Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan (2020)

Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan

Acronyms Listing

CCP Comprehensive Community Planning

EHS Environmental Health Services

EPP Emergency Preparedness & Planning

FNRAEC First Nations Regional Adult Education Center

IAPG Ieiénthos Akotióhkwa Planting Group

IPCC

IWS Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Iontionhnhéhkwen Wilderness Skills

KCCP Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan

KCI Kahnawà:ke Collective Impact

KEC Kahnawà:ke Education Center

KEDC Kahnawà:ke ’s Economic Development Commission (Tewatohnhi’sáktha)

KEPO Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office

KFB Kahnawà:ke Fire Brigade

KMHC Kateri Memorial Hospital Center

KORLCC Kanien’kehá:ka Onkwawén:na Raotitióhkwa and Cultural Center

KPSC Kahnawà:ke Public Safety Commission

KSCS Kahnawà:ke Shakotiia’takehnhas Community Services

KSDPP Kahnawà:ke Schools Diabetes Prevention Project

KSS Kahnawà:ke Survival School

KYC Kahnawà:ke Youth Center

Acknowledgements

The primary authors of the Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan (KCCP) are Jody Diabo (Climate Change Technician) and Kailey Nicholas (Project Support Technician) with contributions from other staff at the Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office including Kaylia Marquis, Lynn Jacobs, Patrick Ragaz, Kenneth Canadian, Cole Delisle, and Julie Delisle.

Executive Summary

As Onkwehón:we (Indigenous people), we understand that people and nature are one and that we can only be healthy if we ensure the health of the environment. Through climate change mitigation and adaptation planning, the Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office (KEPO) is actively seeking to protect the health of our community and our diverse ecosystems from the impacts of climate change with the development of the Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan (KCCP). One of the main components of this plan is a list of recommended measures and actions that the local organizations, businesses, and community members can take to both mitigate Kahnawà:ke’s contribution to climate change and enhance our adaptive capacity to its impacts.

Some of the anticipated climate hazards for our region include higher average temperatures and more heat waves, droughts, destructive storms, heavy rainfall, and river floods. Without action, these risks can threaten the health of Kahnawa’kehró:non, the integrity of our ecosystem and the ability to preserve and pass on our traditional ways of life

KEPO sought the input of local youth, elders, and stakeholders to provide guidance on the development of the KCCP and to ensure that the plan encompassed the views of Kahnawa’kehró:non regarding climate change and its impacts on the community. The people of Kahnawà:ke recognize that climate change is here and happening now and expressed wanting to take action. Kahnawa’kehró:non would like to see more workshops on sustainable living as well as traditional Onkwehón:we life skills. This document contains climate change mitigation and adaptation actions that individuals, organizations, and businesses in the community can take such as retrofitting buildings, planting native vegetation, and learning emergency survival skills.

Climate change is an issue that will affect us all, and the only way that Kahnawà:ke can successfully mitigate climate change and increase our resilience to its effects is through the collective action of the entire community. Underlying this plan is the understanding of our original instructions, whereby we have a responsibility as Onkwehón:we and as members of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy to give thanks, respect the environment and ensure that the cycles of life continue. Climate action whether in the form of mitigation or adaptation, directly aligns with our original instructions.

Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan

Introduction

Climate change is a global problem felt on local scales that will continue to affect us for decades to come, impacting many aspects of life – science, health, culture, economics, society, and politics. Climate change also worsens existing issues, such as the current mass loss in global biodiversity. Studies show that Earth is experiencing a significantly large episode of species declines and extirpations, which will have many negative cascading consequences on ecosystem functioning and services that are vital to sustaining civilization (Ceballos, Ehrlich, and Dirzo, 2017).

As Kanien’kehá:ka, we have a responsibility to ensure that the cycles of life continue, despite these challenges. Therefore, the Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office (KEPO) developed the Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan (KCCP) to mobilize the community to both reduce our contribution to climate change and improve the adaptive capacity of Kahnawà:ke to its effects. The plan contains recommended mitigation and adaptation actions that individuals and the community as a whole can take to actively participate in climate action.

Community Profile

Kahnawà:ke was named in 1716 when the community settled along the St. Lawrence river (Jacobs, 2013). It is one of the eight communities in Quebec, Ontario and New York State that make up the Kanien’kehá:ka nation. Kahnawà:ke has a population of approximately 7,945 people on reserve and 3,196 off reserve (Lahache, 2020a; 2020b).

Figure 1. Welcome sign of Kahnawà:ke (Berwick, 2014/Instagram @scerwick).

Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan

The Kahnawà:ke territory encompasses an area of 50 km2 , located on the south shore of the St. Lawrence River, about 10km southwest of the island of Montréal (45° 25’ N, 73° 41’ W) (fig.2). It is home to a large variety of wildlife and is characterized by a high diversity of ecosystems (Appendix 1), such as mature forests, natural shorelines, and wetlands; the latter comprising up to 20% of the territory (fig. 3 and 5) (KEPO, n.d.a; AECOM, 2018).

Figure 2. The Kahnawà:ke territory, bordered by the St. Lawrence river to the north (KEPO).

Figure 3. A) The Turtle Bay ecosystem of Kahnawà:ke (KEPO/Facebook, 2019)

Figure 4. B) The North Wall ecosystem of Kahnawà:ke (KEPO/Facebook, 2019).

Changes to the Community

Kahnawà:ke’s land has been gradually diminished through various land expropriations, including those associated with the construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway, bridges, railways, highways and hydroelectric power lines. These impositions have had long-lasting socio-cultural and ecological impacts on the community.

The people of Kahnawà:ke were once reliant on the St. Lawrence river for sustenance, and many Kahnawa’kehró:non were skilled fishermen and navigators of the waters. In 1955, the creation of the St. Lawrence Seaway led to the permanent separation of Kahnawa’kehró:non from the natural river shore (fig. 5). As a result, the community lost access to traditional gathering places and fishing spots, as well affecting the important cultural connection to the water. A 1997 study revealed that many Kahnawa’kehró:non viewed fishing as an activity of the past, in addition to expressing concerns over the safety of consuming fish from the river due to the potential for contamination (Chan et al. 1999). The artificial shorelines created by the Seaway have also destroyed important habitats for many wildlife species.

Figure 5. Aerial view of the Kahnawà:ke shoreline prior to the construction of the Seaway, 1932-1934

The construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway also included the creation of an artificial island, known today as Kateri Tekakwitha Island. This island was created by piling material excavated from the Seaway trench atop several small, existing islands, creating a rocky and inhospitable ecosystem (fig.6). The bay adjacent to the island became the only convenient access to the river for the community, resulting in the establishment of a canoe club (the Onake Paddling Club) and locals being able to maintain some of the traditional activities on the water. After a few decades, changes started to become apparent in the bay due to the artificial flow conditions created. Low flows led to an accumulation of nutrient-laden sediment from an upriver agricultural watershed, reducing overall water depth and causing the prolific growth of aquatic plants. This virtually eliminated swimming opportunities in the bay and prevented paddling and boating in the summer months (KEPO, n.d.b).

The people of Kahnawà:ke were also once reliant on hunting and agricultural practices for sustenance. In recent decades, the urbanization and industrialization of neighboring municipalities has impacted our ways of life in that most people rely entirely on supermarkets for food. There are large areas in the community that were once used for agriculture, but due to land use changes and partitioning, have become forested areas. Today, there are few farms in the community, as population growth has increased land demand for single home construction and small businesses. The remaining land is either taken up by golf courses, unusable due to contamination from unauthorized dumping, or belongs to private landowners. There is an increasing interest in revitalizing the agricultural scene of Kahnawà:ke in the form

Figure 6 Map from 1871, what Kahnawà:ke once looked like before the construction of the Seaway

of community gardens, home gardening, beekeeping and animal husbandry. Various events have been organized throughout the years including corn festivals, the Three Sisters Health and Harvest Fair, and a Farmers’ market, all of which promote food self-sustainability with an exhibition of organic gardening, preserving and canning.

The continued urbanization of the community and the land use changes has made carrying out traditional activities more difficult in Kahnawà:ke. The constant passing of ships, trains, planes, and cars has led many Kahnawa’kehró:non to carry out traditional activities such as hunting, fishing, and gathering medicine and foods at our territory (Tioweró:ton) north of Montréal (Delormier et al. 2018).

Guiding Principles

To understand the context of climate change in Kahnawà:ke (a Mohawk community), it is important to first understand the worldview, original instructions and philosophy of its people. The Creation Story, the formation of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, the Great Law of Peace, the Thanksgiving Address, and the Seventh Generation Principle all inform the values of Kahnawa’kehró:non and how we approach climate change mitigation and adaptation.

The Mohawk are one of the six nations of the Iroquois Confederacy or Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse), symbolized by the Hiawatha wampum belt (fig 7) The other Haudenosaunee nations are Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora (fig 8).

Figure 7. The Hiawatha wampum belt; a visual record of the creation of the Confederacy. Tuscarora are not depicted in the symbol, as they joined the confederacy after the belt was created (Hamell, n.d.).

Creation Story

As with most cosmologies, our Creation Story is a source of identity for Kanien’kehá:ka, providing insight to our beliefs, history, and relationships (Kimmerer, 2013). Traditionally told orally, it recounts the journey of the first inhabitant on Earth Sky Woman who fell from the skyworld (spirit world) and was placed on the back of the great sea turtle by sea fowl. Under the instructions of the Creator (Shonkwaia’tison), Skywoman began to make Earth more habitable by expanding the land mass and planting seeds, offering gratitude to the other creatures for their help in forming what we know today as Turtle Island (Kirmayer, 2012).

The Creation story also tells the origin of the Three Sisters corn, beans, and squash the basis of Onkwehón:we agriculture. It is said that these plants grew from the body of Skywoman's daughter after she died during childbirth. From the mound where her body lay grew corn from her breasts, squash from her navel, and beans and tobacco from her feet. It is said that from this moment on, we began to refer to the Earth as “Mother” (Delormier et al. 2018).

The Three Sisters are traditionally grown together, a method known as “companion planting". Corn is strategically grown first, providing vertical support for the beans to climb in order to access more sunlight and pollinators. In turn, the microbiota living within the roots of the bean plant provide nitrogen to the corn. Lastly, the broad leaves of the squash provide shade to the underlying soil to ensure sufficient

Figure 8. The Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy (Nonenmacher, 2004).

moisture levels and inhibit the growth of weeds, while the rough prickly edges keep pests at bay When eaten together, these three crops provide a rich source of carbohydrates, proteins, fiber, and vitamins, ensuring the survival of our people for generations (Erney, 1996). They are thus referred to as Tionhnhéhkwen or “life sustainers” (Delormier et al. 2018). The Three Sisters are more than just a source of food; they have a deep sociocultural significance in that they provide a physical manifestation of how Indigenous communities should function in a reciprocal manner.

“The way of the Three Sisters reminds me of one of the basic teachings of our people. The most important thing each of us can know is our unique gift and how to use it in the world. Individuality is cherished and nurtured, because in order for the whole to flourish, each of us has to be strong in who we are and carry our gifts with conviction, so they can be shared with others”.

(Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass, 2013)

Kaianere’kó:wa - The Great Law of Peace

According to oral tradition, there was a time in Onkwehón:we history thousands of years ago when conflicts arose between the nations. The original five nations were united to form the Confederacy through the Kaianere’kó:wa (Great Law of Peace), upheld by a woman named Jigonsaseh and a man known as the Peacemaker. The foundational principles of the Kaianerekó:wa are of skén:nen, ka'shatsténhsera, and karihwí:io (peace, power, and a good mind) (Delormier et al. 2018). This constitution forms the basis of the Onkwehón:we worldview, providing us with a framework on how to form relationships with one another and with the natural world, as well as guiding us on how we should live our lives socially, ceremonially, politically, and spiritually (Kirmayer, 2012; Jacobs, 2003).

Ohénton

Karihwatéhkwen

- Thanksgiving Address

Another defining aspect of Onkwehón:we culture is the recital of the Ohénton Karihwatéhkwen (Thanksgiving Address). Also known as “The Words That Come Before All Else”, this address is traditionally spoken at the opening and closing of gatherings, as well as by individuals on a daily basis, to send greetings and thanks to all members of the natural world. Although the actual wording of the address varies with the speaker and the context, it follows an order in which we can offer gratitude for all of creation. By doing so, a spiritual communication of thankfulness and acknowledgement of all living things is made to align the minds and hearts of the people with the natural world. It showcases the intricate interconnectedness of everything on and surrounding Mother Earth and our interdependence with the natural world. In the

context of climate change, the Ohénton Karihwatéhkwen reminds us of our responsibilities as human beings to ensure that the cycles of life continue under the threat of a rapidly changing world.

“From this prayer we gather that our original purpose and agreement is to be in sync with Mother Earth. We are meant to appreciate and respect all of life, knowing our part is within the circle, not above creation. This practice can be implemented every day, and especially today.”

(Benedict, n.d)

Seventh Generation Principle

The concept of responsibility is an especially important source of guidance for Onkwehón:we nations regarding decision-making processes. The Seventh Generation principle is one of our traditional philosophies, reminding us to consider how the decisions we make today should result in a sustainable world seven generations into the future (Bob, 2012) Today, decisions being made about energy, water, and natural resources (ICTINC, 2012) have a vital role in conversations about climate change.

The Longhouse System

Within the traditional Longhouse system, each of the six nations of the Confederacy are comprised of family groups called clans, represented by different animals. As a matrilineal society, clans were passed down from mother to child. Each clan is led by a Clan mother who is responsible for selecting chiefs to represent their nation. In the past, these leaders were usually the oldest woman of the clan, while today they are chosen for their cultural wisdom and dedication to the community (Haudenosaunee Confederacy, 2020). Before European contact, the members of a Clan lived together in one house called a longhouse, which created a strong family unit (Kirmayer, 2012). Today, “longhouses” are used as gathering spaces for ceremonies and events.

The revered status of women in Onkwehón:we society stems from the recognition that all life comes through women, and their roles are analogous to Earth as mothers and nurturers Onkwehón:we women selected the leadership, sanctioned land use, and had veto power over warfare. They also acted as diplomats; facilitating relationships with other nations and conducting trade, in addition to being interpreters and guides (Delormier et al. 2018).

Kahswéntha - Two Row Wampum

Upon the arrival of Europeans to Turtle Island, agreements were made to encourage co-existence between the nations. The Kahswéntha (Two Row Wampum) is a belt that represents a treaty with the Europeans, originally made between the Kanien’kehá:ka and the Dutch in the 1600s to establish peace and respect for one another's way of life. Kahswéntha has a white wampum bead background, which represents a river. Travelling in the river are the vessels of the two nations, represented by parallel rows of purple wampum beads that span the length of the belt (fig. 9).

Each vessel contains the laws, traditions, languages and spiritual beliefs, and the responsibility of the people in each vessel to steer a straight course so as not to interfere with the other.

Unfortunately, the Kahswéntha treaty has not been respected by the settlers and their descendants. For Kahnawà:ke, some of the many violations of the treaty include the imposition of the Indian Act, the suppression of spirituality through forced Christianity, the loss of traditional lands, and the construction of industrial projects within and around the community (Jacobs, 2003).

Modern Governance

Today, Kahnawà:ke uses a combination of the elected and traditional forms of government; the Mohawk Council of Kahnawà:ke (MCK) and traditional bodies (the Mohawk Trail Longhouse and the Longhouse on 207). The longhouses draw upon the teachings of the Great Law of Peace, with varying interpretations and expressions of the teachings.

Figure 9. The Two Row Wampum belt (Onondaga Nation, 2018).

Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan

The management of lands in Kahnawà:ke has always been a major source of tension within the community. The land was formerly used and cared for in a communal manner, however since the imposition of government surveys in 1882, the land has since been divided into privately owned lots, with certificates of possession given to eligible community members who purchase or apply for them (Jacobs, 2003)

Kahnawà:ke has been subjected to a variety of external and internal pressures that have hindered our ability to preserve our health, environment, economy, and culture. Climate change is proving to be another threat to the community that will continue to affect us for generations. The Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office (KEPO) is committed to addressing climate change Through the development of the Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan (KCCP) we will work to reduce our contribution to climate change and improve our resilience to its effects in alignment with Onkwehón:we values.

Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan

Terminology

It is important to understand some key terms used in this plan. “Weather” refers to atmospheric conditions that occur locally over short periods of time from minutes to hours or days. For example, rain, snow, clouds, winds, floods or thunderstorms. This is different from “climate”, which refers to the longterm regional or global average of temperature, humidity and rainfall patterns over seasons, years or decades (May, 2017; NASA, 2020; USGS, n.d).

Global warming and climate change are often used interchangeably, leading to confusion and misconceptions about the implications of climate change. “Global warming” is defined as the long-term warming of the planet, made possible because of the existence of the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a mechanism by which gases in Earth's atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and water vapour, trap the Sun's heat. This process is not inherently damaging, in fact it is one of the things that makes Earth a habitable planet. However, certain processes can enhance this effect by increasing the concentration of heat trapping gases, known as “greenhouse gases” (GHG), into the atmosphere (fig. 10).

“Climate change” refers to the long-term change in the average weather patterns that define Earth’s local, regional and global climates. Climate change encompasses global warming but refers to the broader range of changes that are happening to the planet (NASA, 2020). Such changes include shifts in flower/plant blooming times, crop loss, population movements, invasive species, flooding, reduced air quality and changes to infectious diseases (Butler and Harley, 2010; NOAA, 2019).

Climate change has occurred naturally throughout history, with seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat taking place within the past 650,000 years (NASA, 2020). Simply put, climate change occurs when the total amount of energy in Earth’s atmosphere changes. Though climate change is a natural occurrence, human activities have caused rapid and unsustainable changes not previously experienced in Earth’s history. Wildlife do not have a chance to adapt to changes that occur over decades versus those occurring over centuries or millennia.

There are many natural and human factors (also called drivers) that influence the climate (fig. 11). Natural climate drivers include changes in the sun’s energy output, changes in Earth’s orbital cycle, and large volcanic eruptions that emit light-reflecting particles into the atmosphere. Human-caused, or anthropogenic climate drivers include GHG emissions, exhaust emissions, and changes in land use.

Deforestation as a result of urbanization is one example of land use change, leading to a lack of vegetation available to absorb carbon dioxide from the environment (NOAA, n.d.; UCSUSA, 2017; EPA, 2017).

Anthropogenic

Solar output

Orbital shifts

Volcanic emissions

GHG emissions

Exhaust emissions

Deforestation

Figure 10. A schematic diagram of the greenhouse effect (Elder, 2019)

Figure 11. Examples of climate drivers (KEPO).

Most of the changes to Earth’s climate throughout history have been caused by small variations in Earth’s orbit that change the amount of solar energy our planet receives (NASA, 2020). The climate change we have been experiencing in recent decades, however, is almost entirely the result of human activity and is occurring at a rate that is too fast for organisms to adapt to. Documented global temperatures have been rising since the onset of the Industrial Revolution (1760), characterized by the mass combustion of fossil fuels for energy, resulting in the release of GHG’s into the atmosphere (fig. 12) (NASA, 2020). In 2018, the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported that human-induced global warming reached approximately 1°C above pre-industrial levels in 2017, increasing at 0.2°C per decade (Allen et al., 2018). A rise in global temperature, even by 1°C, can have major effects across the globe, such as warming oceans, shrinking ice sheets, glacial retreat, decreased snow cover, sea level rise, declining arctic sea ice, extreme weather events, and ocean acidification (NASA, 2020).

Figure 12. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere as a function of time (NASA, 2020).

Background

Guided by a respectful relationship with the natural world and upholding our traditional responsibilities to ensure the cycles of life continue, Kahnawà:ke has a long history of championing community projects centered on health and wellness. Kahnawà:ke has accessed funding to implement these projects which complement and build upon past efforts. This is because as Onkwehón:we, we recognize the interconnectedness of the world around us, in that what benefits the individual elements, benefits the whole. Physical health, mental health, the culture, the language, the economy, the environment; we recognize that all of these have direct impacts on each other. As a community, we strive to move in the same direction in terms of food security, health and wellbeing, traditional responsibilities, and family time.

The Kahnawà:ke Schools Diabetes Prevention Project (KSDPP) is one example of an organization that works towards improving the health of Kahnawà:ke families. Established in 1994, their mission is to design and implement intervention activities for schools, families and the community to prevent type 2 diabetes (KSDPP n.d.). Since their mandate focuses on the health of the community, they have participated in projects involving climate change, the environment and how it impacts our health. Through funds granted from the Climate Change and Health Adaptation Program South for First Nations South of 60°N, KSDPP was able to implement the Kahnawà:ke Climate Change & Health Adaptation Program in 20182019. This included hosting a Climate Change & the Environment Community Consultation where they raised awareness about how the community may be affected by climate change and how the community can engage in more mindful stewardship of the environment, and create a more comprehensive plan for how Kahnawà:ke will navigate our new environmental reality (McComber, 2020).

KEPO (est. 1987), has also led many projects within the community that work to create a healthier environment for the community, which by extension, supports healthy people. For example, KEPO has

“Humankind has not woven the web of life. We are but one thread within it. Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves. All things are bound together. All things connect.”

(Chief Seattle)

been hosting an annual tree giveaway for over 20 years, providing community members with indigenous trees to plant on their property, in an effort to naturalize and restore the environment. In the past, a variety of food bearing trees were also offered to community members. In 2013, KEPO implemented the Shoreline Naturalization Project (SNP), which saw 100 trees and shrubs planted at various points along the Kahnawà:ke bike path that meanders along the shoreline starting at the Onake Paddling Club (Norton, 2013a) In 2017, a Shoreline Vulnerability Assessment was conducted to determine how susceptible the natural shoreline areas in the community are to flooding and erosion, and to map the 1:100-year flood line. KEPO also mapped and characterized our wetland habitats, carried out multiple species at risk inventories throughout the years, monitors surface water and groundwater, manages and controls invasive species and their associated impacts, and restores degraded habitats

The most recent project undertaken by KEPO is the Tekakwitha Island and Bay Restoration Project, which seeks to improve the water flow in the bay, create and diversify habitats for wildlife, naturalize the shoreline to improve the landscape for wildlife and community members, and protect and enhance the existing natural wetlands (KEPO, n.d.b). KEPO is also very involved in educating the community on the various projects taking place within the community (see Box 1).

Some other projects that KEPO has undertaken in the past include measures to reduce carbon footprint in the community such as the Kanata Housing project in 2000, an MCK bike share program, waste reduction at MCK events, composting workshops, carpooling contests, and seed exchange programs. These projects play an important role in fulfilling our duties to protect, preserve, and honour all living things. Similarly, climate change cannot be left to future generations to deal with and it is our responsibility to address this issue now to protect our community and ensure the cycles of life continue. It is for this reason that KEPO developed the Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Project, funded through the Climate Change and Health Adaptation Program for First Nations South of 60°N.

One major objective of the Climate Change project was to develop the Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan (KCCP) to enhance the resiliency of the community with respect to the impacts of climate change and to protect the health of current and future generations Change in world climate would influence the functioning of many ecosystems and their species and world-wide depletion of various other natural resources (e.g. soil fertility, aquifers, ocean fisheries, and biodiversity in general). Beyond the early recognition that such changes would affect economic activities, infrastructure and managed ecosystems, there is now recognition that global climate change poses risks to human health. (WHO, 2020). In response

to these risks KEPO has developed the Climate Change project where we were able to organize a community-wide tree planting event and tree giveaway to mobilize Kahnawa’kehró:non in climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. We also developed this plan to capture the shared goals of Kahnawa’kehró:non by consulting with organizations, and community members, notably youth and elders.

The KCCP was built on the past work of KEPO and other organisations in the community, which provided a foundation from which to explore the topic of climate change mitigation and adaptation within the community. This plan investigates the impacts of climate change in the community to a greater degree and elaborates on the variety of steps that individuals and organizations in the community can take.

Box 1. Outreach and Environmental Education

Outreach and environmental education are crucial to the work of the Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office (KEPO). KEPO offers environmental education lessons, resources and activities at various levels in the community to ensure that all Kahnawa’kehró:non have access to information about our unique environmental challenges and opportunities. Our goal is to raise awareness about environmental issues, including climate change impacts, in order to influence others to create positive change, garner support for KEPO’s projects and inspire the next seven generations to take action.

It is important that from a young age, our youth are provided with hands-on learning about our natural world. We work with the Kahnawà:ke Education Center (KEC) and various youth groups to provide in class lessons, outdoor activities and teacher curriculums to ensure that the environmental education being taught is relevant to the environmental reality in Kahnawà:ke. Our focus at the elementary and secondary level has been to create an awareness of human impact on the environment, the importance of biodiversity and encouraging citizen science initiatives. A major goal of environmental education at this level is to encourage hands-on learning outside of the classroom while encouraging discussion. Exploring and experiencing the environment creates an awareness of the natural world and the changes that have occurred over time.

KEPO has also been encouraging Kahnawa’kehró:non to pursue studies or training in the environmental stream of the science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) disciplines. First Nations students are underrepresented in STEM fields, while at the same time traditional indigenous knowledge has been increasingly recognized in the scientific field. Our goal is to engage students in STEM disciplines while still incorporating indigenous knowledge, with the hope that students pursue higher education in these fields and become future leaders in the environmental field.

Education of adults and leadership is also crucial to effect immediate changes and influence decisionmaking. This is especially important for decisions regarding development and land use and to reduce the environmental footprint of organizations and businesses in the community.

KEPO offers environmental knowledge based on community requests or current projects and develops resources to share via social media, local media or community events. Our goal is to constantly be reaching community members at all levels and avenues of communication. It is through this education that our community will be reminded of our collective responsibility to Mother Earth and continue to learn about ways in which to protect and enhance our environment and build resiliency in the face of climate change.

Rationale

Climate action, whether in the form of mitigation or adaptation, is a way Kahnawa’kehró:non can fulfill our responsibilities as outlined in the various guiding principles of the Haudenosaunee people. It is in the teachings of the Ohénton Karihwatéhkwen that we must respect, love, conserve, and protect the people, the fish, the plants, the waters, the medicines, the animals, the trees, and the birds, especially in these challenging times. We are currently in the midst of a global biodiversity crisis, with species going extinct at an alarming rate and millions of others at risk. This is attributed to human activities such as deforestation, hunting, and overfishing in addition to the spread of invasive species and diseases from human trade, as well as pollution and human-caused climate change (Greshko, 2019). Climate action also works in accordance with the seventh-generation principle by promoting more economically and environmentally sustainable practices to ensure the healthy development of our people, the land, and the wildlife for generations to come.

Although there are numerous climate change plans available online and in print, mitigation and adaptation planning is most effective at the community scale. Exposure to climate hazards, vulnerability, adaptive capacity and risk is place-based, and many of the impacts anticipated from climate change will affect the services, infrastructure, and health of the community for which local governments and organizations have the primary responsibility. Therefore, Kahnawà:ke requires its own climate change plan to reflect our unique conditions and society.

For one, Kahnawà:ke is an Indigenous community, therefore we must consider the impacts of climate change on our culture. It is also worth noting that as an indigenous community, we play a critical role in stewarding and safeguarding the world’s lands and waters. The IPCC reported that strengthening the rights of Indigenous peoples regarding land ownership is a necessary component of solving the climate crisis (2018), especially since 80% of the world’s cultural and biological diversity is held within the territories of Indigenous Peoples.

Second, we have a unique physical environment composed of mostly natural landscapes surrounded by urbanized neighboring municipalities. Within the natural lands, there is a high diversity of ecosystems and a wide range of wildlife species. Our community is also located along a major waterway system (the St. Lawrence River) and is crisscrossed with a variety of industrial infrastructure (e.g. the Mercier bridge, the St. Lawrence Seaway, railway corridors, hydro corridors).

Thirdly, the health profile of Kahnawà:ke is also unique. For example, 12% of adults aged 45-64 years old have Type 2 diabetes (twice the rate of the general population of the same age), which makes them especially vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Lastly, Kahnawà:ke is governed by the elected band council system as well as the traditional Longhouse system, an organizational structure that is significantly different from neighboring, nonIndigenous municipalities. These characteristics, among others, warrant a climate change plan tailored to our conditions.

The KCCP emphasizes adaptation efforts because scientific evidence indicates that regardless of how successful mitigation efforts are, the impacts of climate change will be felt for a long time, possibly for the next century (NRC, 2011). Nevertheless, mitigation efforts at all levels are also covered in this plan since action at all levels is critically important to reduce our collective contributions to this global crisis. Without action, the risks imposed by climate change threaten the health of Kahnawa’kehró:non and our ability to address our goals as a community, such as those related to cultural revitalization, environmental protection, and economic prosperity.

Goals and Benefits

The main objective of the KCCP is to increase the resilience of our community (health, culture, ecosystems, infrastructure, economy, programs, and services) to anticipated local climate change impacts. To do so, there are a variety of goals that KEPO seeks to accomplish. These goals are to:

• Increase awareness of climate change and associated impacts and risks.

• Increase awareness of the relevance of climate change to Kahnawa’kehró:non and the need for action

• Inspire and mobilize the community to reduce our contributions to climate change and act for the benefit of future generations

• Develop and highlight opportunities for cooperation and collaboration between stakeholders through the development of networks and partnerships.

• Document the climate related changes locals have observed within the community.

The benefits of the creation of the KCCP include:

• Building on new opportunities for awareness raising, capacity building, tools, policy, learning, and innovation.

• Reducing projected long-term impacts and costs of responding to climate hazards.

• Building the capacity and experience to support other Indigenous communities to develop and implement their own climate change plans.

Methodology

The planning process for the development of the KCCP was inspired by the process outlined in the Climate Change Adaptation Planning: A Handbook for Small Canadian Communities produced by Natural Resources Canada (2011). Below is a schematic diagram which shows the components of each step (fig. 13). A full timeline of the events can be found in Appendix 3.

Anticipated

changes

Host

Community Engagement

Content analysis Surveys Interviews

Preparation of Recommendations

Getting Started

To start, a communication plan was created which included creating outreach material for social media and local media and organizing information sessions with the public. To raise public awareness for both climate change and the KCCP, promotion was done through various media and informational booths, for example: local K103.7 FM radio station on the Tetewathá:ren Party Line Talk show, the 2019 Christmas

Figure 13. Sequence of events for developing the KCCP (KEPO).

Craft Fair, the 2019 Corn Festival, in the local newspapers (Iorì:wase & The Eastern Door), and though various flyers. Most notably, the project was promoted through the organization of a community-wide tree planting event. The tree planting event served to:

1. Announce the development of the Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan (KCCP).

2. Mobilize the community to participate in climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts

3. Encourage healthy, outdoor family activity, and build a volunteer database for future projects.

4. Share planting techniques with the community.

5. Offset the effects of the Emerald Ash Borer infestation by replacing some of our community’s dead and dying ash trees.

Research

KEPO accessed Indigenous knowledge on the climatic conditions of Kahnawà:ke by conducting interviews with local elders on the changes they have observed in the community within the past few decades, and to obtain guidance on what the community should be doing to combat and adapt to climate change. KEPO determined how the observed effects may be exacerbated in the future by reviewing scientific literature specific to the region, such as the Québec Climate Change Action Plan (2012) and the Climate Change Adaptation Plan for Montréal (2014a). KEPO then explored the implications of those changes to the community. Lastly, a document review of the local Eastern Door newspaper was conducted to find records of climate-related events that had occurred in the community since 2010.

KEPO researched how Kahnawà:ke is vulnerable to the potential effects of climate change using data from the Centre for Indigenous Environmental Resources (CIER) to outline what major areas of risk are of concern to our community. The strengths of the community in the face of climate change were then identified through an examination of existing data on the environmental conditions of the territory and by analyzing existing services and programs offered within Kahnawà:ke. Additional input was obtained by reviewing the KSDPP Community Consultation Report (McComber, 2020) which contains the strengths of the community identified by Kahnawa’kehró:non in the context of climate change.

A fact sheet and presentation were created to be delivered to community members to raise awareness and obtain feedback, which will help to inform future plans and projects.

Key stakeholders that could provide insight into the development of the KCCP were also identified by reviewing a list of community grassroots groups, organizations, and units within the MCK

Community Engagement

Elders, youth, and other key stakeholders were engaged to ensure that the KCCP reflected the needs and values of Kahnawa’kehró:non. Several information sessions were presented within the community to discuss:

• Climate change

• Expected climate-related changes coming to Kahnawà:ke

• The vulnerabilities of the community to climate change

• The implications of climate change to our culture, health, and environment

• The Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan

• Individual climate change mitigation efforts

• Resources for further information

Some of the public information sessions featured a demonstration of the Enhanced Maritime Situational Awareness (EMSA) system. This web-based geographic information system has been used at KEPO for a variety of functions, and the community was shown how it can be used in climate change mitigation and adaptation planning. Some of the applications include mapping high risk flood zones in the community, monitoring weather, recording reforestation efforts, and tracking the spread of invasive species.

Following these presentations, participants were encouraged to discuss and provide input on the KCCP Participants were also asked to fill out a survey (Appendix 5) Elders and other key stakeholders were interviewed individually or in small groups

Content Analysis

All data obtained through community engagement efforts were subjected to a content analysis This consisted of coding the answers to the surveys and transcribed texts from interviews and discussions into categories for qualitative analysis to generate themes that encompassed the views of Kahnawa’kehró:non regarding climate change and its impacts on the community.

Preparation of Recommendations

KEPO researched suggested adaptation actions for local governments and communities, such as the CIER report on Climate Risks and Adaptive Capacity in Aboriginal Communities (2009) and the IPCC report on Adaptation Opportunities, Constraints, and Limits in: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. KEPO also researched what other municipalities and communities are doing to prepare for climate change, such as the Climate Change Adaptation Plan for the Montréal Urban Agglomeration 2015-2020; Adaptation Measures (2014), the Climate Change Adaptation Plan for Akwesasne (2013), and the Blackfeet Nation Climate Change Adaptation Plan (2018).

KEPO then reviewed the results of the Content Analysis from community engagement efforts and the KSDPP and KCI reports to guide the determination of priorities for adaptation actions. For example, the KSDPP community consultation indicated that Kahnawa’kehró:non are concerned about emergency preparedness, food security, health, invasive species, and survival skills (McComber, 2020). The KCI open house polled what the community would like to see: a Food Sovereignty Initiative, an Economic Development Strategy, a Language and Culture Mentorship program, a Holistic Health and Wellness Initiative for youth, and a Community Plan to fulfill a shared vision (Appendix 2)

Results Tree Planting Event

Over 250 volunteers participated in the three-day community tree planting event, which resulted in the planting of 534 trees in the community. Many of the volunteers were students from the local schools, such as Karonhianónhnha, Kateri, Ratiwennahní:rats, and the FNRAEC (See Appendix 4 for media).

Day 1 & 2 of the tree planting event took place at Kateri Tekakwitha Island (fig. 14, 15). This location was chosen because it is large, held in common, easily accessible, and low in biodiversity compared to the other ecosystems of the community. The low biodiversity of the island is a direct result of the creation of the St. Lawrence Seaway in the 1950’s when rocky material was piled on top of several natural islands to form one large island. To mitigate this issue, soil and mulch were added to encourage the trees to take root and survive A total of 175 volunteers planted 358 trees on the island The tree species planted in this region were selected for their tolerance to harsh conditions, such as Red Oak (Quercus rubra), White Oak (Quercus alba), Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum), Silky Dogwood (Cornus amomum), Butternut (Juglans

cinerea), Nanny Berry (Viburnum lentago), River Birch (Betula nigra), and various species of Apple and Plum trees (Malus spp)

Day 3 of the tree planting event took place at the greenspace near Orville Park (fig. 16, 17). This location was chosen because it is large, held in common, easily accessible, and is not open to development in the future. The park is a frequently used space that offers a variety of community services, such as a splash pad, walking path, lacrosse box and basketball court. In the future, the trees will offer shade during intense heatwaves and provide a place for community members to enjoy nature. The planting of the trees will also help to create a sound barrier to marine traffic on the St. Lawrence Seaway. A total of 75 volunteers planted 176 trees at this location. The tree species planted on this day were Red Oak (Q. rubra), White Oak (Q. alba), Silky Dogwood (C. amomum), Common lilac (Syringa vulgaris), Wild Rose (Rosa acicularis), Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) and Silver Maple (A. saccharinum).

Figure 14. KEPO worker planting trees at Tekakwitha island (KEPO).

Figure 15. The locations of all the trees that were planted on Tekakwitha Island (KEPO).

Figure 16. The locations of all the trees that were planted near Orville park (KEPO).

Additional trees were planted in the community by Iontonhontsasheronni Delormier & Son Landscape and Design and 350 trees were given to community members to plant in their own yards. A total of 1,000 new trees have been planted in Kahnawà:ke through this project. 100 trees were offered to the Ratihontsanontstats Kanehsatà:ke Environment Office and distributed to community members in our sister community of Kanehsatà:ke.

Figure 17. Volunteers planting trees at Orville park (KEPO).

Anticipated Climate Hazards

There are six main climate hazards that Kahnawà:ke can expect to occur more frequently in the coming years: higher average temperatures, droughts, heatwaves, destructive storms, heavy rainfall, and river floods. These hazards, as well as their associated projections, are summarized in Table 3.

1. Higher Average Temperatures

Climate projections indicate a rise in temperatures in Quebec by 2050. In southern Quebec, it is expected that there will be a greater warming in the winter (average temperature increase of 2.5 to 3.8°C) than in the summer (average temperature increase of 1.9 to 3.0°C) (CRAAQ, 2012).

For the Montreal region in particular, climate projections indicate that for the 2041-2070 period, the average temperature will increase by approximately 2 to 4 °C (Bush and Lemmen, 2019). For the 2071-2100 period, it will increase by approximately 4 to 7 °C. The duration of the freeze-up period is expected to decline by 4 to 2 weeks compared to that of today. It is estimated that the snow-cover period will be reduced by 65 to 45 days for the 2041-2070 period, compared to the historical period of 19701999. The most extreme projections suggest snow-cover periods of less than 20 days. Finally, the climate projections predict that by 2050, there will be an increase in the number of freeze-thaw cycles in the wintertime, and a decline in freeze-thaw cycles in the fall and spring (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

Box 2. Local accounts of changing weather in Kahnawà:ke.

“As a young child I remember the huge snow drifts along the road where the Golden Age Club is now. The road was cleared by a large snow blower and the sheer wall of snow would be 8 feet high in some places. I also recall being able to climb onto the roof at my house via a snow pile that fell from the roof. Snow was much more abundant 30 years ago, it seemed to snow almost every week during the winter months. Of course, the melting abundance of snow helped to replenish waterways and creeks around the community”. Dorris Montour (Norton, 2013b).

2. Heat Waves

Climate models predict significant increases in the duration of heat waves and an increase in the frequency of hot nights (minimum temperature greater than 20 °C). According to the same projections, the maximum extreme temperatures in the summer will increase more than the summers’ average

temperatures. This suggests longer and more intense heat waves in the next few decades (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

Table 1. Landmark events: Extreme heat waves in Kahnawà:ke.

June 20 - 24th, 2012

July 17-18th, 2013

June 27 - July 1st, 2014

June 18 - 20th, 2016

July 21st - July 22nd, 2016

June 11th - 12th , 2017

June 29th - July 2nd, 2018

August 5 - 6th, 2018

July 2-5th , 2019

*Weather information obtained from climate.weather.gc.ca/ (using the La Prairie weather station) and www.timeanddate.com/weather/canada/Montréal/historic

3. Drought

Most climate projections agree that by 2081-2100, there will be shorter periods of droughts (on an annual basis) in the winter (December to February), but longer periods during the summer (June to August). By 2081-2100, the projections indicate annual drier conditions for soil, which will be even more pronounced in the summer months (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

4. Destructive Storms

Changes in the intensity, frequency and magnitude of some weather events can be expected to be felt throughout Quebec (CRAAQ, 2012).The climate projections concerning destructive storms (freezing rain, heavy rainfalls, hail and strong winds), in the Montreal region specifically present some uncertainties (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). However, the trends that have already been observed and the considerable impacts that are associated with these storms, require consideration for adapted measures for Kahnawà:ke to better prepare itself to face these events in the future.

There has been an increase in the severity of storms in recent years (Table 2). In August of 2017, the public safety unit of MCK even had to put out a tornado warning, which has never happened in this

region before (Lazare, 2020). Eleven tornadoes touched down in Québec on June 18, 2017, which is the most ever recorded in the province (fig. 18) (CBC, 2018a).

Figure 18. The tornado that hit the Saguenay region on Lac Kénogami on June 18th, 2017 (CBC, 2018a).

Table 2. Landmark events: Destructive storms in Kahnawà:ke.

5. Heavy Rainfall

An increase in precipitation is also expected throughout Quebec (CRAAQ, 2012). It is estimated that by 2050, annual precipitation events (rain, snow, sleet, or hail) in the Montreal region are expected to increase by 3% to 14%, especially for rainfalls in the winter (+2% to +27%) and in the spring (+3% to +18%). A significant increase in the frequency and intensity of heavy rain episodes is also expected. By 2100, the intensity of heavy rain episodes could increase by 10% to 25% (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

6. River Floods

Kahnawà:ke lies within the St. Lawrence drainage basin or watershed (fig. 19), which is fed by the Great Lakes watershed. As the global temperature warms, the freshwater levels of the Great Lakes and the subsequent St. Lawrence River are expected to rise during spring melts following intense precipitation events, which could put our community at risk of flooding events like the one that occurred in 2017 (Perreaux, 2018) (Box 3). The shorter winter season caused by the heat will also result in an earlier spring thaw, which creates spring floods earlier in the year (Montréal, 2014a).

However, climatic modeling for this impact is uncertain in that the effect of higher average temperatures would mean less ice formation on the Great Lakes, which could lead to more evaporation and ultimately lower levels in the lakes, and by extension, the St.

Lawrence river (Ouranos, 2019).

Figure 19. St. Lawrence River drainage basin (Government of Canada, 2017).

Box 3. Landmark event flooding in southern Québec.

In the spring of 2017, constant rainfall, rapid snow melt and high-water levels on the other Great Lakes flooded hundreds of private properties and public infrastructure around Lake Ontario. When combined with the very high flows from the Ottawa River, extensive flooding also occurred in Québec, where 5,371 homes were damaged or destroyed (Perreaux, 2018) (fig. 20).

Climate Hazards

Higher average temperatures

Heat waves

Drought

Destructive storms

Heavy rainfall

Projections

• Extension of the summer season.

• Shortening of winter season.

• Increased frequency of freeze-thaw episodes.

• Increased frequency and intensity.

• Increased frequency of hot nights.

• Increased duration during the summer season.

• Increased frequency of heavy snowfall and winter rainfall episodes

• Increased frequency of freezing rain events.

• Increased frequency of hail events.

• Increased frequency of strong winds.

• Increased frequency and intensity of heavy rain fall events.

Figure 20. A flooded home in Saint-Andre-d’Argenteuil, 95 kilometres North-west of Kahnawà:ke on May 9th, 2017 (Perreaux, 2018).

Table 3. Top 6 anticipated climate hazards to Kahnawà:ke.

River floods

• Increased occurrence of spring floods earlier in the year.

• Reduced ice formation and lower water levels.

• Increased severity of spring floods.

* This table is based both on meteorological and hydrological observations in Montréal, and on projections for Southern Québec. The only exception is “Destructive storms” which only presents an analysis of meteorological observations in Montréal.

Potential Impacts

With the above-mentioned climate hazards come a cascade of effects that can impact a variety of sectors in the community, which are summarized in tables 4-9

1. Higher Average Temperatures

An increase in the number of freeze-thaw cycles in the winter can lead to the accelerated deterioration of infrastructure (such as the Mercier bridge, the tunnel as you enter the Eastern entrance of the community, and our roads) and can also lead to a greater presence of potholes (fig. 21) (FPE, 2015). This can lead to more car accidents and damaged vehicles in the form of cracked or bent rims and flat tires.

More damage to our roads necessitates more roadwork, which can impact the revenue of businesses in the community, such as in the summer of 2013. Major construction work along River road, a main road in the community, had significant economic impacts on local businesses. One business owner estimated losing up to 75% of their customers (Rowe, 2013). More road work also means increased cost to the community to maintain roads.

Figure 21. Pothole in Kahnawà:ke (Ieteronni Beauvais, 2013).

Another potential side effect of more freeze-thaw events is the increased risk of the freezing and bursting of water pipes, which can put strain on community infrastructure.

Winter thaws in particular are a concern for farmers and planters. When it rains, a layer of ice forms on top of snow, which can smother plants and crops that are underneath (Shiab, 2019)

Box 4. Landmark event Freezing rain and quick thaw events in Kahnawà:ke.

In January of 2014, this combination of freezing rain and a quick thaw event caused a variety of issues for the community. The ice caused nine traffic accidents on the Mercier bridge due to the freezing rain. The warm temperatures following the freezing rain resulted in a rapid thaw which clogged drains across town. Many parts of town were flooded because of the stress exerted on the storm drains, such as a portion of the Old Malone Highway across from Village Variety, Dustin’s Coffee & Donuts, the United Church, the courthouse, the bridge by Eileen’s bakery, and part of the old Chateauguay road (Rowe, 2014).

Higher average temperatures can also have drastic effects on the distribution of plants. This has major implications, such as encouraging the appearance of undesirable plant species like Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), and invasive plant species such as Giant Hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum). More information on invasive plant species in Kahnawà:ke can be found in box 5.

Pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes) prone to causing infections in plants are also impacted by an increase in temperatures. The increase in average winter temperatures could allow for the survival of a greater number of pathogen agents and, as a result, an expansion of their distribution area (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). This means that pathogen species that cannot survive in the present conditions could eventually attack plants in the territory.

In addition, the disruption of plant lifecycles could have a major impact on agriculture in the community (EPA, 2016). Higher temperatures can lead to changes in plant hardiness zones. A hardiness zone is a geographic area defined to encompass a certain range of climatic conditions relevant to plant growth and survival. When a region changes hardiness zones, different plant species can grow there, and native plant species can get pushed out. In our area, the hardiness zone has changed from 5B to 6a since the 1960’s (NRC, 2017).

Insects are also impacted by changes in temperature, both directly and indirectly. For one, the metabolisms of insects depend entirely on climate conditions. A warming of the environment can lead to an increase in the growth rate of some pest insects, like mosquitoes (Culicidae) and blackflies (Simuliidae) and multiply the number of generations in a season. This could result in an increased frequency of infestations and severity of the damages caused to plants by pests, such as aphids (Aphidoidea) and the Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) (fig. 24) The geographic distribution area of insects can also be expected to change. (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

An Increase in average temperatures also means Increased opportunity for invasive species (City of Wind). More information on invasive insect species in Kahnawà:ke can be found in box 5. Hotter summer months, increased frequency of droughts, and insect attacks are some of the many challenges that the trees are facing as a result of climate change. Most insects have a population cycle of growth and decline of about 10 years, which the trees are well adapted to. As the winters are becoming shorter and hotter, more insects are able to overwinter when they would normally die off from the deep freezes that are no longer occurring. Some insect population cycles have been reduced to just 3 or 4 years, and the trees may have a hard time coping with the added stress (Bascom, 2016). Shorter winters and a quicker transition between seasons have resulted in a decline in the quality and quantity of sap produced by maple trees, which puts this business activity at risk (Bascom, 2016). Our relationship with the maple trees goes beyond just the economy. Wahta Ohses (maple syrup) is one of the most important gifts given to us by the Creator. Without it, many of our people would have suffered starvation

Figure 22. The Japanese beetle is an invasive insect from Asia that feeds on a variety of plants, such as, corn, asparagus, blueberries, and raspberries (Hodgins, 2019).

and sickness during the last few weeks of winter before the snow was no longer so deep, which rendered hunting prohibitive. To this day, it is one of the ceremonies we conduct each year, to give thanks to the leader of the trees and ensure that we are taking care of them so that they can take care of us when we are in need

Box 5. Invasive species in Kahnawà:ke.

Several invasive plant, animal, and insect species have been identified in the community by KEPO. Some of these species, if not already causing harm, have the potential to pose serious threats to our community.

These threats are varied and affect different aspects of our environment, culture and economy. These species often have characteristics that make their spread into our region particularly damaging. They are adaptable, propagate rapidly, and can outcompete native species. Climate change has a direct impact on species habitats due to changing ecological conditions. As the global climate warms, many species are moving into areas where they had not previously been. Furthermore, some of the main drivers of climate change such as trans-oceanic shipping vessels, which produce thousands of tons of greenhouse gases each year, also contribute to the spread of species between continents, as in the case of the Emerald Ash Borer (EAB) (fig. 23) amongst others.

Figure 23. The emerald ash borer beetle (Ali, 2018).

The EAB was introduced to North America in the early 2000s in Windsor, Ontario by a shipping container from China that had timber material containing the insect. Since then, it has proliferated across the country devastating ash stands that it has encountered as its lifecycle causes significant damage to infected ash trees.

Immature EABs feed on ash tree leaves, forming slits in the leaves. Once sexually mature, the adults lay their eggs on the bark of the tree. Their larvae bore through the bark, feeding on the inner bark and sapwood, eventually forming flat, S-shaped galleries that eventually girdle and kill the tree (fig. 24). The larva can grow from 2 to 5 cm long and the width of the S-shaped gallery increases throughout its life span (Government of Canada, 2019). The ash trees here have no known natural defenses to this insect and the predators that feed

on the EAB larvae (woodpeckers) contribute to the damage to the dying ash. There exists an estimated 100,000 ash trees in Kahnawà:ke, which could be gone in 10-15 years because of this insect.

While the loss of the White Ash trees will be a significant blow to the national lumber industries, it is the loss of the Black Ash that Kahnawà:ke will feel much more deeply as the bark of Black ash is a traditional wood we use for our baskets, ax handles, bow and arrows, sleds and other traditional woodworks (fig. 26)

Figure 24. Damage of EAB on an ash tree (Pegler, 2018).

Figure 25. Baskets made by a local in Kahnawà:ke (Bonspiel, 2018).

It is thought that the spread of EAB is unstoppable at this point and that it is a matter of decades before all the ash trees are gone. Many efforts have already begun to preserve not only the basket making techniques but also the trees themselves. Treatment of black-ash trees, seed collection and long-term storage is a priority for KEPO so that when the threat of EAB no longer exists, we can replant the trees and restore our basketmaking tradition. Elders and knowledge keepers have been teaching the younger generations the proper ways to make baskets with what little material remains. Partnerships are being developed between communities so that their Black Ash trees can be used by basket-makers as a future store of material.

Other invasive species have been brought by trans-oceanic shipping, which has had a direct impact on Kahnawà:ke via the St. Lawrence seaway. Not only has the imposition of the St. Lawrence Seaway fragmented our community beyond repair, but it has also altered the aquatic ecosystem in ways we are only now beginning to understand. Human interventions on the landscape for convenience and industry have linked our community to the Great Lakes and beyond. This has potentially threatened us with another invasive, a group of fish known as Asian Carp. Four species of carp were brought over from Asia in the late 20th century often for aquaculture and over time escaped or were released from captivity in the south and Midwestern United States. All 4 species, (Black, Silver, Bighead and Grass Carp) have been extremely detrimental to the waters they now inhabit. They are filter feeders, devouring any source of nutrition from the bottoms of rivers, ponds and lakes including the eggs of other fish species. They can quickly out-produce and out-compete native species.

Major efforts, such as the creation of permanent barriers, have been made to prevent the carps from infiltrating the Great Lakes and eventually the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers but more work is needed (ACRCC, 2013). To date, there have been no Asian carp species reported in Kahnawà:ke but due to their destructive potential the community must remain vigilant and ready to respond if and when that day occurs.

Secondly, the advancement in the life history events for many plant species (i.e. the timing of seed emergence) can disrupt synchrony between the interacting pairs. For many insect herbivores, synchronization to plant phenology is crucial for their survival (Cornelissen, 2011). Insects play a vital role in the ecosystem by providing food to animals, such as amphibians and birds. Disruptions to insect populations due to elevated temperatures can thus have a myriad of consequences throughout the food web.

A rise in temperature and humidity can also lead to the extension of the pollen production season (WHO, 2018). This is particularly concerning for allergenic plant species such as Maple trees (Acer spp.) and Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) (fig.26). In Montréal, the pollen emission period of the latter has increased by three weeks between 1994 and 2002 (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). In certain plants like ragweed, higher temperatures make the plant produce more pollen (AAFA, 2018). Pollen is an allergen that causes seasonal rhinitis (hay fever). This allergic reaction can lead to several complications, such as chronic sinusitis, symptoms of allergic asthma (such as coughing), difficulty breathing, and wheezing (Gouvernement du Québec, 2015).

Rising temperatures can foster the displacement of populations of animals, insects and ticks that carry diseases that are transmissible to humans. In Québec, such displacement increases the number of cases of rabies, West Nile virus (WNV), and Lyme disease (Gouvernement du Québec, 2015; City of Windor, 2012).

Lyme disease and the Nile fever, caused by WNV, have increased in Québec in recent years. There have been 96 cases of Lyme disease in Québec between 2004 and 2011; 15 of those were acquired in the province, and 10 of those occurred in the Montérégie area, which surrounds Kahnawà:ke. In May of 2012, several Lyme disease cases were confirmed in dogs in Kahnawà:ke (McGregor, 2012) and in July of the same year, a local man was hospitalized after contracting Lyme disease in the community (Leborgne, 2012). Since 2011, there has been a significant increase in the number of Lyme disease cases reported to the public health authorities in Québec: 125 cases in 2014, 160 cases in 2015, 177 cases in 2016, 329 cases in 2017, and 304 cases in 2018. In addition, the proportion of cases that acquired their infection in

Figure 26 Common ragweed (Peacock, 2017).

the province has increased from around 50% in 2013 to over 70% since 2015 (Gouvernement du Québec, 2019).

Rising temperatures are currently leading to the northward migration of vector-borne pathogen animal populations (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). For animals, this will lead to the increased spread of diseases, such as Brain worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) and Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD). CWD is a progressive, fatal nervous system disease known to infect animals within the Cervidae family (whitetailed deer, mule deer, moose, red deer, elk and reindeer). However, there are growing concerns about the potential transmission to humans from eating infected meat (CFIA, 2019), which has significant cultural implications for many Kahnawa’kehró:non who rely on deer meat for food and other cultural purposes (ie. water drums, clothing, medicine pouches). The warming temperatures can also lead to growing populations of deer, which can significantly damage ecosystems in addition to increasing the spread of CWD through northward migration to northern populations of Cervids. Large populations of deer tend to over browse new trees and destroy habitat crucial to other native plants and wildlife. Studies show that over browsed forests tend to be filled with invasive plants of little value to wildlife. Other threats of too many deer include more crop damage, more deer-vehicle collisions, and more vectorborne and zoonotic diseases that pose a threat to human health (Hewitt, 2011). There is also a possibility that these changes in temperature can increase the frequency of social conflict (Mooney, 2014).

The increase in average temperature in the winter can also reduce the ability of the community to maintain outdoor ice rinks for recreational use (City of Windsor, 2012). Kahnawà:ke has six outdoor rinks. “We’ve been struggling the last few years because it hasn't been that cold,” said Vincent Montour of the Mohawk Council of Kahnawà:ke’s town garage (Byrnes, 2013).

Reductions in snow cover can also have major impacts to the community. Snow acts like a mirror, capable of reflecting up to 90% of incoming sunlight back into outer space. As the earth warms, less snow cover is being produced, which means more heat is being retained by the ground, resulting in snow melting faster in the spring (Shiab, 2019). This can result in low water levels in the summertime, such of that in 2012 (fig. 27). Low water levels in the community affects our environment, especially groundwater reserves and our wetlands which rely on snow to replenish its waters, and our access to clean drinking water.

“When there’s a change in the amount of snow, that triggers a whole chain of events.” Ross Brown, Environment Canada scientist (Shiab, 2019).

The increase in evaporation caused by higher temperatures is expected to lead to an overall decrease in the Great Lakes and St-Lawrence System water levels. Increased evaporation is expected to occur in all seasons, particularly in the winter as a result of decreased ice cover. Canadian modelling predicts a significant lowering of lake levels by 2050 (City of Windsor, 2012).

The increase in average summer temperatures has some positive impacts, such as a lengthening of the crop growing season, an increase in the number of days offering good conditions for outdoor work, and an extension of the golf and bicycle season (FPE, 2015). However, by spending more time outdoors, people will be increasingly exposed to the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) rays. In addition, the diminishing of the ozone layer due to greenhouse gases makes the sun’s rays more potent, which can lead to sunburns, damage to eyes (such as cataracts), weakening of the immune system, and skin cancer (Gouvernement du Québec, 2015; SRMT, 2013).

Figure 27. Low water table in the summer of 2012 in Kahnawà:ke (Deer,2012).

2. Heat Waves

Periods of extreme heat can induce thermal stress in people, causing dehydration, fainting and heat stroke (Gouvernement du Québec, 2019a). Extreme side effects can even include hospitalization, especially of those already vulnerable such as those suffering from certain diseases, pregnant woman, the elderly, and infants (WHO, 2018). There are over 4,000 heat-related deaths per year with 80% occurring in the elderly. The last few years in the Montérégie region, there have been more reported deaths in elderly populations due to heat exhaustion. It is also the second leading cause of death among young athletes. Those under four years old are also at increased risk (Tardif, 2011). Domesticated animals, such as cats and dogs, are also at-risk during times of high heat.

Heat waves can also produce and worsen the impacts of atmospheric pollution, resulting in poor air quality. This can aggravate symptoms of many respiratory problems and restrict the practice of outdoor activities and sports (City of Windsor, 2012).

Vegetation is also vulnerable to heat waves. Although some plants can rely on defense mechanisms to protect themselves, a heat wave can still cause issues such as leaf scorch, stem dieback, and susceptibility to pests and pathogens (fig.28). The vegetation that is impacted then requires additional care or must be replaced, increasing costs required for their upkeep and maintenance (City of Windsor, 2012).

Figure 28 Leaf scorch from a heat wave (Waterworth, 2019)

Heat waves, even for a short duration, can decrease the populations of many insects. This can be beneficial regarding harmful species, but the opposite will be true for beneficial species, such as pollinators (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). This can have serious consequences for the 75% and 95% of all flowering plants whose fertilization relies on the work of pollinators (Ollerton, Winfree, and Tarrant, 2011).

The aquatic environments of Kahnawà:ke may also suffer from heat waves due to eutrophication. Eutrophication is a process that occurs in freshwater and marine ecosystems, characterized by excessive plant and algal growth due to the increased availability of one or more growth factors needed for photosynthesis, such as sunlight, carbon dioxide, and nutrients (Chislock, 2013). This process can lead to a cascade of negative effects, such as reduced water clarity, accumulations of scum on the water surface (fig. 29), unpleasant odors, and interferences with the safe use of waters for recreational activities (Government of New Brunswick, n.d.). When the plants and algae die, they sink to the bottom of the body of water where their decomposition takes up the dissolved oxygen from the water to the detriment of fish and other aquatic wildlife. These algal blooms can even produce toxins that are dangerous for humans and other animals to touch or drink (WFC, 2019). For humans, the ingestion of blue-green algae can result in symptoms such as stomach aches, diarrhea, and vomiting (Gouvernement du Québec, 2019c). For small fish and shellfish, these toxins can move up the food chain and can impact larger animals like turtles and birds. Even if some algal blooms are not toxic, they can negatively impact aquatic life by blocking out sunlight and clogging fish gills (EPA, 2019).

Figure 29. Algal bloom in the summer of 2012 in the Lachine Canal (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

Overall, higher average temperatures can have major effects on our natural environment, reducing animal habitats and the many ecosystem services provided by the land.

Extreme temperatures can also weaken infrastructure by impacting roadway networks. Roadways that are frequently travelled and used by heavy vehicles may deform themselves and produce ruts (fig. 30). Extreme temperatures can also cause damage to the expansion joints of structures, which is a concern for the Mercier Bridge (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

Finally, heat waves can impact local operations and services. They can give rise to an increased demand for certain services (such as the Onake Paddling Club) or an extension of the ‘business’ hours of air-conditioned public buildings, such as the library and community centres, which can strain electricity services and the associated costs for these non-profit organizations (FPE, 2015). These demands will result in an increased need for workers to provide services to the population, maintain the infrastructure and deploy emergency measures, when required (City of Windsor, 2012).

3. Drought

The impacts of droughts on the territory of Kahnawà:ke are especially concerning during the summer months as this can have serious consequences to our natural ecosystems and to those in the community who farm and garden (NOAA, 2019).

Heat waves can have major effects on the bird communities of Kahnawà:ke. Spring heat waves endanger young birds in the nest, such as the Bald eagle, Peregrine falcon, and Least bittern. These

Figure 30. Rutting in asphalt pavement (Dylla and Hyman, 2018).

species are already at risk in the community, and the increased mortality rate caused by heat waves may contribute to their local extinction.

Dry soils can result in osmotic stress for plants, reducing their vitality and making them more susceptible to pests and pathogens. By impacting the vegetation, droughts reduce the many ecological services that they provide, such as the provision of food and shade (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). Periods of drought can also contribute to the increased frequency of wildfires (FPE, 2015), which is already an issue in the community (Box 6).

Brush fires often occur in the spring and summer in Kahnawà:ke. Often caused by arson, controlled burns, or abandoned bonfires, the rise in temperature coupled with increased periods of drought and high winds can exacerbate this issue. In 2009, a grassfire burned through a large swath of swamp area behind Goodleaf’s Auto, a local scrapyard, which caused nearly $1 million in damages to machinery at the business. On April 28th , 2013, another grassfire hit the same area (fig. 31). These fires are especially concerning due to the presence of factories, industries, and gas stations in many of these fire hazard areas, and because of all the overgrown dry brush, which burns quickly (Norton, 2013c).

In May, 2013, a ban on open fires was issued to residents of both Kahnawà:ke and the Tioweró:ton territory in response to an extremely high risk of wildfires all over Québec. Locals have noticed that these periods of high risk for wildfires have been getting longer and are starting earlier (Laframbroise, 2013)

Box 6. Landmark events – Bushfires in Kahnawà:ke.

Figure 31. Bushfire in Kahnawà:ke (Norton, 2013c)

During the end of April and beginning of 2016, five fire reports occurred within three weeks in Kahnawà:ke (Rowe, 2016a). More recently, in May 2019, a string of bush fires occurred in the community, with one burning dangerously close to the local high school, the Kahnawà:ke Survival School (KSS) (Deer, 2019).

The invasive Common Reed (Phragmites australis), is one plant that contributes to the spread of these fires (fig. 32). The plant, identified by its large, dense seed head and long, thin stem, can become very dry and brittle, due in part to the hollow stem. “The combination of this thin, paper-like tube with a hollow core, provides a nearly perfect environment for a fire, which can lead to the fastburning, feathery seed head at the top.” said local tree expert Chuck Barnett (Deer, 2019a). These plants have displaced the native cattails (Typha) and are seen all over the community, putting the community at risk.

Periods of droughts, accompanied by extreme heat, can affect the level of atmospheric pollutants. Under dry conditions, dust and particles (such as pollen) are more easily airborne and contribute to poorer air quality, especially in the event of a wildfire. This greater presence of airborne particles can then exacerbate the symptoms of respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses in humans (Lee et al. 2014).

Figure 32. Common reed (ISAP, 2012).

In times of drought some basic food items can be hard to find. Given the increased cost of groceries, it can be difficult for some people to buy the nutritious foods needed to maintain good health. Severe droughts are also a significant source of stress for agricultural workers (fig. 33) (Gouvernement du Québec, 2015).

The increased demand for water, because of drought, could also result in too much demand on the water treatment facilities. This increased demand could impair the system in the event of a problem and cause an increase in production costs (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). However, the Kahnawà:ke water treatment facility intake pipe is located in the St. Lawrence River, which is an ideal location in case of drought (Morris, 2020).

4. Destructive Storms

Strong winds, the accumulation of freezing rain, hail and heavy snowfalls can all result in damage to our infrastructure and the environment. The severity of the damages depends on the force of the storms, measured in wind speed, the thickness of the accumulation of freezing rain or snow, and the size of the hailstones, among others. Destructive storms can result in fallen trees and branches, causing traffic, damage to infrastructure, and power outages.

Figure 33. A heat wave in June and July of 2018 caused some strawberries to ripen too quickly at Quinn farm in Île-Perrot (Navneet Pall/CBC, 2018b).

Strong wind bursts can tear up or raise certain elements of homes, compromising the integrity of buildings. Heavy snowfalls and freezing rain can overload roof structures and cause damage. These damages to homes can result in costs related to material damages and increases in insurance premiums (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). Disaster victims may also suffer from psychological trauma and the workers and volunteers may suffer from intense stress (Gouvernement du Québec, 2015). In Kahnawá:ke, the community often rallies together to organize fundraisers to support families affected by damages to their homes, whether caused by a storm or a fire, however increased needs for such supports could cause additional stress in the community

In addition, the damage done to trees caused by high winds and freezing rain can make them more vulnerable to insects and illnesses (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

Box 7. Landmark events – Destructive storms in Kahnawà:ke

• On September 8th, 2012, a 100-year-old elm tree fell on a house due to a severe windstorm. The tree was one of the few elms left in town that was not killed by an outbreak of Dutch elm disease that occurred several years ago (fig. 34) (Norton, 2012).

• On July 14th, 2016, a weeping willow tree was knocked over during a thunderstorm that involved heavy winds (fig. 35) (Rowe, 2016b).

• On December 11th, 2017, a vehicle collided with a train at a level crossing near the FNRAEC after it slid on the ice and snow (Deer, 2017).

• In November of 2019, some areas of Kahnawà:ke experienced service interruptions that lasted up to 48 hours due to a storm. The basements of some homes were flooded due to heavy rainfall and some roadways were temporarily blocked by downed trees caused by the high winds (fig. 36) (Fedosieieva, 2019).

Figure 34. An elm tree knocked down from a windstorm (Norton, 2012).

Figure 35. A willow tree knocked down from a storm (Rowe, 2016b).

Power outages that occur in the winter are especially concerning. Carbon monoxide poisoning can result from the reliance on gas and wood stoves for heating (Gouvernement du Québec, 2015). In all seasons, the disruption in access to medical equipment and the increase in food poisoning due to food spoilage is a major concern (City of Windsor, 2012; Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

One extreme example of the effects of destructive storms is the Ice Storm of 1998, in which ice rain demolished trees, electrical infrastructure, and caused massive power outages for millions in Québec. The storm caused thousands of trees to fall, damaged cars, and even resulted in the death of over 30 people with hundreds more injured (Pindera, L., and Steuter-Martin, M., 2018).

More destructives storms in the community would entail an increase in services required by the Public Works Unit, such as increased tree pruning, storm drain cleaning, sidewalk maintenance, and snow removal (City of Windsor, 2012) (see fig. 37). In recent years, the Public Works Unit has noticed more rain events with heavy winds during the summer and fall. In the winter, there have not been any major disruptions or changes to the services required by the Public Works Unit regarding storm clean-up, apart from the winter of 2007-2008, in which snow removal services were especially expensive (Montour, 2020b).

Figure 36. Downed tree on Canadian road that was knocked over from a powerful storm (Fedosieieva, 2019).

Figure 37. The clean-up for one the largest snowstorms in Kahnawà:ke took 2 days to complete (Norton, 2013d).

Box 8. Impacts of climate change on wetlands in Kahnawà:ke.

The wetlands of Kahnawà:ke (fig 38) are greatly threatened by the effects of climate change. Wetlands are sensitive to any changes in hydrology, as they exist between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, therefore increased flooding, drought, heatwaves, and frequency of severe storms will all have impacts on wetland functioning. Streams and small, isolated wetlands are particularly vulnerable due to changes in the timing and volumes of spring peak flows.

Over time, these changes can lead to shifts in species distributions and species communities as well as to biogeochemical changes in soil. Warming temperatures, increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and changes in frequency and intensity of rainfall will alter ecological processes. Losses of native species, particularly at the southern end of their ranges, and increases in species at the northern end of their ranges, may occur. Opportunistic, easily adaptable, and invasive species, pests, and diseases will take advantage of these changes and will increase. Severe storm events may further cause structural ecological changes from which our natural communities may not rebound easily. Climate change acts with other stressors, such as urbanization, pollution, invasive species, and land use changes. Along with climate change, these stressors may disassemble existing ecosystems and lead to the emergence of new ones, further altering the benefits wetlands provide (WWA, 2018; Moomaw, 2018).

Figure 38. The different wetlands of Kahnawà:ke and their observed threats (KEPO).

5. Heavy Rainfall

During a heavy rainfall episode, basements are at risk of flooding for two main reasons Many homes in the community are built on former wetlands, therefore many homes must rely on sump pumps (in some cases, running almost continuously) to avoid flooding during heavy rainfall. Flooding can thus occur as a result of overworked or faulty sump pumps. In addition, the combination of high infiltration rates into sanitary sewers from broken pipes and/or leaky connections can lead to sewage backup. Certain buildings and homes can suffer from a sewer backup during this time caused by a high-water table due to climate change. Basement flooding can also occur when the flow of stormwater in sewers increases rapidly in a short span of time.

Basements are particularly at risk to flooding if they are built on uneven ground or if a garage entrance is sloped toward the building. The flooding of buildings and homes is responsible for considerable economic losses, most notably, costs related to the destruction and damages to properties and related insurance costs (IBC, 2019). In addition, flooding can lead to indoor mould growth, which can cause a variety of respiratory problems, such as: eye, nose and throat irritation, coughing and phlegm build-up, and wheezing and shortness of breath (Health Canada, 2020). Mould growth can also lead to increased expenses in order to remove the mould, which often requires professional assistance.

To avoid flooding from combined sewers, these systems are designed to have emergency overflows that direct untreated wastewater into nearby water bodies, a situation that occurs way more than one might think. Combined sewers and sewer overflows are not usually a direct concern in Kahnawà:ke but they do impact water quality of the St. Lawrence as most adjacent communities do have combined sewers and climate change will increase the frequency of these discharges.

Flooding can have significant impacts on human health as well. These include carbon monoxide poisoning due to poor use of combustion appliances during power outages and gastroenteritis due to the consumption of contaminated food and water. Flooded buildings also have a greater risk of developing mould which can cause serious respiratory problems, especially for those with underlying health issues like asthma (Ville de Montréal, 2014a). Psychological issues are also likely to occur, such as stress for the victims of flooding and stress for the volunteers and workers who support them. In addition, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are potential side effects (Gouvernement du Québec, 2015; Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

Box 9. Landmark event – flooding in Kahnawà:ke.

Heavy snow throughout the winter coupled with large amounts of rain and warm temperatures caused flooding in the community on April 11th, 2014 (fig.39). The water treatment facility received complaints from community members regarding their drinking water. This was caused by an increase in the amount of chlorine that needed to be added to compensate for the increase in the turbidity of the water because of the flooding (Rowe, 2014).

Stormwater runoffs can also damage the road network (particularly culverts) and sewer system of Kahnawà:ke. This can result in service outages, such as electricity, telephone, and Internet. In addition to reducing mobility within the territory, floods can cause accidents, injuries and deaths (WHO, 2018; Ville de Montréal, 2014a). In 2011, two residents of the Mohawk community of Ganienkeh died in a flood (Lotemplio, 2011) The losses were felt throughout all Mohawk communities as our culture is very familyoriented and grief for the death of our people reverberates beyond geographic borders.

Heavy rainfalls can also result in waterlogged soil, leading to lower oxygen levels in the soil and soil compaction. These effects can exacerbate the susceptibility of plants to root diseases (SRMT, 2013), which has serious cultural implications. Corn (one of the Three Sisters) has been shown to be particularly vulnerable to increased soil moisture (Rosenzweig et al. 2002). In addition, heavier rains can increase erosion and runoff, removing agricultural topsoil and increasing the flow of pollutants into our waterways

Figure 39. Flooding caused by heavy rain and warm temperatures at the intersection of Highway 138 on the border of Kahnawà:ke and Chateauguay (Rowe, 2014).

(Climate Central, 2020). The overflow of wastewaters in waterways increases the quantity of pathogenic organisms and pollutants, increasing the risk of contamination (Ville de Montréal, 2014a).

Heavy rainfall episodes can also result in increased deployment of the MCK Public Works Unit to clear street drains from leaves and small branches to prevent flooding (Montour, 2020b).

6. River Floods

Flooding from the overflow of the St. Lawrence River can result in damages to wildlife habitat and the built environment of Kahnawà:ke, especially to buildings located in flood plains.

The impacts of a river flood are like that of a rainfall-induced flood (as mentioned above). However, they differ in that river floods can provoke the erosion and destabilization of riverbanks. This is harmful to the aquatic environment as eroded riverbanks bring sediments into the water, impairing its quality and reducing the hospitability for wildlife (Cameron & Bauer, 2014).

Spring floods can also impact the health of Kahnawa’kehró:non by bringing about gastrointestinal illnesses through direct contact with the flood waters (WHO, 2018; Denchak, 2019).

Finally, river floods require additional resources and personnel responsible for the implementation of emergency response measures.

• Increased prevalence of diseases in animals

• Early arrival of some pest insects

• Increased insect population

• More frequent insect infestations

• Risk of desynchronization between insect pests and their natural enemies

• Damage to the road network and adjacent structures

• Accelerated degradation of bridges, tunnels and overpasses leading to falling fragments

• Breaks to underground pipes

• Health problems caused by air pollution (pollen) increased exposure to UV rays

• Vector-borne and zoonotic diseases

• Stress and panic-induced conflict.

• Increased use of abrasives

• More days for construction work under better conditions

• Greater demand for resources (seasonal employees)

Table 4. Potential impacts of a higher average temperature in Kahnawà:ke.

Kahnawà:ke Climate Change Plan

• Increased costs and labour for green space maintenance

Plants Culture Recreational activities

• Longer pollen season

• Changes to plant phenology

• Faster plant growth

• Change to plant hardiness zones

• Increased appearance of invasive / undesirable plant species.

• Disruptions to ceremony (planting season based on the moon & stars)

• Culturally important plant species at risk (i.e maple, ash)

• Changes to growing conditions for medicines

• Demand to extend the opening season for pools, splash pads and sports fields

• Extended use season for the bicycle path

• Difficult and costly maintenance for outdoor skating rinks

Pathogens

• Larger geographical distribution area

• Higher rate of reproduction

Natural environment Infrastructure Socioeconomic issues MCK Operations Animals Public Health Drinking water

• Reduced insect populations

• Increased management of pest insects

• Changes to bird communities

• Damage to the road network

o Loss of adhesion between asphalt and bridge decks

o Premature damage to the expansion joints on civil engineering works

o “Slippage cracks” in the asphalt

• Health problems caused by air pollution (smog, fine particles, pollen)

• Illnesses caused by contaminated swimming water

• Health problems linked to body

• Higher costs for chemical products and electricity

• Increased presence of cyanobacteria in the water

• Clogged membrane filters

• Faster degradation of chlorine in the

Table 5. Potential impacts of more frequent heat waves in Kahnawà:ke

o Ruts formed on driving surfaces

• Damage to the sewer system caused by the increased generation of H2S, harmful to concrete infrastructure

• Thermal expansion of rails

temperature imbalances

• Health problems caused by limitations to mobility

• Increased premature death rate

system, which will increase rechlorination needs and associated operating costs

Plants Expenses (individuals) Increased demand for Cool-off areas

• Increased water stress

• Management of undesirable plant species

• Economic losses caused by absenteeism and temporary job cessation

• Event cancellation due to extreme heat

• Demand to extend the opening hours of airconditioned public spaces (libraries, community centres, etc.)

• Increased demand for pools and splash pads

• Curtailed outdoor works

Waterbodies Accidents & Inconveniences Increased Complaints

• Proliferation of cyanobacteria

• Change to the structure of communities of aquatic organisms

• Inconveniences related to road mobility

• Food poisoning

• Problems with bad smells from manholes during heat waves and drought periods

• Residual material management (bad smells, proliferation of flies, etc.)

Natural environment Infrastructure Socioeconomic issues MCK Operations Plants Public Health Water

• Water stress on plants that can lead to death

• Increased plant vulnerability to insects and pathogens

• Reduced incidence of fungal diseases for plants

• Reduced ecosystem services provided by trees (temperature regulation, air and water quality improvement, etc.)

• Increased risk of forest fires (in wooded areas)

• Reduced agricultural production (such as community gardens)

• Damage to pavement and sidewalks

• Damage to sewer systems

• Health problems caused by air pollution (smog, fine particles, pollen)

• Illnesses caused by contaminated swimming water

• Increased demand for water: shorter network reserve time, which weakens the system in case of a problem

• More complex water treatment due to the alteration of raw water

• Reduced system water carriage capacity in case of lower levels that limit water treatment plant capacity

• Increased demand for water

• Higher cost for chemical products and electricity

Residential / ICI Maintenance

• Damage to homes and buildings

• Damage to infrastructure other than homes and buildings (sheds, reservoirs, culverts, etc.)

• More frequent street cleaning operations required

• Increased labour required to maintain green spaces (more frequent maintenance and watering)

Table 6. Potential impacts of more drought periods in Kahnawà:ke.

Waterbodies

• Drying of some wetlands

• Altered water quality

• Change in the composition of plant species in wooded areas (long-term impact)

• Loss of canopy

o Trees or branches break or fall

o Some trees may die following damages caused by freezing rain

• Plants more vulnerable to insects and illnesses after sustaining injuries caused by hail or freezing rain

• Damage to the road network and related structures

o Electrical and telephone poles

o Traffic lights

• Damage to above-ground utility systems

• Costs related to destroyed goods (damaged buildings, loss of vegetation, etc.)

• Increased problems with bad smells in manholes

• Intensified problems with drinking water taste and smell during severe low flows

• Damage to homes and buildings

• Damage to infrastructure other than homes and buildings (sheds,

• Psychological distress

• Health problems caused by travel limitations

• Demand on snow removal operations

• Use of generators during power outages for critical operations

• Loss or damage to materials or street furniture

• Increased pruning

• Possible reduction of insurance coverage

• Personal economic losses due to travel limitations

• Increased deployment of first responders

• Increased deployment of snow removal staff: possible burnout,

Table 7. Potential impacts of more destructive storms in Kahnawà:ke.

roadways, culverts, etc.)

• Damage to infrastructure via hazardous materials spills

• Costs related to destroyed goods (damaged buildings, loss of vegetation, etc.)

increased accident risk Accidents & Inconveniences

• Higher number of road accidents

• Inconveniences related to road traffic (difficult for emergency services to reach people)

• Injuries related to falls or structural collapses, falling trees and debris

• Higher mortality rate

• Electrical outages

o Food poisoning

o In-home medical equipment shortages

o Carbon monoxide poisoning

• Service interruptions for above-ground utilities

Natural environment

Infrastructure Socioeconomic issues MCK Operations

Animals Public Health Infrastructure

• Decrease of certain insect populations

• Creation of temporary ponds that may foster the growth of mosquito larvae which are vectors for diseases such as the West Nile Virus (WNV)

• Damage to the road network and related structures

• Damage to the underground utilities network

• Incidents related to the transportation of hazardous materials

• Increased demand on infrastructures beyond their capacity (pipes, pump stations, etc.)

• Health problems caused by mould growth

• Epidemics of water-borne gastrointestinal illnesses due to sewer backflow and floods

• Disease caused by contaminated swimming water

• Vector-borne diseases

• Psychological distress

• Increased risk on construction sites due to slope instability

• Delays on construction sites

Waterbodies Residential & ICI Expenses (individuals) Cost increases

• Pollution of watercourses

o Leaching of nutrients and pollutants

o Sewer overflows

• Riverbank erosion and slope instability

• Damage to homes or buildings (landslides, floods, sewer backflow and water infiltrations)

• Possible reduction of insurance coverage

• Personal economic losses

• Costs related to destroyed goods (damaged buildings)

• To wastewater treatment: higher volume of collected water and more frequent peak flows (increased dosage of chemical products, higher demand placed on equipment) Accidents & Inconveniences

• Inconveniences related to road mobility (road accidents, slowed or blocked traffic)

Table 8. Potential impacts of more heavy rainfall in Kahnawà:ke.

• Inconveniences related to service interruptions on underground utilities other than power outages

Natural environment Infrastructure Socioeconomic issues MCK Operations Waterbodies Public Health Health and safety

• Erosion of riverbanks

• Sustained submergence of near shore vegetation

• Modification to riverbed potentially impacting spawning habitat, aquatic vegetation

• Increased flowrate could impact fish passage

• Damage to the road network and related structures

• Damage to the sewer system

• Damage to underground utility networks

• Health problems caused by the growth of moulds

• Epidemics of waterborne gastrointestinal diseases due to sewer backups and floods

• Psychological distress

Residential & ICI Expenses (individuals)

• Damage to homes or buildings

• Damage to infrastructures by hazardous substance spills

• Possible reduction of insurance coverage

• Costs related to destroyed goods (damaged buildings, loss of vegetation, etc.)

Accidents & Inconveniences

• Inconveniences related to road mobility (slowed or blocked traffic)

• Increased demand for resources to implement emergency measures

Table 9. Potential impacts of river floods in Kahnawà:ke.

• Accidents such as drowning, electrocution

• Inconveniences related to underground utility service interruptions other than electricity

Community Vulnerabilities & Strengths

Vulnerabilities

There are several factors that make the community more vulnerable to the effects of climate change

Table 10. Top 5 identified vulnerabilities of Kahnawà:ke to climate change.

1. Urbanization

One main factor is the increasing urbanization of the community and surroundings and the subsequent loss of natural ecosystems. The loss of diverse ecosystems such as forests and wetlands results in a loss in natural protection and ecological services. For one, vegetation and wetland ecosystems serve as a natural flood control mechanism. The replacement of natural land with impervious surfaces such as concrete and asphalt limits the amount of rainwater that can be absorbed by the ground, putting

2. Population Growth

3. Infrastructure

4. Human Health

5. Geographic Location

1. Urbanization

stress on overland flow routes, stormwater systems and surface waterways ultimately leading to more flood events.

The use of asphalt, concrete, tar and other building materials that absorb and store heat also contribute to the urban heat island effect (fig. 40), which is expected to be exacerbated by the increased average temperature and the increased frequency of heatwaves.

Secondly, forests act as a buffer, providing habitats to many creatures and offering a variety of ecosystem services such as shade and food, water filtration, and air purification. A loss of our forests means a loss of habitat, increased greenhouse gases, dryer soils, soil erosion, flooding, and increased local temperatures. Removing trees deprives the forest of portions of its canopy, which blocks the sun’s rays during the day and retains heat at night. That disruption leads to more extreme temperature swings that can be harmful to plants and animals (Nunez, 2019). In addition, an increase in greenhouse gases can result from deforestation, since trees absorb carbon dioxide (Derouin, 2019)

A loss of trees can disrupt soil characteristics. Trees also help control the level of water in the atmosphere by helping to regulate the water cycle. In deforested areas, there is less water in the air to be returned to the soil, causing dryer soil (Pachamama Alliance, 2019)

Increased soil erosion and flooding events is another potential effect of deforestation. Trees help the land to retain water and topsoil, which provides the rich nutrients to sustain additional forest life.

Figure 40. The urban heat island effect (Mohajerani, Bakaric, and Jeffrey-Bailey, 2017)

Without forests, the soil erodes and washes away, making the land more susceptible to flooding (Pachamama Alliance, 2019). A loss of forests also means an increase in local temperatures, as forests absorb solar radiation (Gellert, 2017).

Many of these impacts can increase the prevalence and expansion of wildfires, which is especially concerning for Kahnawà:ke which has a history of frequent brushfires. This issue may also be worsened by the “fuel” created by the largescale death of our ash trees due to the EAB.

2. Population Growth

Nearly a hundred years ago, the community’s population was only approximately 1,000 people and today, the population has risen to over 8,000 people (CIHR, 2012). Kahnawà:ke’s population has grown steadily, with an average of 92 births per year and 48 deaths per year (Jacobs, 2013). The more people there are in the community, the more development and habitat loss is occurring. This also means additional stress on essential services to protect community members from climate related impacts, such as power outages, sewer and stormwater systems failures, water treatment issues, healthcare, and emergency management response.

3. Infrastructure

The infrastructure of Kahnawà:ke is vulnerable to the effects of climate change for several reasons. Routes 132, 207, and 138 (fig. 41) are all heavily used by commuters, which makes them more likely to develop ruts and potholes caused by heatwaves and freeze-thaw events. Traffic caused by road maintenance is already an issue, and it is only expected to get worse with climate change.

Our infrastructure is aging. This is a big concern for the Mercier Bridge, which is constantly under construction and has been since its creation in the 1930’s (JCCBI, 2014) Freeze thaw events, heatwaves, and destructives storms can cause further damage to the already compromised infrastructure (fig. 42)

Figure 41. A map showing the major roads that pass through the community (Delormier et al. 2018)

Another concern is that storm and sewer systems may not be able to handle the increasing frequency of high flows caused by storm events. The water treatment plant of Kahnawà:ke is designed to meet the community’s needs until 2032 (Sky, 2020), however these projections may need to be adjusted to account for climate change and its effect on the intake capacity. The main concern for the water treatment plant is the impact of extended drought conditions, which could lower the water level and affect flow into the water plant (Montour, 2020a)

4. Human Health

Another factor that makes Kahnawà:ke more vulnerable to climate change is the current state of health of many Kahnawa’kehró:non. According to a study done in 2018, some of the most common health issues in the community are diabetes, cancer, hypertension, lung disease, and asthma (Onkwata’karitáhtshera, 2018). This is concerning because the effects of climate change can exacerbate the symptoms of those suffering from the above-mentioned health issues.

For example, many reports have documented the negative health consequences that environmental stressors can have on patients with diabetes. Patients with diabetes may have increased susceptibility to the heat because of impairment of thermoregulatory mechanisms. In addition, prolonged exposure to high temperatures can alter the chemistry of insulin medications (Cook, Wellik, and Fowke, 2011).

Figure 42. A rusting section of the Honor Mercier Bridge from 2011 (Ayala,2011)

As mentioned above, those in the community suffering from lung problems and asthma are threatened by the reduction of air quality caused by higher average temperatures, heat waves, and droughts.

5. Geographic Location

The location of Kahnawà:ke also has an impact on how sensitive we are to the effects of climate change. As a community located along the St. Lawrence river, we are at risk of flooding, and the increased water levels of the river can also worsen the shoreline erosion. Below are maps that show areas of the community that could potentially be affected if the water levels of the St Lawrence were to rise significantly due to climate change based on altitude (fig. 43) and historic flood zones (fig. 44).

Figure 43. Low lying areas (<25m) in Kahnawà:ke that are most vulnerable to river floods (KEPO).

Figure 44 1:100 year flood zone, western portion of Kahnawà:ke (KEPO).

Strengths

Kahnawà:ke also has many things that make our community more resistant to climate change.

Table 11. Top 5 identified strengths of Kahnawà:ke to climate change.

1. Influence of Kanien’kehá:ka Culture

2. Experience Dealing with Change

3. Availability of Resources

4. Wetlands & Natural Environments

5. Sewage and Water Treatment Plants

1. Influence of Kanien’kehá:ka Culture

The prevalence and influence of Kanien’kehá:ka culture is considered a vital strength of the community By extension, our connection to the land is also considered a strength since it allows us to recognize the role of the natural environment as a life supporter for human beings (McComber, 2020), which makes us more inclined to engage in climate action as it aligns with our values to protect Mother Earth.

There is a growing motivation among Kahnawa’kehró:non to return to or to strengthen traditional ways, which provides a lot of adaptive capacity. Many of our traditional teachings and ways of life offer essential survival skills, such as planting, foraging, picking and preparing medicines, and hunting and fishing. We are fortunate to have many people in the community who actively participate in such land-based living and keep the knowledge alive to pass on. Increasingly, Kahnawa’kehró:non are returning to planting gardens, canning and preserving food, animal husbandry, maple tree tapping, and fishing/hunting/trapping. Some Kahnawa’kehró:non are dedicated to producing significant amounts of food for their family, and trading among friends and family (Delormier et al 2018).

These skills will become increasingly useful in a future with climate change. Whether it be food shortages due to drought, or power outages during the winter, knowing how to survive without depending on supermarkets, reliable electricity, or running water can be vital.

2. Experience Dealing with Change

Kahnawà:ke has dealt with and responded to many environmental emergencies [fires, ice storm, flooding, blizzards] in the past. Kahnawa’kehró:non are proactive, innovative and resilient even under high stress situations, with many community members possessing a wide range of knowledge, skills, and experiences related to community safety and crisis response.

“We learned how resilient Kahnawà:ke could be, we learned that in time of need, the community could pull together,” Arnold Lazare, Ex-Fire Chief, on the Ice Storm of ‘98, (Deer, 2019b)

In March 2020, the community stepped up to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic. A COVID-19 Pandemic Task Force and an accompanying website and Facebook page were created to monitor the situation and relay information regularly to the community. KSCS launched an emergency food service that provides hot meals twice a day for elders and those with limited mobility or dietary restrictions. KSCS also expanded an existing food bank service (Kahnawà:ke Food Basket) by delivering a food box to those struggling financially. In addition, a local restaurant volunteered to prepare meals for community elders.

“It’s never easy when the community is faced with an emergency situation. However, overall, it brings the community together. We gather all our resources and find a way to work together to ensure the safety of our community.” - Robyn Montour, General Manager of Kahnawà:ke’s Public Safety Unit (Fedosieieva, 2019).

The people of Kahnawà:ke come together and share resources in order to meet the basic needs of the community such as food, water and clothing during times of crisis. As the climate crisis becomes more present in our community, our community spirit and cooperation will play a major role in ensuring that our people are safe, fed, and psychologically sound.

3. Availability of Resources

The physical infrastructure, and human and financial resources of Kahnawà:ke provide some resilience to climate change. For example:

• The MCK Public Safety Unit receives email notifications from nearby municipalities whenever there is severe wind, snow, rain or other weather systems from Chateauguay to La Prairie.

• The Public Safety Division of the MCK, the Kahnawà:ke Peacekeeper’s, and the KFB operate Kahnawà:ke 911, which is a central information hub for emergency service-related situations on Facebook.

• There is an Emergency Preparedness Law that outlines authorities during emergency situations.

• All the schools in Kahnawà:ke have been designed to act as shelters for the community, which includes Kateri, KSS, Indian Way, Karihwanoron, and Karonhianónhnha Tsi Ionterihwaienstáhkhwa.

• During heatwaves, the Turtle Bay Elders’ Lodge, the library, and the Kateri hospital provide relief for those who do not have air conditioning.

• In the event of power outages, each major council building has a generator, and an extra generator is available for a reception center if needed.

• An Emergency Broadcast System and Emergency Location Mapping system have been implemented in the community.

The development of these technologies and plans are the result of many years of experience, providing Kahnawà:ke with a strong foundation to enhance our adaptive capacity.

4. Wetlands & Natural Environments

Kahnawà:ke is composed of large tracts of natural landscapes. 20% of the territory is comprised of wetland ecosystems, which convey resilience to our community. Wetlands deliver many critical ecosystems services, such as sequestering carbon, improving water quality and supply, absorbing floodwaters, providing habitat for wildlife and hosting many traditional medicines used by the community. Wetland networks also allow species to move to cooler areas to adapt to rising temperatures (Medwet, 2019; WWA, 2018). Kahnawà:ke also possesses large areas of forested habitat, which provide a variety of benefits such as wood and non-timber forest products like foods and medicines, and regulating services (such as storm flow regulation) that reduce our vulnerability (Behr, 2015).

5. Water & Sewage Treatment Plants

The sewage treatment plant and the water filtration plant of Kahnawà:ke provide resilience to some effects of climate change. Kahnawà:ke has separated storm and sanitary sewers. As a result, during times of flooding, sewage treatment services can continue to function normally (Sky, 2020).

Secondly, for the water filtration plant, flooding does not seem to cause flow problems due to the gravity supply of source water from the St. Lawrence river. There was also a new supply line installed from the raw water well to the water plant to allow more intake capacity (Montour, 2020a).

Identified Stakeholders

Climate change affects the community as a whole and successful adaptation to its effects will require collaborative efforts of individuals, businesses and organizations in the community. Below is a list of stakeholders in the community (and their associated mandates) that were identified as relevant collaborators to help the community mitigate and adapt to climate change.

Stakeholder Mandate Website

MCK – Executive Director’s Office

The Executive Office works with the Office of the Council of Chiefs and the Grand Chief's Office to oversee political decisions being made in the community.

MCK – Capital This unit is mandated to oversee the construction of community facilities and assist with the planning, prioritizing and carrying out of projects proposed by MCK units and/or community organizations.

MCK – Public Safety Public Safety works to ensure the safety and physical well-being of the public through the delivery of prevention strategies, advocacy, education, and strategic planning regarding issues related to public safety within the community.

Mandated to serve as law enforcement within the community. Daily tasks include patrolling, issuing tickets to offenders, responding to calls for assistance, and promoting safety to the public.

Mandated to provide services to the community such as fire suppression, evacuation procedures, fire protection, fire prevention, fire inspections, alarm functions, testing of emergency plans, building codes compliance and emergency medical response and ambulance service. Daily tasks include responding to calls for assistance for both fire and medical emergencies, conducting fire safety inspections, training of personnel, providing

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/edo/

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/cap/

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/cpu/

Table 12. Stakeholders of the community and their relevance to the KCCP.

1. Kahnawá:ke Peacekeepers

2. Kahnawá:ke Fire Brigade

MCK – Public Works

safety information to community members, and responding to mutual aid calls.

3. Safety and Health

Mandated to provide safety awareness, prevention and promotion regarding community and occupational safety. Daily tasks include conducting on-the-job safety inspections, following up on safety related public requests to investigate potential hazards, and providing injury prevention materials to employees working in the community. The Occupational Safety Department also provides training courses to assist employers and employees with courses that promote safety in the workplace.

4. Animal Protection

Mandated to enforce the Kahnawà:ke Dog By-law by ensuring stray animals are re-united with their owners and kept tied up or fenced in. They also provide advice to owners on management of their pets. Daily tasks include 24 hour / 7 Days-a Week response to reports of uncontrolled dogs or other animals, patrolling of Kahnawà:ke to ensure the Dog by-law is being followed, care and feeding of animals in custody, transferring care to the SPCA of unclaimed animals, and clean-up of carcasses from public roads.

5. Emergency Preparedness Planning

Mandated to provide leadership, education and support to the community regarding protection from all types of hazards. Daily tasks include conducting hazard analysis of areas within the community, updating emergency response plans, preparing exercises to test those plans, and keeping in contact with committee members to ensure there are no major problems that could affect our community in a disastrous way.

This unit is mandated to maintain the community’s infrastructure, buildings, vehicles, heavy equipment and all public roads. It is composed of the following divisions:

• Building Maintenance

• Heavy Equipment

• Infrastructure Operation and Maintenance

• Maintenance Management

• Roads

• Town Garage

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/pwu/

MCK – Sports and Recreation

MCK – Finance

• Transportation (school bus)

• Waste Management

This unit is mandated to promote and support sports and recreation in the community to improve the health and well-being of Kahnawa’kehró:non.

This unit is comprised of four departments / units that serve the internal operations of the MCK.

1. Administrative Services

Mandated to manage the procedures and practices of the administrative component of the MCK, providing overall guidance and direction to the administrative services departments.

2. Financial Services

Mandated to manage the finances and providing financial and accounting services to the MCK

3. Human Resources

Mandated to provide MCK employees with a human resources program that allows them to meet the needs of the community and assist in their professional development and career aspirations.

4. Information Systems

Mandated to ensure the MCK computer network and computer operations run properly and to provision the necessary services to allow their clients to accomplish their daily work with minimal disruption. They are also involved in longer-term planning and goal setting to assist MCK departments in their information management projects.

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/sru/

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/fa/

MCK –Environment Protection

This unit is responsible for the strategy, scope and standards that protect and enhance the environment within our territories of Kahnawà:ke, Tioweró:ton and Mohawk Traditional Territory. KEPO designs and implements environmental projects, and provides science-based recommendations that supports sound decision-making for the protection of our land, water and air, following relevant environmental laws, regulations and/or standards.

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/hr/

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/is/

MCK – Lands

This unit is mandated to ensure sustainable land use, client services for land use and mapping, and ensure territorial management of Tioweró:ton

http://www.Kahnawa keEnvironment.com

MCK – Client Based Services

This unit is mandated to assist Kahnawa’kehró:non in acquiring and maintaining a better quality of life through its services, programs and resources which reflect the cultural values and aspirations of the

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/lu/

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/sdu/

MCK –Kahnawà:ke Housing

community and ensures all basic human needs are met for present and future generations. It is comprised of 4 programs:

• Social Assistance

• The Office of the Kahnawà:ke Kanien'kahá:ka Registry

• Recreation

• Kanien'kéha Language and Culture Training Program

This unit is mandated to assist community members in need of new housing, housing repair, temporary housing and those in need of advice and information pertaining to housing matters. These services ensure access to affordable housing, programs to assist in the preservation of existing housing stock, as well as address the needs of individuals for temporary rental housing.

http://www.Kahnawà :ke.com/org/sdu/hou sing/

Iontionhnhéhkwe n Wilderness Skills

Kahnawà:ke Longhouses (The Mohawk Nation Office)

This group provides hands-on teaching/training of traditional wilderness survival skills to the community, such as shelter building, fire keeping, and foraging.

The Mohawk Nation Office (Kahnawà:ke Branch) is mandated by the People of the Longhouse to:

• Establish facilities and to operate a secretariat with the intent of re-establishing the full functions of Nationhood.

• Take direction from the People of the Longhouse through established procedures.

• Ensure statements, written, and spoken, issued from the Office be with the view of creating understanding among the People of the Six Nations and other native groups, reflecting the main aims of the Great Law.

• Cultivate and maintain a Nation to Nation relationship with other governments.

• Maintain at the highest level of credibility and integrity of the Mohawk Nation.

• Maintain the philosophy and principles of the Great Law and endeavor to apply them in today’s reality.

https://www.faceboo k.com/pg/Iontionhnh ehkwenWS/about/?re f=page_internal

http://www.Kahnawà :kelonghouse.com/ind ex.php?mid=5

Kanien’kehá:ka Onkwawén:na Raotitióhkwa

KORLCC is mandated to lead and support all Kahnawa’kehró:non to practice, maintain, and respect the Kanien’kéha language, beliefs, values, customs and

https://www.korKahn awà:ke.org/about

Language and Cultural Center traditions through the development and delivery of cultural and educational activities.

Kahnawà:ke Education Center

KEC is mandated to oversee all programs and services for Kahnawà:ke students attending elementary, secondary, and other post-secondary institutions within and outside of Canada.

https://www.kecedu. ca/about/index

Kahnawà:ke Collective Impact

KCI is a community-wide movement mandated to engage, facilitate, and support community stakeholders in long term discussions, to identify and work towards our ideal social and economic future for future generations.

https://www.Kahnaw à:kestrong.com/about /

Kahnawà:ke Schools Diabetes Prevention Project

KSDPP is mandated to implement and deliver intervention-based activities to the community to prevent type 2 diabetes through the promotion of healthy living for present and future

Kahnawa’kehró:non and for other Indigenous communities.

https://www.ksdpp.or g/elder/about_ksdpp. php

Kahnawà:ke Shakotiia’takehnh as Community Services

This organization is mandated to encourage and support healthy living in the community through activities centered on our core values of peace, respect and responsibility with the collaboration of all organizations in Kahnawà:ke.

The Environmental Health Services (EHS) department of KSCS provides services that ensure a healthy living environment by identifying, monitoring and mitigating health hazards

https://www.kscs.ca/ about-kscs/missionstatement

http://www.kscs.ca/s ervice/environmental -health-services

Kahnawà:ke ’s Economic Development Commission (Tewatohnhi’sákt ha)

Kateri Memorial Hospital Center

KEDC / Tewatohnhi’sáktha is responsible and accountable for the delivery of the following services:

• Workforce Development

• Business Retention & Expansion

• Entrepreneurship & Business Services

• Economic Development Marketing Tourism

• Economic Policy Advisory

KMHC is responsible for strengthening the health and well-being of Kahnawa’kehró:non by providing quality holistic services that respond to the needs of the community.

http://tewa.ca/

First Nations Regional Adult Education Center

The mandate of FNRAEC is to provide a unique learning environment for adult learners with individualized training methods to meet the needs of Indigenous students, offering guidance, support, and planning.

https://www.kmhc.ca /mission.html

https://www.fnraec.c

om/?fbclid=IwAR39m

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Community Engagement

Below are the results of the community engagement component of the KCCP planning process. Six information sessions were held within the community over a span of two months. One was open to the public, while others were presented to specific organizations and demographics in the community. Overall, participation was low (Table 13). Low attendance highlights the importance of continued, innovative outreach to engage community members concerning climate change.

Table 14 shows the number of surveys that were completed by community members at various events in the community. The Christmas Craft Fair yielded the most results, with 60 surveys completed in one day.

Table 13. Details of information sessions in the community.

Figure 45. Youth climate change information session at Tóta Ma’s Café (Emond-lane, 2020).

Table 15 shows the number of interviews that were completed with the stakeholders. Overall, five stakeholder groups were interviewed: IWS, KSDPP, CCP, EPP, and several elders. Of the four community organizations interviewed, climate change mitigation and adaptation planning were not identified in their mandates, with the exception of the IWS group

*interviewed individually or in pairs.

Content Analysis

Analysis of the results of the interviews, questionnaires, and information sessions with the stakeholders and community members yielded several recurring themes, namely: ▪

These themes were all related to the overall concern for our community’s ability to adapt to climate change while dealing with the reduction of intergenerational transmission of cultural teachings to youth and

Table 14. Details of the surveys completed by community members.

Table 15. Details of the interviews conducted with the stakeholder representatives.

in turn, reduced widespread participation in traditional activities that make us more resilient. Community members feel that there is a growing divergence between the youth and the land due to the reduced connection between the youth and the elders. The knowledge associated with traditional Onkwehón:we activities such as hunting, foraging, and gardening are at risk of being lost as each generation becomes more influenced by non-traditional ways of life. The respondents also felt that the importance of physical activity, emergency preparedness, land-based living, food security, family ties, respect for wildlife, language, and ceremonies are being lost as we stray further away from the culture.

Several elders pointed out that the teachings within the culture, traditions, language and history, hold the guidance necessary to make our community more resilient to climate change. Encouraging interdependency and the sharing of knowledge in a network would aid in the transfer of education regarding traditional land-based living; a way of life that has sustained our people for millennia. There are still individuals in the community who do have the knowledge and experience with land-based living and can provide guidance in the collective continuation of the culture and traditional skills. There is a need to actively promote the network of people who offer such multidisciplinary skills, as well as a need to create a climate change committee. Both actions were identified as essential for climate change mitigation and adaptation in the community.

The people of Kahnawà:ke recognize that climate change is here and happening now and are willing to contribute in any way they can. Kahnawa’kehró:non would like to see more information sessions and workshops on sustainable living and traditional Onkwehón:we life skills and values. It was also suggested that there needs to be more awareness about the importance of maintaining wetland habitats in Kahnawà:ke, and that Kahnawà:ke should create protected areas in the territory to prepare for a future with climate change. More education on what to do during emergency weather events was also recommended.

One information session in particular (at KSCS) resulted in a list of suggested concrete measures that the community could undertake. These include:

• Maintaining and promoting a centralized data mapping tool within the community

“[There is a] lack of connection with Mother Earth & spirituality & culture –the Earth needs to hear that we care. We need to sing, speak our language, speak to Creation, plant our food, collect our medicines properly, pass on the culture to future generations and give thanks” - Otsi’tsakèn:ra Charlie Patton, Local elder, 2020

• Hosting an annual environmental fair

• Promoting STEM and environmentally conscious careers (i.e. sustainable infrastructure and “green” construction, environmental engineering, sustainable business management, etc.)

• Creating partnerships among key stakeholders (i.e. MCK housing, KCI, the Community Garden, MCK Language & Cultural Center, etc.)

• Adapting housing to the growing population and lack of land (densification of housing, building up, more communal living)

• Encouraging community members to share knowledge and network with likeminded people on social media pages such as: Ieiénthos Akotióhkwa Planting Group, the Community Garden on Highway 30, the Kahnawà:ke (Collective Impact) Food Sovereignty Group, and Stephen McComber’s “Steve’s Garden Tips” for information on planting and agriculture.

Overall, community members of various ages, backgrounds and areas of expertise have expressed concerns over the impacts of climate change to the territory and believe more should be done to protect the environmental integrity of the community for future generations.

Recommended Actions

Recommended mitigation and adaptation actions are the core of this first climate change plan for Kahnawà:ke. Below is a list of ways in which Kahnawa’kehró:non can:

1. Mitigate: reduce and prevent the emission of greenhouse gases

2. Adapt: improve our resilience to the effects of climate change while taking advantage of new opportunities

Although these actions are categorized into adaptation and mitigation, many of them qualify as both. For example, planting more trees mitigates climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide. It also helps the community adapt to the impacts of climate change by providing shade in the future during heatwaves. Likewise, many of the recommended adaption actions have multiple benefits and can improve our adaptive capacity in more than one category of climate change impacts.

KEPO has provided an extensive list of recommended actions to provide a wide spectrum of options to anyone driven to take action in the community. It is worth noting that the following recommendations are not displayed in any order of importance or priority.

Mitigation

Table 16. Community-wide actions to help mitigate our contribution to climate change.

Actions Potential Collaborators

1. Include greenhouse gas reduction targets, policies and actions in our official community plans.

2. Encourage and facilitate the implementation of new technologies and designs that require less energy to provide the same services as conventional systems.

a. Build a charging station network in the community for electric vehicles.

3. Design our streets to make cycling, walking, and riding transit more accessible to reduce vehicle usage:

a. Better lighting and crosswalks for pedestrians

b. Protected bike lanes for bicyclists, and

c. More shelters for people waiting for the bus.

4. Implement food waste policies that aim to reduce the amount of food waste sent to the landfill.

• KEPO

• MCK Executive Director’s Office

• KEDC

• MCK

• KSCS

• Schools

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

• KEPO

• MCK Executive Director’s Office

• MCK Waste Management

• Schools

5. Encourage carbon farming - a way of farming that uses a variety of agricultural methods to help sequester atmospheric carbon into the soil and plants. For example:

a. Plant cover crops that increase water retention and soil nutrients and keep weeds down

b. Use no-till approaches that limits aeration of surface soils and reduces erosion; and

c. Plant diverse perennial forages with deeper root systems for grazing animals. Longer root systems increase organic matter in the soil.

• Community garden on Highway 30

• FNRAEC

• IAPG

• Local gardeners and farmers

Table 17. Individual mitigation actions.

Category Action

Food

• Eat low on the food chain. Carbon emissions from growing, rearing, farming, processing, transporting, storing, cooking, and disposing of meat and dairy are major carbon polluters globally.

• Grow your own food and learn how to preserve it to cut down on food waste and be more prepared with healthy food stores for the winter

• Choose organic, local, and foods that are in season. Food from far away uses a lot of fossil fuels for transport and for cooling to keep foods from spoiling.

• Buy in bulk when possible using your own reusable containers. This reduces packaging waste and minimizes the need to use your car by reducing the number of shopping trips.

• Reduce food waste by planning meals ahead of time, freezing the excess and reusing leftovers.

• Compost your food waste. Contact Waste Management to take part in compost collection.

Clothing

• Don’t buy into fast fashion. Trendy, cheap items that go out of style quickly get dumped into landfills where they produce methane as they decompose. In addition, most fast fashion comes from China and Bangladesh, so shipping it to Canada requires the use of fossil fuels. Instead, buy quality clothing that will last, preferably second-hand/recycled clothes.

• Donate clothes

• Wash clothing in cold water. Doing two loads of laundry weekly in cold water instead of hot or warm water can save up to 500 pounds of carbon dioxide each year.

• Line-dry your clothes

Shopping

• Shop local. When you shop local, you are supporting community businesses and products made locally that was not shipped across the world which lowers your carbon footprint.

• Buy used products. When you purchase used, you save money and save items being produced which helps eliminate the demand on the market for the latest/updated model.

• Reusable bags Bring reusable bags when you shop. Leave some in the trunk of your vehicle, hanging near your door or a spot in your home to create the new habit bringing your own bags with you

• Refuse over-packaged items: Refuse to purchase items packaged in plastic and choose items with less packaging. Contact companies to request less packaging for their products and what they are doing to address climate change and the plastic pollution crisis.

Home

• Do an energy audit of your home. This will show how you use or waste energy and help identify ways to be more energy efficient.

Transportation

• Retrofit your home to improve energy efficiency.

• Seal air leaks with caulking or spray foam.

• Add insulation.

• Upgrade incandescent light bulbs and/or CLF lightbulbs to LED.

• Install solar panels.

• Replace window glazing and doors.

• Update inefficient heating and cooling systems.

• Install low-flow faucets with sensors and automatic shutoffs.

• Replace the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning system with a renewable technology like a ground-source heat pump.

• Install a green roof.

• Switch lights off when you leave the room and unplug your electronic devices when they are not in use.

• Use less air conditioning in the summer; instead opt for fans, which require less electricity. Planting shade trees near windows can also provide much needed cooling

• Plant pollinator-friendly flowers, trees, or a vegetable garden.

• Purchase a hybrid or electric vehicle. The Hydro Québec chargers can be installed at your home for $600, or e-car owners can plug their car into a regular outlet. Electric vehicle costs have become more competitive, and Québec provides an $8,000 subsidy for electric or $4,000 for a plug-in hybrid (Hydro Québec, n.d.).

• Drive less. Walk, take public transportation, carpool, rideshare or bike to your destination when possible. Not only does this reduce CO 2 emissions, it also lessens traffic congestion and the idling of engines that accompanies it.

• Avoid unnecessary braking and acceleration Aggressive driving can result in up to 40% more fuel consumption than consistent, calm driving.

• Take care of your car. Keeping your tires properly inflated can increase your fuel efficiency by 3%. Ensuring that your car is properly maintained can increase it by 4%. Remove any extra weight from the car.

• Combine errands to reduce driving.

• Use traffic apps to help avoid getting stuck in traffic jams.

• On longer trips, turn on the cruise control, which can save gas.

• Use less air conditioning while you drive, even when the weather is hot.

• Avoid flying. Multiple flights per year can quickly become an individual’s biggest source of greenhouse gases.

• Fly nonstop since landings and takeoffs use more fuel and produce more emissions.

• Choose economy class Business class is responsible for almost three times as many emissions as economy because in economy, the flight’s carbon emissions are shared among more passengers; first class can result in nine times more carbon emissions than economy

• Offset the carbon emissions of your travel (Box 10).

Finances

• Divest from fossil fuel companies and encourage your employers to do the same.

• Opt for online banking options (digital receipts, statement of account, etc) when possible.

Politics

• Encourage community decision-makers to prioritize environmental considerations before any projects or major economic developments are approved and keep them accountable.

Box 10. Carbon offsets (Cho, 2018; South Pole, 2020)

Carbon offsets

A carbon offset is an amount of money you can pay for a project that reduces greenhouse gases somewhere else in the world. If you offset one ton of carbon, the offset will help capture or destroy one ton of greenhouse gases that would otherwise have been released into the atmosphere. There are calculators available online that can be used to estimate the carbon emissions of your flight and the amount of money needed to offset them.

You can purchase carbon offsets to compensate for any or all of your other carbon emissions as well. The money you pay goes towards climate protection projects. Various organizations sponsor these projects. For example,

• Less Emissions funds the Vietstar Municipal Solid Waste Treatment Plant in Vietnam, the Nakhon biogas wastewater treatment plant in Thailand, and the Cooker project in Nanyang Danjiang River Region, China.

• Myclimate funds the purchase of energy efficient cookstoves in Rwanda, installing solar power in the Dominican Republic, and replacing old heating systems with energy efficient heat pumps in Switzerland.

Adaptation

Table 18. Community actions to adapt to the impacts of higher average temperatures.

Measures Actions

Protect the community from extended pollen season

1. For future planting efforts, plant species that do not rely on wind dispersal for pollination

2. Develop an awareness-raising educational program to warn the public about changes to the pollen season

3. Install HEPA* filters to all AC units in public buildings to remove airborne particles that might make allergies worse

Potential Collaborators

• All community members and organizations

• EHS

• KEDC

• KMHC

• All organizations

Protect biodiversity

4. Develop a forest conservation plan

5. Develop a watershed and wetland management plan

6. Develop an insect management plan

7. For future planting efforts, select plant species that are adapted to higher average temperatures

• KEPO

8. Research for funding opportunities to conduct a study assessing which culturally significant plant species are at risk in the community

• KEPO

• All community members and organizations.

• KEPO

• IAPG

• Kahnawà:ke Longhouses

• KORLCC

• Other knowledge holders in the community

• Tioweró:ton caretakers

9. Build a seed vault to store culturally significant plant species that have been identified as at-risk in the community

• Kahnawà:ke Library

• Kahnawà:ke Longhouses

• KEPO

• KORLCC

• KSDPP

10. Network with other Indigenous communities and programs involved in ancestral seed conservation (e.g: Haudenosaunee Seed Exchange)

• IAPG

• Kahnawà:ke Library

• Kahnawà:ke Longhouses

• KEPO

• KORLCC

• KSDPP

• Other knowledge holders in the community

11. Research funding opportunities to study and develop invasive species management plan(s) (e.g: Emerald Ash Borer)

12. Develop a St. Lawrence River management plan for Kahnawà:ke

13. Create a network of protected areas in the community

14. Develop and implement wildlife conservation plans

• KEPO

• KEPO

• KEPO

• MCK Lands

• Private landowners

• KEPO

• Other knowledge holders in the community

• Private landowners

• Tioweró:ton caretakers

15. Continue ecosystem restoration efforts and support species recovery (e.g: Tekakwitha Island & Bay Restoration Project)

16. Continue to promote KEPO’s annual tree giveaway and planting events

17. Maintain the KEPO pollinator garden & promote pollinator corridors

18. Research potential funding opportunities to study the potential impacts of higher average temperatures on the infrastructure of the community

• KEPO

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

Adapt winter recreational activities and community operations

19. Adapt outdoor activity programming based on the changing climate (e.g.: activities must be concentrated into shorter time frames, which can lead to higher staffing needs)

20. Retrofit the community indoor arena to increase energy efficiency

• IAPG

• KSDPP

• KYC

• MCK Client Based Services

• MCK Sports and Recreation

Broaden summer recreational activities and community operations

21. Adapt outdoor activity programming based on a lengthening summer season (e.g.: festivals, farmers markets, recreation, longer opening season for splash park, sports fields, bicycle paths)

* HEPA: High-efficiency particulate absorbing

• Sports Complex

Table 19. Individual actions to adapt to the impacts of higher average temperatures

1. Limit water use.

2. Build a greenhouse to provide a controlled growing environment.

3. Learn to identify undesirable plant species in the community and report sightings to KEPO.

4. Reduce stagnant water sources in your yard to keep mosquito breeding at bay.

5. Support insects by planting native plants and avoid planting exotic/ornamental plants.

6. People with asthma should develop an Asthma Action Plan with their doctors and consider installing filters in their air conditioning units to reduce the number of allergen-causing agents in their homes

7. Convert oil, natural gas, or electric heating systems to a heat pump to add summer cooling.

8. Add insulation to help keep your home cool in the summer and reduce bills in the winter.

9. Increase shade around your home by planting trees and other vegetation that lowers surface and air temperatures (consider installing a green roof).

10. Vaccinate your pets from vector-borne diseases.

11. Familiarize yourself with tick identification and removal, as well as symptoms of Lyme disease.

Table 20. Community actions to adapt to the impacts of heat waves.

Measures

Prevent wildfires

Mitigate heat island effect

Actions

1. Explore implementing prescribed fire techniques with KFB as the sole authority of managing activities related to traditional burning practices

2. Map at-risk areas of wildfires

Potential Collaborators

• KFB

3. Increase the biodiversity of at-risk regions

4. Replace surfaces on that absorb solar heat with reflective materials used in building construction and surface coverings, parking lot design, etc

5. Put into place greening strategies (green alleys, green walls, etc.) to conserve, protect and create green spaces around the built environment

• KFB

• MCK Information Management

• KEPO

• KEPO

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

Provide cool off zones

6. Create shaded areas (e.g: increase plant cover, build gazebos, install solar panel roofing in parking lots, etc)

7. Increase public facilities that provide access to water (splash pads, misting stations, electronic water dispensary, beaches, etc.)

8. Increase the number of air-conditioned public spaces and extend service during heat waves

• KEPO

• KSCS

• MCK Sports & Recreation

• MCK Sports & Recreation

• Onake Paddling Club

• All local businesses, restaurants and community centers

• KHMC

• KSCS (Elder's Lodge)

Protect biodiversity

9. Conserve wetlands and mature forests and maintain the connectivity between green spaces

• KEPO

• MCK Lands

• Private Landowners

• KEPO Adapt

10. For future planting efforts, select plant species that can survive through heat waves

11. Keep employees’ training up to date for this type of risk

• Kahnawà:ke Ambulance

• KMHC

• Kahnawà:ke Peacekeepers

• Kahnawà:ke Fire Brigade

• EPP

• KSCS

Table 21. Individual actions to adapt to the impacts of heat waves.

1. Limit water usage.

2. Know the signs and symptoms of heat stress in humans and domesticated animals

3. Check on your neighbours and know where those more vulnerable to heat are in your community (pregnant mothers and young children/infants, people with existing health concerns, people taking certain prescription or non-prescription drugs and elders living alone).

4. Support insects by planting native plants and avoiding planting exotic/ornamental plants.

5. Convert your oil, natural gas, or electric heating system to a heat pump to add summer cooling.

6. Add insulation to help keep your home cool in the summer (and reduce bills in the winter)

7. Increase shade around your home by planting trees and other vegetation that reduce surface and air temperatures by providing shade and cooling (consider installing a green roof).

Table

Measures

Ensure the quality and quantity of drinking water

Actions

1. Continue raising awareness for water conservation strategies

2. Continue drinking water quality monitoring in the community

Potential Collaborators

• KEPO

• Public Works

• EHS

• KEPO

Increase resilience of infrastructures and buildings to soil drying

Increase the resilience of agriculture

3. Research funding opportunities to study the vulnerability of our soils to drought to inform future adaptation measures regarding building criteria

4. Research funding opportunities to perform an assessment of the lands in cultivation to identify the usefulness of installing drainage and irrigation systems

• MCK Asset Management

• MCK Housing

• Community Garden on Highway 30

• FNRAEC

• IAPG

• KCI

• KSDPP

Protect Biodiversity

5. For future planting efforts, select plant species that are adapted to occasional drought conditions

Table 23. Individual actions to adapt to the impacts of drought.

1. Limit water usage.

• KEPO

2. If you have a garden, apply mulch and compost to the soil to reduce the heat and evaporation on the soil’s surface to maintain soil temperature and moisture.

3. Drought can damage crops which makes healthy foods more expensive or unavailable. Supplement fresh fruits and vegetables with frozen, canned, and dried produce.

4. If you live in an area that is prone to wildfires, take extra precautions to safeguard your home and belongings.

a. Keep your gutters and roof free from plant debris at all times.

b. Remove all dead trees, wood, leaves, newspaper piles, gas-powered machinery and anything else that is flammable from around your home.

c. Put together a wildfire emergency plan with your family.

d. Pack an emergency kit to keep in your vehicle should you need to evacuate.

e. Get insurance for house or business fires.

22. Community actions to adapt to the impacts of drought.

Table 24. Community actions to adapt to the impacts of destructive storms.

Measure

Actions

1. Assess which infrastructure in the community are vulnerable or “at risk” to wind, snow, and freezing rain.

• External consultants

• KEPO

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

Potential Collaborators Increase resilience of infrastructure and buildings to wind, snow, and freezing rain

• MCK Asset Management

2. Retrofit vulnerable or “at risk” infrastructure to increase their resilience to wind, snow, and freezing rain.

• KEPO

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

• MCK Asset Management

3. Map areas in the community (powerlines, buildings) that are vulnerable to tree falls during a storm

4. Carry out preventative maintenance on trees (e.g: pruning)

• MCK Public Safety

• MCK Information System

• MCK Public Works

• Local tree service

• MCK Public Works

• MCK Sports and Recreation

Adapt emergency measures in case of prolonged power outages

5. For future planting efforts, select tree species that are less susceptible to breakage

6. Keep employees’ training up to date for this type of risk

• KEPO

• Kahnawà:ke Ambulance

• KMHC

• Kahnawà:ke Peacekeepers

• Kahnawà:ke Fire Brigade

• EPP

• KSCS

7. Increase the accessibility of public spaces equipped with generators and plan to extend opening hours for some service locations

• KMHC

• KSCS

• Kahnawà:ke library

• Local schools

• Mohawk Bingo

8. For future planting effort, select tree species that are less vulnerable to weather damage.

• KEPO

9. Prevent root damage during any construction or maintenance work

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

Table

1. Install carbon monoxide detectors (and inspect them regularly).

2. Make a basic disaster supplies kit to last you 72 hours.

3. Regularly inspect trees on your property and note their state

4. In winter, keep a bag of sand, road salt or non-clumping cat litter in your car. Also, an ice scraper; jumper cables; small shovel to dig snow away from wheels; flares or reflective triangle to warn other motorists if you break down; a blanket; flashlight and batteries; and a first aid kit.

25. Individual actions to adapt to the impacts of destructive storms.

Table 26. Community actions to adapt to the impacts of heavy rainfall.

Measures

Manage rainwater

Actions

1. Direct runoff water toward wetlands or watercourses, as well as toward public infrastructures that could serve as floodable lands over short periods of time during intense rain (parks, soccer fields)

2. During construction projects, choose permeable surface coverings (e.g: porous asphalt or concrete, concrete paving stones and honeycomb stabilizers made of concrete or plastic)

3. Encourage practices and technologies that would allow rainwater to soak into the soil or to be harvested (e.g.: green roofs, gardens and rain barrels, retention basins, etc.)

4. Conserve wetlands and watercourses as per a watershed and wetland management plan

Potential Collaborators

• MCK Public Safety

• MCK Capital

• MCK Sport & Recreation

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

• MCK Asset Management

• KEPO

Increase resilience of infrastructure and buildings to runoff water

5. Install and maintain various devices and pieces of equipment that reduce the risk of flooding (e.g: backwater valves, basement window wells and foundation drains)

6. Construct buildings and infrastructure outside of flood zones

• KEPO

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

• MCK Asset Management

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

• MCK Asset Management

Ensure the capacity of stormwater and sewer systems

7. Develop an emergency plan for heavy rainfall events that prevents discharge of untreated sewage into the natural environment.

8. Sweep the streets more often to remove coarse solids, such as sand and gravel, and other debris in order to prevent storm drains from being blocked

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

Maintain

Adapt emergency measures for heavy rainfall

9. Revegetate riverbanks and riparian strips that are not included in the Tekakwitha Island and Bay Restoration Project

10. Conserve wetlands as per a watershed and wetland management plan

11. Keep employees’ training up to date for this type of intervention

• KEPO

• KEPO

• Ambulance

• KMHC

• Kahnawà:ke

Peacekeepers

• Kahnawà:ke Fire Brigade

• EPP

• KSCS

Table 27. Individual actions to adapt to the impacts of heavy rainfall

1. Get flood insurance.

2. Retrofit your home to prepare for the impacts of heavy rainfall:

a. Raise your home on stilts or piers

b. Install foundation vents or a sump pump

c. Apply coatings and sealants

d. Raise your electrical outlets and switches

e. Install check valves on your pipes

f. Grade your lawn away from the house

g. Direct rain gutters and piping towards storm drains

3. Stay informed on how to prevent frozen water pipes during freeze-thaw events.

4. Learn how to check your sump pump and ensure it is working properly

Table

Measures

Increase resilience of infrastructure and buildings to river floods

Actions

1. Assess the need to relocate or elevating structures out of the floodplains

Potential Collaborators

• MCK Public Safety

• MCK Capital

• MCK Public Works

• MCK Asset Management

2. Restrict developments in floodplains

• MCK Lands

Adapt emergency measures for flood-prone areas

3. Keep employees’ training up to date for this type of risk

• Ambulance

• KMHC

• Kahnawà:ke

Peacekeepers

• Kahnawà:ke Fire Brigade

• EPP

• KSCS

Increase the stability of riverbanks facing erosion

4. Revegetate riverbanks and riparian strips that are not included in the Tekakwitha Island and Bay Restoration Project

5. Pursue the protection of riverside properties in order to protect those environments

• KEPO

1. Move your valuables from the basement or ground floor to an upper floor.

2. Place sandbags in front of each entrance and opening of your home.

3. Remove or secure all objects from your yard that can be easily washed away.

4. Caulk windows.

28. Community actions to adapt to the impacts of river floods.

Table 29. Individual actions to adapt to the impacts of river floods

Table 30. Non-categorized actions to adapt to and address climate change in the community.

Measures Actions

Keep the community informed on climate change

Ensure that community members are trained in emergency response, selfsufficiency, and survival skills

1. Develop a grassroots climate action committee/movement to engage elected officials, the media and the public to create the political will necessary to combat and adapt to climate change. This group would be responsible for ensuring that all residents understand how they can practically mitigate and adapt to climate change while addressing our traditional responsibilities which would help reduce the need to enforce actions.

2. Host workshops and information/training sessions and develop opportunities for intergenerational connection for cultural knowledge transfer.

3. Develop a disaster-scenario newsletter/piece in the local newspapers to provide valuable information on how to respond to a variety of plausible situations.

Potential Collaborators

• KEPO

• Representatives of stakeholders

Provide mental health support for community members

4. Develop a support group for youth experiencing eco-anxiety about climate change

5. Develop a support group for victims of natural disasters as a result of climate change (i.e. flooding, housefires, etc)

• FNRAEC

• IAPG

• IWS

• Kahnawà:ke Longhouses

• KEC

• KORLCC

• MCK – Public Safety

• KSCS

• MCK Client Based Services (Language and Culture Training Program)

• Other knowledge holders in the community

• KMHC

• KSCS

• KYC

• Local schools

• KMHC

• KSCS

Moving Forward

The next step for KEPO is to publish the Climate Change Newsletter online and share it with the community and identified stakeholders. KEPO will continue to work on projects related to climate action that have already been initiated, such as the Tekakwitha Island and Bay Project and the EAB project. In addition, KEPO has a staff member dedicated to community outreach and education who can help continue the conversation on climate change, especially with youth. MCK appreciates the need for dedicated personnel to examine community issues related to climate change and to mobilize the community toward change. KEPO continues to explore additional funding and support, both within and outside Kahnawà:ke, to enhance climate-related monitoring in the community and revise the KCCP.

To support the implementation of the KCCP, KEPO will update their website to include the full list of recommended actions and to regularly update the community on climate action taking place in Kahnawà:ke. The KCCP is projected to be revised every five (5) years, incorporating new or adjusted actions, and feedback from the community and the various stakeholders (as shown in figure 46) The KCCP is a living document and is more useful when it evolves along with our capacity and circumstances.

Figure 46. Climate change adaptation planning cycle. Diagram modified from the 2018 Blackfeet Climate Change Adaptation Plan.

Climate change affects the entire community, and climate action is not the exclusive domain of any specific department or organization. The implementation of KCCP will thus require community-wide efforts, from leadership, businesses, organizations, and individuals. KEPO may adopt a leadership role to guide some collective efforts, however, this is a community responsibility, and everyone has a part to play.

Conclusion

As a Kanienkehá:ka community, Kahnawa’kehró:non recognize the responsibility we have to give thanks, respect the environment and ensure that the cycles of life continue. Climate action whether in the form of mitigation or adaptation, is one way we can fulfill our original instructions.

“According to the traditional teachings of the Haudenosaunee People, the Creator gave each member of the natural world a particular responsibility to fulfill in order to maintain balance and harmony in the universe. Humans were given the important responsibility to nurture a respectful relationship with our family of Creation and ensure that the cycles of life continue”.

Konwaia’tanón:we’s Lynn Jacobs, 2003

Climate change has already damaged our community in unexpected ways. It is expected to bring more profound threats to our community, such as heatwaves, droughts, and more destructive storms. The projected effects of climate change will bring a variety of consequences to the community, including damage to infrastructure, a loss of biodiversity, and disruptions to plant lifecycles, which will impact our health and traditional ways of life.

The development of the KCCP is a response to the increasing threat of climate change that seeks to engage the community to prepare Kahnawà:ke for the impacts of climate change, while encouraging mitigation efforts that promote a sustainable connection and relationship to the environment, Iekhi’nihsténha Tsi Iohontsá:te (Our Mother, the Earth). It is the hope of KEPO that the plan will serve as a base from which to build adaptive capacity, along with future projects, research, and funding and act as a model and resource for other Indigenous communities across Turtle Island.

Glossary

Adaptation Actions: Actions or activities that a person, asset, or system could take to achieve its climate change adaptation or preparedness goals.

Adaptation: The process of adjusting to new (climate) conditions to reduce risks to valued and or/vulnerable assets (i.e. people, places, and ecosystems).

Adaptive Capacity: The ability of a person, asset, or system to adjust to a hazard, take advantage of new opportunities, or cope with changes brought on by a changing climate.

Anthropogenic: Of, relating to, or resulting from the influence of human beings on nature.

Bypass: a secondary channel, pipe, or connection to allow a flow when the main one is closed or blocked.

Climate Change: Any significant change in measures of climate lasting for an extended period (decades or more). Climate change may result from natural processes and human activities that change the atmosphere’s composition.

Climate: Describes the average conditions expected at a specific place at a given time. Measures of a climate often include temperature, precipitation, or wind.

Ecosystem services: Benefits that humans receive from natural systems. For example, filtration of water and air, provision of food and materials, and sequestering of carbon.

Freeze-up: a period of below-freezing temperatures.

Ganienkeh: a Mohawk community located about 2.4 km2 from Altona, New York.

Global Warming: The mainly human-caused increase in global surface temperatures and its projected continuation.

Greenhouse Gas: Any gas that absorbs and emits infrared radiation (heat) in the atmosphere. Examples include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and water vapor.

Humidex: a temperature index used by Canadian meteorologists to describe how hot the weather feels to a person, by adding the effect of heat and humidity.

Hydrology: the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement and properties of the waters of the earth and their relationship with the environment within each phase of the hydrologic cycle.

Impacts: The effects of climate change hazards on human and natural systems.

Kahnawà:ke: Mohawk territory in southern Québec (“By the rapids”).

Kahnawa’kehró:non: refers to people from Kahnawà:ke .

Kahswéntha: Two Row Wampum belt.

Kaianere’kó:wa: The Great Law of Peace

Kanien’kehá:ka: “Mohawk/People of the Flint”.

Mitigation: Processes that can reduce the rate of climate change by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and enhancing sinks (things that absorb more greenhouse gases than they emit).

Ohénton Karihwatéhkwen: Thanksgiving address.

Onkwehón:we: “Original people”. Used to refer to Indigenous people.

Phenology: The study of the relationship between climate and the timing of ecological events such as the date and emergence of leaves and flowers, the first flight of butterflies and the first appearance of migratory birds.

Resilience: The capacity of a community, business, or natural environment to prevent, withstand, respond to, and recover from the effects of climate change while retaining the same basic structure and ways of functioning.

Risk: Often evaluated as the probability of a hazard occurring multiplied by the consequence that would result if it did happen.

Vulnerability: The susceptibility of a system to harm caused by climate change. It encompasses exposure, sensitivity, potential impacts, and adaptive capacity.

Watershed: A watershed is made up of surface water (from lakes, streams, wetlands, and reservoirs) and all underlying groundwater.

Weather: Describes the atmospheric conditions at a specific place at a specific point in time. Weather generally refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity.

Wetland: Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil or is present either at or near the surface of the soil all year or for varying periods of time during the year, including during the growing season.

Sources:

1. U.S Climate Resiliency Toolkit (2020)

2. EPA (2018)

3. St-Regis Mohawk Tribe (2013)

4. USGS (n.d.)

5. Nature (n.d.)

6. EPA (2017)

7. GLG (n.d.)

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1. Ecosystems of Kahnawà:ke

2. KCI Open House Report

3. Timeline of Events

Below is a table summarizing the work completed by the Community Sustainability and Climate Change Coordinator, the Climate Change Technician, and the Project Support Technician over the course of the KCCP.

Dates Milestones

August 29th, 2019 – September 7th , 2019. Promotion of KCCP, the Tree Planting workshop, and Tree Planting event.

September 19th – 21st, 2019

October 1st , 2019 - November 17th, 2019

Execution of the community tree planting event.

Promotion of KCCP

January 8th, 2020 – January 17th, 2020 Conduction of interviews

January 21st, 2020 – February 28th, 2020 Presentation of information sessions

February 28th, 2020 – August 2020

(Work delayed due to global pandemic)

Analysis of interview contents

Production of newsletter and final report

5. Surveys

Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office

Community Sustainability and Climate Change Project

Questions for Elders:

Climate change is impacting our environment and the health of humans leading to a variety of environmental, cultural, social and economic consequences.

1. From your experience and knowledge, what are some of the major environmental changes you have noticed in the past 5 to 10 years?

Spring:

Summer:

Fall:

Winter:

2. What do you think KEPO should be doing to prepare the community for the impacts of climate change?

3. What do you think other community organizations need to do to prepare for the impacts of climate change?

4. Please share what you think individuals should do to prepare for the impacts of climate change?

5. Would you be interested in participating in a climate change adaptation planning team?

Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office

Community Sustainability and Climate Change Project

Questions for Stakeholders:

Climate change is impacting our environment and the health of humans leading to a variety of environmental, cultural, social and economic consequences.

1. From your experience and knowledge as an organizational stakeholder, what is your organization’s major concerns about the impacts of climate change?

2. Does your organization have any plans to mitigate (lessen) climate changes, and / or adapt to the effects of climate change?

3. What do you think KEPO should be doing to prepare the community for the impacts of climate change?

4. What do you think other community organizations need to do to prepare the community for the impacts of climate change?

5. Would you or your organization be interested in participating in a climate change adaptation planning team?

Kahnawà:ke Environment Protection Office

Community Sustainability and Climate Change Project

Questions for Youth:

Climate change is impacting our environment and the health of humans leading to a variety of environmental, cultural, social and economic consequences.

1. From your experience and knowledge about climate change, what are your major concerns?

2. In terms of a healthy environment and the wellbeing of community members, what do you think KEPO needs to do to address the impacts of climate change?

3. In terms of a healthy environment and the wellbeing of community members, what do you think the community needs to do to address the impacts of climate change?

4. Please share what you think individuals should do to prepare for the impacts of climate change?

5. Other Comments: