An Analysis of the Causes of World War One and Wilson’s Failures at the Peace Talks and the Treaty of Versailles

Dylan R. Courtney

Following the end of World War I, Allied victors met to set peace terms after defeating the Central Powers, and signed a treaty in Versailles, France to officially end the First World War. President Woodrow Wilson

represented America at the peace talks. Wilson wanted to create a League of Nations that would globalize the world and a treaty that would provide lasting peace. Despite there being delegates from many countries who wished to participate, the main countries were “The Big Four” Allied powers: America, Britain, France, and Italy. Wilson failed to convince other members of the Big Four to base the Treaty of Versailles on the Fourteen Points, which was his blueprint for world peace which he laid out in an address to congress on his conditions for peace on January 8, 1918. He was also unable to encourage enough public support in America to join his League of Nations, outlined in his fourteenth point.

In order to understand Wilson’s goals and the state of the world at the time of the peace talks, it is important to examine the events that led to World War I, and the actions of Germany and America during the war. Europe was considered a powder keg that could go off at any time. Countries were strengthening their militaries and imposing an imperialistic rule on smaller nations. Nationalism from

various countries was one of the main causes

of this powder keg. Serbia had a longstanding unstable relationship with Austria-Hungary. The heir to the Austrian-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was visiting Bosnia, a former Serbian province annexed by Austria in 1908, on June 28, 1914. Ferdinand and his wife were murdered by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian member of the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist group. This lit the powder keg in Europe.

Despite Ferdinand not being viewed in good favor by his government, the AustroHungarian Empire took this opportunity to settle their score with Serbia. After waiting three weeks, they issued an unrealistic ultimatum to Serbia. The Serbian government would have to accept an Austro-Hungarian inquiry into the assassination despite its own internal investigation, and would also have to get rid of anti-Austrian propaganda. Finally, the Serbian government would have to take steps to eliminate anti-Austrian terrorist

organizations, such as the Black Hand, within its borders. A reply was expected within two days. On July 28 1914, M.N. Pashitch, the Serbian Prime Minister, received a telegram from Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Count Leopold von Berchtold that Austria-Hungary considered themselves at war with Serbia.

Many of the nations that would become the Allied powers realized that the demands from the ultimatum were unfair and that

Austria-Hungary and their German allies were likely seeking a cause for war. Various foreign secretaries and prime ministers noted their opinions on the ultimatum. Sir Edward Grey, the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, noted in an official statement that the Serbian reply was already extremely humiliating and found Austria-Hungary’s reaction disappointing. Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador to Germany, shared a similar opinion. Henry Morgenthau, the United States Ambassador to Austria, stated that he believed that Germany and AustriaHungary were already planning a war and the assassination was an excuse to start it.

Following this declaration of war, the alliances in Europe proved to be the main cause because it was fought on such a large scale and between so many countries. Serbia requested help from their Russian allies, which mobilized its army and navy on July 31, 1914. The next day, Germany declared war on Russia in response to what was considered a threatening and impulsive action. Days later, Germany also declared war on France as a result of

their Russian alliance and invaded Belgium. Their ally Britain proceeded to declare war on Germany on August 4, 1914. The convoluted European alliances resulted in the outbreak of the war.

Wilson became president when he defeated Theodore Roosevelt in the 1912 United States

Election, nearly two years before the start of World War I. He was the first Democratic

president elected since Grover Cleveland in 1892. This would have a large impact on his American support during the Paris Peace Talks of 1919, as Republicans held a majority in the Senate. At first, Wilson advocated for neutrality on part of the United States. In his address to Congress Wilson encouraged American citizens to be “neutral in fact, as well as name, [and to] be impartial in thought, as well as action” in regard to supporting nations in the war due to their national

heritage or other reasons. The main reason for Wilson’s neutrality was to protect international trading rights.

While the United States had declared

neutrality, Germany realized that it would still have to fight a war on two fronts: France in the west and Russia in the east. Germany had to determine a way to quickly defeat France so it could focus on Russia’s vast supply of

troops. A German Field Marshall and Chief of the Imperial German General Staff named Alfred von Schlieffen developed the Schlieffen Plan. Schlieffen accurately assumed that Russia would take six weeks or longer to effectively mobilize its forces. He, therefore, planned to go on the offensive and focus troops on a quick defeat of France, leaving enough in East Prussia to hold off the early Russian forces during its mobilization. Germany wanted the Dutch to remain neutral for as long as possible and discounted an invasion through southern Switzerland. This is the reason Germany invaded France through Belgium, which brought Britain into the war.

Germany thought this plan would be highly effective and the war would be over by Christmas of 1914. Germany was malicious in its attack on Belgium and the French. Kaiser Wilhelm II, leader of Germany, in a letter to Emperor Franz-Josef, leader of AustriaHungary, stated that “everything must be put to fire and blood [and] throats of men and women, children and the aged must be cut and not a tree nor a house left standing. ” He believed these methods would allow the war to be over within

months, while benevolent methods would draw it on for years. The plan was a close failure due to the difficulties Germany had with resupplying its troops. These ideals were likely the source of later British propaganda that regarded Germany to encourage the United States into the war.

Germany attempted to justify its attacks on Belgium in a letter written to Wilson by the Kaiser. The Kaiser accused the Belgian government of encouraging their civilian population to take part in guerilla warfare using dumdum bullets. These bullets caused terrible wounds and were banned

by international law. He also accused the citizens of attacking hospitals with wounded soldiers. This letter was likely seen as a way for Germany to justify its harsh treatment of Belgium during the invasion.

In 1915, Germany began aerial bombing Britain to weaken the morale of the nation.

At first, British citizens had remained largely unaffected by the war, but now, World War I would be considered a total war with non

combatants being killed. The main targets were industrial cities, army camps, and munitions factories. David Kirkwood, a trade union leader, was in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1916 during a Zeppelin air raid. He described the explosion as terrible, causing the ground to shake.

Germany also attempted to impose a submarine blockage on Great Britain. This was the first of many examples of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany during the course of the war. On February 4, 1915, Chief of Marine Staff Hugo von Pohl declared a naval blockade of Great Britain. It stated

that the waters in areas including Britain and Ireland were to be considered a war zone

and every enemy vessel in the region would be destroyed. Neutral ships entering the war zone could also be damaged according to the conditions of the blockade.

Upon protests from the United States, which had a commercial interest in Great Britain by sea, Kaiser Wilhelm II withdrew the blockade. Wilson still maintained a neutral stance but

warned the German government that the United States government would not tolerate the sinking of neutral ships owned by the United States. This was not supported by German Admiral and Naval Minister Alfred von Tirpitz. Tirpitz viewed the decision to blockade Great Britain as premature ,but believed that, since the decision had already been made, the German government should not back out on it, saying they were “acting on a program of big words and little deeds. ” Unlike Tirpitz, Prince Bernhard von Bulow, a former German Chancellor, fully supported the blockade.

The Allies began attempting to convince the Italian government to enter the war on their side. Italy demanded several territories to be given following the war, including Trent, Southern Tyrol, Istria, Gorizia and, Dalmatia. Following negotiations, a secret treaty called the Treaty of London was passed on April 26, 1915. Territorial gains after the war were established and Italy would be required to commit its resources to help wage war on the Central Powers. Italy officially joined the war on May 22, 1915. This Treaty would be a major topic of discussion during the later Peace Talks.

Following the Treaty of London, Germany continued to participate in unrestricted submarine warfare. On May 7, 1915, the RMS Lusitania, a British passenger ship holding over a hundred Americans, was sunk by a German U-Boat. Wilson responded with various protests to the German government, by pointing out three other incidents of the unrestricted sinking of ships which led to the death of American citizens. He first requested that the German government discontinue unrestricted submarine warfare because it was

difficult to save the innocent people on the ships. Wilson then stated that he believed the acts committed by the German submarines were due to misinterpretation of orders and that the issue could be resolved due to the

“special ties of friendship” between Germany and the United States.

Germany officially responded to the protests in a note written by German Foreign Minister Gottlieb von Jagow on May 28, 1915. He noted that the sinking, especially the deaths that followed, was unfortunate, but he argued that it was necessary. Jagow claimed that the German government had information that the Lusitania was carrying

war munitions to Britain, making it a legitimate target. In response, Wilson warned the German government that despite this, future infringements on American sea rights would be considered deliberately unfriendly.

Despite Wilson’s warning, Germany again continued to commit unrestricted submarine

warfare, resulting in merchant vessels being sunk without warning if its purpose was trading with the Allies. After initially denying blame, the German government admitted to sinking the Sussex, another British passenger ship carrying American citizens, in the English Channel. Wilson issued an ultimatum, stating that the United States would no longer tolerate the continuation of unrestricted warfare. If

Germany would not agree to stop, America would reluctantly sever all diplomatic relationships with Germany. Wilson reiterated these points and informed the United States Congress the following day. Germany agreed that merchant vessels would not be sunk

without proper warning and without saving all possible human lives unless the ship attempted to escape or offer resistance.

During the war, America faced trouble from prominent Mexican leader Pancho Villa who was initiating raids into the United States. It was reported by United States General John J. Pershing that on January 11 1916, Villa launched a raid into the State of Chihuahua, killing nineteen American citizens. Following protests from the United States, Mexico’s President Venustiano Carranza agreed to deal with Villa, but insisted that the United States not interfere.

The United States soon lost patience with Carranza and dispatched troops in pursuit of Villa. The troops successfully defeated large numbers of Villa’s followers, but often came into armed conflict with regular Mexican soldiers. Wilson called upon the National Guard to deal with the situation as the United

States was at threat to go to war with Mexico. Carranza backed down and released American

troops that were captured. He also issued an apology and suggested a conference to prevent future issues.

Likely in an attempt to capitalize on the unstable relations between Mexico and the

United States, German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann sent a telegram to Heinrich von Eckhardt, the German Ambassador to Mexico, offering United States territory to Mexico in exchange for Mexican support in the war:

On the first of February we intend to begin submarine warfare unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to endeavor to keep neutral the United States of America.

If this attempt is not

successful, we propose an alliance on the following basis with Mexico: That we shall

make war together and together make peace. We shall give general financial support, and it is understood that Mexico is

to reconquer the lost territory in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. The details are left to you for settlement. . . .

You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the above in the greatest confidence as soon as it is certain that

there will be an outbreak of war with the United States and

suggest that the President of Mexico, on his own initiative, should communicate with Japan suggesting adherence at once to this plan; at the same time, offer to mediate between Germany and Japan.

Please call to the attention

of the President of Mexico that the employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel England to make peace in a few months. On the first of February we intend to begin submarine warfare unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to endeavor to keep neutral the United States of America. If this attempt is not successful, we propose an alliance on the following basis with Mexico: That we shall make war

together and together make peace. We shall give general financial support, and it is understood that Mexico is to

reconquer the lost territory in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. The details are left to you for settlement. . . .

You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the above in the greatest confidence as soon as it is certain that there will be

an outbreak of war with the United States and suggest that the President of Mexico, on his own initiative, should communicate with Japan suggesting adherence at once to this plan; at the same time, offer to mediate between Germany and Japan.

Please call to the attention

of the President of Mexico

that the employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel England to make peace in a few months.

Zimmerman confirmed the authenticity of the telegram in a speech given on March 29, 1917. He argued that there was nothing wrong with seeking an alliance in the event that the United States decided to open hostilities towards Germany. By confirming the authenticity of the document however, he only increased American anger towards the telegram, many of which had originally been skeptical.

Germany desired to keep the United States neutral when it resumed its unrestricted

submarine warfare. On January 31, 1917, Germany officially notified the United States that it would resume the policy of unrestricted submarine warfare. This policy effectively set a blockade on the Allies that would be applied to both belligerent and neutral ships. As a result, the United States decided to cut off diplomatic ties with Germany and officially declared war on April 6, 1917. Both France and Britain were excited to have the United States enter

the war. French Prime Minister, Alexandre Ribot, extended his gratitude while noting the strong, longstanding ties of friendship between America and France and the bond formed

between the two during the Revolutionary War.

Following the declaration of war, Wilson began preparing the American public for war. In a proclamation calling for American citizens to do their part by rallying national support for the declaration of war against Germany, Wilson noted the importance of the home-front and American contributions

such as buying war bonds, working in munitions factories, and producing extra food. The United States Congress approved conscription on May 18, 1917. Ten days later, Wilson formally implemented the policy and men between the ages of 21 and 30 were required to register for military service. It was predicted that this conscription could have resulted in civil disturbance, but it was received calmly and with approval. Although considered a pacifist, prominent United States trade union leader Samuel Gompers recognized the advantage the war would have on labor and supported the conscription. Gompers was helpful in encouraging domestic support for the war effort after hostilities were declared. William Howard Taft, a former American President, showed enormous support for Wilson and the war. A speech given at Union College created a rallying call for American support regarding the war effort. He noted that, while sacrifices would be made, Germany made a great mistake by forcing the United States to enter the war.

In order to continue to ensure public

support for the war, the United States passed the Espionage Act on June 15, 1917. This act made it a crime for anyone to mail or print information encouraging opposition or disagreement towards the American war effort or to promote its enemies. Eugene V. Debs was actually accused of espionage and sent to prison where he ran for president as a social candidate in 1920.

When the United States entered the war

on the side of the Allied powers in 1917, Russia dropped out. This was primarily due to the Bolshevik Revolution, an overthrow of the Russian government by Vladimir Lenin. Russia officially signed an armistice with Germany on December 16, 1917. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed between Russia and Germany on March 3, 1918. This would outline the terms of the armistice between their

countries.

World War I came to an end on November

11, 1918, when Germany officially signed an armistice agreement. Following the end of the war, Paris was unanimously chosen by the Allies as the location for the peace talks. French president Raymond Poincare officially welcomed delegates from various countries on January 18, 1919.

Georges Clemenceau, the French Prime Minister who would represent France during the negotiations, made his opening address on January 18, 1919. His goals at the peace talks were to weaken Germany as much as possible. This was likely because France incurred the most casualties of the Allies during the war due to its close proximity to Germany. Most of the war was fought on the Western Front to the east of France.

David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister who would represent Britain during the negotiation, also made his opening address on January 18, 1919. He saw Germany as a possible valuable trading partner in the future and therefore did not desire to punish Germany like France.

Wilson, would represent America during the negotiations, had already made his position clear about a year before the peace talks when he stated his Fourteen Points in

a speech to Congress on January 8, 1918. These points, which were supported by Germany, included freedom of the seas, open diplomacy, the reduction of armaments, selfdetermination among the alien peoples of the German and Turkish empires, and, most importantly for Wilson, his fourteenth point:

XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.

Wilson was unable to convince the other

members of the Big Four to form the treaty based on his Fourteen Points. The other

members resented Wilson because he did little

to recognize previous territorial agreements, such as the Treaty of London. They considered Wilson cocky and overconfident. Clemenceau stated that talking to Wilson was like talking to “Jesus Christ.”

Overall, the final treaty, signed at the Palace of Versailles in France on June 28, 1919, did not include most of Wilson’s Fourteen Points.

It instead created harsh punishments towards Germany, such as blame for the war, loss of territory, and military and financial provisions. This harsh treatment of Germany was later one of the main causes of World War II. The

final treaty included Wilson’s main goal at the peace talks, his League of Nations. However, Wilson failed to gain enough support at home from both the Republican dominated Congress and the public for the United States to join it. He created this resentment by not bringing any prominent Republican officials to the Peace Talks. Wilson believed it was the responsibility of the Executive Branch to negotiate the Treaty.

Democratic Wilson was already facing an uphill battle when he returned home to convince the United States to join the League of Nations, as Republicans held a majority in the Congress. His main opposition was Senate Majority Leader Henry Cabot Lodge. Lodge made a speech on August 12, 1919, in which he advocated against American participation in the League because it would unnecessarily involve the United States in further international

affairs. Wilson also lacked support from the Irish-American population who felt he spent too much time advancing his agenda at Versailles and not enough helping the interests of minorities in America, such as the Irish Question.

Wilson spent the last year of his life touring the country advocating for the League of Nations, but the United States never joined due to Senate and public opposition. The League did, however, set the precursor for the United Nations. In the end, Wilson succeeded in attempting to make the world a better place, but he greatly mishandled convincing everyone else that his plans were the best course of action for the world. ■

Dylan Courtney grew up in Weaverville, North Carolina and currently resides in Greenville, North Carolina. He is a senior at East Carolina University pursuing a BS in History Education and a BA in History. His research interests include American involvement in World War I and Spanish exploration of North America during the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. When he graduates, he plans to teach high school social studies. In his free time, he enjoys reading, hiking, and traveling as much as possible.

Endnotes

1

Norman A. Graebner and Edward M. Bennett, The Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian Vision (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 58. 2

Woodrow Wilson, “Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Conditions of Peace” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, January 8, 1918), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65405 (accessed December 4, 2015). 3

Bennet, 5.

4

Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ministerial Council Meeting, Austrian Ultimatum to Serbia (July 23, 1914), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/austrianultimatum.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 5

Leopold von Berchtold to M. N. Pashitch, July 28, 1914, telegram, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/ autrohungariandeclarationofwar_serbia.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 6

Charles F. Horne, Source Records of The Great War, vol. 1 (National Alumni, 1923), 321.

7 Ibid., 297.

8

Alexander Karađorđević to Tsar Nicholas II, July 24, 1914, telegram, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/serbianappealforhelp.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 9

Horne, vol.2, 1.

10

Composition of Congress, by Political Party, 1855–2017, Office of the Clerk of the House of Representatives (New York, NY: Pearson Education, 2012) http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0774721. html (accessed December 4, 2015). 11

Woodrow Wilson, “President Wilson’s Address to Congress on Neutrality” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, August 19, 1914), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usneutrality.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 12

Alfred Count von Schlieffen, “The Schlieffen Plan” (speech, 1905), http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc. org/docpage.cfm?docpage_id=1404 (accessed December 4, 2015). 13

Kaiser Wilhelm II to Emperor Franz-Josef, April, 1914, letter, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/ wilhelm_germanrule.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 14

Ibid.

15

Kaiser Wilhelm II to Woodrow Wilson, September 7, 1914, telegram, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/kaiserdumdumbullets.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 16

17

18

19 David Kirkwood, My Life of Revolt (London: George G Harrap & Co, 1935), 201. Horne, vol.3, 55. Ibid., 56. Ibid., 52.

20 Ibid., 52.

21 Allied Powers, Treaty of London, London, England, April 26, 1915.

22

William Jennings Bryant to German Government, May 13, 1915, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/bryanlusitaniaprotest.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 23

Gottlieb von Jagow to United States Government, May 28, 1915, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/lusitania_germanresponse.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 24

Woodrow Wilson to German Government, July 21, 1915, letter, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/lusitania3rdprotest.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 25

Woodrow Wilson to German Government, April 18, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/uboat1916_usultimatum.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 26

Woodrow Wilson, “Speech to Congress Regarding Unrestricted U-Boat Warfare” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, April 19, 1916), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/uboat1916 uboat1916_ wilsonspeeech.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 27

Gottlieb von Jagow to United States Government, May 4, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/uboat1916_jagowresponse.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 28

Horne, vol.4, 274-280.

29

Venustiano Carranza to United States Government, May 22, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/mexico_carranza.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 30

Robert Lansing to Venustiano Carranza, June 20, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/ mexico_lansing.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 31

Venustiano Carranza to United States Government, June 20, 1916, letter, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/mexico_lansing.htm (accessed December 5, 2015). 32 Arthur Zimmermann to Heinrich von Eckardt, January 19, 1917, telegram, http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/zimmermann.htm (accessed December 6, 2015). 33

Arthur Zimmerman, “The Zimmerman Telegram” (speech, March 29, 1917), http://www. firstworldwar.com/source/zimmermann_speech.htm (accessed December 6, 2015). 34

Count Johann von Bernstorff to Robert Lansing, January 31, 1917, letter http://www.firstworldwar. com/source/uboat_bernstorff.htm, (accessed December 6, 2015). 35

Woodrow Wilson, “Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Declaration of War on Germany” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, April 2, 1917), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index. php?pid=65405 (accessed December 6, 2015). 36

Alexander Ribot, “Address to the French Senate on America’s Entry into the War” (speech, Senate, Paris, France, April, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usawar_ribot.htm (accessed December 4, 2015).

37

Woodrow Wilson, “Do Your Bit for America” (speech, White House, Washington, DC, April 15, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/doyourbit.htm (accessed December 6, 2015). 38

Woodrow Wilson, “Proclamation Establishing Conscription” (speech, White House, Washington, DC, May 28, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/usconscription_wilson.htm (accessed December 6, 2015). 39

Samuel Gompers, “United States Conscription Policy” (speech, May, 1917), http://www. firstworldwar.com/source/usconscription_gompers.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 40

William Howard Taft, “America’s Decision to go to War” (speech, Union College, Schenectady, New York, June 13, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/taftonwar.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 41

U.S. Congress, Espionage Act (Washington, DC, June 15, 1917), http://www.firstworldwar.com/ source/espionageact.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 42

Horne, vol.5, 25.

43

“Armistice Signed, End Of The War!,” New York Times, November 11, 1918, http://www.nytimes. com/learning/general/onthisday/big/1111.html (accessed October 15, 2015). 44

Raymond Poincare, “Raymond Poincare’s Welcoming Address,” speech, peace delegates, Paris, France, January 18,1919, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_poincare.htm (accessed October 15, 2015). 45

Georges Clemenceau, “Georges Clemenceau’s Welcoming Address,” speech, peace delegates, Paris, France, January 18, 1919, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_clemenceau.htm (accessed October 15, 2015). 46

David Lloyd George, “David Lloyd George’s Welcoming Address,” speech, peace delegates, Paris, France, January 18, 1919, http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/parispeaceconf_lloydgeorge.htm (accessed October 15, 2015). 47

Woodrow Wilson, “Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Conditions of Peace” (speech, Congress, Washington, DC, January 8, 1918), http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=65405 (accessed December 4, 2015). 48

Bennett, 40.

49 Allied Powers, Treaty of Versailles, (Versailles, France, 28 June 1919), articles 231–247.

50 Ibid., articles 1-26.

51 Bennet, 37.

52

Henry Cabot Lodge, “Address Woodrow Wilson on the League of Nations” (speech, Washington, DC, August 12, 1919), http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/lodge_leagueofnations.htm (accessed December 4, 2015). 53

John B. Duff, “The Versailles Treaty and the Irish Americans,” The Journal of American History 55, no.3 (1968).

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