Data Pickers of the Ocean

Peer-Reviewed Papers

46 Assessment of Detection Capability of Oil Sensors for use in Adaptive Sampling Control of an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

Jimin Hwang, Neil Bose

Memorial University

Brian Robinson

Bedford Institute of Oceanography

62 Technicalities … Ice-avoidance Hardware for Profiling Floats

Hugh Fargher, Bruce MacDonald, Brian Leslie

Teledyne Marine

65 Lodestar … Megan King, Brian Grau, Kathryn Cousens

68 Low-cost Marine Robotic Vehicles for Rapid Assessment of Submesoscale Ocean Processes

Allison Chua, Aaron MacNeill, Douglas Wallace

PUBLISHER (ACTING)

Kelley Santos

info@thejot.net

MANAGING EDITOR

Dawn Roche

Tel. +001 (709) 778-0763

info@thejot.net

ASSISTANT EDITOR

Bethany Randell Tel. +001 (709) 778-0769

bethany.randell@mi.mun.ca

TECHNICAL CO-EDITORS

Dr. David Molyneux Director, Ocean Engineering Research Centre

Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science Memorial University of Newfoundland

WEBSITE AND DATABASE

Scott Bruce

Dr. Keith Alverson USA

Dr. Randy Billard Virtual Marine Canada

Dr. Safak Nur Ertürk Bozkurtoglu Ocean Engineering Department Istanbul Technical University Turkey

Dr. Daniel F. Carlson Institute of Coastal Research Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht Germany

Dr. Dimitrios Dalaklis

World Maritime University Sweden

Randy Gillespie Windover Group Canada

Dr. Sebnem Helvacioglu

Dept. Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering

Istanbul Technical University

Turkey

GRAPHIC DESIGN/SOCIAL MEDIA

Danielle Percy Tel. +001 (709) 778-0561

danielle.percy@mi.mun.ca

Dr. Katleen Robert Canada Research Chair, Ocean Mapping School of Ocean Technology Fisheries and Marine Institute

FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Michelle Whelan

EDITORIAL BOARD

S.M. Asif Hossain National Parliament Secretariat Bangladesh

Dr. John Jamieson Dept. Earth Sciences Memorial University Canada

Paula Keener Global Ocean Visions USA

Richard Kelly Centre for Applied Ocean Technology Marine Institute Canada

Peter King University of Tasmania Australia

Dr. Sue Molloy Glas Ocean Engineering Canada

Dr. Kate Moran Ocean Networks Canada Canada

EDITORIAL ASSISTANCE

Paula Keener, Randy Gillespie

Kelly Moret Hampidjan Canada Ltd. Canada

Dr. Glenn Nolan Marine Institute Ireland

Dr. Emilio Notti Institute of Marine Sciences Italian National Research Council Italy

Nicolai von OppelnBronikowski Memorial University Canada

Dr. Malte Pedersen Aalborg University Denmark

Bethany Randell

Centre for Applied Ocean Technology Marine Institute Canada

Prof. Fiona Regan

School of Chemical Sciences

Dublin City University Ireland

Dr. Mike Smit

School of Information Management Dalhousie University Canada

Dr. Timothy Sullivan

School of Biological, Earth, and Environmental Studies University College Cork Ireland

Dr. Jim Wyse Maridia Research Associates Canada

Jill Zande MATE, Marine Technology Society USA

Academic and Scientific Credentials

The Journal of Ocean Technology is a scholarly periodical with an extensive international editorial board comprising experts representing a broad range of scientific and technical disciplines. Editorial decisions for all reviews and papers are managed by Dr. David Molyneux, Memorial University of Newfoundland, and Dr. Katleen Robert, Fisheries and Marine Institute.

The Journal of Ocean Technology is indexed with Scopus, EBSCO, Elsevier, and Google Scholar. Such indexing allows us to further disseminate scholarly content to a larger market; helps authenticate the myriad of research activities taking place around the globe; and provides increased exposure to our authors and guest editors. All content in the JOT is available online in open access format. www.thejot.net

A Note on Copyright

The Journal of Ocean Technology, ISSN 1718-3200, is protected under Canadian

Copyright Laws. Reproduction of any essay, article, paper or part thereof by any mechanical or electronic means without the express written permission of the JOT is strictly prohibited. Expressions of interest to reproduce any part of the JOT should be addressed in writing. Peer-reviewed papers appearing in the JOT and being referenced in another periodical or conference proceedings must be properly cited, including JOT volume, number and page(s). info@thejot.net

On the

Cover

Open Ocean Robotics offers cutting-edge solutions for oceanographic and maritime data collection. Prioritizing safe, affordable, and sustainable operations, our integrated autonomous robotic platforms coupled with a cloud-based command and control system deliver real-time data for advanced ocean analytics, AI, and monitoring.

DataXplorer™ is our groundbreaking solar-powered uncrewed surface vehicle (USV) equipped with patented technologies. It provides uninterrupted, emissions-free ocean data collection even in the most challenging sea conditions, revolutionizing persistent environmental monitoring.

XplorerView™ is our cloud-based data management and USV control system that enhances real-time data viewing and processing, providing a comprehensive and streamlined decision-making interface.

Open Ocean Robotics can rapidly deploy fleets of these rugged, low-cost, solar-powered USVs to extend operational coverage while maintaining site fidelity. Fleet operations play a crucial role in enabling efficient and expansive monitoring of oceanographic and atmospheric parameters, minimizing mobilization costs, and maximizing sensor capacity.

Our integrated approach addresses multiple applications, including research and exploration, maritime domain awareness, and environmental monitoring. Specific programs supported include monitoring for illegal fishing in marine protected areas, offshore wind farm support, and ocean carbon dioxide removal initiatives. Open Ocean Robotics is revolutionizing how we comprehend and safeguard our ocean, and contributing to a sustainable future. www.openoceanrobotics.com

Copyright Journal of Ocean Technology 2023

OPEN OCEAN ROBOTICS

Publishing Schedule at a Glance

The JOT production team invites the submission of technical papers, essays, and short articles based on upcoming themes. Technical papers describe cutting edge research and present the results of new research in ocean technology or engineering, and are no more than 7,500 words in length. Student papers are welcome. All papers are subjected to a rigorous peer-review process. Essays present well-informed observations and conclusions, and identify key issues for the ocean community in a concise manner. They are written at a level that would be understandable by a non-specialist. As essays are less formal than a technical paper, they do not include abstracts, listing of references, etc. Typical essay lengths are up to 3,000 words. Short articles are between 400 and 800 words and focus on how a technology works, evolution or advancement of a technology as well as viewpoint/commentary pieces. All content in the JOT is published in open access format, making each issue accessible to anyone, anywhere in the world. Submissions and inquiries should be forwarded to info@thejot.net.

Upcoming Themes

All themes are approached from a Blue Economy perspective.

Winter 2023 Smart ships

Spring 2024 Remote operation centres: accessing the ocean

Summer 2024 Deep (ocean) learning

Fall 2024 Sensing the ocean: lights, camera, sensors

Winter 2024 Safety first: humans at sea

Stay informed

Each issue of the JOT provides a window into important issues and corresponding innovation taking place in a range of ocean sectors – all in an easy-to-read format with full colour, high-resolution graphics and photography.

Guest Editor's Note

It has been almost 20 years since I first learned about remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). I had just joined my junior high school’s robotics team and I had no idea how that choice would shape my future. Since then, I have built competition-grade ROVs out of everything from PVC pipe and salad tongs to computerrouted Lexan and Kevlar. I have fixed them in hotels overlooking the beaches of Hawaii, and handled the tether of one flying in NASA’s Neutral Buoyancy Lab. When I graduated as an electrical engineer and turned my hobby into a career, my interests expanded to include autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). I was proud and sometimes frustrated to work on those too, since their autonomy can mean they do not always do what you expect. But AUVs can reach places and see things a tethered ROV never could. Lately, I have been working with autonomous surface vehicles (ASVs) and have been learning about the many ways they can be used. From contributing to mapping the ocean’s expanse, to serving as a delivery drone or short-distance water taxi, ASVs have an exciting future ahead.

Marine vehicles have changed a great deal since I was first introduced to them. Technology has significantly improved, allowing us to see the underwater world in ways veterans of the industry would never have expected. Synthetic aperture sonar can provide 2 cm resolution on an image covering 400 m of seafloor. Cameras on ROVs more than 1,000 m below the surface produce high-resolution images so crystal clear you can count the scales on a deepsea lizardfish. AUVs can operate for days using the latest battery technology, then go to a subsea dock for recharging instead of requiring surface recovery. This past year, an AUV was deployed by a helicopter for the first time, greatly reducing the transit time to areas of interest. Technology is improving everyday thanks to dedicated innovators, and I am happy to showcase a few such people and their technologies within these pages.

While new technology can sometimes be costly, ocean vehicles have become more accessible to the global community. Hobbyists and professionals are sharing their kits, individual components, 3D models, and online tutorials for free or at a low cost so that anyone with an interest, including kids, can build their own ROV, AUV, or ASV. These low-cost vehicles are opening a new world for professional and citizen scientists, reducing barriers to necessary data collection.

There is so much about the ocean we have yet to discover, and ocean vehicles play a critical role in collecting the data needed to understand and fully appreciate our planet. Ocean vehicles

ASHLEY JACKMAN

can operate around the clock for days to collect complete sets of data, acting as a force multiplier. They can be used to cover wide areas as we endeavour to map the remaining 75% of unknown ocean floor. Each year, ocean vehicles reach new places that are too remote and too hostile for people to explore, discovering new worlds beneath the surface. Exploring these worlds now is crucial, since changing conditions mean they may disappear before we even know they exist. These changing ocean conditions are having real consequences, and we need data to understand how to mitigate current problems and prevent future ones. This includes things like monitoring ocean temperature and its impact on fish stocks, as well as learning how the topography of the ocean floor affects waves so that we can predict and prepare for the next storm. Ocean vehicles are necessary to collect this information in a timely manner, while keeping people safely onshore.

I am immensely proud of this issue of the JOT. It is a hefty issue, but we have endeavoured to showcase a variety of aspects of ocean vehicles. Inside you will find articles on new technologies, new uses in scientific research, improvements in search and rescue, and inspiring stories of the determined people who make it all work. This issue should have something interesting for everyone.

Bethany Randell is a project engineer with the Centre for Applied Ocean Technology at the Fisheries and Marine Institute of Memorial University, where she also serves as assistant editor for the Journal of Ocean Technology. In the photo, she stands next to the “brain” (vehicle control bottle) of the Thunderfish Alpha, Kraken’s AUV, which she designed during her time with Kraken.

GlobalBathymetry Now in Reach

byBrianConnon andJamie

McMichael-Phillips

In an ever-evolving world and with the pressing effects of a changing climate, the need to map the ocean has never been more apparent. Encompassing over 71% of the Earth’s surface, the ocean plays a vital role in regulating our climate, sustaining life, and fostering interconnected ecosystems, often being described as our planet’s “life support.” From the food we eat to the oxygen we breathe, it is all ultimately provided by the sea, and yet, despite its significance, only a fraction of the ocean floor has been mapped. The substantial knowledge gap this leaves presents a challenge in ensuring the sustainable management of the ocean – after all, we cannot measure what we do not know.

In 2017, The Nippon Foundation-General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO)

Seabed 2030 Project was launched in a bid to change this (Figure 1). At the time, only 6% of the ocean had been mapped to modern standards, thanks to the efforts of the GEBCO – a joint program of the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO. Seabed 2030 was established to act as a catalyst for this long-standing endeavour.

While the project does not conduct any mapping itself, it seeks to mobilize the

international community in support of this vital goal for the benefit of humanity. It is primarily led by the following three aims: to incorporate all existing data into the publicly available GEBCO global grid; to identify areas for which no data exist and encourage and facilitate data collection in these areas so that we can “map the gaps”; and to identify technology gaps in bathymetric mapping and encourage innovation in these areas.

Based in the U.S., Saildrone is a pioneer of autonomous maritime vehicles. Its global fleet of wind and solar-powered ocean drones monitors the planet in real time, both above and below the surface, and is designed to provide persistent, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly solutions. Saildrone vehicles have spent over 25,000 days at sea –sailing almost one million nautical miles – to meet a range of mission objectives, from the metocean sciences to maritime security.

In April this year, Seabed 2030 and Saildrone announced a new partnership, formalizing their collaborative working relationship. Under the new partnership, Saildrone and Seabed 2030 will leverage technological innovation to enhance ocean mapping activities. This also supports the Ocean Decade, of which Seabed 2030 is a flagship program.

Figure 1: The image shows coverage in the 2023 General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) grid, with a focus on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Black areas of the ocean indicate unmapped ocean, and blues-purples indicate water depth revealed by measured bathymetric data.

VICKI FERRINI AND HAYLEY DRENNON

Capable of long-endurance ocean mapping operations and resilient to adverse weather conditions, Saildrone’s vehicles will play an invaluable role in the quest to obtain vital bathymetric data. The memorandum of understanding was signed during Ocean Business – an event connecting thousands of ocean science and technology professionals from across the globe to define the future of ocean technology – held in Southampton, U.K., a city renowned for its maritime heritage.

Accurate ocean depths and seafloor topography are essential for navigation, coastal management, tsunami forecasting, telecommunications, offshore energy, understanding weather and climate, managing environmental changes, and so much more. But as of this summer, only 24.9% of the global ocean has been mapped, leaving substantial gaps in our knowledge about our ocean. This lack of exploration is largely due to the high cost of accessing the ocean, which has

traditionally been undertaken by large ships that are expensive to build and operate.

Saildrone’s fleet of uncrewed surface vehicles (USVs) represents a paradigm shift in how we explore our ocean. The company’s largest platform, the Surveyor, carries the same cutting-edge sonar equipment as survey ships to deliver high-resolution data to the global community –at a fraction of the cost and carbon footprint. The company partnered with researchers at the University of New Hampshire (UNH) and the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI), supported by a grant through the National Oceanographic Partnership Program, to develop and refine the Surveyor’s impressive capabilities.

The first Surveyor, SD 1200 (Figure 2), was launched in January 2021, with rigorous sea trials conducted throughout the spring, during which the Surveyor successfully mapped 2,833 sq. km of previously unmapped ocean

Figure 2: Saildrone Surveyor SD 1200 sails under the Golden Gate Bridge during sea trials, spring 2021.

SAILDRONE

floor approximately 260 km off the coast of San Francisco. During the mission, it discovered an unknown 800 m “hill.” Over the course of the three-day mission, the Surveyor used its high-efficiency engine only two hours per day and consumed a mere 20 litres of fuel per day. Data quality from the Saildrone Surveyor was assessed by an external team from UNH, which normally calibrates large commercial and government survey vessels with massive carbon footprints. The data quality that the Surveyor can collect has been found to rival that of the most advanced ocean survey ships in use today –meeting or exceeding IHO standards.

In June 2021, the Surveyor departed San Francisco on its first ocean crossing – a demonstration mission for the global mapping community. Data collection during the mission was partially funded by Seabed 2030. This successful 4,630 km transit from San Francisco to Honolulu took 28 days and mapped over 6,400 sq. km of previously unsurveyed ocean (Figure 3).

The United States Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), stretching from the coast to 370 km from shore, is one of the largest in

the world, but it is largely still unmapped, unobserved, and unexplored. Alaska’s coastline is approximately one-third of the entire U.S. coastline, far longer than that of any other U.S. state or territory. And yet, Alaska is by far the least mapped region of the U.S. EEZ. Saildrone Surveyor SD 1200 departed Saildrone headquarters (HQ) in Alameda, C.A., to sail across the North Pacific to the survey area around the Aleutian Islands in July 2022.

For 52 days between August and October, the Surveyor mapped 16,254 sq. km of unknown seafloor around the Aleutian Islands (Figure 4). Mission collaborators were able to follow the data collection in real time. Preliminary data revealed unprecedented detail of the Aleutian arc seafloor, including previously unknown structures, some of which indicate potential hydrothermal vents.

Severe weather is the norm in the Aleutian region, with violent storms and persistent fog. During the mission, the Surveyor was diverted south to a secondary priority area to avoid the remnants of Typhoon Merbok that pounded Alaska with gale force winds. Despite 35-knot winds and wave swells over 5 metres – conditions that would have proved too

Figure 3: Multibeam data captured by Saildrone Surveyor EM 304 while sailing between San Francisco and Hawaii.

SAILDRONE

challenging for most crewed survey vessels –the Surveyor continued to collect high-quality data without risk to human life and with a reduced carbon footprint.

In addition to high-resolution mapping sonars, the Surveyor carried technology from MBARI to sample environmental DNA. Outfitted with the Environmental Sample Processor – a groundbreaking “lab in a can” – the Surveyor was able to collect important clues about marine biodiversity and ocean health from the genetic “fingerprints” left behind by marine life that can inform our knowledge about marine biodiversity and ocean health.

After transiting 3,700 km back to San Francisco and a brief pit stop at Saildrone HQ, the Surveyor was tasked to map additional priority areas a few hundred kilometres off the coast of California. The Surveyor mapped an additional 29,720 sq. km of the U.S. EEZ and discovered a previously unknown seamount standing approximately 1,006 metres high from the seabed (Figure 5). Discoveries like this improve our understanding of the physical processes of the ocean and help scientists identify unique habitats that need further exploration.

The Aleutians Uncrewed Ocean Exploration expedition served as an excellent example of how public-private partnerships and USVs like the Surveyor can increase the pace and efficiency of seafloor mapping and help

us reach national and international goals. Whether used on their own or paired with traditional ship-based operations, USVs can act as force multipliers, expanding capabilities in a way that is cheaper, more environmentally friendly, and safer.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Ocean Exploration is already using some of the preliminary data collected by the Surveyor to inform its exploration of Alaskan waters with NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer during its 2023 field season.

These expeditions, the first for the ship in the region, will fill gaps in the understanding of Alaskan deep waters through mapping and remotely operated vehicle (ROV) operations. This effort will establish baselines to help sustainably manage Alaska’s deepwater resources while contributing to safer navigation, community access, and hazard mitigation. Perhaps as important, these expeditions will provide a deeper comprehension of, and appreciation for, the region’s marine environment.

Saildrone and Austal USA initiated a strategic partnership to scale manufacturing of secondgeneration Surveyor vehicles. The updated, more hydrodynamic design will be 20 m long, slightly shorter to facilitate transport around the globe. With its industry-leading expertise in aluminum shipbuilding, Austal USA is

Figure 4: Amukta Canyon in the Bering Sea, as mapped by the Saildrone Surveyor during the Aleutians Uncrewed Ocean Exploration expedition.

SAILDRONE

uniquely equipped to fabricate the Surveyor’s aluminum hulls, at scale, ensuring rapid expansion of the fleet.

Austal USA will build an additional four Surveyor-class ocean mapping vehicles in Mobile, A.L., this year to meet increasing global demand for uncrewed survey vehicles, and Austal Limited is preparing to build Surveyor-class vehicles in Perth, Australia, for the Indo-Pacific region.

In addition to the deepwater mapping Surveyor, Saildrone recognized the need for a shallow water mapping USV. Mapping in shallow water is more time consuming, and thereby more expensive, than mapping in the deep ocean. The 10 m Voyager is specifically designed for nearshore ocean and lakebed mapping (Figure 6). The Voyager carries the Norbit Winghead i80s for mapping depths less than 300 metres, as well as an integrated winch and inductively

Figure 5: Top and side views of the 1,000 m seamount mapped by Surveyor SD 1200 using its Kongsberg EM 304 echo sounder discovered off the coast of California.

SAILDRONE

SAILDRONE

charged AML Oceanographic sound velocity profiler capable of reaching 200 metres depth. Featuring onboard data processing and quality control, the Voyager can also provide seafloor classification, nautical chart validation, habitat mapping, and a host of other data for scientific use.

Coastal areas are dynamic and vital ecosystems that bridge the interface between land and sea, supporting a wide range of ecological, economic, and cultural activities. However, with rising sea levels, increasing coastal erosion, and the growing frequency and intensity of storms, these regions face significant challenges.

Understanding the coastal seafloor is critical to modelling storm surge, sediment transport, waves, and currents. Coastal resilience in the face of a rising sea level and increased tropical storm activity is a key beneficiary of Voyager’s bathymetric data.

Current efforts to identify existing datasets for inclusion in GEBCO have been very successful; however, that line of effort will provide less and less usable data over time. A lack of survey ships and funding for data collection top the list of challenges facing Seabed 2030. Survey ships are in demand for many projects, from ocean exploration to renewable energy, and the costs to build,

Figure 6: Saildrone Voyager equipped for ocean mapping.

SAILDRONE

maintain, and operate them continue to grow. Now, USVs such as Saildrone Surveyor and Saildrone Voyager offer an ocean mapping capability that has equivalent technology, greater endurance, and improved safety, all at significantly lower costs than traditional survey ships. USV production can be quickly scaled up to provide needed capacity in the short term, whereas ship building programs take years of effort to produce a single hull.

No one opposes mapping the ocean; in fact, many feel it is imperative to do so. Yet, the majority of mapping campaigns around the world are focused on national interests and priorities. This makes sense as nations look to protect or exploit resources within their own EEZs. Not all maritime nations, however, have the capability to map their own waters nor possess the funding to outsource the work. And the high seas are even less likely to be surveyed unless there is an economic reason to do so, for example, exploring areas for deepsea mining. If one were to exclude EEZs from the calculation of unmapped seafloor, the remaining high seas are less than 15% mapped (approximately 31,874,043 of 212,881,389 km2).

The question remains: how can funding be identified and directed towards ocean mapping?

First, continue to encourage countries actively mapping their national waters to provide results to Seabed 2030. Not all countries are willing to volunteer their data for fear of exploitation by an outside entity, so this will require continued outreach and negotiations by Seabed 2030 to bring this data into the fold.

Second, focus on small islands and developing states (SIDS). SIDS face unique challenges in managing their coastal environments due to their limited land resources, susceptibility to natural hazards, and dependence on fragile ecosystems. As a result, these regions require effective tools to support their sustainable development and resilience. Coastal mapping has emerged as a crucial asset for small islands

and developing states, providing numerous benefits that contribute to their socio-economic progress and environmental preservation. These benefits include the enhancement of disaster preparedness and risk reduction, supporting climate change adaptation and mitigation, informing coastal infrastructure development, and the overall management and conservation of marine resources. The key will be assisting SIDS to build successful funding proposals to global financial institutions with programs designed to assist these vulnerable countries address climate change, improve resilience, and enhance their economies.

Third, incentivize mapping the high seas by developing programs that encourage corporations, philanthropic organizations, individuals, and governments to contribute by funding mapping campaigns. These programs will need to provide a return on the investment to the contributor beyond “goodwill” marketing. Potential options could include a formal recognition scheme from the United Nations, establishing a carbon credit or similar program for using low carbon solutions, or developing a way for contributions to be combined or matched.

Ocean and coastal mapping offer significant advantages for investors, ranging from risk assessment and site selection to long-term planning and stakeholder communication. By utilizing accurate mapping data, investors can make informed decisions, minimize risks, optimize resource utilization, and ensure the long-term sustainability and profitability of their coastal investments. Integrating coastal mapping into investment strategies demonstrates a commitment to environmental stewardship, regulatory compliance, and, crucially, sustainable development practices.

Case Study: Kiribati

Climate change and sea level rise have had a significant impact on everyday life in Kiribati and other Pacific Island countries. Rising sea levels have caused increased coastal erosion and saltwater intrusion into the freshwater

lens, but the country also has to tackle the impacts of La Niña.

The EEZ of Kiribati is massive, nearly 3.5 million square kilometres in area, which ranks as the 12th largest in the world. Comparatively, Kiribati’s gross domestic product ranks 192 out of 196 countries in the world. Kiribati simply cannot afford to grow an organic capability or outsource the mapping of its EEZ without outside assistance. Affordability and access to technology are important factors in improving hydrographic capabilities and addressing the impacts of climate change in SIDS such as Kiribati, but the significant costs often present an obstacle. Seabed 2030 is committed to bringing together countries and organizations to share resources and expertise to support SIDS with the development of their hydrographic initiatives.

The role of revolutionary technologies such as Saildrone, as well as other cutting-edge innovations, cannot be underestimated in obtaining global bathymetry. We must continue to embrace these advancements, foster opportunities for scientific and technological breakthroughs, and mobilize the community in support of this sizeable undertaking. This is a journey of discovery that calls upon us to work collaboratively to ensure the health and prosperity of the planet’s most abundant and mysterious realm – the ocean. u

Captain Brian Connon (ret.) served 28 years in the U.S. Navy, in posts including director of the Maritime Safety Office at the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, superintendent of the U.S. Naval Observatory, and commanding officer of the Navy’s Fleet Survey Team. Prior to joining Saildrone as vice president of ocean mapping, he was director of the Hydrographic Science Research Center at the University of Southern Mississippi. A certified hydrographer, Mr. Connon has an MS in meteorology and oceanography from the Naval Postgraduate School and an MS in hydrography from the University of Southern Mississippi. He is a chartered marine scientist (hydrography) and serves as editor for the International Hydrographic Review.

Jamie McMichael-Phillips is the director of The Nippon FoundationGEBCO Seabed 2030 Project, a collaborative initiative to inspire the complete mapping of the world’s ocean by 2030 and to deliver this information via a freely available definitive map. A hydrographic surveyor and former Royal Navy Captain, Mr. McMichael-Phillips has worked in a range of leadership roles from running his own marine data gathering missions to directing defence geospatial strategy and plans for the U.K. He has managed government to government relationships for geospatial cooperation and has also led outreach and capacity building of fledgling organizations in marine data collection, assessment, and cartography. Prior to assuming his current role, for over nine years he chaired the International Hydrographic Organization’s Worldwide Electronic Navigation Chart Database Working Group, responsible for monitoring the global footprint of electronic charts required for safe navigation at sea.

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A Multipurpose Technology with Low Environmental Impact

by Darya Subotina and Alessio Canalini

International programs for decarbonization, green energy, and ocean sustainability need to be supported by technologies that not only simplify human work but also respect the environment. Frequently, such technologies have significant costs due to their complex installation and usage, and usually it is difficult to combine a mix of technologies to complete complicated tasks. Working in the ocean is a perfect example of the challenges faced to reach a work site and to stay there for a long time.

The Sea Opportunities Srl developed the integrated platform ETICA IP (Figure 1) to offer a unique solution to the offshore energy and other sectors. This platform is designed primarily to safeguard marine life and to protect the welfare of humans. It provides subsea, surface, and air services without altering aquatic ecosystems while maintaining the highest level of monitoring capacity in real time.

ETICA IP is a remotely operated integrated platform composed of an uncrewed surface vessel (USV) and a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) able to carry out different types of work in various marine environments (Figure 2); it also includes a drone landing area for aerial inspections. Having these features united in one system allows for drastically reduced management costs. Comprised

mainly of recyclable materials, it is powered by renewable energy sources (such as solar panels), causes zero carbon emissions, and has a very low environmental impact.

For nearshore operations, located less than 3 miles (4.8 km) from shore, technicians can operate the system from a fixed or mobile, landbased office. During these operations, the USV is controlled in real time through the cellular network (such as LTE). For offshore operations, taking place more than 3 miles (4.8 km) from shore, the control team can be aboard a mother vessel, using satellite communication to control the USV in real time. This flexibility makes the ETICA IP a revolutionary system for workplace safety. The ROV (Figure 3) goes underwater to a maximum depth of 300 m with an optical fibre umbilical cable and shares its live activities with the customer office worldwide.

The USV and ROV in the ETICA IP are customizable and extremely versatile. The platform allows for the installation of side scan sonar, multibeam, magnetometer, subbottom profiler, USBL system, multiparametric probe, and more on the USV. The ROV can host any type of sensor, sonar, echo sounder, robotic arm, Doppler velocity log, sub-bottom profiler, USBL system, 3D underwater laser scanner, multiparametric probe, and

THE SEA OPPORTUNITIES

Figure 1: ETICA IP offers a unique solution to the ocean industry that protects marine life and the safety of humans while providing subsea, surface, and air services.

Figure 2: The remotely operated ETICA IP platform is comprised of an unmanned surface vessel and a remotely operated vehicle.

Figure 3: The remotely operated vehicle has a maximum depth of 300 m and communicates in real time.

more. This technology can be adjusted to various situations, depending on the scope of work, client requirements, type of contract, regulations of certain countries, and available economic resources, among others.

ETICA IP can be rented with or without technicians and customized according to a client’s requirements, or it can be sold directly with required configurations and training of a client’s technical staff. The system is easily transported between different locations using a van (mobile office) and a trailer to tow the ETICA IP or on board cargo or passenger ships.

This technology can be used in the offshore energy and Blue Economy industries as well as other sectors such as coastal defence, hydrogeological instability surveys, and as a defence and prevention system for navies (for example, unexploded ordnance investigations). ETICA IP is an ideal system for marine surveys while protecting marine ecosystems and safeguarding the welfare of the ocean. u

Darya Subotina joined The Sea Opportunities Srl in 2023 and has become an essential part of the team in administrative work and business development. She holds a master’s degree in European law and has multilingual capabilities and analytical and writing skills. Speaking several languages, she focuses on internationalization and foreign affairs, meeting potential investors and partners, and representing the company at various exhibitions.

Alessio Canalini is CEO and founder of The Sea Opportunities Srl that, since 2017, is involved in R&D, underwater engineering, ROV production, and subsea services for ocean sustainability and the Blue Economy. As a maritime archaeologist, he has 20 years of experience in the underwater industry working as a scuba diver, ROV pilot, surveyor for underwater positioning services, and carrying out underwater activity by means of divers and new subsea technologies. Mr. Canalini generates new ideas about innovation technologies to improve the Blue Economy while safeguarding the marine environment.

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The Teledyne Slocum Glider is Launched from Navy Helicopter

by Rhonda J. Moniz

The United States Navy was established in 1775 when the Continental Congress needed to defend its seas and ports from the British. It has long been at the forefront of technological innovation, especially regarding ocean science, surveillance, and exploration. Recently, a remarkable collaboration between Teledyne Marine and the U.S. Navy saw the successful deployment of a Teledyne Marine Slocum glider from a U.S. military helicopter. The Teledyne Marine Slocum Glider from Teledyne’s Webb Research division is a versatile autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) that has proven invaluable in gathering critical oceanographic data for the military. The successful deployment of the Slocum glider was significant and highlighted the capabilities of the glider and its contributions to marine research and military operations.

Helicopters were first used for ship-based operations during the Second World War. Their unique ability to take off and land vertically made them invaluable for anti-submarine warfare, rescue missions, and reconnaissance. Following the war, helicopter design and technology advancements allowed them to operate more efficiently from ships, expanding their roles in maritime operations. Helicopters have become indispensable assets for various tasks at sea. The deployment of a Teledyne Slocum glider from a U.S. military helicopter in the Arabian Sea marks a significant milestone in underwater technology and operational capabilities (Figure 1). The significance of this successful deployment highlights the capabilities of the Slocum glider and its contributions to marine research and military operations. This achievement showcases the Navy’s commitment to harnessing cuttingedge technology for scientific and military purposes. The glider’s autonomous capabilities, versatility, and data collection capabilities make it valuable for marine research and military operations. As technology evolves, integrating innovative platforms like the Teledyne Slocum glider into operational strategies promises even more significant advancements in oceanographic research and maritime security.

The Teledyne Slocum glider is well known for its long-duration missions and efficient operation. The glider was equipped with several sensors for this mission, including a Seabird CTD (conductivity, temperature, and depth) sensor and a Sequoia LISST-Tau transmissometer. Teledyne Slocum glider is designed for extended missions in challenging marine environments. Its unique propulsion system enables it to operate efficiently, silently, and with minimal disturbance to the marine ecosystem. Deployment from a helicopter extends its operational range and allows access to remote areas that were previously inaccessible. This deployment method provides enhanced surveillance capabilities for military operations in coastal and maritime security missions. The glider’s autonomous and silent operation allows careful monitoring of marine areas of interest, providing real-time data on temperature gradients, currents, and potential threats. Its ability to be deployed rapidly from a helicopter offers a flexible and responsive platform for intelligence gathering, mine countermeasures, and anti-submarine warfare, among other applications.

This is a game changer for scientists as well. In marine research, the glider’s ability to autonomously collect a wide range of oceanographic data over extended periods and large spatial scales provides invaluable insights into various ecological and physical processes. It will enable researchers to study critical ecosystems and monitor oceanographic changes that could improve our understanding of climate change in the marine environment.

The Deployment

Teledyne engineers worked closely with the U.S. Navy to design the Concept of Operations. First, the team needed to consider the capabilities and limitations of the MH53E helicopter. Wind and weather can make helicopter operations challenging. Identifying mission objectives, assessing weather conditions and potential operation constraints, and determining optimal deployment locations are crucial to mission success. The Slocum

glider also underwent rigorous approval by the team, undergoing pre-deployment checks and calibration to ensure all sensors, communication systems, and navigation capabilities function. The glider’s data storage device to collect and store data throughout the mission had to be verified along with any other specialized sensors or instruments in the system’s payload that were tailored to specific objectives throughout the task. This meticulous planning ensured a comprehensive understanding of the deployment objectives and a well-coordinated approach to achieving them.

In preparation for the deployment, the glider was transported to the site and securely attached to a specially designed deployment system. The release of the AUV was controlled and carefully timed to execute the glider’s trajectory for a smooth transition from the helicopter into the sea (Figure 2). Once the glider was deployed, its autonomous capabilities came into play as it began its programmed mission and navigated through the water column, changing its buoyancy and propelling itself forward while periodically surfacing to communicate with satellites. Satellite communication allows it to send

Figure 1: The deployment of a Teledyne Slocum glider from a U.S. military helicopter in the Arabian Sea marks a significant milestone in underwater technology and operational capabilities. The glider’s autonomous capabilities, versatility, and data collection capabilities make it valuable for marine research and military operations.

Figure 2: In preparation for the deployment, the glider was transported to the site and securely attached to a specially designed deployment system. The release of the autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) was controlled and carefully timed to execute the glider’s trajectory for a smooth transition from the helicopter into the sea.

data transmissions and receive updated mission instructions, if required, throughout the mission. The Teledyne team created specific flight control missions tailored for the glider’s first-ever deployment from an aircraft. Additionally, Teledyne engineers developed protocols for piloting the glider in the operational area designated for the demonstration. These efforts ensured the glider’s readiness and optimized its performance during the deployment.

Next, the team turned its attention to mission monitoring. While the glider operated in the Arabian Sea, the monitoring and actual piloting took place in the U.S. at Teledyne’s North Falmouth facility in Massachusetts. This remote monitoring capability exemplifies the glider’s advanced technology and ability to be controlled and monitored separately. Real-time monitoring enabled the glider operations team to make necessary adjustments to mission parameters and ensure the success of the deployment.

The Future of Remote Operations

Remote technology holds immense opportunities and potential for advancing our understanding, exploration, defence, and management of our ocean. As the technology develops, allowing for enhanced autonomy, improved sensor capabilities, longer endurance, and advanced processing techniques, the future of remote technology in the ocean holds great promise. From maritime domain awareness and surveillance to intelligence analysis and environmental monitoring, remote sensing plays a vital role in protecting national interests, ensuring maritime safety, and safeguarding critical marine environments. The collaboration between the U.S. Navy and Teledyne Marine in successfully launching a Slocum glider from a military helicopter pushes the boundaries of collaboration and innovation. It demonstrates the potential impacts on ocean exploration, scientific research, and maritime operations, benefiting science and defence. Integrating remote sensing in vast areas of the ocean that

are inherently difficult to access by other means will undoubtedly open a new world in contributing to the preservation and sustainable use of our planet’s most remote and critical marine environments. It also does not hurt that it is a cool way to launch a glider. u

Rhonda J. Moniz is a highly accomplished and renowned underwater forensics expert specializing in diving technologies and subsea systems. With over 25 years of experience as a remotely operated vehicle pilot, master dive instructor, scientific diver, and dive safety officer, she has demonstrated exceptional expertise in overseeing multiple investigations, diverse field projects, expeditions, and training programs. In addition to her work as an explorer and diver, Ms. Moniz has made significant contributions to the media industry as a journalist and filmmaker. She has served as a subject matter expert for renowned media outlets such as CBS, CNN, Discovery, the Oxygen Channel, and PBS productions, lending her expertise to various television shows. She served most recently as a subject matter expert for CNN in its coverage of the Titan submersible tragedy. She is the president of the board of directors for the Northeastern Regional Association of Coastal Ocean Observing Systems and heads the Technology Subcommittee for the Regional Wildlife Science Collaborative for Offshore Wind.

by Daniel Gomez-Ibanez and Borja Serra

Your underwater vehicle is skimming the seafloor returning crystal clear images and dissolved gas concentrations. On a good day, it feels like magic. Other days, things do not go as planned. Sensor measurements may be erratic or major subsystems may stop working entirely. When failures are caused by interactions between components that are supposed to be independent, they can be difficult to diagnose and resolve. Guest ports in underwater vehicles can prevent cascading failures and make every minute count.

A guest port is a type of ocean vehicle expansion interface with protective functions. When adding a new sensor, it could be plugged into an unused penetrator, and vehicle power routed to the sensor’s power input. This ad hoc integration may work well initially. However, a guest port ensures that payloads do not compromise each other or the

host vehicle for long-term reliability. A guest port’s protective functions are implementation dependent, but generally include a universal connector, power supply, overcurrent protection, and serial communication. Galvanic isolation or other features may also be included. These features, described in this essay, work together to ensure reliable operation of the underwater vehicle system.

The first use of the term “guest port” dates to 1996. Eight guest ports were included in the design of the LEO-15 cabled ocean observatory at Rutgers University. LEO-15 was designed to host sensors for collection of long-term time-series measurements. Various independent sensors would be installed and replaced by divers. Rewiring the host platform for each sensor would not be feasible. While individual sensors might fail, the core platform should continue to operate uninterrupted.

Figure 1: Guest ports are ocean vehicle expansion interfaces with protective functions that work to ensure reliable operation of an underwater vehicle system. BLUEYE ROBOTICS

The concept of the guest port was born from the need for a common sensor interface and reliable operation over multiple decades.

Connector

A guest port usually includes a multipin electrical connector, which marks the physical boundary between the host vehicle and guest payload (Figure 1). Rewiring the host platform for each new payload is a documentation nightmare and introduces a risk of unwanted side effects. A guest port connector has pins assigned at birth to accommodate a wide range of future payloads.

Power Supply

A guest port includes one or more power supplies. For example, a guest port may include a 12V, 1A, supply that could be used for a low power fluorometer; and 28V, 20A, which would be a better fit for a mapping

sonar. To avoid damage to payloads, different fixed voltages use different pins of a multipin connector (Figure 2). Guest ports may measure their own supply voltage and current since these are valuable diagnostic aids. If energy is limited, the vehicle should be able to turn off power to payloads to extend run-time and prioritize survival of the host platform. When switching, the power supply should be tolerant of capacitive and inductive loads.

Overcurrent Protection

A guest port should include overcurrent and short circuit protection for all conductors. Water ingress, mechanical abuse, or payload failure can create a short across a guest port power supply or cross the power supply with serial lines, resulting in excessive current in these conductors. Without overcurrent protection, overloads can propagate upstream, causing a brownout for other payloads or

Figure 2: To avoid damage to payloads, each power supply pin in a multipin connector is assigned a single fixed voltage.

resetting the vehicle controller. Overcurrent protections interrupt this chain of events. Guest ports may also be protected against other transients including hot plugging and electrostatic discharge.

Serial Communication

One or more serial communication links support each sensor payload, allowing data to be exchanged with the host. While no single interface will satisfy all applications, the combination of RS232 and Ethernet covers the vast majority. High-resolution mapping payloads may need pulse per second and Doppler velocity log synchronization pulses. These timing signals can be included in a guest port using dedicated pins in a multipin connector. Guest ports may use differential signals, filtering, and shielding to avoid data corruption.

Ground Faults

A guest port can prevent problems caused by electrical current flowing in seawater. Also known as ground faults, seawater circuits are usually not intentional and can cause accelerated corrosion of metals as well as data corruption. Ground faults are especially important for high-voltage and high-value systems such as human occupied vehicles, where the consequences of failure are severe. Guest ports may be designed to galvanically isolate payload connections and continuously measure insulation resistance.

Guest ports may implement other helpful functions. They may include dedicated leakdetect pins to detect water ingress in a payload. Some systems may be configured to recognize known payloads and configure vehicle software drivers automatically.

Figure 3: This Blueye X3 is integrated with an optional multibeam sonar. Guest ports facilitate sensor integration and promote reliable vehicle operation with multiple sensors.

Guest ports improve the reliability of ocean vehicle operations in several ways. Because the interface is well-defined, payload integration is deterministic. A vehicle with guest ports is protected against cascading failures. Diagnostic information provided by a guest port, such as supply current or insulation resistance, can highlight problems with payloads before they cause unanticipated downtime (Figure 3).

From an operator’s perspective, a guest port streamlines the addition of new payloads, thus allowing a single vehicle to be used for more than one job. From a vehicle designer’s perspective, a guest port requires careful implementation, but this upfront investment extends the life of the platform and pays dividends when new payloads are integrated. u

Daniel Gomez-Ibanez is a senior engineer at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. He is interested in underwater vehicle system design and reliability.

Borja Serra is the lead electronic engineer at Blueye. He has developed specialized guest port connectors with the Blueye team for its latest platform X3.

As uncrewed systems become more widely adopted for a range of maritime tasks, the field of search and rescue (SAR) is also benefiting from drone technology. For example, Bristow Helicopters operates drones for HM Coastguard in the U.K. and drones also support efforts to search for migrants crossing the Mediterranean Sea and the English Channel.

Although various uncrewed SAR vessel concepts have been trialled, to date none have reached commercialization. All these concepts have required the person in distress to self-rescue, i.e., climb aboard, which of course is not possible if they are unconscious or incapacitated.

Scottish start-up Zelim is on a mission to make unmanned search and rescue the norm and has developed SAR solutions that function in all scenarios. The company’s technology is changing how people in distress are found, recovered, and protected.

Founded by career mariners, Zelim aims to create a step change in offshore safety, whereby rescuers no longer need to risk their lives to save others and rescues can be carried out in conditions previously deemed too extreme for humans.

Emergency Response Revolution

Zelim has its sights set on revolutionizing emergency response for the whole maritime sector but has focused to date on the fast-

growing offshore energy market to launch its technology. In June 2022, the team conducted live demonstrations of its search and rescue technology to the U.K. and U.S. coast guards at Race Bank Offshore Wind Farm, off the coast of Norfolk in the U.K.

More recently, in May 2023, Zelim demonstrated its award-winning Swift Rescue Conveyor system to stakeholders at Vattenfall’s Ramsgate (U.K.) offshore wind cluster. The system was around four times faster in safely recovering man overboard situations in the harbourside demonstration –and 20 times faster offshore.

Significant advances in communications technology, such as low Earth orbit satellites and improvements in LTE cellular networks, have positively impacted Zelim’s technological development process by significantly reducing the latency in remote/over the horizon operations offshore. Latency is a key consideration for manoeuvring a vessel that is saving lives. These new communications capabilities also enable additional levels of redundancy with different communication options available for remote operation.

The company will release Guardian (Figure 1), the world’s first fast rescue craft with the flexibility of both crewed and unmanned operation modes, in 2024. The vessel is currently under construction at Coastal Workboats’ shipyard in Devon, U.K.

ZELIM

Figure 1: Guardian is the world’s first fast rescue craft with the flexibility of both crewed and uncrewed operation modes.

Watching over the Water

The remote controlled and artificial intelligence (AI) enhanced Guardian enables instantaneous, effective casualty recovery at sea, even in rough weather. During uncrewed operation, the remote pilot can switch to autonomous search or transit mode, taking back control when the incident location is reached to commence casualty recovery. Alternatively, the vessel can be deployed with crew on board. It has capacity for two crew members (if required), nine survivors, and one stretcher. In uncrewed mode, 11 survivors and a stretcher can be accommodated.

The Guardian has been designed for a line-of-sight range of 15 nm and six hours’ endurance and is capable of operations in sea state 6 conditions and beyond (testing is limited to sea state 6 but the capability to go beyond is there, albeit unproven). Zelim’s AI-enabled, machine learning, casualty detection and tracking solution, SARBox, is a key feature on board. SARBox can detect multiple people in the water, day or night, storm, mist, or fog. The AI automatically detects people in the water, providing a visual and audible prompt to the remote pilot so they can focus in on the casualties.

Protecting Casualties and Rescuers

Speed is everything in a rescue situation and humans can often be the limiting factor, with the time taken to alert and mobilize a rescue team meaning valuable minutes are lost. With an uncrewed vessel, this time delay is eliminated. In addition to this, Guardian can transit at up to 37 knots even in high sea states, reaching the scene faster and thereby improving chances of successful rescue. A standard rescue craft’s speed is limited in rough seas to avoid impact injury to the crew. Once at the incident location, the Swift Rescue Conveyor can recover someone from the water in a matter of seconds.

Reducing risk to rescuers is vital and complex response decisions are made much easier if risking only equipment, not lives. In addition,

uncrewed rescue vessels can be placed in locations to provide constant emergency cover where it would be challenging and risky to maintain a rescue crew.

People in the Loop

The human element is critical in SAR; supporting the will to survive and giving emergency first aid can be critical in saving somebody’s life. Zelim’s solutions provide additional links in the rescue chain that get people out of the water faster, mitigating the risk of immediate drowning and without risking rescuers’ lives in the process. Casualties can then be handed on in the rescue chain for care and treatment.

The team has worked closely with maritime rescue experts to design the vessel “casualty first,” taking into consideration how people behave when in a state of shock and all aspects of the casualty journey in an emergency. In uncrewed mode, there is a communications link for the remote pilot so that they can talk to the person or people being rescued, comfort them, and provide instructions and information about their onward journey. The human touch, albeit remote, can make a huge difference to morale and the will to survive.

The first-in-class Guardian is the culmination of four years of research and development. The vessel is expected to appear at various maritime industry events following its initial launch in 2024. u

Sam Mayall is the founder and CEO of Zelim. He has spent his life working at sea, starting out as a dinghy instructor, then joining the Merchant Navy and working for several years as a deck officer on platform supply vessels. It was during this service that the idea of remotely operated rescue came to fruition. Mr. Mayall was on duty when tasked to a Mayday call but arrived on scene too late, to find the person tragically drowned. There began the journey to design and build the world’s first unmanned search and rescue vessel. Zelim has already achieved a number of world firsts as the company progresses from concept to proven technology.

ZELIM

Advances in Robotics, Deep Learning, and Actionable Insight

by David Hull and Tim Scott

The invaluable contribution of seagrass meadows as critical ecosystems for marine biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and coastal protection has become increasingly studied and well documented over recent years. However, monitoring these underwater habitats has, until now, posed significant challenges and incurred substantial costs.

As an ecosystem service, the importance of seagrass meadows in providing vital ecological functions cannot be understated. They act as nurseries for marine species by providing shelter and food sources for juvenile fish, seahorses, and countless other organisms. Seagrass contributes to the purification of surrounding seawater and helps to stabilize the seabed, thereby playing an important role in reducing coastal erosion. Seagrass meadows also function as highly effective carbon sinks, sequestering carbon at rates which exceed terrestrial rainforest – a fact that has gained attention from scientists and policy-makers looking toward naturebased solutions as a means of addressing climate change.

But there are obstacles. Traditional monitoring programs for these ecosystems have been heavily reliant on labour intensive and costly diver surveys and camera-based techniques, which are sporadic and often unrepeatable. Ultimately, this restricts the acquisition of widespread spatial coverage, as well as the performance of accurate resurveys to capture temporal changes in the extent of the seagrass. At a time when precious natural capital assets are exposed to a slew of environmental threats, any sparsity of evidence that might support understanding of the rate of expansion or decline in these habitats results is a significant information gap for the practitioners involved in managing them.

Low Impact, Low-cost Robotic Solutions

The good news is that recent technology advances used to observe submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) are demonstrating significant potential to revolutionize seagrass

monitoring. Leveraging the capability of surface robotic platforms and advanced data analysis techniques has shown that accurate and comprehensive spatial and temporal assessment of coverage and density is possible without harming the environment, or the commissioner’s budget.

This essay examines developments in the field realized through a collaborative partnership between the University of Plymouth, recognized globally for its coastal science expertise, and HydroSurv, a U.K.-based ocean technology start-up that designs, builds, and deploys uncrewed surface vessels (USVs). Supported by funding from Innovate UK and the Department for Environment Farming & Rural Affairs, the partnership’s work on seagrass projects at important meadow locations in the U.K. has highlighted a myriad of benefits possible when deploying robotics, deep learning algorithms, and cloud-based data visualization with the aim of driving effective conservation and restoration.

Central to the collaboration is the integration of an advanced sensor array onto small USVs. Since July 2021, the partners have been on a journey to configure solutions for scale commercial adoption in the field of SAV monitoring that provide a comprehensive understanding of seagrass meadows and surrounding environments.

New Developments in Payload and Data Processing

The central component of the USV’s payload is a Valeport VA500 altimeter, recognized for its cutting-edge signal processing capabilities. Having engaged with the University of Plymouth’s early research using acoustic ground discrimination, Valeport undertook custom modifications to the firmware on the instrument exclusively for this use-case, ensuring low noise and high-quality acoustic profiles sampling at up to 10 Hz. Designed for underwater positioning, the VA500 altimeter is typically installed on autonomous, remotely operated, or towed underwater vehicles to

provide precise measurement of the altitude from the seabed. Using advanced digital signal processing techniques, the VA500 effectively filters out ambient noise and focuses on signal returns.

Operating on a frequency of 500 kHz, the VA500 altimeter emits an acoustic pulse and measures the time it takes for echoes from distant surfaces to return. By utilizing the known speed of sound in water, the sensor accurately calculates the distance based on the measured time. Now in their second year of delivering monitoring campaigns with the system, the University of Plymouth and HydroSurv teams have recently enhanced the data accuracy from this sensor by adding additional measurements from a hull mounted Valeport sound velocity sensor to improve the accuracy of the soundings.

Where the standard VA500 altimeter receives multiple signal echoes and must determine which echo corresponds to the seabed, the customized instrument used in this project provides the full echo response. Subsequently, all measured echoes, along with their strength and sharpness, are further analyzed in the processing algorithm. The University of Plymouth’s SeagrassNet deep learning algorithm employs a recurrent neural network to detect and classify the presence of seagrass, and the elevation and echo strength of the seagrass canopy, enabling a determination of relative density.

In addition to the primary acoustic payload, Valeport turbidity and chlorophyll a sensors acquire other measurements requested by commissioning stakeholders to inform work site environmental characterization.

Ground Truthing and Sediment Analysis Cameras

In early summer 2023, significant new capability milestones were achieved by adding drop camera capabilities to the USV, operated using a new profiling winch and customized control system. The equipment spread included a high-resolution ground truthing camera to correlate acoustic ground discrimination datasets with high-accuracy georeferenced photographic data. In addition, a new sediment analysis camera, which lands a macro lens camera in direct contact with seabed sediments, collected datasets that were then analyzed using a digital grain size algorithm, incorporated into SeagrassNet, to classify the sediment type.

Collectively, these new datasets are then aggregated as data layers into a single cloud-based data hosting and visualization application displaying the acoustic ground discrimination data (Figure 1). This tool can be used by practitioners to determine the seagrass biomass characteristics and evaluate the carbon sequestration potential of the work site to inform conservation strategy.

When compared with traditional diver-based approaches, the accuracy and efficiency of

HYDROSURV AND UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH

Figure 1: Datasets are aggregated as data layers into a single cloudbased data hosting and visualization application displaying the acoustic ground discrimination date. The insert shows a video frame from the sediment camera.

seagrass monitoring is significantly improved by covering larger areas. This solution facilitates the planning of protection and regeneration projects, while deployment of lightweight electric survey platforms operated from the shore enables repeatable mapping campaigns and ultimately slashes the cost and carbon intensity of the operation.

Actionable Information Delivered through the Cloud

The University of Plymouth developed data processing tools with the aim of creating a more accurate and efficient pipeline, reducing the reliance on expert data processors within the workflow. Aligned to the SeagrassNet toolchain for machine learning, streamlined data cleaning and metrics reporting, HydroSurv has made enhancements to the cloud-based application used by commissioners to visualize and interpret the processed survey data.

Originally designed for coastal process and dredge applications, EasySurv is an award-winning geospatial data hosting and visualization application (Figure 2). It seamlessly integrates project management, data storage, and visualization within a secure

web-based platform. An important aspect of its system design is the elimination of the need for specialized GIS skills to perform basic visualization or difference modelling tasks.

EasySurv offers users the ability to create unique login credentials with varying content editing rights for creating and viewing survey data. Key stakeholders – including the Environment Agency, Natural England, Cornwall Wildlife Trust, and Cornwall Inshore Fisheries and Conservation Authority – provided positive feedback during the development phase. They particularly appreciated features like 2D heatmap comparisons between Z-axis datasets, uploaded from the outputs of the SeagrassNet application.

In the current project, additional metadata such as turbidity and chlorophyll a measurements can be displayed on the chart, alongside georeferenced content from the ground truthing cameras and sediment analysis (Figure 3). For scientists using their own interpretation tools, the original raw data is also available through the application, alongside the processed data deliverables. This ensures flexibility and accessibility for all researchers.

HYDROSURV AND UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH

Figure 2: EasySurv is an award-winning geospatial data hosting and visualization application.

Enhancements to the Robotic Survey Platform

The ongoing work delivered by the project team has primarily focused on HydroSurv’s REAV-28 USV (Figure 4). The versatile USV platform measures just 2.8 m in length and was initially developed to be easily transportable and deployable by a small survey team on remote and often resourceconstrained beaches and foreshores. Designed for day work operations, the REAV-28 is equipped with twin electric outboards, allowing it to achieve speeds of up to 5 knots. Its propulsion batteries enable approximately nine hours of continuous operation.

In the second phase of development, HydroSurv dedicated significant efforts to enhancing the winch control system. This included a new automation system and a front-end application capable of precise bottom tracking and constant altitude line control for deploying the ground truthing camera. A notable addition is the sediment camera mode, which automates the process of lowering the macro lens camera into contact with the seafloor from a safe distance above the seabed.

Initial activity to validate the system’s functionality was undertaken during the resurvey of work sites for the Environment Agency in July 2023, during which the team successfully deployed the new winch and camera systems. Building upon these results and extensive commissioner engagement, a prolonged period of system fielding, optimization, and resurveys that demonstrate the fidelity of the integrated survey system are now planned for the coming two years.

Roadmap to Scale Deployment

The collaboration between the University of Plymouth and HydroSurv was initiated with a well-defined, mutual vision to create a comprehensive, all-in-one solution that would empower the commissioner with easy access to seagrass habitat information. Throughout the delivery of works, the most significant validation has been the enthusiastic interest and active engagement of stakeholders responsible for the management of these natural capital assets, whose involvement served as testament to the value and relevance of the initial vision.

In the next phase of the development roadmap, the project aims to broaden the scope of

HYDROSURV AND UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH

Figure 3: In EasySurv additional metadata can be displayed on the chart alongside georeferenced content from the ground truthing cameras and sediment analysis.

classification beyond seagrass habitats to include other SAV types. Additionally, the focus will shift towards addressing various critical components for scaling deployment of the technological solution. This encompasses areas such as regulatory compliance and certification of both the robotic platforms and operators involved. In parallel, efforts will be directed towards achieving tighter integration among the individual toolchains within the data acquisition and processing workflow. Ultimately, the project aims to expand deployment, not only in the United Kingdom, but also in other overseas territories to extend reach and impact.

Significant development efforts by HydroSurv and the University of Plymouth have led to successful demonstrations combining the advanced deep learning algorithms with novel practical solutions to data acquisition that enable precise assessment of seagrass distribution and density. Given the urgent requirement for viable, deployable solutions, time will play a crucial role in the next phase of the partnership’s endeavours. u

David Hull is the founder and CEO of HydroSurv Unmanned Survey (UK) Ltd. He is an accomplished entrepreneur working in the field of uncrewed surface vessels (USVs). In 2019, he founded HydroSurv, a research-informed provider of USV technology focused on impact-led use cases that harness the potential of surface robotic systems. Under his leadership, HydroSurv has delivered more than 50 USV projects including the design, construction, and deployment of 18 USVs for customers in the U.K., Europe, North America, and Asia Pacific regions. Currently, Mr. Hull’s focus lies in developing large scale commercial pilots within the realm of natural capital assessment, asset inspection, and hydrographic survey where he is committed to driving the adoption of sustainable technologies in industrial use.

Dr. Tim Scott is an associate professor in ocean exploration at the University of Plymouth. Working within the Coastal Processes Research Group, he has more than 20 years’ experience in the collection and analysis of coastal morphological, hydrodynamic, and hydrographic data. Recent research has focused on the use of autonomous platforms for coastal/marine environmental sensing.

Figure 4: HydroSurv’s REAV-28 uncrewed surface vessel (USV) measures 2.8 m in length and is easily transportable and deployable. It is equipped with twin electric outboards; its propulsion batteries enable approximately nine hours of continuous operation.

by Bethany Randell

Asked and Answered

The Marine Institute (MI) issued a request for proposals to acquire an autonomous surface vehicle (ASV) to support the broad swath of activities undertaken by the School of Ocean Technology. Among other requirements, MI wanted a vehicle that would be suitable for year-round operation in and around Newfoundland. This tender was answered by SeaRobotics of Stuart, Florida, and its new SREndurance 8.0 (Figure 1).

Meet the SR-Endurance 8.0

Measuring 8 m from bow to stern, the SREndurance 8.0 comes equipped with an optional A-frame over-boarding assembly for launching equipment and sensor packages weighing up to 100 kg, and two moon pools for deploying equipment such as acoustic modems, acoustic Doppler current profilers, multibeam echo sounders, and sound velocity profilers. The vehicle is powered by a single screw, inboard diesel-electric hybrid system. The hybrid nature means the system has a battery bank that allows for extremely quiet operation, a significant

benefit when conducting acoustically sensitive work, such as sonar research or marine mammal monitoring. The diesel engine only cuts in when power requirements demand it. While the maximum speed tops out just under 10 knots, the vehicle can operate continuously for nine days at its cruising speed of 5 knots. SR-Endurance 8.0 is designed with a self-righting aluminum monohull, is capable of operating in Beaufort Wind Scale 7, and surviving Beaufort Wind Scale 9. The ASV can be controlled remotely from nearly 8 km or operate fully autonomously. Through its VHF radio, data can be transmitted back to shore from more than 30 km.

The SR-Endurance 8.0 is designed to accommodate a suite of interchangeable sensor payloads, depending on the type of mission it is undertaking. However, it comes equipped with several built-in sensors that allow it to operate with situational awareness and avoid collisions. Using a combination of radar, LiDAR, and received automatic identification system data, the ASV can detect possible collisions or unsafe paths. Using software from the same folks

Figure 1: The SR-Endurance autonomous surface vehicle allows for year-round operations in and around the island of Newfoundland.

who designed the autopilot for the Mayflower autonomous ship, the ASV will change its route and behaviour to obey collision regulations and avoid collisions, while still attempting to accomplish its mission. Also on board are six cameras, including one multi-spectral forward looking infrared camera, providing a 360° view of the vehicle’s surroundings (Figure 2).

Uses

The SR-Endurance 8.0 represents many opportunities for the Marine Institute, from research projects to student education.

Data Collection

Since the ASV is a platform that can carry a wide variety of payloads, it will be an important asset

for MI to collect a wide variety of data. Possible uses include helping MI to contribute to Seabed 2030, the initiative by the Nippon FoundationGEBCO to map the entire ocean floor by 2030. This large ASV can serve as a force multiplier when tasked with collecting ocean data, able to be sent on round-the-clock data collecting missions in collaboration with a crewed survey vessel or with a fleet of other autonomous vehicles, both above and below the sea surface. When equipped with an acoustic modem, the ASV can act as a communication hub by relaying information from subsea assets, such as autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). This means AUVs could surface less often to provide status updates or accept new commands, keeping their precious batteries for more mission time at depth.

Figure 2: The SR-Endurance is designed to accommodate a suite of interchangeable sensor payloads, including a multi-spectral forward looking infrared camera.

Research Projects

As well as being a platform to collect data for research, the vehicle itself and its operation can be the subject of research. Parking assistance already exists in many models of terrestrial vehicles; can self-docking be implemented in autonomous watercraft? What about selfguidance onto a trailer? While collision regulations are the “rules of the road” for watergoing craft, there are plenty of times human operators do not always obey those rules to the letter. How can autonomous vehicles be trained to react safely when interacting with nonrobots? What about the operators who are now far-removed from the vessel, operating in an office building instead of a wheelhouse? How can we best prepare future operators for the new challenges that arise, from the technical, like lost connectivity, to the non-technical, like a more sedentary lifestyle in front of a screen? All these challenges represent opportunities for research and innovation in a field that will only become more important in the future.

Education

From a student perspective, this ASV will provide the opportunity to learn and train on truly cutting-edge technology: one of the largest ASVs in Canadian waters. MI students in the School of Ocean Technology will learn how to operate and maintain the vehicle, including how to equip it with sensors to collect specific datasets, how to create appropriate mission paths, and how to troubleshoot problems when they arise. This will ensure that graduates of Marine Institute will be well prepared to work in the growing field of autonomous marine vehicles.

Regulatory Considerations

Regulations for autonomous surface vehicles, or maritime autonomous surface ships, are governed by the Marine Safety and Security branch of Transport Canada through Publication TP 13585 – Policy – Oversight of Small Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS). These regulations apply to any vehicle that is less than 12 m in length, is untethered, and does not carry a seafarer (crew

or passenger). This policy is recognized as an “interim framework” while organizations like the International Maritime Organization develop more detailed regulations.

The policy lays out the requirements not only of the vehicle itself, but also its operators. All ASVs greater than 2 m in length must be controlled by a remote operation centre with a safety management system in place and staffed by qualified operators. Further, the operators must have rapid response emergency resources available while ASV operations are ongoing. Any ASV operation must first be approved by a marine technical review board and must include a detailed risk assessment. Operators must also contact the Canadian Coast Guard and any appropriate harbour authorities in advance of a mission so appropriate warnings can be issued. These are but a few of the requirements that must be met before the SREndurance 8.0 gets out on the water.

Fortunately, the Marine Institute is well equipped to handle all the requirements set by Transport Canada. A remote operation centre has been established at The Launch, MI’s new, stateof-the-art facility in Holyrood, N.L. Through The Launch, MI has the qualified people and equipment necessary to ensure the safe operation of MI’s latest technological asset. u

Bethany Randell, P.Eng., is currently living her dream job as a project engineer with the Centre for Applied Ocean Technology at the Fisheries and Marine Institute of Memorial University. Always fascinated with the ocean and eager to solve problems, she turned her hobby of building ROVs for competitions into a career when she graduated from Memorial as an electrical engineer and went to work for Kraken Robotics. During her eight years with Kraken, she worked on all of Kraken’s products, including the KATFISH, and was made lead electrical engineer of its AUV program. Since joining the Marine Institute (MI) and being stationed at The Launch in Holyrood, she has completed the first phase of MI’s Remote Operation Centre through which, in partnership with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, she was able to operate ROVs and an ASV located in Norway.

Assessment of Detection Capability of Oil Sensors for Use in Adaptive Sampling Control of an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

Jimin Hwang, Neil Bose, Brian Robinson

Low-cost Marine Robotic Vehicles for Rapid Assessment of Submesoscale Ocean Processes

Allison Chua, Aaron MacNeill, Douglas Wallace

Oil Sensing Capabilities

Who should read this paper?

This paper will be of interest to researchers and practitioners in the field of marine robotics, specifically those involved in oil detection and monitoring. Professionals involved in marine environmental monitoring, oil spill response, and autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) operations would benefit from the information and methodologies presented in this paper.

Why is it important?

The nature of the work presented in this manuscript involves experimental testing and calibration of two submersible oil detecting sensors: the UviLux and the laserbased hydrocarbon sniffer. The tests were conducted in a controlled environment (specifically, the seawater tank at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography) to verify the sensing capacity of these sensors. The innovative aspect lies in the focus to assess the detection capability of these sensors for the purpose of adaptive sampling control of an AUV. By evaluating sensor performance and exploring the challenges of dealing with conflicting measurements, this research lays the foundation for the development of an adaptive algorithm that will be applied in future AUV missions. This work contributes to the advancement of oil detection technology and the potential for autonomous systems to optimize sampling strategies in marine environments.

The calibrated UviLux sensor equation can aid in accurate oil detection and quantification, enhancing response capabilities in case of oil spills or natural seep events. The insights gained from dealing with conflicting measurements can contribute to the development of robust decision algorithms, improving the reliability and efficiency of oil sensing systems deployed in marine environments. Overall, this work has the potential to enhance environmental protection measures and facilitate better management of oil-related incidents in oceans and coastal areas.

The test results and insights provided can be readily utilized to enhance oil detection and monitoring efforts. However, the development and refinement of the adaptive sampling algorithm, particularly after further field work, will be crucial in further enhancing the technology’s effectiveness and autonomy. This will validate the sampling technology and pave the way for potential commercial applications.

About the authors

Dr. Jimin Hwang holds a B.Eng. (hons.) in naval architecture and a PhD in maritime engineering, specializing in AUV engineering. Her research focuses on the development of adaptive sampling techniques for AUVs to accurately delineate discrete underwater oil plumes. With a keen interest in ocean preservation, her expertise lies in the application of underwater robotics for environmental monitoring and conservation efforts. Dr. Hwang is currently working as a postdoctoral fellow at Memorial University, further advancing her research in the field.

Dr. Neil Bose received a B.Sc. in naval architecture and ocean engineering and PhD from the University of Glasgow in 1978 and 1982, respectively. He joined the Ocean and Naval Architectural Engineering Program, Memorial University, Canada, in

Dr. Jimin Hwang

Dr. Neil Bose

Researchers present experiments conducted to test and calibrate two submersible oil detecting sensors.

Brian Robinson

1987, and became a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Offshore and Underwater Vehicles Design in 2003. He joined the Australian Maritime College (AMC) in 2007 where he was a professor of maritime hydrodynamics and later director of the National Centre for Maritime Engineering and Hydrodynamics. From 2012 to 2017, he was the principal of AMC at the University of Tasmania. He was appointed vicepresident (research) at Memorial University in 2017, interim provost in 2022, and president and vice-chancellor pro tempore in 2023. Dr. Bose’s research interests include marine propulsion, autonomous underwater vehicles, ocean environmental monitoring, and ice/propeller interaction.

Brian Robinson is lab manager with the Centre for Offshore Oil, Gas and Energy Research with Fisheries and Oceans Canada. He is located at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, with facilities including a mesoscale wave tank facility used for oil spill research. He has 16 years of experience in the field of oil spill science. Mr. Robinson’s research interests include analytical hydrocarbon chemistry, oil droplet formation and transport, and in-situ instrumentation used for oil spill monitoring.

ASSESSMENT OF DETECTION CAPABILITY OF OIL SENSORS FOR USE IN ADAPTIVE SAMPLING CONTROL OF AN AUTONOMOUS UNDERWATER VEHICLE

Jimin Hwang1, Neil Bose2, Brian Robinson3

1Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, N.L., Canada; jiminh@mun.ca

2Office of the President, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, N.L., Canada

3Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Dartmouth, N.S., Canada

ABSTRACT

This paper presents experiments conducted to test and calibrate two submersible oil detecting sensors: a UviLux and a laser-based hydrocarbon sniffer. The tests were conducted in the seawater tank at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, in Dartmouth, N.S., Canada. The results of the tests indicate that the sensors have reliable sensing capacity. The calibrating equation for the UviLux sensor was derived by comparing the sensor readings and the chemical analysis results. The hydrocarbons released from natural seeps in Scott Inlet are known to be in a mixed phase, consisting of a combination of liquid oil and gaseous hydrocarbons, and the experimental results indicate the need for a robust decision algorithm to deal with conflicting measurements obtained from the UviLux and CH4 (methane) sniffer. The collected data will be used to develop a sensor-based decision-making algorithm using Bayes filter. Ultimately, the goal is to enable an adaptive mission for an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) in Baffin Bay in September 2023, which will rely solely on real-time data sensed during the mission and adapt to changing conditions by continuously collecting and analyzing in-situ data.

KEYWORDS

Natural oil seeps; Submersible hydrocarbon sensors; Hibernia crude oil; Total petroleum hydrocarbon; Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylene; Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry; Oil in water detection

INTRODUCTION

Since the first reports from scientific missions of petroleum rising from the seafloor off the coast of Baffin Island in 1976, several investigations in the area have been conducted [Levy, 1978, 1981; Matsumoto, 1990; Oakey et al., 2012]. In 1985, for example, the research submersible PISCES IV recovered liquid oil samples from the seafloor off Scott Inlet [Grant et al., 1986], which confirmed the existence of natural oil seeps and identified that the biodegraded mature oil came from an upper cretaceous marine source. The multibeam image data via bathymetric mapping (ArcticNet research program) collected near the Scott Inlet seep presented the petroleum escape features [Bartlett et al., 2006], while a video recorded in 2009 by a remotely operated vehicle showed petroleum venting from the seabed [Cramm et al., 2021], and satellite radar repeatedly confirmed extensive and persistent oil slicks (>250 km2) on the sea surface [Oakey et al., 2012]. Recently, baseline studies (ecotoxicological impacts of oil on the Arctic species) were done by the Danish Centre for Environment and Energy [Gustavan et al., 2016] and, even more recently, an extensive biological study in Scott Inlet discovered the importance of marine microbial communities in mitigating hydrocarbon emissions from the seeps in Baffin Bay [Cramm et al., 2021; Fitzpatrick et al., 2015].

on the Memorial Explorer AUV. To make an accurate detection of the oil compounds present in the water column and to measure their hydrocarbon concentrations, the performance of in-situ oil sensors plays a key role especially in the data-driven missions. The real-time sensor measurements will guide the mission by changing the course, selecting modules, and making decisions after the AUV dives and loses contact with the surface team.

Aromatic hydrocarbons and alkane hydrocarbons are two different types of organic compounds, each with distinct characteristics and properties. Aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of hydrocarbons that contain a ring of atoms with alternating double bonds, called an aromatic ring. The most common example of an aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene. On the other hand, alkane hydrocarbons are a class of hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. The simplest example of an alkane is methane (CH4). Alkanes are also known as saturated hydrocarbons because they contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible per carbon atom.

The autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) team at Memorial University is planning a voyage to the North Atlantic Ocean with the ultimate objective of using the Scott Inlet natural oil seeps in Baffin Bay to test a newly developed adaptive sampling system

There are a range of submersible in-situ sensors that have been widely used to detect oil in water. They include fluorometers, methane sniffers, non-dispersive infrared spectrometry, underwater mass spectrometers, subsea cameras, particle size analyzers, and so on [Fingas and Brown, 2017; IPIECA-IOGP, 2016]. Fluorometers are instruments used to detect the presence of certain chemicals in a sample by measuring the fluorescence emitted by the molecules when they are excited by a specific wavelength of light.

They are commonly used to detect aromatic hydrocarbons. Methane sniffers, on the other hand, are instruments used to detect the presence of alkane hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons have no fluorescence properties and cannot be detected by fluorometers.

Through a series of sensor comparison studies, a Ping360 scanning sonar (Blue Robotics, U.S.), UviLux fluorometer (Chelsea Technology, U.K.), laser-based CH4 hydrocarbon sniffer (Franatech, Germany), and micro water sampler (KC-Denmark, Denmark) were selected.

Previously, the Ping360 was tested in field trials and verified its sensing capability by capturing the acoustic feature of an oil proxy [Hwang et al., 2022]. Recently, a subsequent experiment was conducted testing the UviLux and methane sniffer in the laboratory and the seawater tank at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography in Dartmouth, N.S., Canada. The objective of the experiment was to verify the sensing capacity of the selected hydrocarbon sensors as a part of the preparation for the planned Baffin Bay mission. This paper summarizes the outcomes of the seawater experiments, which include the sensor data and the chemical analysis results. Those data will be used to calibrate the sensors, and furthermore, to assess the capability of data from the instruments to be used in autonomous decision-making on board of the AUV.

Lake Barrington [Hwang et al., 2022]. Both experiments verified its capability in capturing the acoustic scatter of oil droplets and bubbles that are two critical components in a mixed phased oil plume. In this paper, test results from the sensor suite are presented consisting of a UviLux and CH4 sniffer.

Three sets of experiments were done at the facility operated by the Centre for Offshore Oil, Gas and Energy Research at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography (BIO): two in the laboratory (UviLux and CH4 sniffer) and one in the seawater tank (UviLux).

UviLux (CDOM, PAH units)

UviLux sensors consist of two units: one is to measure the coloured/chromophoric dissolved organic matter (CDOM), which is a significant fraction of dissolved organic carbon, and the other is to measure the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are known to be toxic and are a class of organic compounds composed of aromatic rings. Both can be used as a good indication for the presence of oil in water.

LABORATORY EXPERIMENT

Previously, a Ping360 sonar was tested in a both wave tank and open water at

To control the amount of oil to be exposed to the UviLux units, a stock solution containing the water accommodated fraction (WAF) of Hibernia medium-light crude oil [Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, 1997] was prepared as shown in Figure 1. The use of a WAF allows for the exact intended oil amount to be released to the test solution. Both CDOM and PAH units were submerged in a 9.5 L bucket filled with filtered seawater and the prepared WAF was added into the bucket. There were five additions of WAF in total. See the testing conditions in Table 1.

The UviLux test results against each value of WAF are presented in Figure 2. Both CDOM and PAH measurements show a linearly increasing trend. The slope between the two sensors varied, with the PAH sensor exhibiting a steeper slope than the CDOM sensor. This suggests that the PAH sensor is more responsive to changes in dissolved

hydrocarbon concentrations when compared to the CDOM sensor. Owing to the strongly linear trends, these WAF test (calibration) results provide a good indication of the performance of these sensors in responding to the increase in the amount of dissolved aromatic hydrocarbons in the water column when using these sensors in the future AUV missions.

Table 1: Water accommodated fraction (WAF) (Hibernia crude oil) test conditions.

Figure 1: Prepared Hibernia crude oil water accommodated fraction (WAF) (top); two UviLux units (bottom).

Laser-based CH4 Sensor

The oil sample used to prepare the WAF was a “dead oil” that was stored at atmospheric pressure, and hence it would not have contained any dissolved volatile gases such as methane that would normally be found in “live oil” (i.e., oil in an underground reservoir). Therefore, as expected, the CH4 sensor did not respond to the WAF in laboratory tests.

To verify the signal response of the CH4 sensor, a laboratory experiment was conducted whereby the sensor was placed in a bucket and gaseous propane was slowly bubbled into the water. Since methane was not available in the lab, propane was used as a substitute due to its structural similarity. As shown in Figure 3, a methane molecule is one carbon atom bonded

with four hydrogen atoms, while propane molecules consist of three carbon atoms bonded in a straight-line chain with eight hydrogen atoms. Hence, propane gas was selected as a target for the CH4 sensor (see Figure 4).

These test results showed that the laser-based CH4 sniffer was sensitive to propane gas (Figure 5). In this test, the exact amount of propane gas dissolved in the test water could not be measured, and in reality, the real oil plume will have not only methane or propane but also many different gaseous hydrocarbons.

MESOSCALE TANK EXPERIMENT

While the WAF test results provide a reproducible method for calibration of the

Figure 2: The UviLux calibrations against Hibernia crude oil water accommodated fraction (WAF) in laboratory tests.

Figure 3: Molecule structure of methane (left) and propane (right).

sensors to oil concentrations, the use of mesoscale outdoor test tanks better emulate a more realistic oil spill presentation in seawater. To accomplish this, an experiment was conducted with Hibernia crude oil released into a circular seawater tank with a diameter of 1.5 m and a water depth of

approximately 1.0 m with an operational water volume of approximately 1,750 L (see Figure 6). A series of manifolds connected to a pumping system permit a horizontal current flow at a velocity of 20 cm/s in a circular manner; and it allowed a gentle mixing of the oil on the surface of the water. Unlike

Figure 4: Propane gas bottle and CH4 sensor (top-left); water accommodated fraction (WAF) addition (top-right); propane gas release (bottom).

Figure 5: The CH4 test results against the propane gas released into the bucket filled with filtered seawater.

the WAF test in the laboratory, crude oil was directly added into the testing water in the tank in which the sensors were emersed.

The experiment was conducted in the following manner. The tank was filled with unfiltered seawater from the adjacent Bedford Basin, and the temperature and salinity were recorded (11.3°C, 30.4 ppt). The sensors were

placed in the tank at a depth of approximately 0.3 m (see Figure 7) and connected to a power supply and data logger. Initial background readings were taken with each instrument and water samples were collected for the analysis of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene (BTEX) and PAH concentrations. Samples were preserved with dichloromethane and then stored at 4°C until further analysis. Crude oil

Figure 6: The seawater tank of Bedford Institute of Oceanography (BIO) and the set workstation for the experiments.

Figure 7: UviLux sensor unit in hand prior to being suspended in the seawater tank; water samples for chemical analysis; crude oil addition; manifolds of the seawater tank; dichloromethane addition for sample preservation.

was then poured on the surface of the water and left to mix for 45 minutes before collecting sensor readings and water samples. A total of eight oil additions were performed (see Figure 8). The oil amount was measured by mass as opposed to volume in the WAF experiment. When comparing the sensor readings versus the amount of oil added to the tank, a linear trend was observed (see Figure 8), which was similar to the WAF laboratory results. In this case, however, the PAH readings were higher than the CDOM readings except for the background reading. The outcome resembled that of the WAF experiment, with the PAH sensor exhibiting a steeper slope indicating its higher sensitivity to changes in dissolved oil concentrations. They are compared with BTEX analysis results in Figure 9.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Three chemical analyses were conducted to quantify the hydrocarbon concentrations in the collected samples: BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylene), Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS).

BTEX are volatile aromatic hydrocarbon compounds that occur naturally in crude oil in the vicinity of natural petroleum deposits. BTEX are known environmental pollutants: they are listed as priority pollutants by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) because all the BTEX chemicals may produce adverse effects in both humans and aquatic organisms [Leusch and Bartkow, 2010].

PAHs are also known for their carcinogenic effects. PAHs comprise a group of 100+ different organic chemicals with multiple aromatic rings, and in some cases, they can contain branched alkyl groups of different lengths (referred to as alkylated PAH). Owing to their high degree of acute toxicity, PAHs analysis is one of the key subjects in aquatic oil contaminants studies.

The methods used for the analysis of BTEX and PAHs in this study are

Figure 8: The UviLux test results against Hibernia crude oil in the seawater tank. PAH=polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. CDOM=coloured/ chromophoric dissolved organic matter.

previously published [Ortmann et al., 2020]. In summary, samples were processed using modified versions of U.S. EPA methods 8240B and 8270D using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

BTEX Results

The total amount of the BTEX compounds found in the collected water samples are shown in Figure 9. With an increasing amount of oil poured into the seawater tank, the BTEX concentration in the samples increased. BTEX was not detected in the water column until the total amount of oil added to the tank had

reached 40 g. Since BTEX is very volatile, most is lost due to evaporation and only a fraction dissolves into the water column.

The total BTEX concentrations were plotted against the UviLux sensor readings (see Figure 10). Although the response from both sensors did seem to loosely correspond to BTEX concentrations in the water column, neither sensor would have responded to BTEX due to its weak fluorescent properties. It is more likely the BTEX concentrations mirror the concentrations of other watersoluble fluorescent molecules, such as PAHs.

Figure 9: Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene (BTEX) chemical analysis results.

Figure 10: Comparison between the benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene (BTEX) results and UviLux sensor readings.

PAH Results

The total amounts of the PAHs and alkylated PAHs found in the collected water samples are shown in Figure 11. Both PAHs and alkylated PAHs in the samples displayed a gradual increasing trend with the addition of oil into the tank. For the sake of calibration, when the PAH sensor readings are plotted against the PAH concentrations in the samples, it shows a nearly linear correlation with R-square value equals 0.99 (see Figure 12). The extracted equation of the sensor (x) and the PAHs compound in the sample (y) is: y = 83.654x − 593.8.

GC-MS Results

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry results revealed the concentrations of various PAHs in the water samples as shown in Table 2. The compounds that were below the detection limit or not found in the samples were removed from the list.

It can be seen from the water column chemistry data that the PAH profile consisted almost entirely of naphthalene and its alkylated homologs, with small quantities of fluorene and phenanthrene also detected. Although the Hibernia crude oil contains a wide range PAHs containing two to five benzene rings (see Figure 13), only the most water-soluble compounds were detected in the water column samples.

DISCUSSION

The team plans missions with the Explorer AUV in Baffin Bay in September 2023 in an area of ocean where petroleum hydrocarbons are released from natural seeps offshore from Scott Inlet on Baffin Island. Information about the crude oil that is released from the seafloor in the region near to Scott Inlet is limited, and the AUV will have to rely solely on real-time data sensed during the mission. With a limited pre-knowledge, the missions inevitably have to be adaptive.

Figure 11: Comparison between the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) results and UviLux sensor readings.

Figure 12: Comparison between the sensor results and sample results.

To perform an adaptive mission, the AUV needs to be able to sense and respond to its environment. This is where in-situ data comes in. In-situ data is data collected directly from the environment being studied, such as water temperature, salinity, currents, and hydrocarbons. This data can be used to adjust the AUV’s mission parameters in real time, allowing it to adapt to changing conditions. By continuously collecting and analyzing in-situ data, an AUV can autonomously make decisions about where to go, what sensors to use, and how to adjust its depth and course to optimize its mission objectives. Ultimately, in-situ data drives an AUV during an adaptive mission by enabling it to respond intelligently to the environment in which it is operating.

Therefore, the AUV must have access to correlated equations that can estimate oil concentrations from data recorded from its sensors prior to the missions. In other words, the AUV should be capable of interpreting its in-situ sensor data into the corresponding levels of oil compounds in the water column. So, the main objectives of the sensor experiments presented here were firstly to confirm the detection capability of the selected oil sensors against crude oil in the water column, and secondly, to derive calibration equations through the subsequent chemical analysis.

The acquired data and equations will then enable the AUV to perform adaptive sampling missions: for example, onboard intelligence will enable the AUV to alter its given course and, say, return to a previous location where the probability of detecting an oil plume is significantly higher; or it can trigger the onboard water sampler when the estimated (or calculated) oil concentration is above a given criteria for sampling.

The hydrocarbons released from the natural seeps in Scott Inlet are known to be in a mixed phase, consisting of a combination of liquid oil and gaseous hydrocarbons. As only a limited number of water samples can be collected per mission, the sampling criteria must be selective with a high level of certainty. The experimental results presented in this paper indicate that the AUV needs a robust decision algorithm to deal with conflicting measurements obtained from the UviLux and CH4 sniffer. Probability theory, for example, can be used to build a decision-making loop that incorporates perception, control, and planning. There are a few examples of probability methods used in marine robotics: Bayes Filter, Monte Carlo Localization, Kalman Filter, Markov Decision Processes, Gaussian Processes, and so on.

Using the collected data presented in this

Table 2: Hydrocarbon compounds found in the water samples analyzed through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

paper, the team will develop a sensor based decision-making algorithm using Bayes filter.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

This paper has presented experiments conducted to test and calibrate two submersible oil detecting sensors: a UviLux and a laser-based hydrocarbon sniffer. These tests were done in the seawater tank at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, in Dartmouth, N.S., Canada. Their sensing capacity was verified through the tests. The calibrating equation for UviLux was derived by comparing the sensor readings and the chemical analysis results. Using the experimental results and hydrocarbon concentration data presented in this report, an

adaptive algorithm will be further developed and applied in the planned Baffin Bay AUV missions in autumn 2023.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada through several projects within the Multi-Partner Research Initiative; the National Research Council, grants and contributions program; the Canada Foundation for Innovation project Development of Autonomous Marine Observation Systems; the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) Alliance program: Characterization and Delineation of Oil-in-Water at the Scott Inlet Seeps through Robotic Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Technology, in partnership

Figure 13: Comparison of individual polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) concentrations in the Hibernia crude oil versus the concentrations in the water column at the end of the tank experiment.

with Fugro Canada and International Submarine Engineering, B.C.; the NSERC Discovery Grant program to the second author (Neil Bose), Advancing Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Capability for Assessment of Marine Pollution; and Memorial University.

REFERENCES

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Hwang, J.; Bose, N.; Robinson, B.; and Thanyamanta, W. [2022]. Sonar based delineation of oil plume proxies using an AUV. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics Research, Vol. 11, No. 4.

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Levy, E. [1978]. Visual and chemical evidence for a natural seep at Scott Inlet, Baffin Island, District of Franklin. In: Current Research. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 78-1B, pp. 21-26. https://ftp.maps.

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Technicalities

Ice-avoidance Hardware for Profiling Floats

by Hugh Fargher, Bruce MacDonald, and Brian Leslie

Ice-avoidance hardware for profiling floats is becoming more relevant due to an increase in interest in deploying floats in areas with sea ice. For example, floats have recently been used under Antarctic ice shelves in an “ice contacting” mode, allowing accurate measurement of ice draft.

More typically, floats will attempt to avoid coming into contact with ice by terminating any ascent if ice is detected above, at which point the float will start descending again. This pattern is sometimes repeated in an attempt to find open surface water, as can be seen in Figure 1. In this case, the float repeatedly descends and ascends by about 80 decibars (dbar) until finally surfacing.

Float buoyancy at any point during ascent is typically just a few grams. This results from the APEX float gradually adjusting ballasting oil in an external bladder to maintain a near-constant ascent rate. Of course, the density of water increases with depth, so a float that is neutrally buoyant at 2,000 dbar would need to add extra volume (e.g., pump out to the external bladder) to be neutrally buoyant at less depth. Consequently, while ascending, a float will incrementally increase oil in the external bladder. This can be seen in Figure 1, which shows the buoyancy pump position (in red) stepwise increasing during ascent, but then pulling back to make the float descend on detecting ice.

Even with ice-detection, there always remains the risk of the float coming into contact with ice during ascent. This means that hardware, designed to protect any sensors or antenna on the top of the float, can be important.

Figure 1: Example float behaviour when ascending into ice.

Two approaches to this hardware have been used on APEX floats: either an arrangement of flexible polyethylene strips, attached to the upper side of the hull in two vertical loops resembling an “egg-beater”; or a simple rigid vertical fibreglass post attached to the upper side of the hull. Both arrangements are designed to protect sensors on the float by buffering against ice. However, the egg-beater is designed to cushion any impact, whereas the vertical post provides more of a hard stop.

The egg-beater design is shown in Figure 2. In this example, the APEX float has a Sea-Bird CTD installed on the upper end cap, and the polyethylene strips are attached to the CTD protective cover using simple zip ties. The strips are also joined at the top to minimize slipping. When using other types of CTD (for example, the RBRconcerto) the polyethylene strips can be attached to the top of the float hull, just below the end cap, again using simple zip ties. In both cases, the ice-avoidance strips are prevented from sliding down over the float, and water flow over the CTD is not significantly affected.

In contrast, the fibreglass post design is shown in Figure 3. In this example, the lower end of the post is attached to the float damper ring, and the full post is kept rigidly vertical using a metal band around the top of the float hull. This design also ensures that water flow over the CTD is not significantly affected.

Figure 2: The egg-beater ice-guard design.

Figure 3: The fibreglass post ice-guard design.

Float deployments using the fibreglass post design have shown that the post does not become embedded in the underside of ice if the float comes into contact with ice during ascent. However, the egg-beater design allows some compression of the polyethylene strips if the float comes into contact. So, some analysis was required into how much the polyethylene strips would compress under a typical ice scenario.

Figure 4 shows the vertical compression of the eggbeater polyethylene strips when mapped against a downward force. This was measured in air by placing varying masses on top of the egg-beater construct and measuring the resulting compression. Smaller downward forces (i.e., less than around 2,000 g) resulted in a near linear relationship between compression and force, although this became non-linear with larger downward forces.

The next step was to estimate the typical downward force on an ice-guard if an APEX float impacts ice while ascending. To do this, data from an existing float that had detected ice was used. Measured water conditions just underneath the ice were compared with the conditions for which the float was originally ballasted. By also taking into account the volume of oil in the external bladder, the resulting buoyancy (i.e., upward force) on the float could be calculated at the point at which the float impacted the ice. The resulting upward force, which would also be the downward force on the ice-guard, came out to around 20 grams. This is well within the linear part of the “compression versus downward force” plot, and would result in a negligible compression of the ice-guard (i.e., less than 1 cm), meaning that the egg-beater construct would adequately protect the antenna and sensors installed on the upper end cap.

Figure 4: Vertical compression versus downward force.

Hugh E. Fargher is the APEX applications engineer with Teledyne Marine. His key areas of interest include the challenges of autonomous underwater vehicle operations, data collection, and analysis. Bruce MacDonald is the senior mechanical engineer with Teledyne Marine. His key areas of interest include underwater vehicle design and the science behind making them work correctly. Brian Leslie is the lead APEX software engineer with Teledyne Marine. His key areas of interest include underwater vehicle embedded software, GUI design, data analytics, and simulations.

MEGAN KING

JUNIOR ROV TECHNICIAN OCEANEERING CANADA LIMITED ST. JOHn'S, N.L, CANADA

In just a short period of time, Megan King has achieved her personal goals and gained one-ofa-kind experience in remotely operated vehicle (ROV) operations. A 2023 graduate from the Fisheries and Marine Institute, she works with Oceaneering Canada as a junior ROV technician, primarily off the eastern coast of Newfoundland on the Grand Banks and surrounding area. She is being trained to work with and eventually pilot work class ROVs for the purpose of completing subsea work. Although this position is her first real-world industry experience working with ROVs, it is not her first time working offshore.

During a work term in 2022, Ms. King worked with Wood Group as a robotics and computer science intern. She successfully executed a pilot project with the goal of developing an offshore autonomous robotic inspection program for production facilities such as Hibernia, the world’s largest gravity base structure. She was the first ever autonomous robotics pilot on an offshore production platform in Canada to produce high-definition, realistic 3D models of the facilities surveyed.

Ms. King thoroughly enjoys working with ROVs because there is so much variety in each workday and a large repertoire of hard and soft skills is required to be an efficient pilot and technician. You need to be a jill of all trades, technically competent, and good with hands-on work as well as critical

thinking and problem solving. The greatest learning opportunities for a junior like Ms. King is using testing and troubleshooting to fix things when they go wrong.

So far, Ms. King has learned an incredible amount of useful information and techniques that she can use while working with ROVs as well as a variety of other applications. Her long-term goal is to progress in this profession, eventually becoming an ROV supervisor and ROV superintendent for offshore subsea operations.

www.oceaneering.com

megank@mun.ca

JACK SIMMS

BRIAN GRAU Chief Executive Officer

MISSION ROBOTICS INC.

UNION CITY, C.A.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Brian Grau got his start in the remotely operated vehicle (ROV) field as a competitor in the annual MATE ROV Competition. During the 2011 competition, he led the Jesuit High School team as CEO, and they took first place in the Explorer division. That experience spurred a deep interest in helping to expedite innovation in the marine sector.

Just over three years ago, Mr. Grau co-founded Mission Robotics – a company that primarily focuses on the software foundation required for any marine robotics platform (ROVs, autonomous underwater vehicles, autonomous surface vehicles, sensor platforms). By providing customers with this base functionality, it allows the domain experts within an organization to focus on the exact problem they are trying to solve, rather than fighting with the tools needed to complete the objective. Mission Robotics has shipped products to customers working in many different industries including offshore energy, aquaculture, and coral monitoring and restoration, to name a few.

Robots are a great solution for a multitude of tasks, especially for work that does not make sense for humans to do either from a safety, environmental, or efficiency perspective. Mr.

Grau believes we need to do a better job of getting a good baseline on the ocean and our impacts on it. In order to make sure the ocean remains healthy it needs to be properly monitored. That is a priority for Mission Robotics.

Even outside his professional life Mr. Grau is involved with ROV operations. Recently he was part of a team that hiked to a remote alpine lake at over 3,300 metres altitude while carrying ROVs to survey a plane that crashed into the lake during a training mission in the Second World War. The ROVs captured images to create a photomosaic of the entire debris field in the lake. He continues to volunteer with the MATE ROV competition each year, both the Monterey regional and the international championships.

www.missionrobotics.us brian@missionrobotics.us

ZACK JOHNSON

KATHRYN COUSENS

STUDENT, BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (OCEAN MAPPING)

FISHERIES AND MARINE INSTITUTE ST. JOHN'S, N.L., CANADA

From a young age, second-year ocean mapping student Kathryn (Katie) Cousens has been fascinated by the ocean. When an opportunity arose to get involved in a hands-on summer internship with the Canadian Centre for Fisheries Innovation working on the 2023 Ghost Gear Project, she was ecstatic. Funded by Fisheries and Oceans Canada, this project involves the marking and retrieval of fishing gear that was swept to sea during Hurricane Fiona in 2022.

For Ms. Cousens, this meant spending 17 days aboard the Qikiqtaaluk Corporation research vessel Ludy Pudluk sailing from The Launch marine base in Holyrood and around the coastline of Newfoundland to complete mapping research in Diamond Cove-Rose Blanche-Harbour Le Cou, La Poile, and Burgeo on the southwest coast of the island.

While on board, she recorded and collected relevant data using a series of ocean mapping technologies, including side scan sonar, multibeam sonar, underwater cameras, and drones. Upon her return from the field, Ms. Cousens produced maps of side scan mosaics and imagery clearly showing where the gear is located on the seafloor. These maps will be provided to the team of divers and remotely operated vehicle operators to retrieve the gear. The project goal is to return lost fishing

gear to the fishers, thereby reducing risk of entanglement of marine species in the gear and removing microplastics and other debris from the ocean.

As Ms. Cousens neared the end of her internship, she took time to reflect on her role in this project and in protecting marine species and habitat. She was pleased to gain practical experience of ocean mapping techniques in a real-world scenario and to engage with others with similar interests. Learning more than she thought possible, the skills and experience she acquired will have a lasting impression during the remainder of her studies and even more so when she embarks on her career in the ocean sector.

https://ccfi.ca/

PHILIP WALSH

Low-cost Underwater Platforms

Who should read this paper?

In addition to the research community interested in marine observations, this paper will be of relevance to representatives from coastal communities, non-governmental organizations, and government agencies that are interested in monitoring and assessing the state of the marine environment. Ocean technology companies and the growing number of individuals interested in the development of open-source technology (e.g., users of GitHub and similar platforms) will also find this paper beneficial. Finally, aquatic researchers in developing countries, which may be limited in their research by the cost of measurement infrastructure, will find this paper of value.

Why is it important?

The paper describes technical modifications made to relatively low-cost underwater platforms to make them useful for conducting scientific research. It focuses on examples of scientific applications and technical innovations, and highlights new approaches for underwater technology to study submesoscale processes. The technology was designed by an integrated team of scientists and engineers with the common goal of answering the research needs of communities and smaller research groups.

The approach has the potential to broaden the range of practitioners of ocean observation and to improve the ability to measure small-scale phenomena in the ocean, including phenomena that are short-lived/transient. The underlying platforms are already commercially available and the modifications that are described are being made open to the community.

About the authors

Allison S. Chua received a B.Eng. in mechanical engineering and an MASc. in materials engineering from Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., Canada. After obtaining her MASc., she worked as a production engineer with Irving Shipbuilding Inc. She is currently pursuing a PhD in oceanography under the supervision of Dr. Douglas Wallace. Her research focuses on the development and application of remote and autonomous underwater platforms for the spatial and temporal characterization of ocean phenomena. Dr. Aaron M. MacNeill received a B.Eng. from Acadia University, Wolfville, N.S., Canada, and Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., Canada, and his MASc. and PhD degrees from Dalhousie University, all in electrical engineering. He is presently an adjunct professor with the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department and an electrical engineer with the Oceanography Department, Dalhousie University. His research interests include ocean technology, offshore renewable energy, embedded system hardware and software design, and control systems. Dr. Douglas Wallace is a Canada Excellence Research Chair Laureate in ocean science and technology and Canada Research Chair (Tier 1) in ocean science and technology at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Canada. Dr. Wallace also serves as scientific director of the Marine Environmental Observation Prediction and Response Network (MEOPAR), is co-chair of DOTCAN, and is a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada’s Academy of Science. Prior to his appointment at Dalhousie, Dr. Wallace was professor of marine chemistry at the Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel (GEOMAR). He also spent more than a decade working at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in the United States; and has contributed to building a number of multidisciplinary research teams and programs in the U.S., Germany, Europe, West Africa, and Canada. His research interests focus on carbon cycle and air-sea exchange of gases.

Allison S. Chua

Dr. Aaron M. MacNeill

Researchers describe readily deployable underwater platforms for assessing submesoscale ocean processes.

Dr. Douglas Wallace

LOW-COST MARINE ROBOTIC VEHICLES FOR RAPID ASSESSMENT OF SUBMESOSCALE OCEAN PROCESSES

Chua, A.S.1, MacNeill, A.M.1,2, and Wallace, D.W.R.1

1Department

of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada

2Department of Electrical Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada

ABSTRACT

In this paper, we describe our experience with readily deployable, low-cost (c. Can$30k) underwater platforms and, in particular, with our application of this emerging class of platform to address the need to characterize episodic, continuously evolving, transient oceanographic events at the submesoscale. We focus on detailing the modifications made to a small remotely operated vehicle (ROV) and a micro-autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) and demonstrating results from initial testing. Both vehicles have been designed for users conducting scientific research, supporting a variety of commonly used oceanographic sensors that can be quickly interchanged. Our choice of vehicle was restricted to platforms that could be acquired and used by research groups without requiring additional expensive infrastructure and/or expert users. With the rapid increase in commercial options for such platforms over the last decade, we hope to further improve accessibility to their use by describing our experience with the design, integration, and testing of modular sensor and sampling payloads for these platforms. Our intention is to demonstrate the potential of these platforms to advance ocean research capability and broaden its community of practitioners. We highlight the associated need and potential for developments in the area of sensing and sampling to match opportunities provided by these technologies.

KEYWORDS

Autonomous underwater vehicle; Remotely operated vehicle; Ocean science

INTRODUCTION

The Challenges of Measuring “The Ocean Landscape”

It has been argued that “what oceanographers have learned about the ocean has been based almost exclusively on what various technologies, or machines, have taught them” [Benson et al., 2004]. Our lack of understanding of key ocean phenomena is, therefore, suggestive of a need for new technologies, including in-situ research platforms since, as Benson et al. also note, the choice of platform “both restricts and directs the type of investigations that can take place.”

Characterization of “the ocean landscape,” as referred to by ecologist J.H. Steele [1989], requires researchers to balance the oftencompeting demands of phenomenon-based or process-oriented research (e.g., investigation of spring blooms and other episodic, relatively small-scale phenomena) with a growing need to monitor longer-term change in the ocean (e.g., heat or carbon content) on a global scale. Platforms and sensors suited to one such research need are not necessarily the best choice for others.

Research vessels, the traditional platform of ocean science, cannot on their own provide the required speed or mobility for phenomenonbased research: they are unlikely to be in the right place at the right time. They are also prohibitively expensive for continuous, global-scale monitoring of changing ocean conditions. Ocean gliders and profiling floats, which are used increasingly, have even slower travel velocities (a disadvantage noted in a 2018 news article about Canada’s decision to

triple the number of glider missions within the Gulf of St. Lawrence [Withers, 2018]), have payload limitations, and are not always able to target specific features due to piloting limitations. Thus, gliders are often used for missions that are not time-sensitive (e.g., longterm monitoring) and are deployed either from land or from vessels at sea. These platforms can provide reasonable response times for investigation of phenomena that occur close to a research base or within the vicinity of a research vessel but are less useful for sparsely populated coasts or for remote regions of the ocean. In some of these areas, such as Canada’s Arctic and much of the Atlantic coast, deployments may not even be possible at times due to lack of access or adverse conditions (e.g., weather, ice).

Figure 1 depicts the temporal and spatial domains of several key ocean-related phenomena along with the domains of platforms currently available to study them. It differs from similar diagrams that portray the spatial and temporal reach of marine research platforms (e.g., [Kavanaugh et al., 2016]), as these do not account for the time required for platform mobilization, presumably assuming that the equipment is already in place. Moreover, the use of AUVs, especially smaller platforms, are often not considered in discussions of ocean observing strategies (e.g., [Moltmann et al., 2019; Sloyan et al., 2019; She et al., 2019]). However, even in ideal situations (e.g., studies of coastal areas with equipment that is accessible and requires no preparation), researchers are rarely able to mobilize a team and transport and deploy their equipment within a few days. It is even rarer for researchers to be able to deploy a team and equipment at

sea, or on the coast, for long periods of time, waiting for the research opportunity to arise. Unfortunately, improvements to existing measurement techniques are often precipitated by (fortunately) infrequent events that require an immediate response to mitigate disastrous consequences, such as the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill [Özgökmen et al., 2018]. When the time required to assemble, prepare, and mobilize typical research platforms is accounted for, a gap clearly appears in our current capability to respond to, capture, and study transient and unpredictable marine phenomena.

In the 2010s, technological innovations, particularly in the aerial drone sector, combined with the advent of open-source technology, enabled the development of smaller, modular, and cost-effective robotic vehicles that could be applied to ocean research. Commercially available products such as Pixhawk, Raspberry Pi, BeagleBone Black, and Arduino offer inexpensive, configurable, and userfriendly platforms that can be adapted for underwater navigation and integration with most oceanographic sensors and platforms. Supplying the latter are companies such as Blue Robotics and OpenROV,

platforms

whose

Figure 1: A Stommel diagram (after [Stommel, 1963]) depicting the spatial and temporal characteristics of several main oceanographic phenomena (in shaded boxes) against the typical observational reach (x-axis) and required deployment time (y-axis) of commonly used oceanographic research platforms (dotted box). A clear gap in platform capabilities is outlined in red; the observational capabilities of a single AUV of the size described in this paper are indicated with a dashed box. Note that multiple AUVs could be used to extend both the temporal and spatial coverage and, thus, more fully address the observational gap shown.

have inspired hobbyists and youth around the world yet, surprisingly, have yet to be widely embraced by the scientific research community, which may be unaware of their research potential. As noted by Lehman [2018], this is a paradigm shift away from the status quo of equipment (e.g., platforms) that is developed and operated by exclusive, well-funded research groups with access to specialized personnel, towards equipment that is widely accessible to small research groups and communities. Thus, while there has yet to be a commercial push to develop inexpensive, small, power-efficient, and open-source sensors, the new platforms offer the opportunities to build a new generation of oceanographic tools with measurement abilities that far exceed those of their predecessors and that are available to a much broader group of practitioners and researchers. As this potential becomes realized, it is hoped that industry will recognize the value of this market and develop products for it.

The Necessity and Opportunity for New Research Platforms

Figure 1 also reveals the need for research platforms that can be rapidly and readily deployed for situations demanding minimal response time, maximal mission time, and/or deployment in adverse or remote environments. Minimal response time can be a major issue as many/most key oceanic phenomena (e.g., mixing events, air-sea heat transfer and gas exchange, algal blooms, particle export) are episodic and short-lived. They are often patchy or concentrated into features of restricted spatial extent (e.g., storm-scale and/or submesoscale (<10 km) to mesoscale (<100 km) [Thomas et al., 2008]).

The episodic nature and limited geographic

extent of key phenomena combined with the (often coinciding) challenges of their occurrence in locations that are remote or with limited access, is a key aspect of “the sampling problem” that has always impeded ocean research and knowledge generation.

Further hindrances to ocean research are the high cost and/or limited options available for research platforms and associated instrumentation, whose use often requires multiple personnel and custom infrastructure. Historically, oceanography has been one of the more expensive fields of scientific research on a per capita basis [Mukerji, 1990]. The definition of “high cost” is subjective, of course: a 2018 review of “low-cost, observation-class” remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) includes vehicles with a base price of up to USD150K (c. Can$202K) [Lawrance et al., 2019], while the authors of a 2018 paper describing a custom-built ROV define “lowcost” as USD15K (c. Can$20K) [Lund-Hansen et al., 2018]. We have chosen to define a “low-cost” base vehicle as costing less than Can$30K. These constraints limit us to smaller ROVs and autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), which for ease of deployment, must also have an overall mass of less than 23 kg.

Most commercial base vehicles can be “accessorized” by the manufacturer with sensors and instruments at an additional cost, much like the optional “add-ons” that are offered with a new car purchase. However, unlike cars, underwater research platforms are not merely for transportation: without sensors and instruments, they serve no purpose. Whereas companies such as ecoSUB Robotics and SEABER now offer small

AUVs that are integrated with a scientific payload, the available sensor choices for these platforms remain limited in number, type, and choice of supplier. Furthermore, while sensors are becoming smaller and more power efficient, there has been less interest to date in developing a standard interface both in terms of hardware (e.g., mechanical connections) and software (e.g., communication protocols). Commercial instruments for ocean research often require proprietary supporting infrastructure (e.g., data loggers, connectors, cables, power supplies), increasing or complicating the payload space required, making it more difficult to have a common interface between sensors from different suppliers. A calculation of the relative cost of interface equipment compared to the cost of oceanographic instruments from five different sensor companies shows an average increase in their total cost of their use by nearly 40%.

In this paper, we describe our recent experiences with integrating and testing modular sensor payloads into a small ROV and an “A-size” (a standard sonobuoy size defined as having an outer diameter of 4.875 in. and a length of 35 in.), or “micro”, AUV. Our choice of vehicle design was guided explicitly by research considerations. Indeed, the overall purpose of this work is to address what we consider to be both a key gap and growing need in oceanographic research: the ability to characterize episodic, continuously evolving, transient, submesoscale oceanographic events. Finally, but importantly, our vehicle choice and development path were based on the principles that the resulting technology should be lowcost, modular, and readily accessible so that it can be used by smaller research groups without

requiring additional expensive infrastructure and/or specially trained personnel. Examples of research into the modification, creation, and use of lower cost platforms have increased rapidly over the last five years (e.g., [Buscher et al., 2020; Lyman et al., 2020; Tholen et al., 2021]), as has interest in open-source design (e.g., [Rabault et al., 2022; Sandy et al., 2021]), and we hope that our work will further encourage others to adopt a similar mindset.

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

Background and Methods

Our investigation of low-cost, readily deployable underwater technologies began in 2016 when we sought, unsuccessfully, to apply existing AUV technology to investigate mixing dynamics and its biogeochemical consequences in a local fiord. Located in Nova Scotia, Canada, the Bedford Basin covers an area of 17 km2 and has a maximum depth of 71 m. It is separated from offshore waters by a narrow channel with a sill depth of 20 m. Time-series investigation of the seasonal progression of properties in Bedford Basin provides processlevel understanding of biogeochemical cycling (e.g., of nitrogen [Haas et al., 2021] and iodine [Shi and Wallace, 2018]). The seasonal progression is, however, interrupted once or twice a year by meteorologically forced intrusions of high-salinity, offshore water that displaces the Basin’s bottom water, causing major changes in its chemical and biological composition. Neither the nature of the intrusions nor the fate of displaced water and its impact at the sea surface can be studied with the current sampling procedure, which is restricted to weekly vertical profiles conducted from a small research vessel at a single location.

Our attempts to use AUVs to study intrusions in four dimensions revealed that the few existing AUVs in our region that had been acquired for purposes other than scientific research were expensive (>Can$200K) and required teams of experienced technicians to operate. Unsurprisingly, the suggestion that these platforms be shared with less experienced users with different objectives was met with reluctance. These encounters led us to two key realizations: (1) available AUV technology is extremely costly and used relatively infrequently for restricted, specialized purposes; and (2) most research groups do not have the financial resources or personnel to allow their use for scientific research. This taught us that it is not only technology’s existence but also its accessibility that can limit oceanographic research and understanding. Access to technology and the funding to use it determines what science is done and by whom. However, recent technological developments suggest there is an opportunity to overcome some of these barriers, enabling new areas of scientific investigation and broadening the community who can conduct underwater research.

To demonstrate the opportunity provided by new technology and accelerate its development, we focused on using existing, commercially available vehicles as a platform. Our criteria for the choice of base vehicle were:

• Low-cost (i.e., Can$30K maximum)

• Capable of deployment and recovery by one person

• Adequate capacity for a “scientifically useful” sensor payload

• Ability for sensor payload to be userconfigurable for diverse uses (i.e.,

independent of platform manufacturer)

• Supplied with open-source or nonproprietary architecture that allows direct sensor integration (i.e., independent of platform manufacturer)

These criteria were based on our overarching goal to make underwater research platforms accessible to a broader end use community by reducing the cost and level of technical skill required to own, operate, modify, and maintain them. Our related sub-goals are to:

• Promote the use of underwater vehicles by small research teams and individuals, including those working outside of specialized research institutions, major industries, and the defence sector

• Allow for rapid deployment in remote, isolated locations

• Increase their payload flexibility and interoperability to allow diverse scientific missions without the delays and high costs of non-recurring engineering supplied by manufacturers

• Reduce costs of acquisition and use to meet budgets of a broader variety of end users

In the following sections, we describe two vehicles that were chosen using the above criteria and modified to meet the above goals. Please note that in addition to the base costs of the platform quoted above, the modifications described in the following text would add approximately Can$1K per vehicle. However, as the designs are publicly available, users save an estimated Can$4K of non-recurring engineering costs.

Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV)

While the size and autonomy of micro-AUVs

are particularly attractive for rapid deployment in adverse or remote environments, these two characteristics also present additional challenges. The payload’s physical dimensions and power draw must be carefully considered, and vehicle autonomy has yet to be perfected as underwater navigation is still an active field of development. The ROV, being tethered, provides real-time observation of the surrounding environment that can be useful for data interpretation and reduces the risk of losing the vehicle. Thus, we chose an ROV for our first attempts at developing a lowcost and rapidly deployable underwater vehicle for scientific applications.

Vehicle Overview

The first phase of this research focused on development of a small, low-cost ROV as an initial test platform. Key criteria for our choice of ROV were:

1. Modular frame, facilitating sensor mounting

2. Open-source architecture, allowing direct sensor integration

3. Tethered operation, providing realtime data and video of the observed environment

4. Onboard battery capacity, allowing at least two hours of continuous operation

The Blue Robotics BlueROV2 [Blue Robotics, n.d.] meets these criteria and is, to our knowledge, currently the only open-source, modular ROV with a purchase price equivalent to that of a typical oceanographic sensor (around Can$7,500). Even with significant additions to the ROV frame, the eight thrusters on the BlueROV2’s “heavy” configuration are capable of vehicle self-stabilization in three dimensions and automatically adjust

to accommodate added weight, resulting in little to no penalty in terms of agility and manoeuvrability. The ability to self-stabilize and “hover” in place without user input not only negates the need to trim and ballast the vehicle precisely before deployment, but more importantly, the absence of vehicle drift reduces error in depth readings when taking measurements. Its open frame configuration provides multiple mounting points, allowing for a flexible sensor payload, and its tether provides user control, removing the complexity and risk associated with autonomous behaviour. Its modular frame provides the option to increase battery capacity, although the supplied battery can readily support twohour missions. Weighing less than 15 kg, it is easily deployable by a single person from a small boat or from the shoreline.

There are, however, several potential disadvantages to using an ROV as a research platform. In comparison to buoyancy-driven or other passive instrument systems (e.g., conductivity, temperature, and depth (CTD)/ winch systems), ROV thrusters generate large amounts of turbulence, which may be undesirable for certain types of data collection (e.g., acoustic). Water disturbance can be minimized, however, by powering off the thrusters while data are being collected. In calm water conditions, minimal drift is expected from a properly ballasted ROV. Sensor placement and orientation must be carefully considered and tested to ensure that measurement ability is not negatively affected by ROV attitude, orientation, and speed. These considerations are especially important for sensors that require flushing or an obstruction-free zone within the limits of their sensing volume.

Finally, commercial options for implementing full underwater positioning on an ROV (e.g., ultra-short baseline) system or the Water Linked

Underwater GPS [Water Linked, n.d.] are costly (at minimum, equivalent to vehicle price) and bulky to implement. Thus, most ROVs only provide accurate depth estimates, making them useful for conducting depth profiles at known locations but less so for three-dimensional subsurface measurements, where the use of AUVs may be more appropriate.

Electrical Modifications and Improvements

Direct integration of sensors with the BlueROV2 computer has several benefits: (a) sensor data can be matched with the depth data provided from the ROV and transmitted in real time; (b) clock synchronization with the host computer provides a universal shared reference; and (c) sensors can be powered off the main vehicle battery. To accomplish these goals, a custom circuit board with an

Atmel ATmega2560 processor was designed to interface with the sensors, the ROV computer, and the ROV battery pack, eliminating the need for individual datalogging boards and power supplies. A schematic of the system architecture is shown in Figure 2.

Initial board designs used an Arduino Mega; however, testing showed that its rectangular form factor was difficult to fit and mount inside the secondary enclosure and took up a significant amount of space. This led to a circular board stack design, shown in Figure 3, that can be fastened to the enclosure’s end cap, providing a more elegant space-saving solution that secures the stack within the enclosure.

Autodesk EAGLE was used for PCB design, and prototypes were printed at PCBWay and Sunsel. Software was developed using Atmel Studio 7.0 (now Microchip Studio) and Python 2.7. The software on the ATmega board powers

Figure 2: Simplified schematic of the ROV control system showing original BlueROV2 components (black) and modifications described in this paper (red).

the sensors and collects and forwards data from the serial ports to a Python script running on the ROV computer. The Python script appends a time stamp to these data and sends them, along with ROV state information, up the ROV tether in real time. This information is observed and recorded on the topside computer using the PuTTY SSH client, which initializes the Python script.

Mechanical Modifications and Improvements

Brackets used to attach the sensors to the ROV were designed based on publicly available 3D models of the ROV [Jehangir, 2018]. They were manufactured on hobbyistgrade equipment that is widely available: a CANCAM miniTron D-11 desktop CNC router and a Creality3D CR-10 Max 3D printer. However, the sensors could also have been mounted using hose clamps or zip ties.

Larger parts, such as the payload skid shown in Figure 4, were also cut using the router. The payload skid was required to support a large fluorescence sensor that was half the weight of the original ROV, requiring extra buoyancy beyond the standard foam blocks available from Blue Robotics. To counteract this weight, two 2-L soda bottles pressurized to 75 psi (approximately equivalent to 50 m of water depth) were added. By mounting the bottles on either side of the sensor, the entire assembly could be removed quickly without modifications to vehicle trim or ballast.

To accommodate the PCB stack that supports the sensor payload, the standard battery enclosure was replaced with a longer tube section. The sensors were connected using typical wet-mate connector (SubConn) pigtails,

with one end potted into blank penetrations available from Blue Robotics.

Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Vehicle Overview

The ecoSUBµ5 AUV chosen for development work is a micro-AUV developed by Planet

Figure 3: Circular boards used for ROV sensor integration: the top board (unpopulated) accommodates five sensors with analog and serial outputs, while labels on the bottom board (populated) show the (A) ATmega2560 microcontroller, (B) port to accept battery power from the ROV, and (C) one of the built-in mounting points for securing the board stack within its enclosure.

Ocean under the supervision of the National Oceanography Centre in Southampton, U.K. [Phillips et al., 2017]. A finless vehicle with a weight of 4 kg, a length of 0.925 m, and an outer diameter of 0.111 m, it is a true A-size vehicle and can be easily deployed by one person. However, its size and form factor limit its payload volume, which is restricted to the inside of the flooded nose cone (see Figure 5).

As the AUV has less than half the onboard battery capacity of the ROV, both sensor size and power are important considerations. While there are other A-size AUVs that can support larger payloads, we chose the

ecoSUBµ5 for its “front-seat/back-seat driver” [Eickstedt and Sideleau, 2010] functionality. While control features critical to vehicle performance cannot be modified by the end user, the user payload can interface with the vehicle and request actions for the vehicle to perform. This allows the user to combine vehicle and payload data streams and utilize the vehicle’s telemetry system.

As with the ROV, use of the AUV as a research platform comes with potential, although different, disadvantages. While the AUV’s 3D-printed nose cone can be customized to accommodate different

Figure 4: CAD rendering of a modified BlueROV2 illustrating modifications made, including (A) sensor brackets, (B) payload skid to support the (C) large sensor payload and the (D) added buoyancy in the form of pressurized 2-L pop bottles. The modular design of the payload skid allows it to be quickly and easily removed in the field, enabling a rapid redeployment of the vehicle. CAD files for the original BlueROV2 vehicle are courtesy of Blue Robotics [Jehangir, 2018].

instruments, vehicle size and power restrictions limit the type and number of sensors that can be integrated. Any alterations to the vehicle’s form factor must be balanced against sacrifices in vehicle performance, and provisions must be made for re-ballasting the vehicle to ensure that the vehicle remains buoyant and maintains its trim.

Electrical Modifications and Improvements

Integrating a common sensor interface into the AUV allowed us to eliminate individual sensor boards, further reducing sensor size and power draw. Building on the ROV work described previously, custom circuit boards were designed and printed for the

AUV. However, this PCB was designed with additional features beyond providing power to the sensors and receiving/transmitting data. These features include logging and processing sensor data and state information from the AUV, operating a real-time clock, and implementing algorithms that can potentially be used to control the AUV’s navigation. This added functionality required a more powerful processor, so a Texas Instruments TM4C1294 processor was selected and integrated into a custom PCB board stack. The stack, shown in Figure 6, was designed to fit in an empty cavity within the main vehicle enclosure that comprises the only available free space in the vehicle.

Figure 5: Exploded view of the ecoSUBµ5 AUV, showing the main components: a (A) flooded nose cone sealed off by the (B) nose cone end cap, which has a (C) plastic bulkhead attachment to the (D) main enclosure, a dry section sealed by another end cap from the (E) tail section. The only available space in the vehicle is the flooded section in (A) and a dry volume enclosed by (C), details of which are shown in Figure 6. Base vehicle CAD is courtesy of ecoSUB Robotics.

Figure 6: Assembled sensor interface PCB stack, with dimensions L = 6.4 cm, W = 3.8 cm, and H = 2 cm. The plastic enclosure surrounding it is the only available free space in the vehicle.

end cap facing the main enclosure (dry side), showing the (B) embedded CT sensor and the electrical connections from the (C) CT and (D) secondary sensor ports, which lead directly to the sensor interface PCB stack shown in Figure 6.

the top image, the nose cone has been removed to show the main components: an (A) acetal end cap, (B) pressure vent, (C) AML Xchange sensor that can be quickly removed by unscrewing it from the end cap, (D) permanently mounted AML CT·Xchange sensor, and (E) original plastic enclosure where the sensor interface boards (not shown) are housed. In the bottom image, the (A) 3D-printed nose cone, which serves to protect the sensors and reduce water drag, has been added to illustrate its main design features, which include a (B) porthole for optical sensors and modifications to aid water flow through the CT sensor and flushing of the nose cone ((C) and (D), respectively).

Figure 8: CAD of vehicle nose section. In

Figure 7: View of the (A) nose cone

The software for the AUV board stack was created in Code Composer Studio 9.3 (now CCS 10.1.1). This software interfaces and is activated from a Python script that runs on the AUV main computer. The Python script has three main functions: enabling the data logger, enabling the AUV state information stream to the logger, and allowing the user to interface with the data logger, enabling remote operation.

Enabling direct communication between the sensors and the PCB stack reduces power consumption; integration of the AML Oceanographic CT·Xchange sensor resulted in a 16% reduction of its original power consumption. However, this work was not aimed at lowering payload power demand, which is small when compared to the vehicle’s propulsion power requirements. The creation of the custom boards was necessary to integrate sensors into the AUV, as accommodating sensor logic boards and power supplies would not be physically possible given the extremely limited space available within the vehicle.

Mechanical Modifications and Improvements

A flexible payload that allows quick and easy swapping of sensors for different research applications requires a common mechanical and electrical sensor interface. We chose to use the Xchange series from AML Oceanographic, one of the few commercial options designed for field swapping of sensors via a common mounting, sealing, and electrical connection interface. Integrating a shared sensor port required replacing the original end cap, which has a generic waterproof connector and vent port. By re-making the end cap out of acetal instead of aluminum, sensor ports could be embedded within the end cap,

thereby increasing available payload volume. As temperature and salinity are fundamental oceanographic measurements for almost all missions, a conductivity and temperature (CT) sensor was also permanently mounted in the end cap, allowing removal of the sensor’s original pressure tube. Eliminating the CT sensor’s logic board and the original housing resulted in a length reduction of over 50%. Figure 7 shows the new endcap with the embedded CT sensor and a quick-exchange port for a secondary sensor.

To accommodate the new sensor payload, re-design of the nose cone was also required. The new nose cone, shown in Figure 8, included internal channels and external ports to allow flushing of the CT sensor, and a porthole for optical secondary sensors. Internal cavities that could be filled with castin syntactic foam were added, as this foam, combined with additional buoyancy in the tail section, was required to counteract the added weight of the sensors. These modifications involved a slight elongation of the nose cone (c. 25 mm) but otherwise allowed us to retain a similar form factor.

A final modification to the AUV was the creation of a low-cost battery pack designed to increase onboard energy capacity while retaining the same size as the original battery pack. The new pack was also designed to be rechargeable and for field situations requiring quick battery changes. The battery pack housing was 3D-printed to match the existing housing; however, the eight alkaline batteries were replaced by 24 18650 form factor rechargeable lithium-ion cells arranged in a 2s12p configuration (see Figure 9), more than doubling the pack’s energy capacity.

The use of lithium-ion batteries eliminates the cold-temperature performance reduction inherent to alkaline cell chemistry, a significant factor during winter deployments in Canada, some in ice-covered seas.

For access to the lithium-ion cells (e.g., during shipping), the battery pack has been designed to be easily disassembled, allowing for the removal or replacement of individual cells without welding or soldering requirements. The two battery case halves and the battery bus plates are identical, simplifying reassembly. While disassembly of the battery pack is not required for recharging, the pack must be removed from the vehicle. Future work is aimed at

implementing a battery recharging port, eliminating the need to open the vehicle’s main enclosure.

DEMONSTRATION 1: COASTAL HYDROGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MAPPING

Background

The ability to monitor and assess the marine environment is increasingly important to coastal communities, as their economies and infrastructure are often heavily reliant on the ocean. Many issues/events of importance to coastal communities (e.g., algal blooms, aquaculture impacts, effluent dispersion) are based on ocean processes and events

Figure 9: CAD of new battery pack, which has double the energy capacity of the original. The pack, which has been split to show details of the main components, consists of (A) two identical 3D-printed battery housings, (B) brass bus plates with riveted aluminum connection points, (C) 24 18650 Li-ion cells, (D) wires and fuses that allow in-situ balanced re-charging of the pack, and (E) threaded rods that hold the assembly together.

operating at small geographic and temporal scales. Availability of research platforms impose further restrictions on data collection by coastal communities. Historically, measurements of the water column have relied on vertical profiles made from boats and/or research vessels, which can involve significant cost and preparation, placing limits on understanding of horizontal and temporal variability.

This section focuses on demonstrations that took place in the Bedford Basin and in the Bras d’Or Lake, an inland sea centred in Cape Breton, Canada. Covering over 1,000 km2, the Bras d’Or is of historical importance to the local Indigenous population and of economic importance to the community, including its use for aquaculture. There has also been long-standing scientific interest in the lake environment and its geological history (e.g., [Smith and Rushton, 1963; Taylor and Shaw, 2002; Manning et al., 2019]).

Discussions held with representatives from the Unama’ki Institute of Natural Resources, an organization representing five Mi’kmaq communities in Cape Breton, revealed several topics of interest. These include groundwater-marine interaction (e.g., submarine groundwater discharge (SGD)) and sediment loading (e.g., as affected via forestry practices). Groundwater flow into the Bras d’Or should be detectable by measuring changes in temperature, salinity, and turbidity [Baechler et al., 2019]. With the addition of nitrate, oxygen, and/or pH measurements, these data should also be sufficient to characterize forestry effluent [Bonin-Font et al., 2018].

While both the ROV and the AUV were used in the demonstrations, we focus here on results that compare and contrast the strengths of each vehicle as low-cost modular research platforms. As the ROV does not track its location in horizontal co-ordinates, it was used for vertically profiling a pre-determined location in Bedford Basin. In the Bras d’Or Lake, where the location of phenomena such as SGD remain unknown, the AUV was used to map water properties in three dimensions.

Performance Analysis – Bedford Basin, Canada

For this demonstration, the ROV was equipped with sensors commonly used for characterizing the marine environment. These included an AML CT·Xchange (salinity and temperature), an Aanderaa 4330F (dissolved oxygen), a Seabird Deep-Sea DuraFET (pH), and two Turner Cyclops 7F sensors (chlorophyll and turbidity). Multiple vertical profiles to 70 m depth were made in the Bedford Basin. A benefit of testing in the Bedford Basin is the ability to compare measurements with data from the well-established Bedford Basin Monitoring Program (BBMP), a time series dating back to 1992 [BIO, 2019].

Figure 10 shows a comparison of temperature measurements made from four different sensors of varying accuracy and cost that were mounted on the ROV alongside measurements made from the BBMP CTD cast conducted during the same cruise.

Figure 10 shows that ROV sensors T2 and T4 very closely matched the CTD measurements, while unsurprisingly, T1, which is a lowaccuracy sensor that is included with the

Figure

Vertical temperature profiles with data collected by four ROV-mounted sensors (T1 to T4) and a Bedford Basin Monitoring Program (BBMP) CTD cast (CTD). (bottom) Temperature variations between measurements from each ROV sensor and the CTD cast, calculated by subtracting sensor temperature from the CTD temperature at the same depth. Measurements were taken at the Compass Buoy site (44° 41' 37" N, 63° 38' 25" W) in the Bedford Basin, Canada, and CTD data are courtesy of the BBMP [BIO, 2018].

10: (top)

BlueROV2, did not. The variance in the temperature differences may be partially explained by the time lag between the profiles; to eliminate the risk of entanglement between the CTD winch line and the ROV tether, the CTD cast was performed ten minutes after the ROV profile. Water motion and vessel dynamics may, therefore, have played a role in the observed temperature differences, especially in regions of the water column with strong vertical gradients.

Comparing the ROV measurements to the BBMP CTD cast, or “true” data, helped to guide sensor selection; without a comparative reference, sensor selection would have been difficult as all sensors functioned as expected and had similar power and integration requirements. The AUV payload was determined after analyzing the ROV data from repeated demonstrations.

Performance Analysis – Bras d’Or Lake, Canada

For this demonstration, the AUV was equipped with a Turner Cyclops 7F-T sensor for turbidity measurement, which along with the permanently mounted AML CT·Xchange sensor, simulates a scientific payload that could be used to identify submarine groundwater discharge locations as well as monitor forestryinduced sediment loading within the Bras d’Or. To minimize the risk of vehicle loss during early trials, the AUV was restricted to the Irish Vale barachois [Nixon, 2014], a shallow (<10 m) area that is mostly separated from the rest of the lake by a natural gravel barrier. An example of temperature measurements taken from an AUV mission in September 2020 is shown in Figure 11. Details of selected points from this figure are included in Table 1 to show that the AUV was able to capture three-dimensional variations in temperature

Figure 11: Temperature data in three dimensions collected during a single AUV mission; start and end points are marked by (A) and (E), respectively. Despite the relative homogeneity of the shallow water column, a slight vertical temperature gradient can be seen; examples with positional data are indicated with letters, with further details provided in Table 1. Measurements were made in the Bras d’Or Lake, Canada.

Table 1: Position and temperature data of markers shown in Figure 11.

Figure 12: Google satellite images of Irish Vale barachois, Canada. In the left image, the boxed area marked (A) encloses the location of the measurements shown in Figure 11. This area has been enlarged in the right image, where the green waypoints indicating the AUV mission track clearly show the vehicle traversing the white sandbar.

representing a shallow water column with a slightly warmer surface layer extending approximately one metre below the surface.

Comparing Figure 11 with the vertical ROV profile in Figure 10 shows the advantage of using the AUV for water column mapping. However, the demonstration was cut short due to unanticipated navigational issues. Examining the mission track generated by the AUV after it had completed its mission, it appeared that the AUV had traversed the gravel sand barrier, leading us to believe that the vehicle’s positioning system had malfunctioned. This is shown in Figure 12.

Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) integrated with web mapping platforms are commonly used for operation of remote and autonomous platforms, as they allow users to easily create missions by locating waypoints on top of a map. While the ecoSUB GUI offers several different map options, missions for this demonstration were constructed using Google satellite images due to their high-resolution detail. However, after conducting a GPS survey of the area, we determined that the Google satellite images used by the AUV’s mission planning software were no longer accurate. Since the latest satellite image update in 2018, the gravel barrier had shifted inland, in some areas by more than 25 m, also changing the bathymetric profile of the barachois. Unfortunately, updates to satellite imagery tend to be less frequent in sparsely populated and remote environments, which we had identified in the introduction of this paper as areas that also tend to lack adequate research platforms. In these areas, and in those subject to constantly shifting environments (e.g., due to natural erosion or anthropogenic activities),

we recommend checking mission waypoints before AUV launch and keeping dive depths conservative to minimize the risk of vehicle damage or loss.

DEMONSTRATION 2: MARINE OIL SPILL MAPPING

Background

Containment of contaminant spills at sea is complicated by variations in contaminant behaviour, which is determined by contaminant type, source, and (often changing) environmental conditions. Marine robotic vehicles that can be rapidly deployed during contaminant spills (e.g., crude oil or chemical spills) provide an opportunity to rapidly assess spill impact, providing information that can increase the effectiveness of response measures. However, AUV use in oil spill response has so far been limited to a few midto large-size vehicles (e.g., Sentry [Kinsey et al., 2011], Dorado [Ryan et al., 2011]). Thus far, the new generation of smaller vehicles has not yet been adapted to this purpose, although they have significant advantages over their larger predecessors, including reduced deployment time and cost.

Via our participation in Canada’s Multi-Partner Research Initiative oil spill research program, we identified several key capacities of an underwater platform capable of rapidly responding to and taking measurements during oil spill events:

• Increased effectiveness in oil spill response efforts via decreased response time

• Identification of high-priority areas for oil dispersant/burning measures

• Delineation of oil spill boundaries for

placement of mechanical tools (e.g., booms, skimmers)

• Ability to map spills in challenging or inhospitable environments (e.g., due to adverse weather and/or ice cover)

These key capacities are applicable to characterizing the spatial and temporal evolution of similar events (e.g., open-water evolution of other contaminant releases or of a released dye during tracer studies).

However, subsurface ocean mapping of dispersed oil using fluorescence readings (currently the most common method of oil detection) has the added challenges of varying levels of ambient light and water turbulence. This demonstration was designed to test the ROV’s ability to navigate and collect data under these variable conditions.

The ROV was tested during a workshop hosted by ExxonMobil between June 2428, 2019, at the Ohmsett Oil Spill Response Research & Renewable Energy Test Facility in New Jersey. The tank at Ohmsett, which is 203 m long and 20 m wide, has a working depth of 2.4 m and is one of the largest outdoor saltwater wave tanks capable of doing oil spill work. The tests were performed with surface and subsurface oil releases of a medium crude oil (Thunder Horse [ExxonMobil, 2019]), with and without dispersant (COREXIT EC9500A [Corexit, 2019], added in a 1:20 dispersant-to-oil ratio), and in both calm and turbulent water. Turbulent conditions were achieved using wave settings of 35 CPM (0.6 Hz) at a 15 cm stroke, resulting in the following wave characteristics: 0.29 m average wave height,

0.32 m significant wave height (H1/3), 3.4 m wavelength, and 1.5 s period.

Performance Analysis – Ohmsett Tank, United States

Three different fluorometers designed to detect crude oil were integrated into the ROV: a Chelsea UV AquaTracka, a WET Labs

SeaOWL UV-A, and a Turner Cyclops 7F-O. By deploying the sensors on the same platform and merging their data streams, we were able to make an intercomparison of the sensors’ abilities to detect crude oil in water under different oil release scenarios.

Images of the ROV taking measurements during various releases of oil and/or dispersant are shown in Figure 13.

To verify oil presence, sensor data was compared to real-time, high-definition video from the ROV. Crude oil concentration was plotted against ROV depth to obtain an understanding of oil spreading within the water column during turbulent conditions when oil dispersant is added, as shown in Figure 14.

In addition to providing confirmation of oil presence via fluorescence measurement, the in-situ video imagery also identified sources of unanticipated spikes in the fluorescence data. These spikes correspond to periods when the sensor became oversaturated with sunlight breaking through the top layer of oil, as seen in Figure 15.

Figure 15 shows rays of sunlight filtering through natural breaks in the plume of crude oil near the surface. The rapid variation in colour and intensity of the underwater light

DCBAFigure 13: Images of oil spill exercises at Ohmsett showing the ROV investigating a surface release with (A) no dispersant in calm water and with (B) dispersant and in turbulent conditions. Investigations of a subsea release are shown in (C) without dispersant in calm water and (D) with dispersant in calm water. Photos are courtesy of T. Coolbaugh (ExxonMobil).

Figure 14: Oil concentration at various depths matched with still frames from ROV video. To illustrate the connection between sensor readings and video imagery, sensor data (plotted) are shown with still frames (top) matched by timestamp and labelled, showing (A) uncontaminated seawater, (B) dense plumes of dispersed oil, (C) and (D) increasingly dilute plumes of dispersed oil, and (E) a mixture of seawater and dispersed oil. Measurements were taken during a surface release of oil with dispersant under turbulent water conditions at the Ohmsett National Oil Spill Response Research & Renewable Energy Test Facility, USA.

Figure 15: Still image of dispersed oil taken by the BlueROV2 during oil spill tests at Ohmsett showing the effects of surface illumination as sunlight penetrates through an oil slick. (A) Gaps in the surface oil layer allow (B) rays of sunlight to penetrate through the water column, resulting in large variations in light conditions, as shown at (C) and (D). This image was taken during a surface release of oil with dispersant during turbulent water conditions.

is challenging for video imaging and for optical fluorescence sensors, alike. Using timestamps to match video imagery to fluorescence measurements allowed us to separate sudden maxima in the fluorescence signal as being a result of a highly illuminated (sunlit) environment versus a high concentration of oil. In the future, this issue could be better addressed by integrating a sensor to measure ambient light levels (i.e., a photosynthetically active radiation sensor). However, the reduction in video quality due to sudden and drastic changes in illumination hampered our ability to capture clear images of oil particulate residue; hence, we have since integrated an additional higher-resolution camera with better low-light performance.

CONCLUSIONS

The driving motivation behind this work is aptly captured by the following remark in a 2001 paper by Willcox et al., which, 20 years later, still holds true: “the present generation of oceanographic field programs are fundamentally limited by too few measurements, taken too slowly, at too great a cost” [Willcox et al., 2001].

Historically, most platforms used for oceanographic research have been spatially and temporally restricted in their use (e.g., profiling floats which are restricted to use in deeper parts of the ocean) or cannot be deployed quickly or affordably (e.g., research vessels). These limitations restrict research in adverse environments (e.g., polar regions) or when rapid response is required for studies focused on episodic, unpredictable events, such as ocean eddies, algal blooms, fiord intrusions, or marine oil spills. The high cost of most platforms and their requirement for

specialized personnel to enable their use adds further barriers to their deployment by developing nations, coastal communities, local governments, and northern or Indigenous populations. Also restricted are fledgling research programs with restricted budgets that are attempting to investigate small-scale, regionally focused, or short-lived phenomena. The platforms and programs designed for large-scale climate monitoring of the ocean, while essential, are not readily adaptable to these sorts of uses and user communities.

The examples presented here are intended to demonstrate that there are new ways to move forward.

The recent introduction of small, inexpensive, open-source computing systems and hobbyistgrade machine tools introduce new opportunities for development of low-cost marine research platforms that can be integrated with most oceanographic sensors. Indeed, low-cost underwater platforms are appearing on the market, and our demonstrations show that they have potential for supporting a range of basic and applied uses for research and operational measurement. While these are not intended to replace existing platforms, many of which have superior ranges, speeds, payload capacities, data quality attributes, etc., the ability to broaden access and rapidly deploy platforms for measurement of local or short-lived ocean phenomena fills a gap in observational capabilities (see Figure 1), helping to launch new research areas.

In this paper, we demonstrated modification of two commercially available, low-cost underwater vehicles and their integration

with modular sensor payloads. Through this, research tools were created that have the potential to be rapidly and easily deployed for a wide variety of oceanographic studies by a broad range of end users. We have shown the value, for this purpose, of platforms that allow for custom modification by an end user community who wish to pursue uses that the platform manufacturer may not have anticipated or may not consider to be a priority. The high cost and significant delays associated with non-recurring engineering of underwater vehicles to allow them to be used for new uses has, in our experience, discouraged or delayed innovation and experimentation.

Our demonstrations and modifications confirm that a platform’s front-seat/back-seat approach and capacity to integrate sensors and/ or instruments offers numerous possibilities for development of flexible payloads and, therefore, allows new approaches to oceanographic research. Specifically, thanks to the relatively open designs of the ecoSUBµ5 AUV and the BlueROV2, we were able to independently and rapidly implement numerous modifications and new tools (e.g., a water sampler for the ROV) that significantly extend the capabilities and flexibility of these vehicles. We are sharing these modifications openly so that others can use and hopefully build on our work; interested users can contact the authors directly for more details or visit www.cercocean.gitbook.io.

be linked to the lack of availability, flexibility, and high cost of the available sensors required for ocean research. Here, the interchangeability and potential for swapping of different sensors offered by the AML Xchange sensor suite was attractive for use on smaller platforms. However, the cost of sensors suitable for oceanographic research remains high compared to the cost of vehicles as has been noted earlier. Low-cost sensors, on the other hand, risk lower quality data (see temperature profiles in Figure 10 for an example). The cost of highquality sensors likely reflects limited demand, as widely used commercial electronic systems of comparable quality and often greater complexity (e.g., cameras, mobile phones, video game consoles) are notably cheaper.

Overall, the most significant remaining challenges that we encountered and that we believe are likely to impede widespread use of underwater technology can be summarized as:

• Current options for underwater localization and navigation are error prone and are extremely costly to implement

• The number of sensors with an appropriate size and form factor for integration remains limited

• The cost of sensors remains high relative to the new, low-cost platforms that can carry them

However, despite promising growth in availability of these lower cost underwater vehicles, the ocean science community may not yet be fully aware of the possibilities that they provide. Part of the reason for this may

We have continued to build on the first steps described here, notably through further use of the AUV, including exploring its ability to adaptively navigate an unknown environment rather than rely on a pre-determined route, and through improved testing of sensor performance. Future publications will include

results from the use of both vehicles to measure dye tracers and crude oil during field studies of contaminant dispersion.

These first experiments demonstrated the ability and utility of small, remotely operated and autonomous platforms with customintegrated sensor payloads for marine research applications. In the future, we see broad potential for use of this type of vehicle including for use under coastal and lake ice where measurements are, presently, almost impossible. The accelerated and expanded use and development of the smaller, lower-cost technologies described here will fill a major gap in oceanographic research capacity and, at the same time, extend the capacity to conduct underwater research and monitoring beyond the well-funded research institutions, industries, and sectors that presently have access.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank the CERC. OCEAN Lab at Dalhousie University, particularly Piotr Kawalec, Michael Vining, and Dariia Atamanchuk, as well as the crew of the Bedford Basin Monitoring Program for their support. We would also like to thank the following individuals and their groups for their help: Dr. Kenneth Lee (Fisheries and Oceans Canada), Dr. Neil Bose (Memorial University of Newfoundland), Dr. Bruce Hatcher (Cape Breton University), Dr. Tim Nedwed (ExxonMobil), Dr. Tom Coolbaugh (formerly ExxonMobil, now Applied Research Associates), Elisa Miller (Blue Robotics), Jeremy Sitbon (ecoSUB Robotics), and Colin Gillis (formerly AML Oceanographic, now Hawboldt Industries).

This work was supported by funding from the Vanier Canada Graduate Scholarship program, the Canada Excellence Research Chair in Ocean Science and Technology, and the Government of Canada’s Multi-Partner Research Initiative.

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Q&A Hebert Leah with

Former electronics technician third class petty officer, United States Navy. Government Special Projects, Oceaneering International. First female remotely operated vehicle (ROV) supervisor in the world.

Where were you born? Where is home today?

I was born in Erath, Louisiana. I still live in Louisiana but now in Berwick.

What is your occupation?

Currently, I am a subsea equipment technician with Oceaneering International. My previous roles with Oceaneering include ROV senior supervisor, ROV project manager, ROV operations manager, and ROV safety/operations liaison. I’ve been part of the Oceaneering team since 1996.

Why did you choose this occupation?

I was an electronics technician (ET) in the U.S. Navy (1991-1995). I was fascinated with robots. When I got out of the Navy, I was looking for a job on the water as an ET. A friend told me about Oceaneering International. He stated that it was a job working in an offshore oilfield dealing with robotics. I applied and the rest is history. I was hired on with Oceaneering two weeks after I was discharged from the Navy.

Where has your career taken you?

All over the world. Japan, Trinidad, multiple countries in Europe. I’ve worked in the Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and Caribbean Sea.

If you had to choose another career, what would it be? Are there other careers?

What is your personal motto?

Why not?

What hobbies do you enjoy?

I’ve entertained quite a few hobbies over the years – travelling, building Legos, puzzles, skydiving, 5 kilometre runs and half marathons, reading.

Where do you like to vacation?

My favourite place to vacation by far is a solo trip to the beach with my books. I like to read and tan.

Who inspires you?

Erica Moulton, Jill Zande, Sylvia Earl. These are all strong women I met after I started my career with ROVs. They make me stop in my tracks and say “wow.” When I was first hired on with Oceaneering, I was taken under the wing of Sharon

Hall. She worked in the Manufacturing Department (building the ROVs I would work on). She was my rock in many ways while I started my career – and still is to this day.

What has been the highlight of your career so far? Becoming the first female ROV supervisor in the world. When I started with Oceaneering International, I couldn’t spell ROV. Within two and a half years, I was on an oil rig working as the lead in a crew of three. The ROV, its maintenance, and operation as well as its crew were my responsibility. I was challenged and proud at the same time.

What do you like most about working in this field?

The comradery with the crew and the cool equipment I get to operate. There are times I will just go outside and look around. Working on the ocean is a totally different beast than being land locked. Standing on the back of the vessel, looking at the waves, and realizing how strong and beautiful Mother Nature is. It’s soul shaking when I let myself truly think about where I am and what I’m doing.

What are some of the biggest challenges your job presents?

The biggest challenges are multi-faceted. One is dealing with crew dynamics and making sure that everyone is utilized to their full capacity. Also dealing with certain personalities (mine included) and finding what makes the crew work best together. The equipment is a challenge as well. You’ve got to keep everything working and ensure that it’s prepared and capable of what you need it to do for the missions. Many times, we’ve got to make it work with what we’ve got … not necessarily with what we need. In the beginning of my career in 1996 one of my biggest challenges was being respected and treated equally when out on the oilfield rigs. I realized quickly it wasn’t about “being a woman” – it was about me doing the job to the best of my ability. The respect came quickly once everyone I worked with realized I was more than capable. I also realized that to get respect, you need to give respect. Learning how to get out of my own way took more time. I’m still learning this lesson!

What technological advancements have you witnessed?

I’m working on my 28th year with this company

and in the ROV and subsea equipment field. Man, the advances have been huge! We went from twisted wire pairs for data to fibre optics. I laugh when I think about how confusing RS232 to RS485 used to be to me. I saw the beginning of fibre optic systems and how crude they were back then to how sleek and streamlined they are today. I’ve seen drilling rigs only capable of working in 600 metres of seawater that were anchored in position to now over 10,000 metres of seawater and are dynamically positioned. Same with our ROVs. I’ve seen our ROVs go from 50 horsepower (hp) to 250 hp capabilities. You’d better not stand still in the technology lane because you’ll get run over quickly. Now we have AUVs that can sit on work sites and retool themselves. It’s wild when I think about the evolution of subsea technology and how it’s changed within the last 30 years.

What does the future hold for this industry? For you?

The oil industry, on which most of us rely, is dependent upon many factors. Best not to even speculate on what that future is and just be prepared to move in whichever direction is dictated. But the subsea industry, exploration of the ocean, government needs, etc. – only our imagination limits what the future holds. The more I work with different groups in the subsea world, the more amazed I am at what we are capable of and where we are going.

What does it hold for me? Whatever I want, really. My first 25 years I was focused on the oilfield. In recent years I’ve ventured out and worked in other areas. My future will be within the areas I’m working in now. I’ll leave the oilfield to the younger generation. I never thought I’d see the time that I’d be winding down in my career. But realistically within the next 15 years it’ll be a wrap for me and my seagoing days. But the sea will always be where my heart is.

What new technologies would you like to see?

I don’t really know. Each time I see what is new, I’m floored with where the minds are taking us. We already have ROVs that can be flown by someone on land. Who knows!

What advice do you have for those just starting their careers?

Be fluid and be open. You’ll be working in nonconventional environments with non-conventional people on wild non-conventional equipment. Take the time to breathe and really get what you are doing. You are doing something that only 1% of the population knows about and, less than that, can do the tasks you are setting out to do. You will have bad days and you will have worse days, but they are part of the journey. Be part of something that is bigger than you. You’ll sit back 30 years later and be like, “Wow, we did that! I was part of that!” That’s the best feeling in the world! Also, don’t ever forget that you don’t know everything. Always be willing to reach out to someone else for help. Even if you think you are an island, you are really part of an archipelago.

Trade Winds

Surveying and Monitoring

ViperFish ROTV

Assets on the seabed, such as offshore wind turbines, natural resource extraction systems, and tens of thousands of kilometres of underwater cables, serve as critical subsea infrastructure. To efficiently build, monitor, protect, and maintain these assets, autonomous system solutions are vital. Over-the-horizon unmanned deployments with infrequent servicing can be achieved by vehicles, sensors, and software working together to enable high-resolution data collection – data that can then be used as real-time inputs for intelligent autonomous navigation in hardware setups with low energy consumption.

EIVA has launched a new active towed sensor platform, ViperFish ROTV (remotely operated towed vehicle) that is towable by uncrewed surface vehicles (USV). USVs are ideal platforms for autonomous operations, although

they are limited to surveying and monitoring from the water’s surface, which varies in distance from the seabed. The Viperfish ROTV can maintain the ideal distance from the seabed (the “sensor sweet spot”) for sensors to collect data. This sensor sweet spot is important for operations using side scan sonar for target detection and classification (Figure 1) and using magnetometers for locating buried targets such as unexploded ordnances (UXOs) as well as for tracking buried cables in operations for the protection and monitoring of maritime critical national infrastructure. For USVs to become useful platforms for target detection in these types of operations, one possible setup is actively towing a sensor platform behind the USV.

Building Block for Autonomous Systems

The ViperFish ROTV can expand the capabilities of USV systems to include accurate

Figure 1: High-resolution multiaperture side scan sonar data of a shipwreck collected with ViperFish sensor platform and visualized in NaviSuite software.

and reliable detection and classification of targets such as mine-like contacts (MILCOs) or damages on critical subsea infrastructure. Its design is optimized for autonomous systems through low energy consumption, high-quality data collection, and integration between hardware and software – for example, with automated steering modes. The details of the ROTV’s design follow.

To ensure optimal data collection, ViperFish must position sensors precisely. This is achieved with 3D control and automation electronics and software technology originally developed by EIVA for the ScanFish ROTV, the industry leading UXO survey sensor platform. These components, therefore, have thousands of hours of documented success in the field.

Using the Follow Seabed automated flight mode, EIVA’s ROTVs follow the seabed terrain at a fixed distance (Figure 2); for example, maintaining 3 m height. To further optimize this, the ROTV flight control software can be upgraded with EIVA’s software toolbox, NaviSuite. This integration enables operators

of the ROTV to use multibeam echo sounder (MBES) data (real time from vessel or presurvey) for early warning to make the ROTV automatically avoid steep obstacles more smoothly with the flight mode Vessel-Aided Terrain Follow. This ensures stable data collection and safe ROTV operations even in areas with steep obstacles.

The ViperFish can be steered both vertically and horizontally, meaning you can input runlines to the ViperFish ROTV’s Flight software and it will follow them exactly. This capability to maintain a horizontal position ensures optimal area coverage by minimizing risk of gaps in data.

Maintaining Sensor Angle and Smooth Movement

In addition to positioning the location of the sensors precisely, ViperFish keeps pitch consistent by staying horizontal even while following the seabed’s uneven terrain. This is achieved through active flaps minimizing pitch changes caused by vertical steering. The design also minimizes turbulence through laminar

Figure 2: The ViperFish ROTV platform automatically follows the seabed based on a “sensor’s sweet spot.”

flow, resulting in smooth, stable movement. ViperFish experiences low drag and minimal turbulence thanks to the system design, resulting in a low energy cost of operations.

Data Processing Capabilities

In addition to tools for vessel-aided obstacle avoidance and mission planning, NaviSuite software provides sensor data fusion display with seamless integration of data from multiple sensors, real-time data cleaning, automatic target recognition and logging, as well as the possibility of developing custom software tools (Figure 3). Moreover, NaviSuite software features deep learning algorithms and automatic target recognition capabilities, empowering surveyors and navy operators alike with enhanced detection and classification capabilities.

ViperFish’s state-of-the-art sensor payload provides a holistic understanding of underwater environments, enabling comprehensive data acquisition in various operational scenarios. Users can choose from a list of integrated imaging and positioning sensors based on their

specific requirements. Objects and structures on the seabed can be imaged using Solstice multi-aperture side scan sonar and R2Sonic MBES, while Ocean Floor Geophysics’ magnetometers aid in locating buried UXOs, MILCOs, cables, and more.

ViperFish is an all-in-one solution providing seamless automation of subsea tasks to help build, monitor, protect, and maintain critical subsea infrastructure.

For more information: www.eiva.com

Sarafina McPherson Kimø, content editor at EIVA, writes about maritime technology hardware and software solutions, particularly new developments and how they are used at sea. Martin Kristensen, vice president, hardware development, at EIVA, leads teams of engineers and technicians to ensure the company leverages state-of-the-art robotics, sensor technology, and design concepts to create maritime sensor platforms fully integrated with EIVA’s software solutions.

Figure 3: ViperFish offers high-resolution imaging and precise positioning.

Trade Winds

Making AUV Technology Accessible

YUCO Micro-AUV

Exploration of Continental Shelves and Coastal Areas

Currently, the use of operational autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) remains limited in the ocean community. Their low manoeuvrability, complex deployment, and high prices discourage their use for short-term measurements. The future belongs to fleets of numerous small, agile, and affordable AUVs. Smaller micro-AUVs are perfectly suited for short-term measurements in coastal areas as well as continental shelves as they are lightweight and easy to manoeuvre and deploy.

YUCO Advantages

The YUCO micro-AUV (Figure 1) has all the advantages that makes it a key asset for oceanographic exploration:

• Compact: Less than 10 kg and 1 metre long

• Long-lasting: Up to 10 hours autonomy, speed up to 6 knots

• Deep diver: Depth rated at 300 m

• Precise navigation with in-house INX© navigation algorithm technology

• Versatile: Great payload capability

• Robust: High robustness and optimized maintenance

• Easy: No-sweat logistics due to small size and weight factors

• Reliable: Capability to navigate in coastalcurrent conditions due to its speed and stability

• Affordable: Competitive price

YUCO Applications

At present, AUVs are underused by research communities due to their high prices and complexity of use. Both in oceanographic research and the offshore industry, a competitive platform with precise localization

opens new horizons (Figure 2). Fleets of multiple small AUVs are the future of coastal oceanography and numerous research projects demonstrate a future use for micro-AUVs in the scientific community.

SEABER is the only European company fully focused on micro-AUVs. Its YUCOs can operate on continental shelves and carry various scientific instruments. Through the technology’s accessibility, ease of use, and affordable price strategy, the YUCO microAUV range is becoming a favourite tool in the community of oceanographic research. Specifically, it provides a complementary tool in ocean observing, expanding the capabilities of vessel-based manual measurements and fixed observatories.

YUCO Deployment

YUCO is arguably one of the easiest AUVs to deploy on the market. YUCO comes with an intuitive software called SEAPLAN that makes mission planning a clean process. In a single view, you can see and edit all the mission elements. Thanks to the practical graphical interface and high-level navigation patterns, even untrained users can prepare a new mission in a couple of minutes.

SEAPLAN also provides on-the-field data display, right after the mission ends. It also comes with SEACOMM, the field hand-held

SEABER

Figure 1: The YUCO-micro AUV is easily deployable; it weighs less than 10 kg and is 1 metre long.

tool to interact and call back YUCO microAUV on-the-field with a simple “come-backto-me” order.

YUCO Models

SEABER has several YUCO models such as YUCO-CTD, YUCO-PAM, YUCO-PHYSICO, and CARRIER. The YUCO-SCAN is a game changer in terms of oceanographic exploration. The YUCO-SCAN is probably the world’s most compact, efficient, and affordable autonomous underwater vehicle with integrated side scan sonar. It is equipped with a 340 kHz/680 kHz or 200 kHz sonar solution together with a 1 MHz Doppler velocity log for great navigation accuracy. Finally, a GoPro + tunable lighting is available as an option to get full picture of the seabed.

Using YUCO-SCAN can perform missions of up to 50 km distance at 2 to 4 knots. It is certainly the quickest and most cost-effective way to perform vast hydrographic surveys by avoiding big vessel dispatch. YUCO-SCAN optimizes operational time at sea, hence the low operating cost. Data can be visualized onthe-field through the SEAPLAN interface and can also be downloaded in standard formats for post processing.

SEABER’s Worldwide Community SEABER works closely with a team of 25+ specialized distributors and partners around the globe. The YUCO micro-AUV has been welcomed with great enthusiasm on the global market. SEABER’s activity is growing fast and

makes the team realize the need for affordable, reliable micro-AUVs.

Moreover, we are very pleased that major scientific institutes – such as IFREMER, the French National Centre for Scientific Research, the SmartBay Marine Test Site Observatory in Ireland (through JERICO program), and the Royal Navy – and renowned universities – such as the Fisheries and Marine Institute of Memorial University of Newfoundland, Dalhousie, Milwaukee, and Rutgers – trust our expertise and make YUCO micro-AUVs a tool of choice for their ambitious research topics.

The deployments carried out were all successful, and the YUCO impressed users by its ease of use. YUCOs gathered tera octets of valuable oceanographic data. Many users confessed that having such an easy-to-use AUV makes them very creative and opens new horizons in ocean studies.

SEABER is dedicated to bringing reliable and affordable tools to the scientific community to dramatically expand our knowledge of the ocean. The YUCO micro-AUV range is our contribution toward this goal.

For more information: sales@seaber.fr

https://seaber.fr/why-yuco-is-unique +33997235433

Vidal Teixeira, CEO, has more than 15 successful years in designing AUVs for scientific and industrial offshore applications.

Figure 2: The YUCO-micro AUV can be used in a vast array of ocean-related research and operations, such as pipeline surveying as shown here.

Trade Winds

ROV and Underwater Vehicles Training

Fisheries and Marine Institute

The Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) program at the Marine Institute of Memorial University of Newfoundland and Labrador is a highly technical two-year technician program that trains students to operate, maintain, and repair ROVs. The program is accredited by Technology Accreditation Canada.

An ROV is operated from the surface, typically deployed from a vessel. ROVs range in size from small inspection class vehicles used

for underwater imaging to large work class vehicles commonly found in use in subsea oil fields. Regardless of vehicle classification and size, they have similar components and maintenance requirements. These vehicles have thrusters, camera systems, moving manipulators, various electronic components, and hydraulic systems in larger vehicles.

An ROV technician is required to have a diverse skill set to work in this highly technical

field. The ROV program at the Marine Institute is a hands-on technical program focusing on electronics, 3D design, networking and communications, hydraulic, and mechanical skills. Students are also trained to operate ROVs on our simulators in the Underwater Exploration Lab, in the Marine Institute’s flume tank, and in Conception Bay out of The Launch facility.

The program is unique in the industry as it is for anyone who can meet the entrance requirements, regardless of background, who wishes to work in this field. Typical students range from recent high school graduates to mature students looking for a career change. The two-year program consists of four academic terms, two technical sessions, and a work term. Upon graduation, students have the necessary skill set and safety training to work offshore.

The Underwater Vehicles (UV) program is a one-year technologist-level diploma program. This programs adds two academic terms to the ROV program that focus on skills for the autonomous vehicle field. Autonomous vehicles differ from ROVs in that they are untethered and programed to

execute predetermined missions, such as data collection. The UV program expands on the ROV program’s electronics, programming, and mechanical skills to prepare graduates for work in the autonomous vehicles industry. This program consists of two academic terms. Completion of the ROV program at the Marine Institute is a pre-requisite. Graduates of this program meet the requirements for entry into the Bachelor of Technology degree at the Marine Institute.

Students can apply for entry into either the ROV or UV program with the ability to switch between these programs after being admitted. Both programs start in the fall term each year.

For more information:

Corey Roche, Program Chair 709-778-0335

corey.roche@mi.mun.ca www.mi.mun.ca

MARINE INSTITUTE

Trade Winds

Diving in Together Because Opportunity Runs Deep

MATE Inspiration for Innovation and the Marine Technology Society

In 2000, the Marine Advanced Technology Education (MATE) organization and the Marine Technology Society’s (MTS) ROV Committee joined forces to design and build the MATE ROV Competition as a workforce development platform for the maritime industry. Twenty-three years later, that initial partnership – which was inspired by like minds, missions, and goals – came to fruition as MATE and its signature program became part of MTS.

MATE began its journey as the Marine Advanced Technology Education (MATE) Center, a center of excellence established in 1997 via a grant to Monterey Peninsula College from the U.S. National Science Foundation’s Advanced Technological

Education (ATE) Program. With an emphasis on two-year community and technical colleges, the ATE Program focuses on the education and development of technicians for high-technology fields, including those that contribute to the ocean enterprise.

Fifteen years later, MATE Inspiration for Innovation (MATE II) was inspired and created by the principals of the MATE Center. Incorporated in the state of California as a nonprofit organization in 2016, MATE II was founded to support and sustain ongoing education activities initiated by the MATE Center. These activities included the MATE ROV Competition and related programming – from faculty professional development and student outreach workshops to SeaMATE

ROV Kits, building guides, and instructional materials aligned with national/international teaching standards.

On July 1, 2023, MATE initiated the next phase of its journey with its integration into MTS. The principals of MATE, along with the MATE ROV Competition and related workshops and resources that support student learning, are now an integral part of the lineup of MTS staff and program offerings.

For MATE, it is a “homecoming;” while the MATE ROV Competition has evolved and expanded over the years, with its “alumni” embarking on careers in the ocean enterprise and other sectors, the mission to inspire and develop the next generation of ocean professionals remains at its core.

For MTS, it extends its reach to a much younger audience, one that is primed to connect with this international community of ocean scientists, engineers, practitioners, policy-makers, and educators, first as students then as early career ocean professionals then as society leaders.

For both, it is an opportunity to coordinate on synergistic efforts. These include linking existing MATE regional programs and MTS

sections and developing new programs and sections in strategic locations – in essence, creating regional marine technology ecosystems or “hubs” that include a workforce development pipeline to generate ideas and feed innovation, advancing both technical education and technologies to address global challenges. It also provides MATE students with the opportunity to build their peer and professional networks and Society members with a tangible (and global) means by which to engage their volunteer time and talents.

Consolidation is defined as “the action or process of making something stronger or more solid; the action or process of combining a number of things into a single more effective or coherent whole.” The integration of MATE into MTS fits this description and is a manifestation of the “MATE + MTS = Amazing Things” to come.

For more information:

mtsociety.org

materovcompetition.org

Jill Zande continues her role as the MATE Executive Director under the umbrella of MTS. She also remains an active contributor to the Society’s programs and events, including her role as the Workforce Development for the Blue Economy Track Chair for the annual Underwater Intervention Conference and Exhibition, a mentor for EMERGE (Emerging Leaders in Marine Technology) program participants, and the MTS-Monterey Section Chair.

MATE/KAREN DANIELLE PHOTOGRAPHY

Trade Winds

Submersible Support Suite

AquaTitans Limited

The aim of the concept was clear. AquaTitans set out to provide a rugged, high-specification solution that reduces equipment set-up and integration complexities. This maximizes in-water time and increases the utility of the submersible for the operator.

The submersible support suite has been carefully planned with private and commercial operators in mind. Derived of two insulated and climate-controlled 20-foot containers, the suite offers a comprehensive and all-encompassing deployable solution. Using advanced technology, such as the Sonardyne Mini Ranger II USBL tracking system, and complying with the latest international standards, the support container features a two-compartment layout: a plant compartment and an operations compartment that are separated by a bulkhead.

Private and commercial submersibles require substantial amounts of maintenance and replenishment both during operations and when sitting idle. For a consistent user experience, it is critical for the submersible operator to have access to the correct tooling, machinery, spares, and consumables to perform the necessary support activities.

Containerized support container solutions are not a new idea. Control cabins and mobile workshops have long existed alongside subsea assets, providing a safe and comfortable environment for operations. However, in 2022, Scottish company AquaTitans Limited, formed by submersible specialists Alan Green and William Arthur, designed and built a new concept to support the underwater vehicles used by scientists, researchers, and filmmakers.

The plant compartment houses the air, oxygen, and battery recharging systems including all the service hoses and cabling to connect to the submersible (Figure 1). The electrical distribution for the support suite is also installed in the plant compartment, together with the safety and ventilation systems. The power system is designed to work in any country or vessel with its wide input voltage range and 3P+E (connector) requirements.

The operations compartment (Figure 2) is the command and control centre during diving operations. It features a tracking and communications station, an IP networking system with a high-capacity redundant storage facility, and a surveillance video recording system for asset security. This area also doubles as a clean workshop and has a rugged industrial furniture and storage fit-out for the stowage of maintenance consumables and all

AQUATITANS

Figure 1: Submersible recharging and replenishment activities conducted from within the AquaTitans’ support container.

the tooling required for maintenance activities. This uncompromised compartment has been finished to a very high standard, allowing VIPs to be briefed before diving or to monitor the topside operations throughout a dive.

Particular attention was paid to the small details. For example, the integrated communications and data panel, housed with a recessed external hutch, offers plug and play connections for a wide variety of sensors and instrumentation. Within the constraints of the ISO container standards, the focus was on a modular bespoke build that allows for multiple custom additions, refinements, and future upgrades as may be required to suit a particular operational need.

The brief from AquaTitans’ first customer was “maximum usability.” This requirement for flexibility and adaptability created both challenges and opportunities in design and component selection. The best illustration of this can be seen with the underwater telephone and USBL tracking suite (Figure 3). Primarily, these units are fully integrated into the support container, but they have been designed with dual functionality in mind. The units are fully removable and rapidly transferable to a custom-built pelicase arrangement. This is particularly useful when the operational scenario dictates that the surface control function needs to be

conducted remotely from the containers, such as via a smaller surface support tender.

The solution has been well received by several customers and their operators. The submersible support suite adds another customizable standard product to AquaTitans’ growing portfolio. Interest in its portable operations equipment continues to rise, and the company looks forward to bringing further high-quality solutions to the market.

For more information: www.aquatitans.com

William Arthur is the engineering director with AquaTitans Limited. As a degree-qualified electro-mechanical engineer, he has designed, manufactured, and commissioned several state-of-the-art new submersibles and provided engineering support and upgrade services to the global submarine community. In 2019, following a four-year period working as a submarine rescue support engineer for JFD, he established his own company, Northfield Electrical Ltd., providing design consultancy and manufacturing services to the private submersible industry.

Alan Green is the projects director with AquaTitans Limited. He has worked in the industry for over 20 years, spending 15 years employed by JFD, and latterly providing services as a freelance contractor through his own company, AG81 Ltd. During this time, he has established himself as a highly experienced projects and operations specialist, having set-up and managed four of the world’s submarine rescue service contracts, and worked with high-profile clients on the build of more than 10 submersibles ranging from swimmer delivery vehicles to ultra-luxury leisure submersible craft.

In early 2022, Mr. Arthur and Mr. Green decided to combine their electro-mechanical, projects, and operational skills into a single entity, and the AquaTitans brand was established.

AQUATITANS

AQUATITANS

Figure 2: Operations control and maintenance compartment.

Figure 3: Underwater communications, subsea tracking, and operations command and control managed from the AquaTitans’ support container.

Surveying the Aftermath of Subsea Volcanic Eruptions with Uncrewed Vessel Technology

by Ben Simpson

On January 15, 2022, the South Pacific nation of Tonga witnessed the unexpected and unprecedented eruption of the HungaTonga Hunga-Ha'apai (HT-HH) volcano, subsequently confirmed to be the biggest atmospheric explosion recorded by modern instruments. The main island of Tongatapu was carpeted in volcanic ash and Tonga’s subsea internet connections were severed. A sonic boom travelled around the globe, with tsunamis recorded as far away as South America, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and the United States.

In April 2022, New Zealand’s National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) and The Nippon Foundation of Japan announced a collaborative mission, the Tonga Eruption Seabed Mapping Project (TESMaP), to discover the undersea impacts of the explosion and build a detailed and invaluable picture of the eruption’s aftermath below the ocean’s surface.

Modelling Future Eruptions

Some 680 million people living in coastal communities around the world face the growing threat of storm surges and tsunamis that can endanger lives in a matter of minutes.

With volcanos similar to HT-HH around the globe, particularly along the Pacific Ring of Fire, the eruption of HT-HH highlights a critical risk to society that is exacerbated by a lack of knowledge. Through detailed research and surveys, expanding collective knowledge of the undersea topography is vital to understanding what happened, how much material was displaced, and what shape the volcano was left in. This information enables improved tsunami forecasting and better predictions of subsea volcano eruptions, helping to protect people from similar natural disasters in the future.

Phase one of TESMaP (April-May 2022) saw NIWA scientists on board the research vessel RV Tangaroa survey the ocean around HT-HH, covering thousands of square kilometres and collecting video images of the eruption’s impact.

Phase two (July-August 2022) utilized SEA-KIT International’s 12-metre uncrewed surface vessel (USV) Maxlimer (Figure 1) to conduct a month of further mapping inside the caldera (crater). This research, conducted in an area that could not be surveyed by NIWA for safety reasons, proved crucial to the overall findings of the project.

Figure 1: SEA-KIT International’s 12-metre uncrewed surface vessel Maxlimer returns from the Hunga-Tonga Hunga-Ha'apai caldera.

Surprising Discoveries

The sheer magnitude of the explosion led scientists to expect dramatic changes to the caldera, but researchers on board RV Tangaroa were amazed to find it largely intact.

NIWA scientists mapped 22,000 square kilometres of the surrounding seafloor, observing changes over 8,000 square kilometres. Tonga’s severed domestic internet cable was buried under 30 metres of ash, sediment, and sandy mud; deep ash ripples were found as far as 50 kilometres away.

Preliminary water column data showed that it was still recovering with some airborne ash yet to completely settle on the seafloor. There was also evidence to suggest the volcano was still erupting, with a dense ash layer found in the upper water column near the site.

Mapping the Gaps with Uncrewed Technology

During phase two, USV Maxlimer mapped the current shape of the caldera and measured the environmental conditions of the water above it, while being controlled remotely from 16,000 kilometres away at SEA-KIT’s base in the United Kingdom (Figure 2).

Maxlimer was part of the winning Nippon Foundation-General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans alumni entry in 2019’s Shell Ocean Discovery XPRIZE and has since achieved numerous “firsts,” including the first uncrewed offshore pipeline inspection and first international commercial uncrewed transit. The USV also completed 22 days of remote survey operations on Europe’s continental margin in 2020, mapping over 1,000 square kilometres of ocean floor. The use of USV Maxlimer in Tonga as a configurable platform for a range of sensors provided a unique opportunity to gather data safely and continuously from inside the caldera.

Sensors on board Maxlimer in Tonga collected bathymetric data, water column backscatter data, sound velocity, conductivity, temperature,

turbidity, oxidation reduction, pressure with depth, and currents to develop understanding of the eruption’s undersea impact and ongoing activity. Newly developed winch capability was used for sensor dips and tows to gather water column data as far down as 300 metres and detect changes in salinity and dissolved particles for comparison studies against samples gathered outside the caldera.

Low Risk, Non-invasive Data Collection

USV Maxlimer gathered astounding data and imagery during her survey mission, successfully mapping over 800 square kilometres and travelling 1,331 nautical miles during 34 days on operation. During this time, the USV used less than 2% of the fuel consumption of a typical survey vessel, ensuring that carbon emissions for the project remained low.

Data and imagery collected by Maxlimer helped scientists to understand how the volcano had changed since the eruption (Figure 3). Although the volcano’s flank remained surprisingly intact, the caldera was 700 metres deeper. During phases one and two, up to ten cubic kilometres of displaced material was recorded, equivalent to 2.6 million Olympicsized swimming pools.

Further measurements from Maxlimer’s survey confirmed that HT-HH was still erupting.

Figure 2: The operations of the uncrewed surface vessel Maxlimer were controlled remotely from 16,000 kms away in the United Kingdom.

The USV detected active venting from newly formed cones, explaining why glass fragments formed from cooled molten lava were picked up during phase one.

USV technology enabled TESMaP scientists to complete the dangerous but important second phase of the mission and fill in the missing pieces of the puzzle. The addition of winch and sensor cage towing capabilities showed the potential of configurable USV platforms as a low-risk, non-invasive, environmentally sustainable, and cost-effective ocean science solution. This was the first time that a USV had been used for this type of mission and demonstrated how the technology continues to pioneer new ways of understanding our ocean.

Ben Simpson, FRINA, Master 3000grt, B.Sc. (hons.), is CEO of SEA-KIT International. He is an experienced superyacht captain/engineer who has since held directorship roles in the workboat industry. Mr. Simpson founded Hushcraft to support the growth of hybrid solutions in the marine leisure market and went on to design and build transocean capable USVs under the SEA-KIT brand.

Figure 3: Aerial view of the HungaTonga Hunga-Ha'api caldera.

SEA-KIT, NIWA-NIPPON FOUNDATION TESMAP

Informative

Cutting Edge

Provocative

Challenging

Vehicle Mine Disposal

The SRV-8 MDV (mine disposal vehicle) is a new addition to Oceanbotics’ Special Purpose Vehicle Division. This field-tested underwater remotely operated vehicle (ROV) will detect and eliminate explosive mine threats quickly and efficiently. The SRV-8 MDV’s ease of use and adaptive software will allow commercial and naval explosive ordnance disposal teams to locate and neutralize mine threats quickly.

Operators will first use the SRV-8 MDV’s state-of-the-art imaging sonar to detect the mine threat. Upon reaching the mine, the Viper MDS will secure the charge disruptor to the mine. The operator will then navigate the ROV away from the mine threat while deploying a spooled shock tube that is tethered from the charge to the ROV. By activating the charge through the shock tube, the operator will effectively neutralize the mine threat, ensuring the safety of both personnel and the ROV.

www.oceanbotics.com

Smart Ports and Robotic Systems

This 2023 publication provides an overview of smart ports and remote technologies. It looks at how artificial intelligence and robotics have transformed the shipping industry. Topics covered include port autonomous operation systems, vessel autonomy and autonomous systems, smart ports, and remote inspection technologies. https://link.springer.com/ book/10.1007/978-3-031-25296-9

Embracing Modular Design to Revolutionize the ROV for Industry

by Joshua Gillingham

Like the marine environments in which our remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) (Figure 1) operate, the field of commercial ROV design is a dynamic and ever-changing design space. Constant adaptation, innovation, and improvement are all essential to thrive in a market that is constantly on the move. Delivering reliable and more affordable client solutions while maintaining an unwavering commitment to quality has become a guiding principle at SEAMOR Marine.

A recent example of that very process in motion is the new modular flotation system designed by our team of engineers. Historically, the most iconic – and expensive –component of our ROVs has been the float: a custom cut, painted, and sealed syntactic foam block with an aesthetic hydrodynamic design. Unlike commercial Styrofoam, syntactic foam is composed of small glass spheres encased in a polymer resin that offers unparalleled structural resilience at depths of up to 700 metres. The manufacturing process is expensive and machining the material quickly wears down tools. Further, a critical scalability issue arises when manufacturing floats for larger ROV models. The original process, known for its superior final product, served as a catalyst for our team to explore new possibilities and find innovative ways to enhance it. We were inspired by the production costs, design limitations, and associated delays related to custom machining and painting, which led us to embark on a journey of improvement.

Managing floats on any ROV is challenging from the outset. More mass provides stability but also increases the momentum, which affects acceleration and manoeuvrability. Additional costs for shipping and servicing

Figure 1: SEAMOR Marine’s remotely operated vehicle (ROV).

also impact client decisions as heavier units are more difficult to transport and more expensive to ship out for servicing. Less mass will offer the ROV pilot greater manoeuvrability in the water while also increasing the ease of transportation and deployment; however, a lighter float limits the pilot in terms of the instrumentation and payload. The original float design, which included custom-cut ports for thrusters, allowed pilots to fly well as trimmed, but limited their ability to adapt to different environments and payloads.

Rather than choosing either option, SEAMOR Marine engineers opted for both with a new modular flotation block system that would not only increase the adaptability of our ROVs but economize the production pathway, a decision that will pay dividends to the end user through lower production costs overall. Instead of working with custom-made syntactic foam floats, the team chose instead to adapt the design to use removable rectangular float blocks produced directly by the manufacturer with no post-processing required. These were housed high on the unit to maximize stability and make float block alterations as easy as possible for the pilot.

The aesthetic of the float, while less closely related to the technical details of the design, was also an important feature to maintain with this new modular float block system. SEAMOR Marine ROV owners take pride in their vehicles, both because of their superior performance in the water and the impressive display they make when out of the water. To sustain the SEAMOR Marine aesthetic, an elegant custom cowl was designed to house the float blocks and provide essential hydrodynamics to the unit. This preserved the exterior look of our ROVs while providing every advantage to the user offered by the modular float blocks.

The result of this innovative undertaking is a beautifully designed ROV with exceptional

modular capabilities that allow users to adapt to a wide array of marine applications (Figure 2). Streamlining the production process ultimately pays dividends to the customer as it relates to overall unit cost. Inspired by this success, our team embraces a philosophy of modularity as we look to revolutionize our production process at SEAMOR Marine and optimize customization of each of our ROV units.

Every factor is a consideration in our design process, from production costs, to shipping weight, to stability, to performance, to ease of deployability and servicing. It is an intricate and ever-shifting puzzle but lead engineer

Chris Parker believes that our new modular float block design addresses key end-user needs and adds immense value to our existing design.

Figure 2: SEAMOR Marine offers remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) that have exceptional modular capabilities and can be adapted for a wide array of marine applications.

Joshua Gillingham is the communications liaison for SEAMOR Marine located in British Columbia, Canada. www.seamor.com

Infusing Professional Skills into Engineering Internships

by Lars Murphy and Melissa Ryan

At the Global Foundation for Ocean Exploration (GFOE), engineering is not just about technical prowess. It also requires professional skills such as effective communication, collaboration, teamwork, and problem-solving skills, to name just a few. GFOE designs, builds, and operates advanced deepwater robotic platforms that explore the planet’s most extreme underwater environments (Figure 1). This end-to-end process lends itself well to teaching many aspects of remotely operated vehicle (ROV) engineering, and GFOE offers a two-month long internship for college students that combines engineering tasks with professional skills development.

With this in mind, GFOE’s program paired students with mentors to work closely together on small projects. This phase was intentionally designed to foster rapport and encourage students to ask questions. It allowed mentors to understand their interns’ individual interests, skills, and baseline knowledge. By observing the interns’ progress in the initial weeks and engaging in meaningful discussions, mentors gained valuable insights into what students were eager to learn from this experience, and how best to facilitate their learning.

The program places a strong emphasis on enhancing communication and leadership abilities. In order to cultivate these skills, interns are responsible for summarizing the work they accomplished at the end of each day, including identifying which professional skills they had exercised. This task encouraged them to articulate their ideas, achievements, and challenges in a concise and engaging manner, while building awareness of the professional skills that were infused into

their day’s work. It also instilled leadership qualities as the interns took turns representing the collective efforts of their team.

The students’ first collaborative task was to disassemble, maintain, and reassemble the five custom-designed 6,000-metre pressure tolerant motor controller bottles on the ROV Deep Discoverer. They were simultaneously assigned the responsibility of writing a comprehensive standard operating procedure (SOP). This task required the professional skills they had practiced under their mentors in the initial weeks: effective communication, attention to detail, and the ability to convey technical information in a clear and concise manner. By working on the SOP, the interns further developed their technical writing abilities, and organization and collaboration skills. It also enhanced their ability to follow procedures, problem solve, and think critically. Their final task for this project was to assemble the fifth bottle, referencing only the SOP they had written. They succeeded and learned the value of properly documenting a process so that other colleagues could follow it in the future.

As the program progressed, mentors adjusted their teaching style by facilitating collaborative group projects, offering interns the opportunity to work together while allowing mentors to observe team dynamics and individual contributions. Concurrently, the mentors began working one-on-one, providing dedicated

Figure 1: Intern Tim Lazouski works on the foam pack on the Deep Discoverer ROV.

guidance and attention where needed. This personalized interaction enabled the mentors to truly understand the students on an individual basis, addressing their unique strengths, challenges, and aspirations.

Once this phase was completed, the mentors tailored specific tasks for each intern to undertake as their final capstone project. These projects were carefully designed to align with the interns’ knowledge and interests while also contributing to GFOE’s mission objectives. This approach ensured the interns could showcase their unique abilities, explore their passions, and make meaningful contributions to the organization.

As an example, one intern with a keen interest in software design undertook the task of developing a computer program. The program was designed to read files containing data from various cruises and compare it to the cruise directory, ensuring accuracy and efficiency in data management. Another intern took on the responsibility of designing and constructing a small ROV manipulator claw, which involved using design software and shop tools. When a high school class visited GFOE’s facility, the claw served as a practical demonstration of how a deepsea sampler works.

Homeward Bound commentary

Some interns have been able to go to sea on ocean exploration missions (Figure 2), while others have had the opportunity to visit oceanographic research vessels while the ships are in port. A visit to the NOAA Ship Ron Brown offered the opportunity to talk with GFOE engineers about the level of work involved and the requirements for outfitting a vessel with a ROV system. They discussed the engineering involved in installing ROVs, a winch and cable, how they would be secured, and how lab spaces would be utilized to support ROV operations. On another ship visit to the NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer , interns assisted GFOE engineers with terminating an electro-optical umbilical cable, the critical link between the winch and the ROVs. They also learned about winch operation, hydraulics, radio communications, protocols, and safety procedures.

Hosting an internship program is a learning experience for mentors and students. One of the most critical aspects of a successful internship is a high level of awareness in mentors, in order to assess students’ needs and abilities, recognize and take advantage of teaching moments, and identify opportunities for using professional skills.

In addition to its student program, GFOE is developing a micro credentials program for the ocean technology workforce. These short courses focus on engineering skills and will also integrate professional skills, ensuring a well-rounded learning experience for engineering professionals, students, educators, career advancers, and upskillers.

Lars Murphy is a ROV pilot/mechanical engineer at the Global Foundation for Ocean Exploration who specializes in operations and training. Melissa Ryan is vice president of the Global Foundation for Ocean Exploration and has extensive experience in the oceanographic and education fields.

Figure 2: Intern Jonathan Allen rinses the ROV on the deck of NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer. GFOE

Parting Notes

Muffin the Puffin Carla Myrick

The Atlantic Puffin or “sea parrot” is tiny but mighty and oh so beautiful. These birds spend most of their lives at sea, returning to land to form breeding colonies during spring and summer. As a Newfoundlander, I have always felt a connection to these little super birds. Watching them take off from the water – as their bellies full of fish smack the surface of the ocean before they eventually take flight – is the sweetest thing. In this piece, I captured an Atlantic puffin with a full mouth.

MATE ROV World Championship 2023

The MATE ROV Competition uses remotely operated vehicles to inspire and challenge students to learn and creatively apply science, technology, engineering, and math to solve realworld problems and strengthen their critical thinking, collaboration, entrepreneurship, and innovation skills.

The competition challenges students from around the world to engineer ROVs to complete a set of mission tasks based on real-world, workplace scenarios. The competition emphasizes and inspires a mindset of entrepreneurship and innovation by requiring students to transform their teams into “start-up” companies that respond to a request for proposals. In addition to their robots, the student teams also prepare technical reports, create a marketing (poster) display, and deliver engineering presentations.

For the 2023 competition, student teams designed and built remotely operated vehicles and the necessary sensors and tooling to support marine renewable energy and healthy environments from the mountains to the sea.

The JOT is pleased to once again this year publish the teams achieving top honours in the Marketing Display category:

EXPLORER – Eastern Edge Robotics, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, N.L., Canada

PIONEER – SWVCC Robotics, Southwest Virginia Community College, Cedar Bluff, V.A., U.S.A.

RANGER – Geneseas, St. Francis High School, Sacramento, C.A., U.S.A.

The JOT is also publishing the top Technical Documentation Report in the Explorer category:

EXPLORER – UWROV, University of Washington, Seattle, W.A., U.S.A.

Congratulations to the winning teams!

2023 MATE World Championship

Marketing Display Winners

Explorer

TEAM NAME

Eastern Edge Robotics

Memorial University of Newfoundland

St. John’s, N.L. Canada

TEAM MEMBERS

Bedir Acar

Jessie Ball

Zach Bennett

Stefan BoonPetersen

Russell Corbett

Joshua Deering

Ethan Denny

Zaid Duraid

Stephen Fudge

Léo Gilbert

Eric Goulding

Winston Hoffman

Mark Johnson

MENTORS

Michaela Barnes

Paul Brett

Sean Pendergast

Anthony Randell

Joe Singleton

Alex Kennedy

Mike O’Connor

Aaron Oates

Jadzia Penney

Naomi Pierce

Cameron Shea

Logan Smith

Martha Snelgrove

Tim Squires

Sarthak Srivastava

Shane Tetford

Devon Tobin

Abdul Turonov

Evan Vokey

2023 MATE World Championship

Marketing Display Winners

TEAM NAME

SWVCC Robotics

Southwest Virginia Community College

Cedar Bluff, V.A.

United States of America

TEAM MEMBERS

Kevin Brooks

Luke Jennelle

Anthony King

Elisabeth Presley

Joshua Thiel

MENTORS

Charles Bundy

Joe Godsey

Brian Hale

2023 MATE World Championship

Marketing Display Winners

TEAM NAME

Geneseas

St. Francis High School

Sacramento, C.A.

United States of America

TEAM MEMBERS

Mae Alvarez

Emily Asperger

Grace Chavez

Allie Dinh

Dar Eugenio

Sydney Goodall

Lauren Grindstaff

Isa Gutierrez

Yixin Huang

Morgan Jones

Franziska Kungys

MENTORS

Kitara Crain

Dean Eugenio

Marcus Grindstaff

Karen Jones

Maurice Velandia

Azul Kuppermann

Siena Marois

Audrey Mayo

Izzy Ramos

Alyssa Renomeron

Gabby Rosario

Laila Shamshad

Yogja Singla

Sofia Stuck

Kin Tirumala

Norah Zhou

UnderwaterRemotelyOperatedVehiclesTeam(UWROV)

attheUniversityofWashington

Seattle,WA,UnitedStates

MentoredbyRickRupan

MechanicalSubgroup

AlnisSmidchens(CTO,MechanicalLead,SafetyOfficer)

ImantsSmidchens(ShopLead,Manipulators)

RowanNewell(Manipulators)

PatrickMcLoon(Manipulators&Servos)

JustinLi(ThrusterGuards)

Edward(Teddy)Lautch(Float)

KotaMurakami(ControlStation)

DylanHsueh(Manipulators)

ZiggyAvetisyan(Manipulators)

LukeMason(Manipulators)

BusinessSubgroup:

WilliamLe(BusinessLead)

SowareSubgroup:

OliviaWang(CEO,SowareLead)

EthanYang(ControlCore)

JacobYoung(ControlCore)

SrihariKrishnaswamy(MLChallenge)

VivianWang(MLChallenge)

RishabhJain(ComputerVision)

JoephRafael(ControlCore)

ElectricalSubgroup:

Hongyong(Scott)Li(ElectricalLead)

NicholasLeung(ElectronicsChassis)

JordanWu(PowerSystems)

EllieBrosius(Float)

Abstract

Thisyear,theUnderwaterRemotelyOperatedVehiclesTeamattheUniversityofWashington(UWROV)isexcitedto presentBarreleye,aremotelyoperatedvehicle(ROV)designedtocompletetasksfortheMATE2023Explorer Challenge,includingmaintainingmarinerenewableenergy,healingcorals,andpreservingbluecarboninfrastructure. ThenameBarreleyeoriginatesfromthereal-lifebarreleyefish(Macropinnamicrostoma),whichisdistinctiveforits deepwatervisionandtransparenthead.Applyinginspirationfromthebarreleyefishandtakinglessonsfromprevious yearʼsdesigns,2023ʼsBarreleyeistheproductofrigorousinnovation,iteration,andtesting.

Themainobjectivesofthe2023UWROVteamweretocreateaROVwithconsistentperformance,no unnecessarycomplexity,andsafeoperation.Toachievetheseobjectives,Barreleyewasdesignedmodularlywitha philosophyofcontinuousimprovement.WithafocusonMATEtaskperformance,andunceasingiterationand innovationonmechanical,electrical,andsowaresystems,thisisUWROVʼsmostfocusedandreliableROVin history.TheresultofthismodulardevelopmentmodelisanROVthatfeaturesprecisemovement,versatile manipulationcapabilities,andexcellentvision.BarreleyeisreadytobedeployedattheMATEWorldChampionship anddemonstrateitsmissioncapabilities.

Teamwork ProjectManagement

CompanyandPersonnelOverview:

UWROVisaregisteredstudentorganization(RSO)attheUniversityofWashingtonaffiliatedwiththeCollegeofthe Environment'sSchoolofOceanography.Ourteamofundergraduatestudentsdesigns,builds,markets,andcompetes withunderwaterrobotsattheMATEROVCompetition.Theteamisdividedintofoursubgroups:mechanical, electrical,soware,andbusiness.Membersofdifferentsubgroupsworktogetherininterdisciplinaryproject-based teamswhichfocusonspecificcomponentsoftheROVandMATEROVCompetition.

Forafulllistofemployeesandtheirrolesandresponsibilities,seetheTitlepage.

Schedule:

ThemajorityofonboardingfortheteamoccursinOctober,wherereturningmemberssupportnewmembersin becomingfamiliarwithvehiclesystemsaswellasteamstructure.November,December,andJanuarywereperiodsof innovation,welcomingavarietyofnewideas.Themostfeasibleandeffectiveideasbecamethefocusforengineering efforts,whichtookplacethroughApril.AprilandMaywereourprimarymonthsinthewater,wherewerefinednew features.

Planningahead,stayingontopofdeadlines,andprogressingforwardwiththeengineeringprocessarethis yearʼsprioritiesfortheUWROVteam.Subgroupleadsandmembersdecideonbroad,long-termplansfortheseason atthestartoftheseasoninSeptember.Broadersubgroupobjectivesarereflectedintheshort-termgoalsofflexible interdisciplinaryprojectsubteamsusinganAgiledevelopmentmodel.Forourtestingschedule,wechosetoadopta dynamicsystem.Insteadofhavingadedicateddaywestarttesting,UWROVplannedtotestthroughouttheentire season.TakingamodularapproachtoROVdesign,weplannedtotestin-waterbasedonminoriterations.

UWROVʼsweeklyscheduleconsistsoftwoweeklymeetings.Saturdaymeetingsarededicatedtotestingwhile Sundaymeetingsareconcernedwithadministration,projectworktime,andresolvingblockers.

Figure1(above).AnexampleofUWROVʼsschedulingoverthespanofseveralweeks.

Resources,Procedures,andProtocols

UWROVemployeesworkintheirrespectivesubgroupsandinterdisciplinaryprojectsubteamstoworkonMATE objectives.Subgroupworkprovidesmemberstogainanoverviewofallsystemswhileprojectsubteamscollaborate betweensubgroupstocompletetasksathand.Forexample,mechanicalsubgroupmembersspendaportionoftheir timeworkingwitheachotheronbroadermechanicalsystemswhilespendingtheremainderoftheirtimewith electricalmemberstocompletespecificprojectssuchastheGO-BGCfloat.

Wealsoemployedanumberofsowareresourcesto improveteamorganizationandcommunication.Weused Trello.comasakanbanboard,whereemployeescan collaborativelytrackandupdatethestatusofallUWROVprojects. Trelloimprovestheteamʼsworkflowbyallowingeasy identificationofprojectprioritiesandprogress,whereprojects essentialtomissionobjectivesaregrantedthehighestpriority. Havingprojectsclearlylaidoutreducesoperationalproblems throughvisualizingprogress,bandwidth,andgoals.

Figure2(right):Anexampleofamember-madeslidepresentedat aUWROVteammeeting.

InUWROVteammeetings,employeesprepareslideshowslidesabouttheirongoingprojects,detailingrecent accomplishments,currenttasks,blockers,andaplanforthenextweek.Transparencyinworkflowbetweenall employeescreatesanopenforumforfeedback,insight,andblockerresolution.Byprovidinganopenforumwhere raisingconcernsaboutdesignsandplansisencouraged,werapidlyaddressoperationalproblems.Ourteam emphasizesanAgileapproachwithafocusoncommunicationandcollaboration,enablingemployeestotake initiativeandsolveday-to-dayissueswithoutneedingtogothroughtime-consumingprocedures.

GoogleSuitewasusedforfilestoragethroughGoogleDrive,emailcommunicationthroughGmail,anda teamwidecalendarthroughGoogleCalendar.Forremotecommunication,weusedDiscordforsubgroupandproject communication.WealsousedZoomforliveremotecollaboration.OnshapeCADandKiCADEDAwereusedfor mechanicalandelectricaldesignwork,respectively.Thesetwodesignsowareallowedexperiencedemployeesto buildofftheirpriorskillswithcomputer-aideddesign(CAD)andgavenewemployeestheopportunitytolearn.

Figure3(above).ScreenshotofourTrelloprojectorganizationKanbanboard.

DesignRationale

EngineeringDesignRationale

DesignOverview

Alldimensionsinthisdocumentarein millimetersunlessotherwisespecified!

ConceptualIdeationandSelectionProcess

Reflectingontheexperiencesofthepreviousseason,theUWROVteamreevaluatedthedesigndirectionoftheROV. Considerationssuchascompetitionsuccess,testingsuccess,andsystemfamiliaritywerepaidcloseattentiontowhen decidingonanoveralldirection.Thecompanyalsorevisitedoldconceptsandmarketresearchforanewperspective.

ThefirstdesigndecisionwasdeterminingwhatcomponentsoftheROVtheteamwishedtokeep.Components thattheteambelievedwereeffectiveincompetition,testing,andadaptabilitywerekeptthesamefromthe previousseason.Thus,theROVframe,pressurehold,thrusterlayout,andtethercomponentswerereusedon Barreleye.Theteamdoesnotnecessarilybelievethesecomponentswereperfect,butratherthattheyareeffectiveto thepointthatdevelopinganewcomponentfromscratchwouldhavediminishingreturns.

Withthesecomponentsdeemedsatisfactory,itwasdecidedthatallotherportionsoftheROVshouldbe subjecttoinnovationandrevision:ifthesecomponentscanbeimprovedbasedaroundtheexistingsatisfactory“core” components,theendproductROVwillbesubstantiallyimproved.UWROVemployeeswereadvisedtohave wide-spanninggoalswheninitiallyinnovatingontheseparts.Atthesametime,theywereadvisedtomaintain simplicityforactualimplementation.Thehopewasthatambitiousprojectscouldberefinedduringtestingand simplifiedintoamodularcomponentwithflexible,yetsimpleimplementation.

TheUWROVteamnarrowedthescopeofthenewideastobewithinthefunctionalbandwidthoftheteam, focusingonwhichideaswereworthpursuingthemost.Consideringthetechnicalandfinanciallimitationsoftheteam asitstoodwasalargepartofthisprocess.Themainquestionaskedwas:“whichelementswouldcontributetothe ROVʼssuccessinthemissiontasks?”TheUWROVteamdefinessuccessascreatingafinalROVproductthatbytheend oftheseason,hassubstantialandtangibleimprovementsindesignandperformanceoverpreviousROVs.Some elementsdeemednecessaryweretostreamlinesowaresystemstoimproveeaseofmakingrevisions,integratemore sensorsforautonomouswork,amorerobustelectricalsystem,ergonomicpilotcontrols,andcreatingadaptive, modularmechanicalsystems.

Afoundationalelementformanyofthesechangeswasthesowaresystemarchitecture.Weredesignedit fromthegroundup,evaluatingwhichconfigurationofcomputersisbest-suitedtodevelopmentandMATEtasks.

Table1(below):TradestudyofalternativesforROVcontrolsystemelectronicsconfigurations.

Itwasdeterminedthat,similartopreviousyears,havingasurfacecomputerwithanonboardcomputerwouldbethe mosteffectiveforcompletingmissiontasks.Anonboardcomputerallowsforsimplerelectricalconnectionsto componentsasitsproximitytomotors,cameras,andsensorsreducesthecomplexityofthetether.However,the computingpowerofonboardcomputersisoenlimitedbyspaceandpowerneeds—forouronboardcomputer,we chosetouseaRaspberryPi4,whichisnotaspowerfulasstandardcomputers.Toremedythisissue,utilizingamore powerfulsecondcomputeratthesurfacestationallowsforincreasedcomputationalpower.Havingasurface computeralsomakesconnectingperipheralssimpler:wiresformonitorsandcontrollersdonotneedtorunthrough thetether.ThePiʼsGPIOpinsalsomakeupforthelackofamicrocontrollerasthePiiscapableofoutputtingPWM valuesandreadingsensorinput.

Aermakingthedecisiontousetwocomputers,thenextstepwastodeterminethemosteffectivemethodof communicationbetweenthedevices.

Table2(below):TradestudyofalternativesforcommunicationmethodsbetweentheROVandsurfacestation.

WebsocketsoverEthernetusingacustomprotocolmeetsourrange,latency,andperformancerequirements,without havinganysignificantdrawbacksforeaseofdevelopment.Inpreviousyears,wehaveusedROS&Docker,buthave encounteredhard-to-debugtransientlatencyandbandwidthissuesaswellasintroducingunnecessarycomplexity anddevelopmentchallenges.Serialrunsintobandwidth&rangeissuesinthecontextofROVtethers,andis challengingtofullyemulateinasimulation.Therefore,wechosewebsocketsoverethernetwithacustomprotocol.

SystemsApproach

Figure4(right):OurROVʼsCADmodel,whichincludesallelectronics. Barreleyeisdesignedwithsubsystemintegrationanditerationin mind.Themechanical,electrical,andsowarecomponentsofthe ROVaredesignedinconcert,allwhilemakingreasonable compromisestomaximizetotalsystemperformanceforMATEtasks.

OurdigitaltwinsysteminvolveselectromechanicalCAD integration.AllphysicalcomponentsoftheROVaremodeled together,illustratingtheirreal-lifelayout.Thisminimizesdesign oversightswhenprototypingnewparts,aswecanmodelinteractions betweennewpartsandexistingcomponents.Wearealsoableto examinedetailssuchaswirelengthsandcameravisibility.While theseelementscanbetestedwiththephysicalROV,wesavetimeandeffortbyavoidingunnecessaryphysical prototypes.Finally,thedigitaltwinishostedonlineandcanbeaccessedatanytime,acceleratingremoteprototyping ofnewpartsandpromotingcollaborationacrossdifferentsubsystemsandgroups.

TheCADmodeloftheROVisalsoutilizedtodevelopthesowarecontrolsystem.Themotorpositions& orientationsareuseddirectlytogeneratecontrolmappingsusingNumpy,aPythonlibrary.Thissignificantly streamlinesthecontrolsdevelopmentprocess,wherecontrolsareeasytointegrateandupdateasthedesignevolves. Byanalyzingnewcomponentsdigitallybeforephysicallyconstructingandtestingthem,wehaveconfidencein howtheROVwillfunctionbeforethecomponentsareintegrated.Thisreducesoverheadwithin-watertesting:rather thandebugginglargeissuespool-side,wehavethetimeandabilitytomakemorenuancedrefinements.

Figure5(below):DigitalmockupofapoolwiththeROVandMATEtasks.

VehicleStructure

ThestructureofBarreleyeprioritizesasmallform-factorwiththemostcustomizability.HavingasmallerROV increasesspeedandmaneuverability,allowingforhighperformanceintightcorridors.Thecostofmaterialsisalso lower.Additionally,asmallerandlighterROVcanbetransportedmoreeasilytomissionsites.Whileeaseofcontrol andstabilityaremorechallengingforsmallervehicles,wehaveoverhauledoursowaresystemtosupportcontrols development.Themodularityofoursystemalsoreducesdifficultiesassociatedwithservicingsmallparts; replacementpartscanbeintegratedeasily.

TheframeoftheROVconsistsof aluminumgoBILDALowUChannelandSideBlockMounts,andall mountingandframeconstructionisstandardizedtoM4hardwaretoimproveserviceability.AlthoughgoBILDAis moreexpensivethanotherframeoptions,itsmaterialislightweight,anditsmultitudeofstandardizedinterfacing locationsmakeitadaptableforthemission.Forexample,ourmodularmanipulatorinterfaceismountedtothe goBildaframeviaM4hardware.Toreplaceit,orperhapsmountasecondinterfaceforsimultaneouscompletionof missiontasks,wecanattachanddetachitnearlyanywhereontheframewithM4screws,asthegoBILDAmounts allowforthis.

Ourpressureholdconsistsofaclearacryliccylinderandfrontplatewithanaluminumbackplate.When factoringinthelowcostofmachiningacrylicandaluminumcomparedtomoretraditionaloptionsformaterialsina corrosiveenvironmentliketitaniumandstainlesssteel,thesematerialsbecomeveryeconomical.Therefore,wetrade offsomelifespanforthevehicleinexchangeforlowercost,whichisacceptablefortheMATEtaskusecase.Pressure holdpartswereturnedonalathe,withspecialcarepaidtosmoothfinishes(forgoodsealing)andbroken/chamfered edges(forpersonnel,wiring,ando-ringsafety).Ourcustompressureholdisdesignedtobeaslargeaspossiblewhile fittingcomfortablyintheframeandstayingdryatMATEtaskdepths,increasingfloatationandvolumeforelectronics.

VehicleSystems

Lastseason,wechosetousethegoBILDAsystemasitprovidedthebestperformancepossible.Wereevaluatedour systemthisyeartoseewhethergoBILDAwasstillthebestoption:

Table3(above):TradestudyofalternativesforvehicleframesystemsontheROV.

WefoundthatthegoBILDAsystemwasstillthemostfavorable,asithasthebestperformanceoftheoptionsfor completingMATEtasks.Inaddition,reusingthegoBILDApartspurchasedlastyearmadegoBIDLAʼshighcosta non-issueinthisyearʼsdevelopment.FamiliaritywiththesepartʼsfromlastseasonʼsROValsomadedesignworkmore approachableandefficient.

Robustness,Adaptability,andModularity

CreatingaROVwithrobustmechanical,power,andsowaresystemsservedasthefoundationoftheUWROV teamʼsdesignphilosophy.Complementingthisrobustness,UWROVsoughttoconstructadaptablesystemsthatwere capableofefficientlycompletingallMATEtasks.TherobustbutadaptablevisionofBarreleyetooktheformof modularitywithinallsystems.ComponentsoftheROVweredesigned,tested,andifnecessaryreplacedwith tangible,task-orientedgoalsinmind.Thisrationaleisbestexhibitedthroughtheevolutionofthemanipulator system.Wetransitionedfromusingall-in-onemanipulatorstoamodularsystemwhereavarietyoftask-specific manipulatorsarehot-swappedduringamission.Eachmanipulatorisasingle,robust,specializedtoolthatmountsto

ourmodularmanipulatorinterface.Thedrivetowardsmodularityisalsopartofthereasonwhythecompanychoseto usethegoBILDAsystem(seeVehicleStructure).Thisemphasisonmodularityallowsustocontinuouslyevolveand adaptthedesignastestingdatacomesin,continuouslyimprovingperformanceforMATEtasks.

Thisthemeofrobustnessalsoextendstoelectricalsystems.Toachievethiselectricalrobustness,creating modularandconsistentconnectorswasapriority.Byhavingconsistencyininterfacesbetweencomponents,any particularcomponentcanbetestedinisolationtoproviderelevant,immediatelyactionablefeedback.Common interfacesalsoallowustoiterativelyupgradesectionsoftheelectronicswithoutneedingafullredesignorlengthy downtime—wejustplugthenewmoduleinandtest!

Oursowaresystemsaresimilarlymodular.Oursowaresystemcanbetestedend-to-endinafull simulation,allowingustodevelopcontrolalgorithms,debuglogic,andconfigurenetworkingwithoutneedingthe physicalROV.Thissavesalargeamountofdevelopmenttimebygivingusanaccessible“sandbox”forrapiditeration.

ControlandElectricalSystems

ElectronicDesignandCabling

Figure6(right,fromtoptobottom):

6A:KiCADEDAmodelofPiHatPCBforonboarddata&powerconnections.

6B:CADrenderofthe160AXT60powerbuses.

6C:CADrenderoftheverticalmountforthe48-12Vpowerconverters.

6D:CADrenderoftheverticalmountforthePiHatPCB.

Ourelectricalsystememphasizesmodularity,safety,andperformance.Tostandardize allelectricalconnectionsforeasiertestingandserviceability,all48Vto12Vand48V to5VpowersystemsareequippedwithXT60andXT30connectors,respectively. Standardizationallowsforeasyswappingofspareparts,nottomentionthespace, weight,andefficiencysavingsofXTandBulletseriesconnectorsoverscrewterminals. Wealsousecustom-designedPrintedCircuitBoards(PCBs)usingKiCADEDAtosavespace,improve efficiency,lowerpartcount,improvereliability,andsimplifymounting.ThePiHatPCB RaspberryPitotheElectronicSpeedController(ESC)signalwires,BNO055IMUsensor,RaspberryPifan,andservo signalwires.

Additionally,sincethethrusterscanpullacombined1200Wat12V,we mustdistribute100Aofcurrent,whichnosmalloff-the-shelfsolutionallows. Therefore,wedesigned,machined,andassembledourownin-houseXT60 powerbuseswithcopperbusbarscapableof160Aofsafe,continuouspower delivery(Fig.6B).

Fortheelectronicsbay,we3Dprintedaverticalmountforthe48-12Vpower converters.Thisallowedustoshortenwirelengthsbyabout50%andmountthe48-5V convertersunderneaththebaseplate.Mountingtheelectronicsinthisfashionsaved spaceandopenedupopportunitiesforcooling.Averticalmountgaveuseasieraccess tothewiresgoingintotheRaspberryPi.WealsorevisedourRaspberryPimountto include“horns”atthetop.Thehornsallowustosupporttheweightoftheelectronics chassiswhiletheROVisupsidedown.Thisreducesstressonanywireheaderssticking upoutofthePiHatPCB.

Cooling

Preventingshutdownsduetooverheating,thewasteheatfromthree48-12Vpowerconverters, andambientheatinthecompetitionenvironmentcompelledustoaddcoolingfeaturestoour electronicsbay.Addinga5Vfanbehindthe48-12Vconverters,gapsintheverticalmount,and heatsinksattachedtotheconvertersʼbacksidesmaximizedairflowandsurfaceareafor cooling.Asaresult,ourROViscapableofrunning2+hoursatatime.

PowerCalculations

Forourpowercalculations,wecreatedaspreadsheettotracktheROVʼstotalpowerconsumption.Itcontainscurrent, powerdraw,andefficiencylossestimateslinkedtoautomatedcalculations.Thespreadsheetisreadilyaccessibleby allemployees,andhasauserguidetoexplainhowtouse,test,andupdatethecalculations.

Table4(below):PowercalculationsforBarreleyeoperatingatmaximumpower.

Oursystemconsumes1233Watpeakload.Three400W,48Vto12VpowerconvertersareusedtopowerthesixESCs andT100motorsonboard,resultingin303W(76%)peakloadoneachconverter.Furthermore,thedesign incorporatestwo150W,48Vto5Vconverters,asindicatedbyTable4,toprovidepowertoBranches2and3.This measureisimplementedtosafeguarddelicatecomponentsagainstpotentialharminducedbyvoltagespikes.

ControlStation

ThesurfacestationisthecollectionofequipmentthepilotusestooperatetheROV.Thesurfacestationcomputer, router,monitors,keyboard,controller,mouse,andallotherequipmentisenclosedinasinglegrab-and-gopackagefor rapiddeploymentandeasysetupwithminimalclutter.Inordertomakeitsuitableformovement,therouterandthe powerstriphavebeensecuredtothepelicanboxusingvelcro.Commandhookshavebeenusedforwire management.Thecomputerhasbeenmountedonacomputermount(Item18)foreasyaccesstothebuttonsthough theexternalcomputeraccessholeandincreasedventilationforthecomputerduringheavyworkloads.Thisalso makeseverynon-wirecomponentinsidethesurfacestationmountedtothebottomofthecase.Thisisan improvementfromthepreviousyearwheretherouterandcomputerwerebothmountedtothebottomofthewooden platform.Bymountingtothebottomofthecase,wewereabletogetaflatplatformforthecontrollertouse.

Figure7(le):DrawingofthesurfacestationandallofitscomponentsRefertoTable5fortheBillofMaterials. Table5(right):TheBillofMaterials(BOM)forUWROVʼssurfacestation.

ControlSystemSoware

Figure8(right):ThesystemintegrationdiagramofallROVsowaresystems.

TheROVsowaresystemconsistsofasurfacestationcomputerandan on-boardRaspberryPi4.Thesurfacestationcomputercontainsinterface code,taskcode,andcontrolcorecode.ThePiisresponsibleforsending signalstotheROVʼsmotors,aswellastransmittingbacksensordata. CommunicationbetweenthesurfacestationcomputerandRaspberryPiis throughwebsockets.Formoreinformationonthesedesigndecisions,see ConceptualIdeationandSelectionProcess.

Theinterfacecomponentofthesurfacestationacceptsmovement commandsfromacontroller.Theseinputsaresenttothecontrolcorewhich translatesthemintopulse-widthmodulationvaluesforthemotors.The computedvaluesaresentviawebsockettotheRaspberryPi,whichthen relaysthemtothemotorsystem.

ThesowarecomponentsoftheROVareimplementedinGodotand Python.Godotʼscapabilitiesasagameengineallowittoacceptinputsmore naturallyaswellasprovideadigitalsimulationoftherobotandits movement.Meanwhile,Pythonisutilizedfortherestoftherobot,primarily formovement-relatedcomputationsaswellastaskcode.

TetherConstruction

Flexibility,lowweight,durability,andreliabilitywhentransportingpoweranddatawerethedesigngoalsof Barreleyeʼstether.Forpower, our48-voltsystem.ThetwocablepowersystemallowsustousemodifiedWetLinkPenetratorstoconnecttothe pressurehold,whileitsPVCjacketandflexiblestrandedcopperconductorsenablesafe,dynamicunderwater deployment.ABlueRoboticsFathomROVTether resistancetodamageprovideastablebackbonefortheROV controlsystem.Thethreecablesarecoveredwithabraided polyestersheath,protectingthecablesfromabrasionwhile keepingthetetherflexible.Itusesa12mm(½”nominal) sheathingbasedonourCADmodelofthetether.

Figure9(right):Adigital3Dmodelandcrosssectionofourtether configuration.Dimensionsaregiveninmmunlessotherwisenoted.

Wechosea20meterlength oftheMATEpoolspecifications,plus~10%margin.Bylimitingthe lengthofourtethertowhatweneed,wereducetrippinghazardswhilemitigatingvoltagedrop.WhentheROVpullsits maximumof30A,thevoltagedropisatmost4.7V,leaving minimumvoltageacceptedbyourpowerconvertersis36V,sotheROVwillalwayshavesu

Figure10(right):CADofMATEpoolspecificationsshowingmin.tetherlength

Thetetherʼsinternalwiresareprotectedthrough endofthetetheranda thetetherispulled,thestrainreliefpreventsthewiresfromexperiencing extraneoustension,mitigatingdamageandimprovingROVperformance.On

thesurface,thedatacableconnectsdirectlytooursurfacestation.ThepowercablesconnecttotheMATEpower supplyviaaresettable30Ainlinebreakerthatservesasanemergencyshutoffswitch.Theyarealsooutfittedwiththe MATE-specified30Ainlinefuse,andMATE-specifiedpowerpoles.Withaworkingstrengthof36kgandabreaking strengthof159kg,thetetherisstrongenoughthattheROVcanbesafelyliedbythetetherwiththeinstalledstrain relief(SeeVehicleSafetyFeatures).

TetherManagementProtocol

1.Designatesomeoneastethertenderforthedurationofoperations.

2.Tethertenderremovestetherfromstoragebinanduncoilsitinafigureeightonthedeck.Thispreventsthe tetherfromkinkingortangling.

3.Tetherisconnectedtothesurfacestationstrainrelief,thenethernet,thenpower.

4.StrainreliefischeckedonbothROVandsurfacestationside.

5.WhiletheROVisoperating,thetethertendermustalwayshavecontactwiththetether.

6.TethertendermustprovideenoughtetherlengthnecessarytoallowtheROVtoreachitsworkingdepth.Too littlewillinhibittheROV,toomuchwillcausetangling.

7.ROVpilotmustavoid360degreerotations&closemaneuversaroundobstacleswhenpossibletoavoid tangling.

8.Donotpullonthetethertoclearasnag.

9.Neversteponthetether,thiscouldcausebitsofdirttogrindintoit.

10.Onceoperationsarecompleted,tethertenderisinchargeofdisconnectingthetetherfromthesurface stationandpower.

11.Aerdisconnection,thetethertendercoilsthetether. AdaptedfromChrist&Wernli,2013andMoore,Bohm,&Jensen,2010

Propulsion

Weused6BlueRoboticsT100thrustersforpropulsiononBarreleye.Wechosetoreusethesethrustersduetotheir moderatecostandgoodefficiencyatlowerpowerlevels.At12V,the6thrustersconsumeapproximately875Wof power,stayingwithinourtotalpowerbudgetof~1.3kWfortheROVʼsonboardsystems.Eachthrusterprovides25Nin theforwarddirectionand18Ninreverse,allowingamaximumlicapacityof50Nwhenbothsidethrusterswork togethertomovetheROVupwardwhenneutrallybuoyant(TheT100:AGame-ChangingUnderwaterThruster,2015). ToimproveBarreleyeʼsprecisionofmotion,motorthrustisvariablebasedoninputsfromthecontrolsystem. ThrustfromtheT100soperateonaninputscaleof-1to1,withallvaluesinbetweenbeingpossibleamountsofthrust forforwardsorbackwardsforce.Additionally,customIP2Xmotorsafetyshroudsprovideimprovedthruster efficiencycomparedtomoretraditionalprotectivegratingsoenseenonROVs.ThesecapabilitiesallowtheROVpilot toaccuratelymaneuverinsmallerspacesandrapidlyaccelerateinmoreopenwaters.Throughtheseimprovements, theT100smeetrequirementsforBarreleyeʼsmissionofcompletingawidevarietyofMATEtasks.

BarreleyeʼssixthrusterswerearrangedtoenableSixDegreesofFreedom(6DOF)motionwhilekeepingthe overallstructureoftheROVsimple.Wedecidedtomaintainourpreviouslayout,inspiredbytheAriana-IROV,tofocus onfinetuningpropulsionratherthancreatinganewsystemfromthegroundup.While6DOFincreasesthecomplexity ofthecontrolsystemcomparedtomoretraditionallayouts,itraisesourperformanceceiling,makingthetradeoff worthwhile.WeallocatedmotorsfordifferentaxesofmovementbasedonMATEtaskrequirements:

● Yaxis(forward/backward):3thrusters,prioritizingspeedoverlongdistancestomoveefficientlybetween MATEtasksindifferentareasofthepool

● Zaxis(up/down):2thrustersusedformoderateverticalspeedwhendeliveringpayloadsto/fromseafloor

● Xaxis(le/right):1thrusterusedforslow,precisealignmentduringmanipulationtasks

WethenselectedpositionsontheROVthatoptimizeserviceabilityandcontrolauthority,whilemaintainingour directionalmovementallocations.WhenrunningtheROV,aPythonscriptusesthedesiredforceandtorqueonthe ROVcombinedwiththrusterorientationsandlocationsinourCADmodeltosolveforthenecessarymotorpowers.

Table6(below):Tableofthrustdirections(pink)foreachaxisofmovementandrotation(red,green,blue)

BuoyancyandBallast

ThemainbuoyancymoduleontheROVistheair-filledelectronicspressurehold.Combinedwiththelowoverall weightoftheROV,ourproductispositivelybuoyantbeforeballasting.Ballastisadded,intheformofwaterproof bottlesofsteelballstomakeourROVbalancedandneutrallybuoyant,increasingtheeaseofprecisionmovement andcontrol.Ourtether,beingnaturallynegativelybuoyant,hasfoamaddedtobringittoneutralbuoyancy. WeusedourdigitaltwinCADmodeltopredictballastingneedsbeforemakingactualadjustmentstotheROV. OurCADmodelestimatesthatourROVhasamassof7.70kgwhiledisplacing8.06liters(8.06kgoffreshwater),sothe differenceof0.36kggaveusastartingpointofhowmuchmasstoadd.Aeraddingourinitialestimateofballast,we iterativelytestdriveandredistributeballasttooptimizeitsamountanddistribution.

PayloadandTools

ModularManipulatorInterface

Totacklethewidevarietyoftasksforthisyearʼschallenge,wedesignedamanipulatorinterfacethatwouldletus quicklyhot-swapbothstaticanddynamicmanipulatorsmanytimesduringasinglematch.Thisallowsustorapidly adaptandspecializetheROVʼscapabilitiestomaximizeperformanceforMATEtasks.

Table7(below):ConceptsandprototypesoftheROVʼsmodularmanipulatorinterface.

DesignIdea

Preliminaryideationforquick-releasemechanism allowingmanipulatorstobeswappedquicklyduringa match.Allowsforthedesignofspecialized,more reliablemanipulatorsforhandlingdifferentobjects.

Version1:Rotationalsymmetryforeasyalignment, functional,butnotparticularlystrongorstable.

ConceptModelsandPrototypes

Version2:Miniaturizedandsimplifiedquick-connect mechanismasmuchaspossiblewhileretaining stability.

Version3:sizeduptohouseahybridsplined&magnetic couplertotransmittorquetodynamicmanipulators. Retainingarmswentthroughmultipleiterationstofind idealresistance&latchforce.

DynamicManipulators

Dynamicmanipulatorsachieveindependentmotionthrougharotatingshathatconnectstotheexternalservoviaa hybridmagnetic&splinedcoupler.Thealternatingpolesoftheminiatureneodymiummagnetsinthecouplershelp automaticallyalignthemduringinstallationtoengagepositivesplineddrive.

Table8(below):Interchangeabledynamic(moving)manipulatorsdesignedforspecificMATEtasks

ModelsandImages

StaticManipulators

Description

Hasacopedcrosssectionwithasecuringlatchforholdingonto componentsofthemooring,syringe,andcameraimplements. UsedforTask1.1(moorsolararray)

Thissyringemanipulatorisdesignedtoretrieveorinjectasample offluids.Thesyringeisattachedontheendofarackandpinion thatextendsandretractswhengatheringorinjectingfluids.

UsedforTask2.3(administerRxtocorals),Task2.2(collectwater sample)

Themanipulatorstoresthefryinthehalf-cylindercompartment, withthecoverinitiallybeingflushwiththehalf-cylinder.When thefisharetobedeposited,thecoverrotates,droppingthefish. UsedforTask2.5(reintroduceendangerednativefry)

StaticmanipulatorsdonotmoverelativetotheROV,andinsteadtakeadvantageofourhighoverallagilityto maneuverprops.Modularstaticanddynamicmanipulatorscanbeinstalledinterchangeablyinthequick-connect interface,allowingforrapidtoolingchangesinthefield.

Table9(below):Interchangeablestatic(non-moving)manipulatorsdesignedforspecificMATEtasks

Description

Static3-prongedhookdesignedtoeasilysnaglooseelements suchasropeoralgaeinthewater.

UsedforTask1.2(biofoulingremoval)

Permanentaluminumhookmachinedfrom6061Aluminumfor high-loadtasks,mountedclosetothecenterofthrustontheROV tomakemovinglarge/heavyobjectseasier.

UsedforTask2.6(heavyliing)

HousingforUVirradiationtasks.CanberepositionedontheROV sidewhennotindirectusewithoutneedingtochangewiring. UsedforTask2.3(administerRxtocorals)

FloatDesign

Thisyearourfloatdesignmostlyfocusedonintegratingradiocommunicationsbetweenthefloatand thesurfacestationaswellasupgradingmechanicalcomponents.Wechosetouseapumpandsolenoid buoyancyengineduetoitssuccessinlastyear'scompetition.Forestablishingcommunicationswith thefloat,weexploredthreemainoptions:Bluetooth,wifi,andradio.Radiocommunicationsusingan AdafruitRFM96WLoRaRadioTransceiverBreakout reasons.OurmainreasonsforchoosingradiooverBluetoothandwifiwererangeandreliability.

Figure11(right):TheCADrenderofourGO-BGCFloatReplica.

Cameras

Theprimaryobjectivesofourcamerasystemaretoenablethepilottosuccessfullynavigatethe sensitiveaquaticenvironment,andtoenableourcomputervisionsystemstomapterrain.Weselected twocamerassincethisallowedustofullymeettherequirementswithoutunnecessarycomplexity risks.Ourcamerasaremountedinsidethepressurehold,facing

Theforward-facingcameraisessentialforpilotingandobservingthemanipulator,whichisimportant toeverymissiontask.Thiscamerausesafisheyelenstoprovidethepilotwithawiderviewfor situationalawareness.Thedownward-facingcameracontributesvisualguidanceforhowdeeptheROV isinthewateraswellashowcloseitistoobjectswithoutrequiringtheROVtobepointeddownwards. Thiscamerausesarectilinearlenstohelpsimplifycomputervisionprocessing.

CameraPosition

Table10(below):ROVcameraapplicabilitytoMATEtasks.

1.2Removebiofoulingfromthefoundationandmooringlinesoffloatingwindturbines 1.3PilotintoʻresidentROV

2.1Createa3Dmodelofadiseasedcoralhead

2.3AdministerRxtodiseasedcorals

2.5ReintroduceendangerednativeNorthernRedbellyDacefry

2.6EnsurethehealthandsafetyofDillonReservoir

2.7MonitorendangeredLakeTiticacagiantfrogs

Downward-facing 2.2IdentifyreeforganismsusingeDNA

2.4Monitorandprotectseagrasshabitat

Sensors

Forautonomousmovement,weutilizetheAdafruitBNO055IMU angularvelocity&acceleration,andlinearacceleration.Itsaccurate&reliablemeasurementsenableadvanced autonomyandpilotassists,enhancingtheROVʼscapabilitiesforMATEtasks.Observationtasks(e.g.flyingthe transect)andprecisionmanipulation(e.g.administeringRxtodiseasedcorals)benefitfromthestabilityitprovides.

Buildvs.Buy,Newvs.Used

UWROVreusescomponentsoftheROVwhentheymeetrequirementsandarenotperformancebottlenecks.Reuse allowsustoreducecosts(byavoidingthepurchaseofnewhardware),increasereliability(byusingpreviously qualifiedsystems),andletsusfocusourdevelopmentenergyonthecomponentsthatareourcurrentperformance bottlenecks.Lastyear,weinvestedsignificantdevelopmentresourcesintorevampingourpropulsion,structure,and controlsystems.Thisyear,wearefocusingonlessvisible distribution,andsoware,asthosewereourMATEmissioncapabilitybottlenecksinprioryears.

Table11(below):ReusedPurchasedSystemsonBarreleye System Justification

B.R.T100Thrusters

Meetrequirements:powerdraw,thrust,andefficiency.Thrusterpowerissufficienttocarry taskpayloadssuchasthetentovercoral(Task2.3).

RaspberryPi Meetsrequirements:compute,powerdraw,ROVsystemscontrol,camera&datastreaming. G.E.PowerConverters Meetrequirements:amountofpower,efficiency,thermalperformance.

Cameras

Meetsrequirements:sufficientvisibilityforpilot&autonomoussystemsforMATEtasks requiringunderwatervisibility(ex.Task2.4).

Table12(below):ReusedCustom-builtSystemsonBarreleye System Justification

FloatHull&EndCaps Tradestudyfoundcurrentshape,size,andstrategyarenear-optimalforthemission(Task3). Tether Meetsrequirements:efficiency,safety,strength,abrasionresistance,andstrainrelief.

PressureHold Meetsrequirements:space,mass,visibility,serviceability,andelectricalconnectivity.

Table13(below):NewlyPurchasedSystemsonBarreleye System Justification

ManipulatorServo

Currentcompanycapabilitiesdonotextendtoground-upservodevelopmentyet.Adding thiscomponentimprovesthetask-basedcapabilitiesofdynamicmanipulators.

Table14(below):NewlyManufacturedCustom-builtSystemsonBarreleye System Justification

StaticManipulators

MagneticCoupling

SystemforManipulators

Multiplestaticmanipulatorsweremanufacturedforthenewmodularsystem,wherestatic manipulatorscanbequicklyandsafelyswappeddependingonthetaskathand.

Themagneticcouplingsystemallowsstaticmanipulatorstoremainfastenedtotheservo whilstinoperation,butcanberemovedandswappedoutwithouttools.

PowerDistributionPCBsUniquepowerarchitecturerequiresdistributionPCBsunlikewhatisavailablecommercially.

DataConnectionPCBs

TightspaceconstraintsandspecializedlayoutnecessitatescustomdatainterconnectPCBs.

SystemIntegrationDiagrams(SIDs)

Figure12(below):TheSystemIntegrationDiagram(SID)Figure13(below):TheSystemIntegrationDiagram(SID) forallelectricalsystemsontheGO-BGCfloatreplica.forallpneumaticsystemsontheGO-BGCfloatreplica.

Figure14(above):ThesystemintegrationdiagramforallelectricalsystemsintheROVandsurfacestation

Safety

ThecoreofsafetyatUWROVistomitigateriskslongbeforeunsafesituationsoccur.Duetoaninfluxofnewemployees withlittletonoexperiencewithengineeringequipment,personnelandequipmentsafetywasahighprioritythis season.Wehaveadedicatedsafetyofficerwhoensuresthatemployeeslearnandcomplywithsafetystandardsset forthbytheteamandlocalregulations.

PersonnelandEquipmentSafety

Atthestartoftheseason,allincomingandreturningemployeeshavetogothroughamandatorylabsafetytraining beforebeingpermittedtousethespace.Thesafetyinformationcoveredincludelocationsofsafetyequipment, accidentprocedures,requiredPPE,hazardousmaterialsstorage,andemergencycontactsincaseofaccidents.

Thisseason,UWROValsoassignedadedicatedshopleadwhosupervisestheacquisitionandusageofall equipmentwithintheUWROVlab.Inordertouselabequipment,especiallypowertools,employeesmustcompletea trainingcoursecreatedbytheshoplead.Employeesmustdisplaytheirproficiency,awarenessofhazards,and understandingofsafetyprocedurestotheshopleadbeforetheycanusetheequipmentindependently.Thegoalisto createanenvironmentwhereemployeesareconfidentintheirabilitytocontributetotheengineeringprocesswhilst remainingcognizantofsafetyhazards.Anothersafetychangemadethisseasonwasthereorganizationofthelab space.Unusedpiecesofequipmentweremovedoutofthelabintostorage,freeingupspace.Thisadditionalspace allowedformoreworkstationsandreducedthedangerofemployeesgettinginthewayofeachother.Aspartofthe reorganization,UWROVemployeestalliedhazardousmaterials,storingthemseparatelyfromothermaterials.

WhileCOVID-19hasnotinhibitedtheteamʼsabilitytomeetin-personthisseason,wemaintainedahybrid workenvironmentforallmeetings.EmployeescanchoosetoworkremotelyoverZoomshouldpersonalhealthand safetyconcernsarise.

OperationalSafety

InordertodeterminepotentialhazardsduringROVoperation,weperformeda JobsiteSafetyAnalysis(JSA)andimplementedoperationalcheckliststomitigate potentialrisks.Examplesofpre-launchrulesincludetyingbacklonghair,removing loosedebris,andverballystatingthepowerstatusoftheROV.Forafulllist,see AppendixB,ROVOperationforourchecklists.(Fig.18).

Figure15(right):OperationalsafetychecklistsinusebyaUWROVemployee.

Figure16A(above):Our3D-printed thrustershieldingleavesnoopenings >12.5mm,complyingwithIP2X.

Figure16B(above):Warninglabelson thrustersfollowANSIZ535.3-2011for safetysymbols(ANSI,2011).

Figure16C(above):TheROVcan besafelyliedbythetetherviathe strainreliefsystem

PreventinginjurythroughsafetyfeatureswasoneofthemaindesignprioritiesthattheUWROVteammaintained throughouttheseason.ThisinvolvedeliminatingpotentialdangersontheROVandmakinghazardsclearlyvisibleto employees.Weusedourcustom3D-printed,IP2XcompliantthrusterintakeshieldsonourT100thrusterstoprevent injurywhilsthandlingtheROV(Fig.16A).Asvisualaids,ANSIZ535.3-2011compliantwarninglabelsareplacedon ROVthrusterstowarnagainstpotentialinjury(Fig.16B).Inaddition,manyofthemissiontasksinvolvenavigatingnear ropesorcords;theintakeshieldspreventthemfrombecomingtangledinthrusters.Forcarryingandsettingdownthe ROV,sorubberfeetcoversharpedgesthatcouldhurtemployeesordamagepoolsidesurfaces.Allsharpedgeson theROVframearebroken,typicallybyfiling.Thisalsopreventsharmtosensitivemarineenvironments.

BarreleyeʼswiringcomplieswiththeNASAWorkmanshipStandards(NASA,2002).Toensureallelectrical safety,allelectricalconnectionsaredoneviaenclosedconnectorsorwithalinemansplicethatisfloodedwithsolder andprotectedwithaheatsink.WeensuredtherewerenoexposedelectricalconnectionswithinthepressureholdTo furtherpreventoverheatingwithinthepressurehold,aninternalfanwasinstalledtocirculateair,preventing hotspotsfromforming.Abraidedcablesleeveonthetether,inconjunctionwith,tetherstrainreliefontheROVand surfacestationpreventsdamagetothetetherfromtension(Fig.16C).

ToensurethatnoharmcomestoUWROVemployees,task-relatedpayloads,poolsurfaces,andthemarine environment,allstaticmanipulatorsaredesignedandmanufacturedwithbrokenedges.Precisemanipulationis necessarywhenhandlingdelicatecargolikethefryseeninTask2(InlandLakesandWaterways).ThemodelGO-BGC floatalsohasapressurereleasevalvewithacrackingpressureof1psiintheeventofemergencyorbatteryfailure.

SafetyProcedures

WeuseaseriesofsafetychecklistswhenassemblinganddeployingtheROVtoreducetheriskofharmtoemployees ortheROV(seeAppendixAandAppendixB).

CriticalAnalysis:Testing&Troubleshooting

OurmethodologyfortestingourROVinvolvesdesigningbasedonthedigitaltwinanditeratingbasedonphysical feedback.Designingwiththedigitaltwinallowsustocatchanyoversightsbeforespendingresourcesbuilding physicalprototypes.Aerrefiningaprototypedigitally,thecomponentisthenconstructedormachinedsothatitcan undergophysicaltesting.ThecomponentisintegratedintotheROVandtestedforanydesignflaws.Ifanyarefound, thenthedesignwillundergoanewiterationdigitally,beforerepeatingtheprocess.

Manipulatorcomponentsweretestedusingfiniteelement analysis(FEA)usingOnshapesimulationsoware.AstaticPLAhook implementwastestedagainsta5lbfloadappliedthroughthehook,as picturedbelowinfigure17.Allmanipulatorsweresubjectedtosimilar testingagainstanticipatedloadconditionswithaminimumsafetyfactor targetof2.5,withallmanipulatorsexceedingthisthreshold.

Figure17(right):FEAtestofthree-prongedhookfortasks1.2&1.3.

Fortheheavyliingtesteventintask2.6,analuminumhook wasimplementeddirectlyaffixedtotheframeoftheROV.Totestthis manipulator,aloadof45lbfwasappliedinlinewiththefixedfaceofthe hook,whileastainlesssteel300seriesboltwasusedtofixthehook againsttheload.Theresultsindicatethatthehookismorethanstrong enoughtolitheheavyimplementwithoutfailing.

Figure18(right):FEAtestofheavy-lialuminumhookfortasks2.3&2.6.

Whenweexperienceachallengingissue,wemakeextensiveuseoftest equipmenttogatherquantitativedatatoinformourtroubleshooting strategies.Forexample,weutilizedanoscilloscopeandamultimetertodebug crashesinthepowerdeliverysystem.Usingthescope,wewereableto measurevoltagechangesinverysmalltimeincrementswhichhelpedusfind therootcauseoftheproblemswewereexperiencing—rapidshisindemand fromtheESCcausingthepowerconverterʼsoutputvoltagetogooutofits ratedrange,resultinginanovervoltageshutdown.Thisaidedusindeveloping sowareandelectricalmitigationstopreventlossofcontrolduetothe propulsionpowersystemrebooting

Figure19(above):scopetraceofthe1millisecondsurroundingthecrashofapowerconverter,showingovervoltage. Anotherwaywecollectquantitativedataisthroughthepilot-facinginterface:forexample,displayinginputand outputvaluesduringtheROVʼsoperation,allowingforquickproblemisolation.Oneusecaseisifthemotorsarenot spinningcorrectly,wecaneasilydetectwhetheritisacontrolinputissueortranslationissuedependingonwhether theinputoroutputvaluesaresuspicious.

Digitaltesting,physicaltesting,anddata-basedtroubleshootingprovideampleopportunitiesforUWROV employeestomakeinformeddesignchangesandinnovate.Providingmultiplestagesofdevelopmentwhere oversightscanbeidentified,iteratedon,andresolvedisthecoreofUWROVʼscriticalanalysisprocess.

Accounting Budget

Thisseason,ourcompetitionteamissubstantiallysmallerthanitwasduringtheyearprior.Asaresult,someportions ofourbudgethavebeenreducedinordertocompensate.Forexample,travelcostswerereducedduetoasmaller teamsizeattendingtheworld'scompetition(7,downfrom12in2022).Reflectingonpowerissuesthatplaguedlast seasonʼsROV,wecombinedelectronicsR&DintoROVelectronicsandincreasedfunding.Thegoalwastoincrease ourelectronictestingcapabilitiesandimproveonpreviousdesignflaws.Anotheremphasisofthisyearʼsbudgetwas continuingtoimproveourlabspacewithnewtoolsandequipment.AlargeinfluxofnewUWROVemployees necessitatedtheacquisitionofnew,safeequipmenttohelpthemlearnengineeringskillsandcontributetoROV development.LargeamountsofspendingonsafetyequipmentandstructuralROVcomponentsduringtheprevious seasonleadtothereuseofmanypartsandpiecesofequipment.Expensiveitemspreviouslypurchasedor manufacturedwerereusedduetotheirsuccessinourpreviousdesign,andtoeliminateexcesscosts.

Table16:Afinancialbreakdownofbudgetallocationforthe2023season,contrastedbyallocationduring2022.

Table15:AfinancialtravelestimateforUWROVtoattendtheMATEWorldChampionships

BudgetAllocation(note:spanspagebreak)

CostAccounting:SeeAppendixC

Acknowledgements

Ouroperationswouldnotbepossiblewithoutsupportfromoursponsors.Weareincrediblygratefulforthehelpand supportwehavereceivedthisyear,andthankthefollowingorganizationsandpeoplefortheircontributions:

● TheUniversityofWashingtonSchoolofOceanographyforcontinualsupportofourteamandforproviding laboratoryspaceforUWROV,

● RickRupan,ourmentor,forhissupervisionandguidancethroughoutourclubʼsdevelopment,

● Foundry10forcontinuedfinancialsupport,

● TheAppliedPhysicsLaboratoryattheUniversityofWashingtonforguidance&continuedfinancialsupport

● TheUniversityofWashingtonStudentTechnologyFeeforcontinuedfinancialsupport,

● andTheMATECenterfortheirdedicationtoenrichingstudentlearning&outreachinoceantechnology.

References

AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute.(2011).ANSIZ535.3-2011.

AmericasRegionHSEEmployeeHandbook2012.(2013).Oceaneering. files.materovcompetition.org/HSE_Handbook_number_3_As_of_11_19_2013_AW.pdf Christ,R.,&Wernli,R.Sr.(2013).TheROVManual:AUserGuideforRemotelyOperatedVehicles. Butterworth-Heinemann.

CollegeofEngineering.(2021,September17).MachineShoprules.MechanicalEngineering.RetrievedMay23, 2022,fromhttps://www.me.washington.edu/shops/policies/machine-shop Moore,S.W.,Bohm,Harry,&Jensen,Vickie.(2010).UnderwaterRobotics:Science,Design,andFabrication. MarineAdvancedTechnologyEducation(MATE)Center. NASA.(2002).NASAWorkmanshipStandards(Vol.4).

workmanship.nasa.gov/lib/insp/2%20books/links/sections/407%20Splices.html Robison,B.,&Reisenbichler,K.(2017,July10).Researcherssolvemysteryofdeep-seafishwithtubulareyesand transparenthead.MBARI.RetrievedMay23,2022,from www.mbari.org/barreleye-fish-with-tubular-eyes-and-transparent-head/ TheT100:AGame-ChangingUnderwaterThruster.(2015,August20).Kickstarter. https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/847478159/the-t100-a-game-changing-underwater-thruster

AppendixA:SafetyChecklists

ROVConstruction:

Disassembly:

Powersupplyisoff(announce“POWEROFF”).

OutsideofpressureholdinbackregionofROViscompletelydry.

Worksurfaceisfreefromdebris,includingmetalshavings,hairstrands,anddirt.

Staticelectricitydischargedbytouchingametalsurface.

Assembly

ROVispoweredoffatthesurface-sidetetherswitch.

Thecontrolboardisclean,withnoresidueormetaldebris.

Nowiresaredisconnected,loose,orexposed.

Theinsideofthepressureholdiscompletelydry.

Thepressureholdhasnocloudingorcracking.

Allportsonthepressureholdaresealedtightly.

O-ringsareundamagedandlubricated.

O-ringgroovesarecleanandundamaged,especiallywatchingoutforhairs,dirt,andmetalshavings.

Nowiresarepinchedbetweencomponentsorthewallsofthepressurehold.

BothO-ringsformacompleteseal.

Bothendcapsareflushwiththemaincylinder.

Internalassemblyishorizontallylevel.

Pressureholdretainingarmislowered.

ROVOperation:

Pre-Deployment:

AllROVconnectionsaresecured.

ThereisnodamageintheROVframeorpressurehold(watchoutforclouding&cracks).

AllROVattachments(motorshrouds,floats,weights,motors)aresecure.

Therearenolooseconnectionsinthepressurehold.

Thetetherislaidoutneatlywithoutknotsortangles.

Battery/powersupplyiscompletelydryandawayfromthesideofthewater.

Surfacestationtetherstrainreliefisconnected,andtetherethernetandpowerareconnected. Surfacestationisstableandonalevelsurface.

Surfacestationcomputer,router,andmonitorsarepluggedin,poweredon,andconnected.

Allpersonnelhaveclose-toedshoes,safetyglasses,nolooseclothing,andlonghairtiedback. Recoveryequipment(pole,net,etc.)handy.

Controlcenterandtetherstagingareaareclearofclutterandtrippinghazards.

Pre-Initialization:

Nowaterisfloodingthepressurehold.

NopartshavecomeloosefromtheROV.

Allconnectionsaresecure.

ROVisplacedinthewater.

NoemployeesaredirectlytouchingtheROV. Announce“POWERON”beforeturningontheROV!

AppendixB:LabSafetyPolicy

1.NEVERWORKALONEINTHELAB.

2.Wearlab-appropriateclothingatalltimesinthelab:safetyglassesorside-shields;close-toed,no-slipshoes; gloves(neverwhenworkingwithrotating/movingmachinery);nolooseclothing;norings,watches,or bracelets;longhairmustbetiedback.

3. AllinjuriesoraccidentsmustbereportedimmediatelytotheLabSupervisor.

4. Ifyouareindoubtastoaproperorsafeprocedure,stopworkandaskforguidance.

5.Reportunsafeorhazardousconditionswherevernoted.Correctthemifpossible.

6.Eatingordrinkingisprohibitedinlabspaces.

7.Bethoroughlyknowledgeableconcerningtheequipmentyouareusing.

8.Usetoolsfortheirintendedpurposeonly.

9.Donotusefingersorhandstoremovechipsfrommovingorstationarymachines.

10.Neveradjustamovingorrotatingmachineunlessmotionisnecessarytomakeadjustment.Alwaysallowthe machinetocometoastandstillbeforemakingadjustmentsorrepairs.

11.Neverleaveamachinerunningwhileunattended,unlessmachineryisintendedtodoso.

12.Donotattempttoslowdownorstoprotatingormovingequipmentwithhandsortools.

13.Fileallmachinedpartsorstockwithsharpedges.

14.Alwaysclamporsecuretheworkpieceproperly.

15.Useappropriaterespiratoryprotectionwhenworkingwithdusts,mists,fumesorvapors.

16.ReadtheSDSforalllubricants,resins,adhesives,orotherchemicalsyouareworkingwith.

17.Concentrateonwhatyouaredoing.Donottalkorbedistractedwhileoperatingequipment.

18.Usepropertechniquesandobtainassistancewhenliing,moving,orcarryingloads.

19.Watchfortrippinghazards.Donotplacematerialorobjectsinthoroughfaresorpassageways.

20.Knowthelocationoffireextinguishers,fireexits,andfirstaidkits.

AdaptedfromtheUWMechanicalEngineeringMachineShopRules(CollegeofEngineering,2021).

AppendixC:CostAccounting

*TotalValueincludesthevalueofreuseditems.