The Red Summer | Carswell Grove Lynching | Research Booklet

The Red Summer

A comprehensive look at the Lynching at Carswell Grove Baptist Church, Millen, Georgia JAKOB MIKRES | ARCH 373 | FALL 2021 UNIVERSIT Y OF TENNESSEE KNOXVILLE

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The Red Summer University of Tennessee Knoxville Arch 373 | George Dodds Studio Design V: Applied Research Jakob Mikres

Cover Photograph: Carswell Grove Church.

National Register of Historic Places. 1996.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS preface

08 FRAMING

12 LOCATING

20 REFERENCING

42 Supporting

60 forming

78 endnotes

150 BIBLIOGRAPHY

152 Frontispiece: Carswell Grove Church. (Photograph: National Register of Historic Places). 1996.

6

PREFACE 1919 Red Summer Memoriae Causa

GEORGE DODDS, PHD.

8 / PREFACE

1919 Red Summer Memoriae Causa Six Memorials at Lynching Sites from the 1919 Red Summer Between April 13 and Oct. 1, 1919, a national tragedy swept across the United States. Known collectively as “The Red Summer,” from Chicago to Texarkana, Texas; from San Francisco to Orono, Maine, in over 30 U.S. cities, perhaps more than 1,000 Black Americans were lynched: hanged, shot, burned at a stake, or otherwise brutalized. In many ways The Red Summer did not end for another two years, until the massacre of 300 Blacks at Greenwood, Oklahoma, the Black community on the edge of Tulsa.

Lynching was not new to America in 1919, invented as a form of mob justice almost a century earlier independent of racial motivation. By the Civil War lynching was a standard practice in many parts of the country, particularly in the Western Territories where courts of law were rare and judges traveled on circuits by horse, hence the term still used today.

President Wilson, whose Princeton affiliation with racism and the Klu Klux Klan were well- known to the political establishment, owing to White public concern about Black unrest,

commissioned Dr. George Haynes, to chronicle the events of America’s Red Summer; it was summarized in a horrifying account published in The New York Times (Oct. 5, 1919). It was not the sort of report President Wilson was expecting.

Although referred to in the press at the time as “race riots,” “rebellions,” or “uprisings,” these killings were nothing of the sort. When several hundred White men drag an innocent Black man from the safety of his jail cell as they did in Omaha, Nebraska, on September 28, 1919, hang him in front of the new Renaissance Revival Court House, shoot him over 100 times, and make his corpse into a funeral pyre, this is not a “race riot”; it’s a mob-murder, otherwise known as a lynching.

It would be convenient, even comforting, to think that lynching is part of America’s dark past, akin to slavery itself, or manumission. Yet, a recent article in the Washington Post detailed eight likely lynchings in Mississippi since 2000, two in Jackson, the state’s capital. This is a past that lives with us still and continues

1919 RED SUMMER MEMORIAE CAUSA

1.

Fig. 1: Map of Red Summer of 1919 Lynching Sites.

Frontispiece: The Lynching of Frank McManus in Minneapolis, Minnesota. (Photograph: H.R. Farr).

10 / PREFACE

1919 Red Summer Memoriae Causa to terrorize many, and sometimes, brutally take a life based solely on the color of one’s skin. The memorials designed in this studio are not to some distant past; they are a reminder, sadly, that this past walks amongst us still.

George Dodds, PhD.

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1919 RED SUMMER MEMORIAE CAUSA

Fig. 2: The Lynching of Frank McManus in Minneapolis, Minnesota. (Photograph: H.R. Farr). 1882.

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FRAMING SACRED MEETS ATROCIT Y

14 / Framing

Framing_Sacred Atrocity The irony to the beginning of the Red Summer of 1919, a horrific summer of at least 25 lynchings that took the lives of at least 250 Black Americans1, is that it started at the site of something sacred and instinctively peaceful: a thriving Black church of over 5,000 members celebrating its 52nd anniversary.2 The Red Summer of 1919 represents a response to a stark shift in post civilwar America, where Black citizens in Southern states began to acquire what only produced utter rage in the eyes of their oppressors: prosperity. These Black Americans began building their own wealth, community, and support-they created their own prosperous reality.

In the Carswell Grove case, despite what citizens had to say, the victims find themselves not as they are characterized: violent, savage criminals, but rather as prosperous individuals. Joe Ruffin, who finds himself at the center of this narrative, was a wealthy, land owning, vehicle owning, respected contributor to his small town.

What occurs in 1919 is a violent reaction to Black prosperity that doesn’t end with death. It is an attack on the identity and prosperity Joe Ruffin and his community were able to create in the most vulnerable of settings: a community backbone through a sacred, yet secular institution. More than just violence, the acts of the Red Summer of 1919 reflect the reality that murder wasn’t enough for oppressors. Instead, these oppressive groups acted on a systematic desire to strip away the “sacred” institutions that Black citizens created collectively, in addition to secular aspects that accompanied: organized community, belonging, financial support, the right to gather, and even to grieve together.

SACRED MEETS ATROCITY

3.

16 / Framing For the community of Carswell Grove, the response to vicious envy was verbal silence. Shortly after the Church was burned, citizens rebuilt the church, continued gathering, and tucked away the moment where the religious community was met with jealousy, envy, and greed.

Unfortunately, the oppression didn’t fade with the story of the Carswell Grove Lynching. In 2014, when the Church found itself victim to arson yet again.3 There was no thorough investigation, no justice, and no ability to rebuild a dwindling church population. The act of suspected White supremacy almost 100 years following was quickly swept under the rug. There was a failure to find justice, and the place of peace for Black residents of Millen over 100 years later was again shattered and silenced by the means of violence.

What becomes clear is that the Red Summer story doesn’t just end when initial violence fades, but the inner turmoil and broken community structure remain. Violence, like the sacred, fails to have permanent ending.

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SACRED MEETS ATROCITY

Fig. 3: Carswell Grove Church. (Photograph: Andrew Zbihlyj).

Fig. 4: Carswell Grove Church shortly after 2014 arson.

Historic Rural Churches. (Photograph: John Kirkland).

Frontispiece: Carswell Grove Church. 1996. (Photograph: National Register of Historic Places).

18 / Framing

SACRED MEETS ATROCITY For the Carswell Grove Church, the story of its existence doesn’t have a sanctified end. The Church has dwindled in population, fallen into disrepair, and was needlessly burned shortly after it was attempted to be restored. There are no answers to explain why, there is no ending to memorialize. There is no altar, there is no liturgy, no community picnics, and no place of meditation--only remnants of hope.

The story of the Carswell Grove creates new questions about how to memorialize something that doesn’t end with death, but continues to suffer from communal destruction and silencing. Through my explorations of this project, I aim to produce a compelling proposal that honors a story presently in need of justice, empowers its silenced community, and embraces a community whose sacred symbol of community collectivism was hushed by violence.

I aim to find this proposal as an open-ended architectural experience that accepts and speaks to the atrocity that was, while reinvigorating the sacred backbone of community that barely remains.

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LOCATING ABANDONED BACKBONE

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LOCATING_Sacred Atrocity The Carswell Grove Lynching On April 13th, 1919, Joe Ruffin, a wellto-do Black landowner in Millen, GA. found his life forever changed when as he stood outside of the Carswell Grove Church at a church anniversary celebration, he found his friend Edmund Scott in the back of a police car uttering “I can get him to stand my bond.”4 Joe’s friend Edmund had been arrested on the grounds of carrying an unregistered weapon after being searched for alcohol, although the real reason he was searched is for criticizing the officers driving.5 After offering to write a $400 check for the bail, the officers refused, requesting only cash--something Ruffin could not get on a Sunday afternoon.

Joe began to try to take his friend out of the car, and suddenly Joe’s head was grazed by a bullet.6 Joe’s son Louis, who had just returned from military service shot back in defense, and a bloody battle ensued, killing both officers and Edmund Scott in the cross-fire. What erupted from this

event, though, is unfathomable.

Shortly after the hellfire, Joe went to his friend Jim Peterkin’s house to take him to Augusta where he was safely jailed from the rising mob. The mob torched the Church with mothers and children inside, who frantically ran through the gothic stained glass windows into the woods for cover. The mob torched vehicles throughout the town, burned three masonic lodges, and killed Joe’s friend Willie Williams.7 Even more horrendously, they brutally lynched Joe’s two sons through hanging over a fire. All in all, Seven individuals died. No white man was ever charged for any crimes occurring.8 For years, Joe Ruffin spent all of his money on lawyers9, and finally in 1921 was acquitted, but sentenced to embezzlement and fined. After three murder trials, and several re-trials, Joe Ruffin was finally free.10 Joe died a poor man; Fearing ever going back to Georgia, he died in South Carolina.11

ABANDONED BACKBONE

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Fig. 5: Initial accounts of the violence in Millen.

(Photograph: Library of Congress) Fig. 6: Aerial view of site with boundaries and building pads denoted.

Frontispiece: Aerial Site View (Photograph: Google Maps).

24 / LOCATING

LOCATING_SITE: CARSWELL GROVE The site chosen from the Red Summer, Carswell Grove Baptist, represents a typical rural Georgian Church. The site is located on two acres ten miles outside of downtown Millen, and features two pads: the original church ruins and a pole barn conversion that is being utilized as the Church currently.

The change of venue represents the changing nature of the sacred elements of the site, and represents the more ephemeral nature of the Church that finds its value in the community it creates rather than its physical expression.

The site is also home to over seventy African American graves ranging from 1893 to 198412, creating zones of limitation on the site.

The adjacencies of the site include the original town’s White Church, Big Buckhead Church to the Southwest, and only agrarian farming in all other directions. The only features are deciduous forests, and a nearby fork in the road. The site represents a pause in time: a history that seems to loop.

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ABANDONED BACKBONE

Current Church Building

Original Church Site

26 / LOCATING

LOCATING_SITE: ADJACENCIES

C A R SW E L L C HU R CH

G R OV E

PR I VAT E R E S I D E N C E B I G B U C K H E A D C H U C H (H I ST O R I C W H I T E C H U R C H )

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ABANDONED BACKBONE

LOCATING_SITE: CONTEXT Carswell Grove Baptist Church Spark of Race Riots

0 ~1 M i.

Millen, Georgia

Major Scene of Race Riots

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Fig. 7: Site adjacencies and agrarian context.

Fig. 8: Diagram of distance between Millen and Carswell.

28 / LOCATING

LOCATING_CARSWELL GROVE The Carswell Grove Baptist Church was founded shortly after the Civil War in 1867. After Black residents of Millen, GA. were forced out of Big Buckhead Church, a White Church where Black residents worshiped in a rear loft.13 After tensions grew following the Civil war, Black Residents of Millen were quickly separated from their White counterparts, and created their own ministry.

The Carswell Grove Church received land adjacent to Big Buckhead Church from local judge Porter Carswell, and in 1870 built the gothic-farmhouse style Church.14 The Church grew as a haven for local Black residents, and grew to large proportions. By 1919, at the height of Black Millen residents’ prosperity, over 1,000 members attended.15 After the Carswell Grove lynching of 1919, the Church quickly rebuilt and resumed outreach to the community, but as Black residents fled Millen, the population decreased. By the early 2000’s, the Church had dwindled to just 30 members16, and the lack of finances led the Carswell Church

into disrepair. Because of the cost of maintenance, the Church built a smaller accessory Church structure in 200817 and abandoned the original structure, which was placed on the National Historic Registry just twelve years earlier, in addition to reducing Church gatherings to twice a month.18 In 2012, author Cameron McWhirter, began researching the Carswell Grove Church, and soon assisted in fundraising for the Church to potentially restore its 1919 Church building.19 Unfortunately, on November 16, 2014, the Carswell Grove Church was tragically burned in an act of confirmed arson, according to the State Insurance Examiner.20 No public investigation was ever released, and news coverage was local and limited at best. It’s easy to assume this act was one of White Supremacy, especially in light of the fact that the Church was gaining a voice again, and beginning rebuilding. Unfortunately, the events were quickly moved away from, and there are no definitive answers, no justice, and no reconciliation for the still broken Church.

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ABANDONED BACKBONE

30 / LOCATING

10.

14.

11.

12.

13.

ABANDONED BACKBONE

Fig. 9: Carswell Grove Church Interior. 1996.

(Photograph: National Register of Historic Places) Fig. 10: Carswell Grove Church, before and after the 2014 Arson. (Photograph: Augusta Chronicle).

Fig. 11-13: Newspaper clippings from April, 14, 1919.

(Photograph: Library of Congress).

Fig. 14: Carswell Grove Church Interior. 1996.

(Photograph: National Register of Historic Places)

32 / LOCATING

LOCATING_MILLEN Carswell Grove Baptist Church, and the story of its Red Summer lynching finds itself within the city of Millen Georgia--a rural town with 2,189 residents21. The story of Millen is much like other small agricultural towns in the South. The town was created on cotton farming and relied on slavery and ultimately sharecropping before needing a new economic base.

For Millen, that new base was factory work. For the later half of the 20th century, Millen relied on factory work until the great recession.

Population has begun decreasing in Millen, although the Black population has slowly increased to 56%22 as white residents have left the town.

The irony is that the town’s entire local government is run by all white officials.23 The town has a history of disparity, lack of representation, and troublesome industry.

Millen needs representation: of its history, of its current residents, its future, its goals. Millen needs a backbone of unity and community-something it is clearly missing.

2,189 Residents 56% African American

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ABANDONED BACKBONE

Fig. 15: Millen, Georgia welcome sign. 1921.

(Photograph: Georgia Historical Society).

Fig. 16: Photo of Downtown Millen in early 1900s.

(Photograph: Digital Library of Georgia.)

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LOCATING_SHERMAN’S MARCH Sadly, the Carswell Grove Church isn’t the only thing in Millen with a history of fire, The city of Millen has been shaped by fire, most notably in Sherman’s March To The Sea. During Sherman’s March from Atlanta towards Savannah, Union Soldiers invaded Millen in an attempt to cut off Millen’s crucial rail lines. When they came across Camp Lawton’s horrifying conditions, they were enraged and distraught.24 The Union Soldiers began destroying downtown Millen in rage, and burned nearly the entire town. Millen struggled after this period, and was not rebuilt until 1881.25 Clearly, there is a broken history of destruction in Millen, a city of seemingly constant renewal.

18.

17.

ABANDONED BACKBONE

Fig. 17: Gen. William T. Sherman. (Photograph: Harper’s Weekly Illustration’s).

Fig. 18: Depiction of Burning of Millen during Sherman’s March to The Sea in 1864. (Photograph: Harper’s History of The Great Rebellion).

36 / LOCATING

LOCATING_CAMP LAW TON Perhaps the most historically significant site in proximity to the Carswell Grove Baptist Church is Camp Lawton, a confederate prisoner of war camp, that was designed to hold 40,000 prisoners26--making it the largest Prisoner of War Camp in History.

While the 42-acre prison camp never reached near capacity due to Sherman’s March to the Sea, the 10,299 prisoner camp still took the lives of at least 725 prisoners.27 When the Union army invaded Millen, they came across the hastily abandoned Camp Lawton and were so disgusted by the conditions of the camp that they broke out in destruction.

Camp Lawton now rests underneath the Magnolia Springs Public Park, and wasn’t investigated by archaeologists until 2009. Only less than an estimated 1% of the site has been investigated28, and many lost stories rest beneath the dirt.

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ABANDONED BACKBONE

20.

Fig. 19: Illustration of Camp Lawton in 1864. (Photograph: Robert Sneden. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service).

Fig. 20: Illustrated depiction of Camp Lawton in 1864.

(Photograph: Harper’s History of The Great Rebellion).

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LOCATING_ECONOMICS

Every factory in Millen (a major source of local employment) closed,29 and with that almost every other economic avenue had to make cuts resulting in 1,300 cuts. Nearly 21% of Millen residents lost their jobs.30 Millen is still in economic recovery today, and its per capita income of $13,64331 reflects this and makes it one of the poorest places in Georgia and America. The town is desperately in need or revitalization and economic recovery.

Millen Georgia

$13,643 J

$31,067 J

Poverty Millen

The second half of the 20th century barely sustained Millen through a shift to factory work and this worked for the town until 2008. During the Great Recession of 2008, Millen was one of the most hard-hit small towns in the nation, and suffered tremendously.

Per-Capita Income

Georgia

One of Millen’s most notable features is its rough economic history. While Millen started as a wealthy cotton farming town, relying on slaves and ultimately sharecropping, the economic success of Millen was destined for stagnation.

37.6% J

15.1% J

1,300 21%

Jobs Lost (2007-2009)

Unemployment (2008)

21.

ABANDONED BACKBONE

Fig. 21: Streetscape of The Economically Deteriorating Downtown Millen. (Photograph: Lynsey Weatherspoon.The New York Times).

Fig. 22: (Above) Cotton Lane, Millen, Georgia. (Photograph: City-Data).

(Below) Aerial view of site roadways. (Photograph: Google Maps).

40 / LOCATING

LOCATING_CLIMATE

Millen has a significant variation in rainfall, but generally experiences rain throughout the year totaling about 46 inches.34 The most rain falls around August with the least around November.

Humidity is an extreme issue in Millen, and Millen has an extreme amount of variation, although the summer months consistently contain extreme humidity.35 Millen has a comfort index of 7.4/10 overall, making it a fairly pleasant place with the exception of the summer months.36

Average Monthly Rainfall

8”

Millen has a hot, humid climate with a short, cold winter. It is wet and partly cloudy year round, with an average of 218 sunny days.32 The hot season lasts about 3.9 months, and the cool season about 2.9 months.33

6” 4”

May 1 3.9”

Aug 9 4.0”

Jun 15 May 6 3.8” 2.4”

Nov 4 2.3”

2” 0”

Jan Feb Mar

Apr

May Jun

Jul

75°

25° 0°

Nov

Dec

Average Monthly Temperature

100°

50°

Aug Sep Oct

64°

72° 76°

78° 78°

63°

46° 44° 53°

Jan Feb Mar

Apr

73°

May Jun

Jul

Aug Sep Oct

53° 47°

Nov

Dec

ABANDONED BACKBONE

LOCATING_CAR DEPENDENCE Like many American small towns, Millen suffers from a dependence on the automobile. The results are a displaced, and separated town and a lower quality of life. 76% of Millen activities are driven to, and the average resident drives 24.2 minutes to work in this rural American small town.37

2L A NE

HI GH WA Y

2LA N

E

H

IG

H

W

AY

Nearly every resident in Millen and Jenkins County relies on one means of transportation: the automobile.

There are no bicycle network and little sidewalks outside Downtown. This correlates with low levels of activity and an alarming obesity statistic in Millen of 49% which is 14% above the national average.38

22. (p. 39)

NE L A 2-

Y WA GH HI

Carswell Grove Baptist Church is separated from the town of Millen, and this problem is reflected in its present membership. The Church is located about ten miles outside of Downtown Millen, and its only access to Millen is via private automobile meaning there is no free access and no walkability.

To create belonging, and to represent the story of Carswell, equitable transportation needs to be explored as a right for all Millen, GA. Residents.

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REFERENCING DIGNIT Y DRAWN

44 / REFERENCING

REFERENCING_National Memorial for Peace and Justice The National Memorial for Peace and Justice by MASS design group memorializes those who were victims to lynching in the United States through a monumental architecture of over 800 corten steel monuments suspended from a pavilion. These monuments represent the 800 counties where lynchings took place in the U.S. and act as the first memorial of the racial violence of lynching in the United States’ History.

What’s most notable about this project, though, is how it not only memorializes the victims of racial lynchings, but also does something for the future by allowing local communities to join the soil collection, where soil from each lynching site can be donated by a community to commemorate their place in history and take an action step.

In addition, the monuments break the traditional architectural role of permanence, by having identical exterior monuments that can be claimed by a community and transported to their site.

Clearly the memorial takes the role of monument, and redefines it as an active, mobile and engaged element in communal memory.

Architecturally, the site utilizes verticality, enclosure, and unique materialities to define the monumentality of the lynchings in an architecturally new way, while still providing a sense of dignity. The architecture is blunt and bold, yet unified and active.

I am interested in taking the active principles of memorial, and the mobile monumentality principles in this case study, and applying these to the Carswell Grove case.

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23.

DIGNITY DRAWN

Fig. 23: National Memorial for Peace and Justice interior sketch.

Frontispiece: Mausoleum of Martyrdom of Polish Villages. (Photograph: Marin Czechowicz).

46 / REFERENCING

REFERENCING_National Memorial for Peace and Justice

24.

25.

DIGNITY DRAWN

26.

Fig. 24-26: National Memorial for Peace and Justice.

MASS. 2018. (Photographs: Alan Karchmer).

48 / REFERENCING

REFERENCING_The Mausoleum of The Mar tyrdom of Polish Villages The Mausoleum of The Martyrdom of Polish Villages by Nizio Design International commemorates the atrocities of Nazi occupied Poland not through story and exhibition, but through physical form itself. The sculptural form of the architecture depicts a line of barn structures in a Polish village that were razed.

The physical form uses the linear nature of the site as time to represent a degrading caused by fire and destruction. The building which programatically begins with a hall of tranquility physically tears and falls apart as it extends towards the rear of the site. Windows began to disappear, and the site opens into the landscape as the exhibition shifts outside.

The materiality of the architecture is physically worn and degraded to heighten the emotion, and the exhibition images and plaques lie upon massings that represent Polish huts.

Outside the primary massing itself, the

landscape features an array of black crosses that symbolize the sacred loss of life that resulted from the Nazi occupation. This use of Sacred symbol acts to heighten the emotion of the memorial.

Clearly, the power of this memorial lies in how it utilizes form to depict atrocity and horror, and further heightens this experience with materiality. This depiction produces a monumental and emotional response from the occupant, and gives the same impression of ruins and destruction, even on a site that is long displaced from the events.

I plan to apply this use of formal destruction and materiality in my project to depict the destruction, both physically and emotionally, that occurred on the Carswell Grove site.

These strategies can help to highlight the atrocities that have been long burnt into the ground, and further heighten the experience.

27.

DIGNITY DRAWN

50 / REFERENCING

REFERENCING_The Mausoleum of the Mar tyrdom of Polish Villages

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29.

DIGNITY DRAWN

30.

Fig. 27, 29-30: Mausoleum of Martyrdom of Polish Villages.

(Photograph: Marcin Czechowicz. Nizio Design International).

Fig. 28: Concept Sketches. (Sketch: Nizio Design International).

52 / REFERENCING

REFERENCING_Våler Church The Våler Church by Sivilarkitet Espen Survenik As represents a case study of an institution rebuilding after destruction. After the Church was burned down, the Church wanted to utilize rebuilding not to imitate the sacred that lay before, but instead use the destruction as an opportunity for resurrection. The architecture literally represents ideas of resurrection on the site, and formally rises out of the destruction. This takes the form of a rising wing adjacent to the original ruins of the Church.

The architecture focuses on light and site in a significant way. The use of daylighting in the chapel becomes a significant element in symbolizing light after darkness, and the light of flames resulting in the sacred.

The architecture also embraces the historic grave sites surrounding by providing spectacles of space that focus on the life beyond the Church that lies within the site. The architecture seems to channel the rebirth from these oculus’ out onto the cemetery surrounding.

Clearly, this project’s program is vastly different than the Carswell Grove memorial project, but it importantly learns to build on ruins and destruction not through imitation, but through reimagining the sacred that lay before.

I intend to utilize the lessons learned from this case study about dealing with a site of ruins, and rebuilding the sacred in a new way. I plan to channel the sacred that was on this site, into a form that derives the old meaning, while applying it to a new program that does exactly what the Carswell grove Church intended to do: act as a sacred engagement of support to the community.

.

31.

DIGNITY DRAWN

54 / REFERENCING

REFERENCING_Våler Church

32.

33.

DIGNITY DRAWN

34.

Fig. 31-34: Våler Church. 2015. (Photographs: Rasmus Norlander. Sivilarkitet Espen Survenik As.)

56 / REFERENCING

REFERENCING_National Monument Kamp Amersfoor t Kamp Amersfoort by Inbo BV memorializes the horrors of the concentration camp that took place on the site, while accommodating the fact that almost none of the original site remains, as most of it has been destroyed.

Instead of trying to recreate the buildings and site that was, the architecture utilizes lighting and emptiness to create feelings of isolation and loneliness.

The resulting architecture utilizes subterranean space as the primary exhibition, and takes advantage of the contrast between light above ground and darkness below to evoke emotion.

In terms of exhibition, the project utilizes primarily figural representations of faces and footprints, rather than plaques, to evoke the history of the past. The above ground glass pavilion then evokes reflection of oneself after engaging with the many faces below ground.

The architecture clearly engages with depleted ruins, not by imitating

experience but capitalizing on emptiness to evoke the horrific feelings that took place on the site.

The use of controlled light, and the promenade are exceptionally notable in this project.

I aim to apply the use of controlled lighting and the use of emptiness in my project, to try to engage with the visitor, not through visual recreations, but rather an emotional resonance with the stories that were. This in turn, offers an authentic experience of the site that engages with the sacred and atrocious realities that have occurred.

.

35.

DIGNITY DRAWN

58 / REFERENCING

REFERENCING_National Monument Kamp Amersfoor t

36.

37.

DIGNITY DRAWN

38.

Fig. 35-37: Interior hall of remembrance. National Monument Kamp Amersfoort. (Photographs: Ossip Van Duivenbode, Mike Blink. Inbo BV).

Fig. 38: Exterior above ground. National Monument Kamp Amersfoort.

(Photographs: Ossip Van Duivenbode, Mike Blink. Inbo BV).

SUPPORTING IDENTIT Y RESTORED

SPACES

61

HALL OF MEMORY

5,000 - 8,000 Sq. ft.

ENVIRONMENTALLY ENCLOSED SPACE DEVOTED TO MEMORY OF VICTIMS.

CONTEMPLATIVE GARDEN

3,000 - 12,000 SQ. FT.

LANDSCAPE GARDEN THAT HONORS THE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF LONG SILENCED BLACK MILLEN RESIDENTS.

HALL OF VOICES

3,000 SQ. FT.

ENVIRONMENTALLY NEUTRAL, SPACE FOR EDUCATION, FREE SPEECH, AND SHAPING THE FUTURE OF MILLEN.

CHAPEL OF BELONGING

5,000 Sq. FT.

ENVIRONMENTALLY OPEN, INTERFAITH CHAPEL TO HONOR IMPACT OF CARSWELL GROVE AS A BACKBONE OF THE BLACK COMMUNITY.

SERVICE

6,000 SQ. FT.

ENVIRONMENTALLY ENCLOSED ENTRANCE, BATHROOM, OFFICES, STORAGE, MECHANICAL.

THE PATH LANDSCAPE ENGAGEMENT THROUGH OUTDOOR SITE OF LYNCHING AND GRAVES OF CARSWELL GROVE.

62 / SUPPORTING

SUPPORTING_Hall of Memor y The National Monument Kamp Amersfoort by Inbo BV, doesn’t merely utilize plaques of names to memorialize, but utilizes the fabric of space to compose memory and emotion. The program is processional and draws the occupant through it.

At the same time, the lighting and materiality of reinforced concrete propose a soundscape that is quiet, inward, and commemorative. The program serves to create a reflective environment and create a procession of memory through the space.

In Ronchamp by Le Corbusier, stained glass is transformed into an aggregatory pattern on the facade of various sizes, depths, and quantities of light. This array of openings begin to create a variety of lighting conditions and heightens the sacred imagery, while still maintaining a monumental and not overly-lit environment.

40.

39.

IDENTITY RESTORED

Fig. 39: Use of small apertures and stained glass to create sacrality.

Ronchamp by Le Corbusier. (Photograph: Gill Merin).

Fig. 40: Interior hall of remembrance. National Monument Kamp Amersfoort.

(Photographs: Ossip Van Duivenbode, Mike Blink).

Frontispiece: Memorial to Victims of Violence. (Photograph: Luby Springall).

64 / SUPPORTING

SUPPORTING_Threshold The Darkest Building on Earth by Asif Khan explores light through contrasting conditions. Among these conditions is an exploration of neutral thresholds between light and dark that provide an interstitial hole between spaces. The use of materiality is also an important factor, as the threshold is coated with Vantablack, a material that absorbs 99.9% of light, making a complete hole in the spatial experience to recondition one between zones.

The Nam June Paik Art Center by NHDM combines the light and dark of threshold with a sense of sectional elevation to create a heightening moment onto the next program. This combination of lighting, color, and sectional elevation, creates a clear transition between spaces, but doesn’t break the experience like the Darkest Building on Earth.

41.

IDENTITY RESTORED

42.

Fig. 41: Threshold between light and dark. Darkest Building on Earth.

(Photograph: Luke Hayes).

Fig. 42: Elevated threshold space. Nam June Paik Art Center. (Photograph: Nam June Paik Art Center).

66 / SUPPORTING

SUPPORTING_Hall of Voices The Mass Timber Longhouse by MIT uses light to create a spectacle at the terminating view of the space. In contrast to the Hall of Memory, the program is open, has no termination, and has qualities that evoke conversation. The material choice of wood, and use of lighting further suggest an active soundscape that allows for dialogue and engagement in a way that the Hall of Memory does not.

The Agri Chapel by Yu Momoeda utilizes a webbed structure, simple form, and materiality not to channel the space inwardly, but rather to direct it to the landscape, helping to evoke feelings of activity and communication to the surroundings--important to a space that is utilized for public speaking and open communication.

43.

IDENTITY RESTORED

44.

Fig. 43: Mass Timber Longhouse. (Photograph: MIT Mass Timber Design).

Fig. 44: Gathering hall with timber elements relates to landscape. Agri Chapel. Yu Momoeda. (Photograph: Yousuke Harigane).

68 / SUPPORTING

SUPPORTING_Contemplative Garden The Come on Calm on Garden by Shma explores how a visually bounded garden can direct the occupant inwardly in the space, and create meditative states. The garden utilizes a simple array of local plants surrounded by pervious surfaces. Most notably, the use of lighting helps define the mood of the space, and the boundary wall is able to be projected upon with digital graphics that allow the space to be focused on different topics.

The Memorial to the Victims of Violence

by Gaeta-Springall Arquitectos utilizes monuments not as signage, but as a grid of figures in the landscape that relate to the landscape, and terminate views depending on the perspective of the viewer.

The monuments’ form create a level of permanence within the garden, especially through their materiality, and integrate memory with the site.

45.

IDENTITY RESTORED

46.

Fig. 45: Enclosed, lit, projected contemplative garden. Come on Calm on.

(Photograph: Napon Jaturapuchapompong. Shma.)

Fig. 46: Monumental memorial has sense of contemplative enclosure while maintaining circulation within wooded area. Memorial to the Victims of Violence. (Photograph: Luby Springall).

70 / SUPPORTING

SUPPORTING_Contemplative Garden

47.

48.

IDENTITY RESTORED

49.

Fig. 47-48: Burnett Park. PWP Landscape Architecture. (Photograph: PWP Landscape Architects).

Fig. 49: Nathan Phillips Square Revitalization. Perkins + Will/PLANT. (Photograph: Perkins + Will).

72 / SUPPORTING

SUPPORTING_Chapel of Belonging In the Mausoleum of Martyrdom of Polish Villages, Marcin Czechowicz explores the deconstruction of ruins through an environmentally open memorial space framed by concrete “remnants” of ruins. The use of ruins is elevated through the materiality and use of board-formed, rough concrete.

The cut grooves and jagged edges of the openings begin to further decay as the space increases on the site, and the formation of light within forms a nearly sacred state. The program is neither exterior or interior, neither memorial or ruin, neither old or new, and operates in the gray area of the site’s story.

The chapel within the site builds upon this materiality through the rough use of concrete and arrays of light, further emphasizing the juxtaposition between the sacred, vertical form, and the jagged ruins enveloping the openspace.

50.

IDENTITY RESTORED

51.

Fig. 50-51: Chapel at end of memorial hall. Mausoleum of Martyrdom of Polish Villages. (Photograph: Marcin Czechowicz. Nizio Design International.)

74 / SUPPORTING

SUPPORTING_The Path The City Cemetery Presov by Jonas Verespej and The Third Train by Gilles Brusset both utilize similar strategies to devise an organic yet ordered natural system. Both use pervious surface strategies in organic patterns that create a natural system of movement on the site that is ordered, yet natural.

Both utilize local plant material and feel completely untouched, but rather as if they’re without time.

The implementation of Corten Steel monuments and Grave Markers in the City Cemetery feel integrated into the landscape, and are elevated by their surroundings. Overall, these examples illustrate how a trail can remain natural, but develop order and monument.

52.

IDENTITY RESTORED

53.

Fig. 52: Corten steel markers along trail. City Cemetery Presov.

(Photograph: Jonas Verespej).

Fig. 53: Trails and benches on memorial trail. The Third Train by Gilles Brusset. (Photograph: Pierre-Yves Brunard).

76 / SUPPORTING

SUPPORTING_Entrance Hall The entrance halls in the Houston Museum of Fine Arts and the HKU Lobby by Lake|Flato and Atelier Nuno utilize lighting and movement as their primary strategies, allowing the supporting space to act as a canvas for movement and support. Proportionally, the long lengths of the lobbies are balanced by strong verticality, and a facade of sidelighting through glazing.

The spaces use ceiling treatments to define the movement through the space. The space acts not as a destination, but as an intermediary that conveys movement, and a soundscape of activity through use of light ceiling forms and natural materials.

54.

IDENTITY RESTORED

55.

Fig. 54: Houston Museum of Fine Arts Lobby. Lake|Flato.

(Photograph: Richard Barnes).

Fig. 55: HKU Medical School Lobby. Atelier Nuno.

(Photograph: Edom Leong).

78

FORMING FUTURE REWRITTEN

80 / Forming

Forming_Site + Mass The massing of the memorial and the site are inextricably linked. In order to establish the footpring of the massing, I first looked at the primary boundary on the site: the graves. I began to map paths and grids between these graves, and allowed it to divide the site into informed geometries.

Simultaneously, I began thinking about the relationship between the programs. I came to understand a need for separation between the memorial programs and the chapel, and a need to join the Hall of Remembrance and Hall of Voices in contrasting procession.

Each of these programs are joined by the garden system on the site.

The resulting memorial massing is directly linked to the history of the site through views of the historical grave, and the ruins, and utilizes these to explore relationships between the programs.

01. Chapel 02. Hall of Memory 03. Contemplative Garden 04. Hall of Voices

FUTURE REWRITTEN

82 / Forming

Forming_Hall of Memor y Important in creating a sense of justice for the story of the Red Summer is to provide a place of memory for the events that happened. Millen has no dedication to the Red Summer, and is therefore lost in years of false narratives in an attempt to cover truth.

The Hall of Memory will visually describe the true story of the Carswell Grove lynching, but more importantly recognize the lives forever changed in the lynching, and those long affected by it--to give a voice to the locked histories of this sacred space is most important.

The 5,000-8,000 sq. ft. space is inward and reflective through the use of concrete to define the experience as solemn and of silent reflection. Through an array of apertures, the atrocity of the experience is heightened: the fact that innocent mothers and children fled through stained glass windows for refuge. The occupant will not read plaques, but experience the procession of emotion produced by the qualities of the space as they circulate through to the Hall of Voices.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

84 / Forming

Forming_Hall of Voices An important reality for the Carswell Grove lynching is the fact that there is no real resolve for the site of Carswell. The Church was burned, and the institutions of Black community have been repeatedly destroyed. There is no justice.

To memorialize the Red Summer and the victims of oppression in Millen, one must work in the tension of the repetitively tumultuous history of the site.

The Hall of Voices lies at the conclusion of the Hall of Memory, after a neutral threshold, switching from concrete to a more resonant wood materiality. The hall is an open-ended platform for communitymembers to shape the future of Millen by speaking their truth, and communcating through the most powerful platform possible: verbal story.

The 3,000-4,000 sq. ft. public speaking and education space has seating for 100 people and is open to the landscape, garden, and all members of the community at any time. The space is the central adjacency to the hall of remembrance, and the contemplative garden, acting as an open-link to writing the future.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

86 / Forming

Forming_Chapel of Belonging Critical to restoring the history of the site and narrative is to honor the sacred value that the Carswell Grove Church historically offered Black residents of Millen. For over 153 years, the Church has offered refuge, a voice, activities, and hope for residents of the community.

The new interfaith chapel integrates the history of the site with the liturgy that survives it, empowering future generations of story and community on the site--emphasizing that the sacred and communal institutions of Black citizens can overcome atrocity, and can exist within the tensions of it.

The 3,000-5,000 sq. ft. space is environmentally open and is wrapped in a concrete, board-formed enclosure that has been deformed to “ruins” through a system of subtractive, jagged openings.

The space allows free access from the Contemplative garden and seats 100 people.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

88 / Forming

Forming_Contemplative Garden Critical to healing the story of the Red Summer Riot is displaying the success of a community long hidden. Stories blocked by envy and jealousy; Stories of prosperity, hope, success, and victory that their oppressors took from them. Joe Ruffin’s story is a reflection of this--his success was covered by envy and violence. To move on from this envy and violence, stories of Black success need to be told.

The enclosed Contemplative Garden engages and tells of the accomplishments and successes of the victims of the Red Summer, and of Millen’s Black residents who have been long affected by a history of silenced stories and racial oppression.

The walled garden focuses the occupant inward towards the stories at hand and experiments with methods of lighting and projection to represent these stories. The garden engages with hardscape and the native species surrounding, connecting Black success to the nature of the site, and utilizing nature as a healing element.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

56.

57.

Fig. 56-57: Enclosed, lit, projected contemplative garden. Come on Calm on.

(Photograph: Napon Jaturapuchapompong. Shma.)

90 / Forming

Forming_Entrance Hall The entrance hall serves as the link of the memorial programs, gardens, and chapel on site. The 2,000-3,000 sq. ft. space will build on the board formed concrete language of the chapel, except this time in the form of Shou Sugi Ban Cross-Laminated-Timber, and will have large jagged cuts that form the glazing openings.

The space will utilize materality to allow the entry to be both conversational and circulatory in nature, and the use of sky lighting will create the focal meeting point of the memorial.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

92

Final Design Drawings FUTURE REWRITTEN

96 / Forming

Study Area On the study area, not only the site is denoted in relationship to Millen, but more than this, all of the significant locations regarding the story of Carswell Grove are denoted and referenced to the site, diagramming the relationship of these locations.

98 / Forming

Forming_Aligning Meaning An important first step in the design strategy for the Carswell Grove Memorial was to take the significant locations from the location and study area plans and begin to align them with two significant points on the site: the Church altar, and the approximate location of Joe Ruffin’s lynching. This resulted in a series of referencing grids that connect to the story of the site, and can create outlines for important site and massing strategies.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

100 / Forming

Forming_Site: Forced Perspective Using the referencing lines I created by aligning the meanings of locations, my main resulting site strategy creates a forced perspective cut within the forest-as-solid condition to create a path between the Big Buckhead Church and Carswell Grove Ruins. This decision emphasizes the relationship and creates accountabity between the two locations as the Carswell Grove Church becomes visually closer to Big Buckhead, yet the past of Big Buckhead moves farther from the ruins. This forced perspective is also later applied to the Big Buckhead Church through a slotting in its massing.

Forced Perspective Diagram

FUTURE REWRITTEN

Forming_Massing Outline Using my referencing lines, I iterated a series of possible massing outlines that would relate to the lines, yet snake around the complex array of graves on the site. The chosen outline embraces the tension of the forced perspective, and creates a duality of the programs.

Massing Outline resulting of Referencing Lines

102 / Forming

Forming_Massing Process While my referencing grid creates a suggestive outline for the massing of my project, there were ultimately several critical moves in the design process that informed the ultimate design. From my original outline, the first critical move was to gable the two massings, to relate to the context of both the rural area and the two historic Churches surrounding.

From there, the tension is emphasized on a compression point at the center.

Next, the scale of the masses is broken into its programmatic parts, allowing for optimal use of space, and to break the scale into masses, each no larger than the scale of the original church.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

104 / Forming

Forming_Programmatic Overlay

FUTURE REWRITTEN

106 / Forming

Formin g_Grav e Patter ns As Aper ture A critical step in integrating the site and its history to the project was the use of the graves on the site. In the hall of remembrance, I was looking to utilize a large array of apertures to represent the victims of the Red Summer--representing the fact that women and children had to burst through the original stained glass windows into the woods for cover during the lynching.

To do this, I created a pattern of graves on the site and parametrically applied it to the facade of the hall of memory. This results in a facade and space that truly connects to the site and its story.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

108 / Forming

Formin g_Addr essing Site_G raves + Ruins

FUTURE REWRITTEN

110 / Forming

Forming_Addressing Site_Big Buckhead

FUTURE REWRITTEN

112 / Forming

FUTURE REWRITTEN

114 / Forming

Longitudinal Site Section

FUTURE REWRITTEN

116 / Forming

Transverse Site Section

FUTURE REWRITTEN

118 / Forming

FUTURE REWRITTEN

120 / Forming

Section Perspective A

FUTURE REWRITTEN

122 / Forming

Section Perspective B

FUTURE REWRITTEN

124 / Forming

Section Perspective C

FUTURE REWRITTEN

126 / Forming

Section Perspective D

FUTURE REWRITTEN

128 / Forming

Section Perspective E

FUTURE REWRITTEN

130 / Forming

Forming_Use of Text For the Carswell Grove Memorial, I wanted to avoid telling the story as much as possible, allowing the community of Millen to use the place as a platform to speak their truth, and speak of the future of Millen. Because of this, I chose to be minimal with my use of text. The Threshold Space is the only space with informational text, and helps frame the experience before occupants enter the Hall of Remembrance.

The hall of Remembrance speaks to the names of Red Summer victims, and the victims of Carswell Grove in general, in addition to leaving voids for the victims not named in history.

Finally, the contemplative garden uses interactive text and graphics to speak to the prosperity of Black Millen residents, past and most importantly present, highlighting the use of this space as a platform for community.

FUTURE REWRITTEN

132 / Forming

Forced Perspective

FUTURE REWRITTEN

134 / Forming

Ghost Structure

FUTURE REWRITTEN

136 / Forming

Slotting into Big Buckhead

FUTURE REWRITTEN

138 / Forming

Hall of Memor y

FUTURE REWRITTEN

140 / Forming

Hall of Memor y

FUTURE REWRITTEN

142 / Forming

Hall of Voices

FUTURE REWRITTEN

144 / Forming

Contemplative Garden

FUTURE REWRITTEN

146 / Forming

Chapel

FUTURE REWRITTEN

148

ENDNOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY

Frontispiece: Carswell Grove Church. 1996.

(Photograph: National Register of Historic

END NOTES

1. Jesse J. Holland, “Hundreds of Black Deaths During 1919’s Red Summer Are Being Remembered.”

(PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, July 23, 2019).

2. Cameron McWhirter, “Carswell Grove.” In Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2012).

3. Charmain Z. Brackett, “Commemoration Planned for Church That Survived 3 Burnings.” (The Augusta Chronicle, April 5, 2018).

4. Cameron McWhirter, “Carswell Grove.” In Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2012), pp. 4.

5. Ibid., pp. 5.

6. Ibid., pp. 5.

7. Ibid., pp. 8.

8. Ibid., pp. 11.

9. Cameron McWhirter, “Coda: Carswell Grove.” In Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2012), pp. 268.

10. “Joe Ruffin Released From Savannah Jail.” (The True Citizen. June 2, 1923, 12 edition, sec. 11).

11. Cameron McWhirter, “Coda: Carswell Grove.” In Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2012), pp. 268.

12. U.S. Geological Survey, 2003, Jenkins County, GA - CEMETERIES - Carswell Grove Church (Afr-Amer).

13. “Carswell Grove Baptist.” (Historical Rural Churches of Georgia).

14. Ibid.

15. Cameron McWhirter, “Carswell Grove.” In Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2012), pp. 4.

16. Cameron McWhirter, “Coda: Carswell Grove.” In Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2012), pp. 269.

17. John Eligon and Audra D.S. Burch. “‘Red Summer’ Remembered: Recovering The History of Black Georgia Church Burned in 1919.” (Northwest Arkansas Democrat Gazette. The New York Times, September 28, 2019).

18. Cameron McWhirter, “Coda: Carswell Grove.” In Red Summer: The Summer of 1919 and the Awakening of Black America. (New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2012), pp. 269.

151

19. Cameron McWhirter, “‘Red Summer’ Talk at Carswell Grove Baptist Church, Jenkins County, Ga., Saturday, Oct. 12, Starting at 10:30a.m.” (Cameron McWhirter, October 10, 2013).

20. “Hudgens: Jenkins County Church Fire Was Arson.” (WTOC . Gray Media Group, November 17, 2014).

21. U.S. Census Bureau (2019). American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from Census Reporter Profile page for Millen, GA. 22. Ibid.

23. “Jenkins County - City of Millen Administration.” Jenkins County.

24. Lawton E. Brantley, “Millen.” (New Georgia Encyclopedia. University of Georgia Press, March 26, 2005).

25. “Millen Georgia.” (War Was Here, November 27, 2016).

26. Mike Toner, “Confederate POW Camp Discovered.” (Archaeology Magazine. Archaeological Institute of America, November 1, 2010).

27. Ryan K. McNutt “Camp Lawton: History.” (Georgia Southern University. Georgia Southern Department of Sociology and Anthropology, January 5, 2021).

28. Mike Toner, “Confederate POW Camp Discovered.” (Archaeology Magazine. Archaeological Institute of America, November 1, 2010).

29. Lester Holt, The Town That Jobs Forgot, Part 1. (NBCNews.com. The United States: NBC , 2011.

Film).

30. Ibid.

31. U.S. Census Bureau (2019). American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from Census Reporter Profile page for Millen, GA. 32. “Jenkins County, Georgia Climate.” (Best Places. Accessed September 12, 2021).

33. “Climate and Average Weather Year Round in Millen.” (Weather Spark. Accessed September 12, 2021).

34. “Jenkins County, Georgia Climate.” (Best Places. Accessed September 12, 2021).

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. U.S. Census Bureau (2019). American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from Census Reporter Profile page for Millen, GA. 38. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME), US County Profile: Jenkins County, Georgia.

Seattle, WA: IHME, 2016.

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-- Tapia, Daniel. “Houston Museum of Fine Arts / Lake: Flato Architects.” ArchDaily, October 28, 2018. Accessed 05 October 2021. https://www.archdaily.com/904648/houston-museum-of-fine-arts-lake-flato-architects?ad_ source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects.

The Augusta Herald. (Augusta, Ga.), April 14, 1919. Accessed September 11, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053972/1919-04-14/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2 F31%2F2018&words=Joe+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=5&proxdistance=5&rows=12&orte xt=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=1 The Augusta Herald. (Augusta, Ga.), April 15, 1919. Accessed September 11, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053972/1919-04-15/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2 F31%2F2018&words=Joe+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=2&proxdistance=5&rows=12&orte xt=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=1 The Augusta Herald. (Augusta, Ga.), March 28, 1921. Accessed September 11, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053972/1921-03-28/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2 F31%2F2018&words=Joe+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=2&proxdistance=5&sort=relevanc e&rows=12&ortext=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=2 The Augusta Herald. (Augusta, Ga.), March 29, 1921. Accessed September 12, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053972/1921-03-29/ed-1/seq-1/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2 F31%2F2018&words=Joe+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=4&proxdistance=5&rows=12&orte xt=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=1

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The Bamberg Herald. (Bamberg, SC), Apr. 17, 1919. Accessed September 7, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/item/ sn86063790/1919-04-17/ed-1/.

The Bartow Tribune. The Cartersville news. (Cartersville, Ga.), July 01, 1920. Accessed September 11, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053395/1920-07-01/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=01%2F01%2 F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2F31%2F2018&words=Joe+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=3& proxdistance=5&rows=12&ortext=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=1 The Dillon Herald. (Dillon, SC), Apr. 17, 1919. Accessed September 9, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/item/ sn86063774/1919-04-17/ed-1/.

The North Georgian. (Cumming, Ga.), June 08, 1923. Accessed September 7, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053931/1923-06-08/ed-1/seq-3/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2 F31%2F2018&words=Joe+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=9&proxdistance=5&rows=12&orte xt=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=1 The Post-Search Light. (Bainbridge, Ga.), April 17, 1919. Accessed September 5, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn88054150/1919-04-17/ed-1/seq-1/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2 F31%2F2018&words=Joe+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=11&proxdistance=5&rows=12&or text=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=1 --“The Third Train by Gilles Brusset.” Landezine, 2020. Accessed September 12, 2021. http://landezine.com/index. php/2020/02/the-third-train-by-gilles-brusset/.

--The Town That Jobs Forgot, Part 1. NBCNews.com. The United States: NBC , 2011. Accessed September 11, 2021. https://www.nbcnews.com/video/the-town-that-jobs-forgot-part-1-43802179513.

The True Citizen. (Waynesboro, Ga.), April 19, 1919. Accessed September 13, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1919-04-19/ed-1/seq-1/ The True Citizen. (Waynesboro, Ga.), June 02, 1923. Accessed September 11, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1923-06-02/ed-1/seq-1/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2 F31%2F2018&words=JOE+Joe+RUFFIN+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=4&proxdistance=5& sort=relevance&rows=12&ortext=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=2

The True Citizen. (Waynesboro, Ga.), November 22, 1919. Accessed September 14, 2021. https:// gahistoricnewspapers.galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1919-11-22/ed-1/seq-4/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763& nottext=&date2=12%2F31%2F2018&words=Joe+JOE+Ruffin+RUFFIN&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&inde x=5&proxdistance=5&sort=relevance&rows=12&ortext=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=2 The True Citizen. (Waynesboro, Ga.), October 04, 1919. Accessed September 15, 2021. https://gahistoricnewspapers. galileo.usg.edu/lccn/sn89053289/1919-10-04/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=01%2F01%2F1763&nottext=&date2=12%2 F31%2F2018&words=Joe+Ruffin&searchType=advanced&sequence=0&index=6&proxdistance=5&rows=12&orte xt=&proxtext=joe+ruffin&andtext=&page=1 The Washington Times. (Washington, DC), Apr. 14 1919. Accessed September 9, 2021. https://www.loc.gov/item/ sn84026749/1919-04-14/ed-1/.

Toner, Mike. “Confederate POW Camp Discovered.” Archaeology Magazine. Archaeological Institute of America, November 1, 2010. Accessed September 11, 2021. https://archive.archaeology.org/1011/trenches/confederate. html.

--U.S. Census Bureau (2019). American Community Survey 5-year estimates. Retrieved from Census Reporter Profile page for Millen, GA. Accessed September 15, 2021. http://censusreporter.org/profiles/16000US1351520-millenga/ --U.S. Geological Survey, 2003, Jenkins County, GA - CEMETERIES - Carswell Grove Church (Afr-Amer), accessed September 14, 2021. Accessed September 16, 2021. https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/earthquake-hazards/ lists-maps-and-statistics --Vial, Martita. “Memorial to Victims of Violence / Gaeta-Springall Arquitectos.” ArchDaily, April 7, 2019. Accessed September 11, 2021. https://www.archdaily.com/359698/memorial-to-victims-of-violence-gaeta-springallarquitectos?ad_source=search&ad_medium=search_result_projects.

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Carswell Grove Church. 1996. (Photograph: National Register of Historic Places.)

UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE KNOXVILLE DESIGN V: APPLIED RESEARCH

JAKOB MIKRES