any pollution and subsequent clean-up following the closure of a site sites
The establishing of a Trust Fund allows the EPA to fund neccessary clean-ups when a responsible party cannot be identified
Where?
The global extent of land area impacted by mining and quarrying are estimated to be between 300,000 and 800,000 km.
The Many Lives of a Mining Site
Mining, compared to other land uses, occurs on a relatively limited land area estimated to be 0.3 to 0.6 % of the global ice-free land surface.
Global Mine Database
Since the 1970s, extraction of metals increased by more than 75%, non-metallic industrial minerals by 53% and construction materials by 106%.
40 million
200-250 million
People involved in direct mining People impacted indirectly
Where?
In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has created a list of Superfund sites, characterised as polluted sites requiring a longterm clean up solution.
Superfunds allow the EPA to clean up sites and to compel responsible parties to perform cleanups or reimburse the government for EPA-lead cleanups.
EPA’s goal is to make sure site cleanup is consistent with the likely future use of a site. Consideration of reuse at a site can occur at any point in the Superfund cleanup process.
Abandoned
Where?
Europe currently extracts very little lithium in comparison to the global extracting average. Even so, social conflicts around lithium and its environmental implications can still be found.
The conflicts appear to be focused around the Iberian peninsula, which consists of some of the first active lithium mines in Europe.
Serra d’Arga- Portugal Lithium Mine Community Opposition
Covas do Barroso- Portugal Rural Community fierce opposition towards opening of a lithium mine
The Many Lives of a Mining Site
Environmental Justice in Europe
Documented cases of environmental justice in Continental Europe
138 wins
Documented successful outcomes of existing cases 655 cases
Where?
China currently processes the majority of the world’s lithium. This, combined with China’s lithium extraction industry, have generated issues of environmental justice.
No other documented cases of lithium justice exist in Asia currently, however, if current issues remain unchecked, it can be expected that issues will arise in the future.
Tibetans block a highway in protest of water pollution and death of aquatic life caused by lithium mining.
Lithium Extraction in Tibet leads to water pollution and poisoning of local fish species.
Documented successful outcomes of existing cases
Documented of enviromental
PROJECT TYPE/USES: Reacreational Trail
LOCATION: Leadville, CO
ACTORS INVOLVED: Lake County’s Community Health Program (LCCHP), EPA, Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment (CDPHE), Potentially Responsible Parties (PRP), ASARCO Mining, Federal, State and Local Government.
KEY FEATURES:
Leadville successfully revitalized a polluted Superfund site through comprehensive environmental cleanup and the creation of recreational trails, promoting sustainable tourism for economic revitalization. It focuses specifically on outdoor recreation tourism associated with the cleanup of the Arkansa River.
California Gulch
TOURISM IMPACT (LAKE COUNTY, 2012)
REVENUE: $30.5M
LOCAL TAXES: $800K
JOBS CREATED: 360+
WAGES GENERATED: $8.8M
This transition started with the EPA designating Leadville as a Superfund site in 1983 and continues, prioritizing environmental restoration and outdoor recreational opportunities.
Recreational Development Initiatives 2000s-2010s
Recreational Revitalization 2014 ??? 2023
Cases
PROJECT TYPE/USES: State Park
LOCATION: Missoula County, MO
ACTORS INVOLVED: EPA, Montana Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ), MT NRDP and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks
KEY FEATURES:
The Milltown Reservoir Sediments site is the location of the nation’s largest river cleanup and restoration effort. This site was heavily contaminated by decades of mining and industrial activity, particularly by the Anaconda Copper Mining Company. The Clark Fork River was polluted with toxic substances, impacting the Milltown Reservoir due to the Milltown Dam.
1800s-1900s Industrial Activities Superfund Designation 1983
REMEDIATION
Contaminated Sediment Removal
Dam Dismantling to facilitate natural river flow
Disposal and Monitoring of contaminated sediments for water quality improvement
The Many Lives of a Mining Site
Ecosystem Aquatic and riparian ecosystems focusing on native Land and Vegetation
The land was revegetated and prevent
Milltown Reservoir Sediment
CONTAMINATED SEDIMENT:
6.6 million cubic yards
CLEAN UP COST: $130M
In 1983, the EPA designated it a Superfund site for cleanup, involving sediment removal, Milltown Dam dismantling, and resident relocation. Dam removal in 2008 allowed natural river flow, aiding ecosystem recovery and water quality improvement.
Dam dismantled, restored river flow and aiding recovery 2008-2010
Restoration Activities completed 2011
RESTORATION REDEVELOPMENT
Ecosystem Rehab ecosystems were restored, native species.
Vegetation revegetated to stabilize the soil prevent erosion.
Community Engagement + Recreational Opportunities
Created parks, trails, education stations, fishing access
Economic Growth
Aim for sustainable economic growth through redevelopment and revitalization efforts.
Sources
• American Mine Services American Mine Services. Accessed September 23, 2023. https://americanmineservices.com/highwallsafety/.
• “Bringing Geoscience to Bear on the Problem of Abandoned Mines.” Accessed September 23, 2023. https://www. earthmagazine.org/article/bringing-geoscience-bear-problemabandoned-mines/.
• Cherlet, M., Hutchinson, C., Reynolds, J., Hill, J., Sommer, S., von Maltitz, G. (Eds.), (2018). World Atlas of Desertification, Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
• EJatlas. Savannah’s lithium extraction conflict in Covas do Barroso, Portugal. In: Atlas of Environmental Justice. Accessed October 01, 2023. https://ejatlas.org/conflict/savannahs-lithiumextraction-conflict-in-barroso-portugal
• EJatlas. Protests against mining of lithium by the Lichu River in Kangding, TAP Ganzi, Sichuan, China. In: Atlas of Environmental Justice. Accessed September 30, 2023. https://ejatlas.org/ conflict/a-sudden-mass-death-of-fish-in-the-lichu-river-in-minyaklhagang-dartsedo-county-in-karze-prefecture
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). “Superfund National Priorities List (NPL) Where You Live Map” Last Modified August 31, 2023. https://www.epa.gov/superfund/search-superfundsites-where-you-live#map
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). “Superfund Success Stories” Last Modified February 16, 2023. https://www.epa.gov/ superfund/superfund-success-stories
• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). “What is Superfund?” Last Modified November 1, 2022. https://www.epa.gov/ superfund/what-superfund
The Many Lives of a Mining Site
• Remediation, Restoration and Redevelopment. Accessed September 24, 2023. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/08/1570716.pdf.
• Reuters Reuters. “Peru Proposes New Approach to Mining to Combat Economic Disparities, Conflicts.” Accessed September 24, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/peruproposes-new-approach-mining-combat-economic-disparitiesconflicts-2022-09-30/.
• Safe Drinking Water Foundation. “Mining and water Pollution.” Accessed September 24, 2023. https://www.safewater.org/factsheets-1/2017/1/23/miningandwaterpollution
• Saul, Josh, Mider, Zachary R., and Dave Mistich. “The Coal Is Gone, But the Mess Remains.” Bloomberg. October 17, 2022. https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2022-west-virginia-coal-mining-alpha/ (accessed September 21, 2023)
• Superfund Research Program. “What is Superfund” Accessed October 03, 2023. https://deohs.washington.edu/srp/whatsuperfund
• Taha, Yassine, and Mostafa Benzaazoua. “Editorial for Special Issue ‘towards a Sustainable Management of Mine Wastes: Reprocessing, Reuse, Revalorization, and Repository.’” Minerals 10, no. 1 (2019): 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ min10010021.
• Temper, Leah, Del Bene, Daniela, and Joan Martinez-Alier. Mapping the frontiers and front lines of global environmental justice: the EJAtlas. Journal of Political Ecology 22 255-278. (2015).
Sources
• University of Michigan Taubman College Public Design Corps. “The Great Lakes Way @ Trenton” Last Modified August 18, 2023. https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/2fa966a3830e4c4b8e22dd69e7bea0b4
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - SEMS (Superfund Enterprise Management System) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Integrating the “3 Rs”: Remediation, Restoration and Redevelopment. Accessed September 24, 2023. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/08/1570716.pdf.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - SEMS (Superfund Enterprise Management System) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Recreation and Tourism Reuse and the Benefit to Community. Accessed September 24, 2023. https://semspub. epa.gov/work/08/100000256.pdf.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - Superfund Site Profile U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “CALIFORNIA GULCH LEADVILLE, CO Redevelopment” Accessed September 24, 2023. https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index. cfm?fuseaction=second.redevelop&id=0801478#About.
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - Superfund Site Profile U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. “MILLTOWN RESERVOIR SEDIMENTS MILLTOWN, MT” Accessed September 24, 2023. https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index. cfm?fuseaction=second.Cleanup&id=0800445#bkground.
