LCRG Research Brief | Executive Functioning and Study Skills in Girls by Laurel School

CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON GIRLS

executive functioning A SERIES OF RESEARCH AND INFORMATIONAL PUBLICATIONS BY LCRG

“Putting the world’s best research to work for girls.”

by Tori Cordiano, Ph.D. and Lisa Damour, Ph.D.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING AND STUDY SKILLS IN GIRLS

While there are many ways to define executive functioning, one particularly helpful definition comes from the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. These researchers liken executive functions to an air traffic control center in the brain. They define executive functions as “a group of skills that helps us to focus on multiple streams of information at the same time, monitor errors, make decisions in light of available information, revise plans as necessary, and resist the urge to let frustration lead to hasty actions.” 1 Executive functions are involved in most areas of daily functioning, including learning, emotions and social situations. Not surprisingly, learning and academic achievement are closely tied to executive functioning. Robust working memory capacities, in particular, contribute to both short- 2 and long-term3 success in school. Executive functions play a part in the diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), in that many individuals with ADHD struggle with one or more areas of executive functioning.4 Deficits in executive functioning, especially the ability to consider fresh perspectives, can exacerbate symptoms of anxiety and depression in adolescents.5 Likewise, anxiety and depression can impair aspects of executive functioning, such as regulating one’s emotions.6

executive functioning: EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING AND STUDY SKILLS IN GIRLS

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AT A GLANCE 7 EXECUTIVE FUNCTION

DESCRIPTION

EXAMPLE

INHIBITION

Refraining from acting or speaking when needed

Raising your hand to answer a question, rather than blurting out the response

FLEXIBILITY

Shifting between tasks or activities; generating multiple solutions to problems

Thinking of other ways to get a homework assignment if you forgot to write it in your planner

EMOTION REGULATION

Effectively identifying & managing emotions, like anger, frustration & disappointment

Taking deep breaths and calming oneself during a heated disagreement

INITIATION

Beginning a task, from generating ideas to actually starting the work

Making an outline and starting the writing process of a paper

WORKING MEMORY

Holding and utilizing information in short-term memory

Keeping a teacher’s description of an assignment in mind while writing it in your planner

PLANNING

Making and adhering to a short- or long-term plan

Creating and sticking to a schedule for studying for a final exam

ORGANIZATION

Having effective and reliable systems for managing one’s work and belongings

Having a consistent time and place to complete homework and the right materials on hand

SELF-MONITORING

Recognizing effective study strategies, allocating time strategically and catching one’s own mistakes

Knowing which subjects take you the most time and planning accordingly

Adapted from Cooper-Kahn, J. & Dietzel, L. (2008) Late, lost, and unprepared: A parents’ guide to helping children with executive functioning. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.

HOW (AND HOW NOT) TO STUDY A team of educational researchers recently asked a critical question: What are the most, and least, effective study strategies? Their survey of published studies8 generated the following answers.

STRATEGY

EFFICACY

Taking practice tests, including self-testing

VERY EFFECTIVE

Spreading studying out over time

VERY EFFECTIVE

Mixing up the types of problems - such as addition, subtraction, division - that are studied over time

PROMISING, especially for math and concept learning

Explaining to oneself why a stated fact or concept is true

PROMISING

Explaining problem-solving decisions to oneself, or how new information connects to known information

PROMISING

Re-reading material one has read before

OKAY, but only if spaced over time and still not as good as other options

Highlighting or underlining content

OKAY, but only as a first step

Writing out summaries of the material to be learned

OKAY, but only with good training on how to summarize

Using keywords and mental imagery, such as picturing a dentist pulling a tooth to remember “la dent”

FAIR for studying languages, but results don’t last

Developing mental images for text materials, such as trying to picture the process of photosynthesis

FAIR, but only for image-friendly text

Closely adapted from Dunlosky, J. (2013). Strengthening the student toolbox: Study strategies to boost learning. American Educator, 37(3), 12-21.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING ROADBLOCKS High levels of executive functioning can be hard to maintain. Even with the best of intentions, girls often encounter pitfalls in their executive functioning. Below are some common executive functioning scenarios and corresponding solutions:

SCENARIO: A girl feels rushed and defeated because she put off a long-term project or didn’t start studying until the night before the test.

SOLUTIONS: • Help her get in the habit of using a calendar to plan out work and study periods, taking into account when extracurricular activities or outside events will decrease available time. • Help her recognize the role of anxiety in procrastination.9 Self-defeating thoughts (“I’ll never finish this paper”) often keep girls from getting started. Changing those thoughts to more accurately reflect the situation (“This paper will take some time, but I can break it up and complete it before it is due”) makes it easier for girls to begin large tasks or start studying.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING AND STUDY SKILLS IN GIRLS

SCENARIO: A girl struggles to complete difficult work because she feels physically, emotionally or intellectually burned out.

SOLUTIONS: • Prioritize proper sleep to prevent burnout: • Elementary school students require an average of 11 hours/night • Middle school students require an average of 10 hours/night • Upper school students require an average of 9 hours/night • Provide support when motivation feels low: allow her to vent her frustration, offer to keep her company while she works and brainstorm compelling rewards for finishing the task (e.g., watching a show, checking social media, playing with the dog).

SCENARIO: A girl uses overly complicated organizational systems and ineffective study strategies.

SOLUTIONS: • Help her adopt efficient organizational systems. A calendar, paper or digital, can help girls plan out their week’s work, with extracurricular activities and outside obligations easily visible. • Help her utilize effective study techniques, such as sample testing and spaced practice, rather than relying on time-consuming and ineffective strategies, such as color-coded highlighting and the meticulous recopying of notes.

[endnotes]

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2011). Building the Brain’s “Air Traffic Control” System: How Early Experiences Shape the Development of Executive Function: Working Paper No. 11. http://www.developing child.harvard.edu

Cantin, R.H., Gnaedinger, E.K., Gallaway, K.C., Hesson-McInnis, M.S. & Hund, A.M. (2016). Executive functioning predicts reading, mathematics, and theory of mind during the early elementary years. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 146, 66-78.

Ahmed, S.F., Tang, S., Waters, N.E. & Davis-Kean, P. (2019). Executive function and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations from early childhood to adolescence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 446-458.

Kofler, M.J., Irwin, L.N., Soto, E.F., Groves, N.B., Harmon, S.L. & Sarver, D.E. (2019). Executive functioning heterogeneity in pediatric ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 273-286.

Han, G., Helm, J., Iucha, C., Zahn-Waxler, C., Hastings, P.D. & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2016). Are executive functioning deficits concurrently and predictively associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms in adolescents? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 45, 44-58.

Luciana, M. (2016). Executive function in adolescence: A commentary on regulatory control and depression in adolescents: Findings from neuroimaging and neuropsychological research. Journal of Clinical Child an Adolescent Psychology, 45, 84-89.

Cooper-Kahn, J. & Dietzel, L. (2008). Late, lost, and unprepared: A parents’ guide to helping children with executive functioning. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K.A., Marsh, E.J., Nathan, M.J. & Willingham, D.T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4-58.

Knaus, W.J. (2016). Overcoming procrastination for teens: A CBT guide for college-bound students. Oakland, CA: Instant Help Books.

Dunlosky, J. (2013). Strengthening the student toolbox: Study strategies to boost learning. American Educator, 37, 12-21.

https://www.purdue.edu/asc/resources/pdfs/exams/ASC_Handouts_TheStudyCycle.pdf

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/22/well/family/how-to-help-your-child-study.html

Cooper-Kahn, J. & Dietzel, L. (2008).

executive functioning: EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONING AND STUDY SKILLS IN GIRLS

RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS AND PARENTS Articles and Infographics STRENGTHENING THE STUDENT TOOLBOX: STUDY STRATEGIES TO BOOST LEARNING10 This article, from the American Educator, distills the research on studying into practical, accessible study techniques for use by teachers and families. https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/dunlosky.pdf

THE STUDY CYCLE11 This infographic, adapted by the Purdue University Academic Success Center from Frank Christ’s PLRS study system, outlines a clear, effective system for tackling difficult information. https://www.purdue.edu/asc/resources/pdfs/exams/ASC_Handouts_TheStudyCycle.pdf

HOW TO HELP YOUR CHILD STUDY 12 This article in the New York Times by Brian Platzer and Abby Freireich, the founders of Teachers Who Tutor NYC, provides helpful strategies for addressing the common pitfalls of procrastination, feeling overwhelmed and failing to retain information. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/22/well/family/how-to-help-your-child-study.html

Book LATE, LOST, AND UNPREPARED13 This book explains specific executive functions and provides helpful executive functioning strategies for use in everyday life.

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