Labor Law and Practice in the Empire of Ethiopia by Ann C. Suter (1966)

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Pref�t<:e rf'hi� reJ)ort_is 011e of it �el'ier-- })rerJ,trecl i11 the Bt1recttt of L�1bor StatisticR. The �eries is i11t.enclecl to JJl'O\'icle backgroL111d material for U.S. bt1siness­ me11_. t1·,:1cle Lt 11 io11 £111cl l::1bor � }Jecj�tlists, stt1clen ts, �t11cl America11s \Vho ma}' be emJ)lo,\•i11g· Ioc,11 \,•orke1·}-; i11 foreig11 countries. It iH J101)ed that the stt1clie:-:- ,,,ill ::1lso be 11seft11 to r>erso11s C<lnce1·necl in more general ,-v,1.vs \\1ith labor i11 fo1·eig11 cot1ntries.

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Sotirce ma teri�1J t1secl i11 pref)aring this stucl;-{ inclticlecl Foreign Service re1)01·ts, l)t1blicf1tio11s <)f the Em1)ire of EtJ1io1Jia, ancl information obtained i11 i11te1·,,ie,,!s �t11cl fro1n })e1·so11�1l observ,ttions of the �1L1tho14 i11 EthioJ)ia. ivio::;t rese,t1·cl1 ,,·;;t� con11)letecl b_,, the s1)ri11g of 1966.

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Tl1e reJ)ort ,,,. ::ls ])1·epc1red b�>' A11n C. SL1ter and reviewecl by Harriet l\Jicoc.:ci. t111cler the �t1t)e1·,,isic>r1 (>f .Jt1liet I•.... Kicl11ey, in the B11re;:tt1's Oflice 111t Con1mis:\ioner. . cJf Fc)1·eig11 Lcil)or �111cl T1·1-1<le, \·\'illi,:1n1 C. Shelto11, ...\ssist;;

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1g se tt1 1 c 1 Cha1lte1· l. Geog1·c:11)] 1 � : ................. 1 . . · · · · · · · ·· · · ·: · · · · · a e i· a cl 11 a n io t Loca . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . te ,1 n 11 cl cl 11 ,1 Geo r1··11Jhic .facto1·s u11cl ......... , .....

1·o 2 l{g tC bf ic 111 ] 10 01 • c • e c 11 ' ,1 g 1 ca t1 Cha11te1· II. Pol1 ............. .

2 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1·y 1a · Political sun1n .. . .. .. .. . . .. . .. . .

2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i·e u ct 1·u st Go,re1·11rne11taI . . . . . . . . . .. 4 . . .. . . . . · · · r · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · � 111 110 o The 11atio11al ec . .. .. .. .. . 7 .. .. .. .. ..

1·e tu 1I ct · i1 1e tl cl ,1n le 1J eo 1J Cha11ter III. The ··· · · · 7 · · · · · · · · · · .. .. .. .. s up ·o c · g1 11i th E 8 La11gt1age .... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 9 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. · .. .. ..

1Js Religious g1·ou · · · · · · · · 10 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .. .. .. .. .. s de t1 it · G ro tl l� att Soci,11 st1·t1ctu1·e a11d c11lt111·e patte1·11s .... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 11 Cl1a1Jte1· IV. · Ecluc,1tio11 ,1ncl healtl1 ....... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 12 · -:. ... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1 2 E clucat1011 I-Iousing, health, a11d s,1.11itatio11 ............... · · .... · · · · .. 16 ChaIJter V. Ma11} )O \.ve1· resot11·ces .. .. .. .............. - .... · · . 18 PoJJt1latio11 a11cl labo1· SUIJI)ly .................... · . · · · · . · · · 18 SJ)ecial cha1·acte1·istics of the la}Jor force ................. 21 N l:lti011i1 l se1·vice systen1 ........ .. ...... .. ... ... .. ...... .. 24 Pa1·t 11. Gove1·11ment a11d labo1· ...... ..... ... . ... . ... . ..... .. . .. .. 25 Cha1Jte1· VI. Governme11t ................................... 25 Pu}Jlic adn1inist1·ation .. .... ....... .. ... ... . ... . .. .. . . .. . 25 Adn1inistrati,,e bodies conce1·11ecl with labor· . .. ... . . ... .... 26 Pa1·tici1J}:ltion in inte1·11ational orga11izations ............. . 28 Cha}Jte1· VII. Legi slation affecti11g la}Jo1· .. .. ...... . . ........ . 28 Constitt1tional gu£11·antees ........................... ..... 28 Summary of basic lalJ01· legislatio11 ..... _ .. . . . ... . ... ... .. 29 Enf01·cerne11t ............................................ 30 Part III. Labo1· and management ................................ 1 3 C hapte1· VIII. L,1bo1· ancl n1anagement 01·ga11iz<:1tio11s ........ 31 .

Labor organizati011s ........ .. . ... ... . .. . ... . .. . . ...... .. 31 Ma11ageme11t 01·ga11izatio11s ...... ... . .. . . . . .. . .. ... ... ... 33 I nte1·natio11al ties .. .... ... . ... ....... ... . .. .... ... .. ... .. 34 Chapte1· IX. I11clust1·ial 1·elatio11s .......... ................... 35 Collective barg£1i11i11g ...... ... .. .. .. .... . .. .. . . .. . .... ... 35 Settleme11t of clisJJutes .. ..... ... ....... .. . .. . . . .. .... .... 36 Relatio11s i11 110111111ion e11te1·1)1·ises . .. . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 3 8 · Pa1·t IV. Co11clitions of em1)l0)1n1e11t .. .... .... � · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ;39 Chapte1· X. E1n1Jloyme11t })1·actic es · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 9 3.. · Reco1·cls �1nd 1·e1)01·ts ...... . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ,9 ,=> P1·een11lloy1ne11t i11qL1i1·ies · · ........ ............... 1.10 I-I i1--i 11 gr .. .... ..... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 40 · � ti� ·�1ice �� ot ; �� �1 ds t)erio N 11d ) 1� · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Disci I) Ii11a1·)' acti 011s · · · · · · · · · · · 41 . . · · ........ ...........

42 a lter X . : h � � \-\'��-i f 1·8 I I-IoL1 ; C� t � o l � { l l c 1 1 1 i � �� 1 · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 42 I-IoL11·s of ,vo1·l< ...... ... . . . .. . . . . . . . ... . ... .............. 42 Ni ght\\'Ol'k . · · ·· · ·· · · ��i · · 1 . . . � 13 . · . . . . . . . . . . · . · · · · · · � ; t� · 0, e1·ti 1n e J)r · · · · 1 ...

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Paid leave 44 Pe1·ioclic re�t ·1; 1:�1�·i�1·�-:::::::::: ·.:::::::::::::::::::: 45 Holiclay· premi 11n1 . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . - . . . 46 Chapter XII. \1/age8 ar1cl SLII)l)len1e11tal paym ents ............ 46 Base l)ay ............

46 SupJ)leme11tal payment�· : : : : : : : : ·_ .· : ·. .· : : : : ·.·_ ·_ .- ·.: : : : : : : : : : : : 47 '\1/ithholdings and cled11ctions 48 Pay . changes ................ .· ·. ·. .· .· ·. .· · . · . .· .· · .. ·. · . .· .· .· .· .· .· ·. .· ·. ...· ..· ·. · . · . ·. 48 Pay period frequency .............. _ ..................... 48 Tra\rel and tr .:lns1)ortation expenses ..................... .. 48 Chapte1· XIII. Healtl1, safety, ancl v.1orkmen's compensatio11 .. 49 }Ie�tlth a11cl sanitation ...... ................................ 49 Safet)' conclitions ancl requirecl precautions ............... 49 Accicle11t and disease compensation _ ................. ..... 49 Ch�1pter XIV. Social insurance .... , ........................ , 51 Go\1e1·nment systems of insurance ................... ..... 51 P1·i,;ate inst1rance and retirement systems ................ 51 Ap1)e11dixes: A. Co11·fecler,1tio11 l)f Ethiopian Labor Unions, j;lffilifttes, 1965 .. 52 B. Fecleration o·f Em1)loyers of Ethio1Jia, membe1·ship, J1111e 1965 ............................................. 53 Selectecl bibliogra1JJ1.\; .................... _ ........................ 54 Tables: 1. G1·oss 11,1tio11al 1J1·od11ct by eco11omic sector, 1961-62 ........ 4 2. ValL1e of major ex1Jo1·ts lJy commodit)r g1·011p, 1961-63 . .... . 5 .'3. Value of imports ancl exJ)o1 ts, by m,1jo1· world areas, selected yea1·s, 1958-63 .· ..... ... .. ... ... ....... .. . ..... . 5 4. lvla11t1f�1ctt1ring establi8J1me11ts bJ' 11t1mber of persons em J)lo)'ecl, 196 2 .. .. . . . . .. . . ....... ... ..... ... .. . ..... ... 6 5. Nt1mbe1· of schools, stude11ts, a11cl teac}1ers, h.}' t.}'J)e of school, 19 62-6 3 •

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En1·olln1e11t in SJ)ecial schools, by t)'lJe of school, 1962-64 .... 14 EmJ)1o)ree8 i11 con1rne1·ce ancl i11clt1st1·y, b)' le,1el of eclucatio11 .. 15 Estin1�•tecl poJ)t1lfttio11 l)�; 1)1·0,1inces, 1965 .................... 18 Five largest cities in Ethiopia .............................. 18 Estimatecl popt1latio11. b)' age and sex, 1965 ................. 18 Labor force in the mocler11 eco11on1}·, b)' economic sector an cl p 1·o vince, 196 5 ......... .. .... ...... .. ... .......... . 19 I�mplo�rn1e11t ir1 n1ftnt1f::1cturing, 1965 ....................... 20 EmploJ;me11t i11 n1ant1factt1ring, l))r occt1JJation and nation,1lit\· .. ,. 1062 ................. , .... - ................ 23 Major 11aicl leave p1·0,,.isio11s i11 collective bargaining co11tracts, 1965 ........ - ....... - ......... - .............. 45 ReJ)re�entati,:e \.\1 age ancl Ralc1r.'l rates for specific jobs, 1960 47 Acricle11t a11cl clisease cc•n11)ensatio11 benefits i11 collective bargai11ing contr,1cts, EthioJJia, 1965 .................... 50 i\,1 ii1i::; tr.r of Co111m tl 11 itJ' De,,eI01J1ne11t ct11d Social Affairs : L,Ll)<Jt1r· De1J�trtme11t, 1966 ...... - . . .. . .. .......... ..... . 27 •••

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Laho1· Law and Practice PART I.

The Ethiot)ian Empire is locate(l in no1·th eastern Africa, borderecl by the Red Sea on the northeast, French Somaliland on the east, the Somali Rept1blic on the sot1theast and soutl1, Kenya on the south, and the Sucla11 011 the \vest and no1·th\\'est. Its rot1ghl)r triangular shape covers ap})roximatel}' 457,000 square miles, eqt1i,ralent to the combined a1·eas of Texas, Okla­ homa, a11cl Ne,v Mexico.

Curre11t estimates by the Ethiopia11 Govern­ ment }Jut the Em1)ire's JJopulatio11 at 27 n1illio11 persons, \vith ::111 an11ual growth 1·ate estimated at fron1 1.6 to 3.0 pe1·cent. The nomadic Somali tribes of easte1·n Etl1iopia \\1 �1ncle1· back and forth across the clisputecl IJot111clar1r bet\.\'een r�thiopia ancl the Somali Rept1blic, and some n10\'ement takes JJlace bet,\1ee11 E1·it1·ea Provi11ce a11cl the Sudan. Little other moveme11t of J)Optt­ latio11 occt1rs across Ethio1Jia11 borclers.

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Ethiopia

Geogra1lhic Setting

Loralion ,111•1 Area

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THE COUNTRY AND ITS WORKERS Cl1apter I.

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Most of Ethiopia is a plateau, ranging i11 ele,•ation f1·om 6,000 to 10,000 feet above sea le\1el. ancl clivided fron1 southwest to 11ortheast by the Great Rift Valley, a huge geologic fat1lt which runs from Mozambique to Syria. The souther11 half of the Rift in Ethiopia }1as an average width of 30 miles, bt1t in the 11orthern half it b1·oadens to fo1�m the Danakil Depression, over 200 miles across at its ,viclest point. North of the Danakil is a line of low ba1·e hills, and north of them an arid strip of land alo11g the Reel Sea .

The plate(lLI to the southeast of the Rift Val­ ley falls to the lo\\r}a11cls of the Ogade11 Desert,

an area of several thousand square miles border­ ing the Somali Republic. The platea11 to the 1101·thv.rest of the Rift is deeply erocled by nu­ merous rivers, almost all of which are too nar­ row and 1�apid for navigation. The chief rivers are the Blue Nile (in Ethiopia called the Abai) which rises in the north-central part of the country and flo\VS south then west into the Sucla11, the Takaze also flowing from the north westwarcls to the Sudan, and the Awash River, which rises in the center of the country and dis­ aJJpe::1rs in a se1·ies of saline lakes in the Dana­ kil. Ethiopia's main port is Djibouti, in French Somaliland on the Gt1lf of Aden. Two ports \vithin Ethiopian territory, Assab and Massawa on the Reel Sea, a1·e being developed.

The climate is temperate on the plateaus on both sides of the Great Rift Valley, with tem­ })eratt1res 1·arely exceecling a high of 80 ° F. or a lo,v of 40 ° F. In the regions over 8,000 feet above sea level i11 the central parts of the JJlateaus, the mean temperature is seldom higher tha11 60 ° F. The coastal hills and plain and the Ogaden Desert are torrid, with little daily cha11ge in tempe1·att1re; and the Danakil, in some places 300 feet below sea level, is perhaps the hottest place on earth. The deep valleys of the Takaze and the Abai rivers in the north­ \Vest a1·e t1·opical.

In the plateau region there are two rain)-' seasons-the ''little rains'' in April and May, and the ''big 1·ains-' ' from micl-June to micl-Sep­ tembe1·. The rest of the year the climate is ge11erally d1·y, go,1erned b}' northeasterly winds f1·on1 the Arabia11 Dese1·t. In the 11orthwestern part of the plateau, the big rains bring about 80 or 85 1Jercent of the annual rainfall; in the south\vester11 plateau areas rai11fall is more eve11ly clistribt1ted throughout t]1e jrear and

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1 ve A t · s e ,v h t · the ext1·eme sou . lly in nu a · abo ut 15 u a T e lt l� p annual rai11fall fo1· th e. \\ hole R' I ft e 1 t} 1·v nt u co 48 i11ches. Else'V\rhere in the e th • 1 1� .J,"'; lo is Valley, Eritrea-the 1·ai11fall 1e tl in d 11 a , )' ll a t1 n Ogaden less than 4 inches an Da11akil De1)1·ession vi1·tually no11e. at i·e G e th of st ve v ·th 01 1 1 1, at te The cent1·al pla th e of re co e th ed n1 or f s ay ,v al s y, ha Rift Valle l 11c a e at im cl te ra pe m te s Ethiopi�in state. It _ r e 11, to e ac IJl r sie ea an it e ak ll m fa p)e11tiful rain ·e oi m it ,,e gi d an e i1· 1p En e th s of rt r pa he an ot th potential for modern development. The steeJ) £

ly ep cle u, tea pla erode cl and c e th of lef-1 .:,"ic t b\' . . u s,vift, un�a vigable r1 vers,_ h ave afforcle d r:th i. protection Je from e1·ab otitsi<le in.

OJ)ia consid _ vasion. Expansion has usuall� bee11 to the sot1th �111cl east, \,,,he1·e the plateau clips more graduallt to the }o\v la11cls. The peoples of thes e lo\v]an ha ve bee11 conquerecl periodically by the peopll� es 1hen brought to \\ a11d 1 J)lateat the l)]at eau the <)f fLi·eas have t1·aclitionally been servant s, traders, ,1ncl hanclic1·aftsm en. In their 11ative are as, the consta11t nee d to sea1·ch for \Vater for then,. seJ,,es a11cl their herd s has resulted in a nomadic ay of life.

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Cl1aJ}ter II.

Politic�tl a11,I Eco110111ic

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t>oJiti,·al Su111111ary

The origi11 f>f the Ethopi,1n ki1 1gclom is con­ tai11ed i11 the Jege11cl of the Biblical figt1re Ct1sh, so11 of I-Iain, ,vho founclec.l the ki11gclom of Axt1n1 ancl 11a111erl the �urrou11cling cot1nt1·ysicle afte1· his so11 Etl1io1Js. Tl1e ea1·liest reco1·clecl histo1·i­ r cal figt11·e of the cou11t1·v ' ,, t1s M,1ked�1, the Quee11 of Sheba, ,,�ho jc,urneyed north on ,t visit of 8tate to Ki11g Solon1011 in the eH.1·l)T 10th ceritt1r)r B.C. Their :-;011, l\fe11elik I, is t1·,1ditionally l1elcl to be t}1e founder of the present 1·uling line.

Degpite the re1narkable conti11t1ity a11cl clu1·­ abilit)r of the S0)01nonic line, as Menelik's suc­ ces�org are callecl, succession to the th1·one has often been atte11derl })�' rlisse118io11 and violence among the co11te11cler8. H�1ile Selassie I, the })rese11t Emperor, has, in the Constitt1tion ' namecl the Cro\vn Prince ,1s his Ruccessor.

The I)re8ent Emperor ha� introclucecl a 11t1m­ l)er <)f mocler11 forn1s into the Jlolitic�ll, Racial, ancl economic ]ife of his cot111try. In 1931. he Jlromt1lg-atecl Ethio1Jia's firf-it conHt:itutio11, ,,·hich IJrovicled for a11 appointecl Pa1·liame11 t ancl c� 1.b­ i11et. The Italian occupation t1nde1· Mt1ssolil li fron1 1936 to 1941, tl1e 011ly }Je1·iocl rJf fo reig11 c�om!nati�n i11 Ethiopia's histo1·y si11ce the M�s­ 1 l1m I n� i1s1�ns of ?0 0 )'ectrs or mo1·e �lgo, Cc:ltlsed , ,1 IJ<1rt1al cl1�locat1011 of the cot1ntr �, � tr(tcliti,Jnal :-;<>ci::11 �1 1 1< 1 IJolitic�tl :-:;trt1ctt11·e, enablii1 g the Em_ 1 �eror, _011 his retu1·n fron1 exile i11 Engla11 a, to l1 be1-�ll 1 ze ft11·ther the llOlitical orga,1 · 11 () f . c 1 1·zatIO • t11e 11,t\1011. A revisecl co118tittitioi1 ,,v as })i·omt;) _ gatecl 111 No,'embe1· 1955, }Jt·oviclitl g foi· a bi2 "'

c,1me1·,ll P�l1·lia men t ,, Tith a11 elected lower house, (:tncl 11::ltio11al elections \ve1·e fi1·.st held in 1957.

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The (;c)ve1·11me11t of Etl1 iopi,1 is a monarchy.

The Co11stit11tio11 })ro,ricles fo1· democratic par­ tici1)atic>11 in IJ,11·l iame11ta1·)r electio11 s as the first 8tep to,,·�ll'd pl,1cing co11stitt1tio11al limits on the in1peric-1l office, l)ut 1Jencli11g the edt1cation of the m,1.ss of the JlOl)t1latio11 i11 the full use of consti­ tt1tionc-tl p1·oced u1·es. n1ost })O\\'e1· remains for the time bei11g \vith the Empe1·01·, traditional le::-lde1·s, c:l ncl the Ethio1Jia11 Ortl1odox Chttrch.

To assist hin1 i11 his executive duties, the E n1 })er<) r h:.1!'- o 1·g:.i 11i ze<l a 11 u1nber of bodie� \\'hicl1 sustai11 t1·aclitio11al p1·ocedu1·es in opera­ tio11. rfhey· i11 clt1cle the EmJle1·01·'s Household, t l1e Privc.1le Cabi11et, the Mi11ist1·ies, and a num· her of i11cle1)e11cle11 t ag-e11cies a11d coo1·di11ating lJocl ieR. l\'le1nbe1·s of the Em1Jero1·'s Hot1sehold, a1)}Joi11ted b�, the Em1Je1·01·, st11)ervise the pa!· <tee 01Jer::-1tio11� ::-111(1 a1·1·a11ge the E mperor·s 8 Cl1eclt1le:_ �l11cl c:1ppo int1n ents. The Private Cab· i11et, al�o �1ppoi11 te cl bv tl1 e Em1Jeror, act:; as hi8 chief (1clmini�t1·ati�e bocly. It contains .8 smctll 11u1nbe1· of 1nen. ,,,ith ft1�ctio11al resp ons�­ lJili tieR. Th e office �f the Auclitor-G eneral 18 enti·ti::-;tetl \\ itl1 �1t1cliti11g all go,rern1ne11t tlC· cotints a 11(1 1·e1)01·ts perioclicall,r to the E 11 1IJet�O� n��il-= (111 d to J=>c11·Ji�1111e1 a fiii 1t 011 tl1e g-o,,e;·111nent 's OJ)ei·c1 t101 · 1s. Th e Cot111cil of l\'li11isters co11�� 1�t· .. ot! � 1 p. 1·1m . e lvli11iste1· t1JJJ)c)i11tefl b)� tl1e Enip er o1 the d clllCl 1·es1)011sible atl ; to l1 i 111 ,111d the State

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heads of mi11ist1·ies aJ)pointecl t))' tl1e Prime lVIin­ ister \Vith the �lppro\'al of' the E1ni)eror, re­ SJJ<)11sil1le collecti\'eiy to the En11)ero1· ancl the S telte, cl 11d i11di ,,ict llcll lj' to the P1·ime Minister.

Tl1e cli,·isio11 of 1�es1)011sibilities c1.mo11g the min­ istries m,t)' cl1a11ge: one ma11 may have r·e­ SJ)o11silJilit,v f'o1· mo1·e than one ministry, or illdi­ \'iclt1::1lR ma)' be a1)l)Oi11ted to tl1e Co1111cil, btit 110t h,1ve a 1ninist1·y 11ncler t11e111. The Prime lvlin­ ister ! s office has 1·esJ)onsibility fo1· coo1·clinating the \\'Ork of all mi11istries. The Co1111cil of ivli11isters ma)' i11itia.te legisl�:1tio11 through the En1pe1·or. The clctivities of the i11<leJ)e11clent agencies are J)1·ima1·il)1 in the fielcl of economic clevelop1ne11t. 1"hese bodies 01Jerate as sttbcom­ mittees o·f the Cot1ncil of Ministers to assist in coorcli11ati11g i11terministe1·ial plans ancl policies. !11 aclclition to the En1pero1· ancl his minis­ tries, t\vo boclies ;;11·e co11cer11ed ,,,ith Iegisla­ ti0n: Pa1·li,1me11t and the P1·ime Minister's oflice. Parli:1me11t has l\\'O l1ot1ses: The Se11ate, ,vhose men1bers are a1)pointecl b} tl1e Empero1· fo1· 6-yea1· te1·n1s, a11d the Chambe1· of Deputies, ,,,hose n1e1nbers a1·e electecl for 4-year terms from mt1nici1)alities ancl elector�11 clist1·icts 011 the basis o·f 1Jopt1latio11. Legislatio11 1nay be introclt1ced into either ho11se b)' him, by the Co1111cil of l\fi11iste1·s \vitl1 his a1JJ)1·oval, 01· by JO n1e111bers or more of eithe1· hot1se. (See sec­ tion 011 St1mn1a1·3-r of Basic Labo1· Legislatio11.)

If i:l})JJl'ovecl b}r IJoth ho11ses, it is for,va.1·ded to tl1e EmJ)eror. If he ag1·ees, it beco1nes la\.v; if he agrees bt1t \.vith chc111ges, it is 1·ett1r11ed to Pctrli,1me11t for further debate. Disagreeme11ts <.>f the t\\70 h<.)L1ses a1·e settlecl i11 joint sessions.

Pa1·Iiament may ame11d the Co11stitt1tio11 by a tJ1ree-qu11rte1·s majo1·ity, subject to the En1J)eror 's co11ct11·1·ence. All major lc1vvs a1·e stib­ mitted i11 cl1·at ·t to the l">rime l\1Iiniste1·'s office, ,,:hose Ieg;;tl experts e11s11re that all legislatio11 meets stan<.l�t1·cls of n,:ttt11·al justice flt1cl hu­ rna11it�· ,l11cl is equ�1ll)' c.lpplicable to natio11als ,ln(I foreigners.

The l�1111Jero1· is at tl1e apex of the juclicial :-:,\·sterr1 in Et 11iOf)i::t. N<J clea th se11tence n1�1y be exe:::11tecl vvithotit his confirmation. Ultimci.te aJJl)C,tl n1�t)' l1e n1::tcle to hin1 i11 a11:il case in the {_'.C)llrl (ff Ccl::\S}ltio11, ()l' c:11.il<Jt, the highest fl})1

l)ell;;1te cot1rt i11 the cot111t1·y, over ,,,hich he })resicles. The St1preme Imperial Court is an aJJI)ellate cot11·t, consisti11g of the three most emine11t j11rists in the la11d. I1nmediately be11ec1tl1 the St11)ren1e Court is the High Court, \vhich hears 01·igi11al cases in crin1inal, civil, commercial, la11d, a11d probate law 01·iginating in its c1rea of jt1riscliction (Addis Ababa), as \Veil as 01·igi11,1] or appellate cases ,,1hich a1·e brot1ght before it by personal applicatio11 fro1n a11y\vhe1·e in the country. It must also pass on tl1e legalitj' of all subversive activity cases. Spe­ cial cot1rts inclt1<.le security cot1rts, which handle cases involving treason, espionage, etc.; mili­ t ::1ry cou1·ts, vvhich try cases involving military JJe1·so1111el ; ancl religious courts, Coptic and l\1t1slim, which l1ave jurisdiction over their 111e1nbers i11 matters involving pe1·sonal status.

Tl1e Lal)ot1r Relatio11s Decree, 1962, provicled fo1· the establishme11t. under the authoritv of the Minist1·y of Justice, of labor divisions within regular civil cot1rts to handle cases arising from labor disputes, and certain co11rts have bee11 cl esignatecl b,r • the l\tiinister of J11stice to h::1nclle labor cases. Lo,ver level cot1rts i11clucle st1bpr<,vi11ciaJ, district and subclistrict cot1rts, \\'.hich l1ar1clle ci, 1il clncl c1·iminal Cclses whose l )e11c1lties clo not exceecl certain limits. In areas ,vhe1·e they clo 11ot exist, certain persons may be desig11atecl c\S jtidges by the Minister of J L1stice.

Ethiot)ia is cli, 1icted i11to 14 gove1·norates-gen­ eral (ca11ecl i11 this stL1cly Provinces), 1 which are i11 turn clivided into subprovinces, clistricts, ancl st1bclistricts. Provi11cial Governors-General and n1ost otl1er J)rovincial officials are appointed by the Empero1·; ft fe,v Io,ver officials are appointed }).}' the Gov·er11or-General. Locally electecl coun­ cils f11nction as the aclministrative units at the stibprovi11cial le, 1el. Recent improveme11ts in commt111icatio11s 1:111cl transportation facilities a1·e also helping to st1·engthen the influence of lhe Ce11tral Government i11 all parts of the Em­ J)ire. I-Io\veve1·, i11adequacies remain, and in m,1n.)' a1·ea8 traclition::1.l, locally deri\red officials .

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1 1\1·u:,si, Buie, B,-�cmdc.r, Erit.rca, Gemu Gofa, <.�ojjont, }lararl'.{c, Iilubnl,or, Kcfu, Shon. Sid111110, Tirrre, ,V1.:llcgn, nnd \Vollo.

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1s on st cu l ca lo to es l,, se em te th la oc m The �tdtninistrative st1·t1ct111·e of E1·it1·e�i Provi11ce diffe1·s some,,,11at f1·om that of the othe1· p1·ovi11ces becat1se of the histo1·y of the p1·0, ince. Si11ce the 19th centt11·y an Italian colony, ancl �1clministe1·ecl bJ' Britisl1 111ilita1·y autho1·ities afte1· the close of the Italo-Ethio­ pian War (1941), E1·itrea was given federated status withi11 the Ethio1li�i11 E1npi1·e by a United Nations decisio11 ir1� 1952. It mai11tained this status, and the control over its inter11,1l affai1·s, until No\1embe1· 1962, when it became the 14th }lrovince of the Empire. Reorga11izatio11 of the adrniniRtrative st1·uctt1re is not vet co1nplete ho\\•e,,er, and a fe\v Fecle1·ation i11stitt1tio11s ancl la\vs 1·emain i11 O})et·ation.

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Tl1(� Na1io11al Eco11on1y

Ethio1)ia is a 1)1·eclomin�l11tly agricultur,tl �111cl pasto1·�ll cot111t1·y, ancl tl1e rnaj ority of its popt1latio11 ,t1·e s1n,lll-sc£lle st1bsiste11ce fa1·me1·s or 11on1,1dic l1e1·clsme11. The little st11·1)lus p1·ocluced is ust1Ellly t1·aded in traclitional ope11 mai·kets for basic necessities. Most of the moclei·n in­ dustrial and commercial fi1·n1s have been estab­ lishecl si11ce W01·lcl Wai· II, la1·ge)), by foi·eigi1 ei·s 01· non-Ethiopians 1·esicle11t i11 Ethiopia for ma11J' yea1·R; many of these fi1·ms a1·e Jlartlv O\vnecl l)y the Etl1io1)ian Govei·nmeilt.

• Pla1111ing for clevelopmei1t began with the �1·st 5-yeai· pla11 (1957-62) and is continui11g 111 tl1e second 5-)'eai· })lai1 ( 1963_67) · The ch"1ef. · et Iv bJe · e of the seconcl plan is expansion of the 1nte1· al ma1·ket thr�ugh mocle1·nizatio11 of agri­ . ltu� cu 1e by refo1·m1ng la11cl tenure systems, through developme11t of inclt1st1·y by attr,1c . t·111g · · 11 ca1J1.t�t1 an d bv gover11men . fore1g t 1nves. tme11t ·· . . .

111 coope1·at1on \vith private Et] 11op 1an com.. d th1·ot1gh exp�111sion pa111. es. , .:tn o·f con1mun Ic·1•. . " . t10 ns ancI t1·;;111spo1·tatio11 facilit1e5· �·_·, education , a11cI n1c1111)0\ve1• ti·ai tling.

?

-.: i\ II datci, in 1.hi.s study '·ire '·t(·t·< . · 1 !s lo the (",1 .cgnr1an 11 < 111 · • • cnlendur. bth101>i11n (10\'ci-nn1cnl account.s a1. I . .

'-° tcpt a . . I ing to th,• 'ccor( ,lulian ,·11ler11hu·. \\·hich is i Yca1·• .,, ,S. lnont I1s. und 10 • 1 'flYs . h,·h1r11l the Gl'e!.!:or1an l'niendar. fIcn c(•' 111.1:•ure"• based O1 · 1 an E . :.th .IOIJ1an calencl·a1. year spun 2 G1·eg. o1"inn � nnl en(Iur Y•.>nrs, rron1 S � cpt,:111 bcr 11 thtc)ugh the roIJcnvi nr.:- Se1>tcn1hL-1· l O.

4

Pei· ca1)ita annt1,1l income \Vfls·· esti· I e 1t n1· · .

1 Jess tha11 US$50 i11 l 962. This seemin;l. ( lo\\(1 · J · 111come cloes· · 11 ot m1·r1·01· the aver•'\lge 1 eve! · ulatio11, ho,v e,rer, .· (Jf livi11g of mo. st ,>f the l)Op ce sin . ·t y a1·e e1th er ou tsicle th 01·1 J n1,L ge ,1 l,1r · e n1one,·· 1 or only perip el) 1)let com her ally c on. y om econ imatecl 90 pei·ce nt'.in t 11ectecl \Vith it. The est he . . ag1·1cultu1·al sec to1·, for ex£1m1)le, gro\\i rn 0:5't of thei1· O\\'n foocl ancl sometimes supply it to relatives in nea1·1Jy cities a11cl to\v11s as ,,:ell• i'f i• ost • • stII)_l)l� their outs1(le needs th1·ough bartering the11· su1·plt1� p1·ocl t1ce, althot1gh this J)ractice i s climi11ishi11g.

111 1961-62, :! Ethio1)ia's G1·oss National Pl'od. tict (GNP) ,,1 as Eth$2, 165,800,000 (US$866,.

320,000) ; over t\vo-thirds ,vas contributed bv the ,1g1·ict1ltt11·al sector of the econon1y (both its mocle1·11 a11cl t1·�1ditional com1Jonents), Iess tl1a11 one-te11tl1 by the inclustria] sector, and the 1·en1ai11cle1· b)r gove1·11ment, com1nerce, and 1

services sectors (table I).

TABLE '· - -

l.

NATION Ar�

GROSS

SECTOR,

PRODUCT

ECONO�IIC

- ---- -�:----- - - -- - - ----------

A l{ri<iu I turf' · · · ·· · · ·· · ·· · · · ···· · ·· · Forestry .. , ! ; i � h h · 1 d g n n n F� ! · · · · · · · · ·; .l\11n1ng. . . . . . . . · · · · · · ·· · · · · , ·· · · · 1 1 Manufu«-turin'f. .... ··· · · · 1 ��. ·· • · · II. 3!1d.!Crafis and cottagc i� d�; · · ·· B uild1ng and construrt ion · · · ·· ·· - · ··· ·i Power .. . .

T ransport s i ·, rad � nnd ron1 nil'rcf' . . . . . . . · · T• · c C.atrr1ng and tourism · , · ·· · · · · · · · · ·: c �, ...... �a nliin g :ind insu ra n · l�.dut·ation, �ulture, hl'alih :��d ' other s1�rv1c('s · ·· · · · ·· ; : : : : : : · ·· · g: u n c si li u o h b 1: ·· · - · · · · · · · ·· ·<.>s.

Cr ov l'rnn1c-nt saar1 I · · · · · · · · .. ()I} 1c�r · · · · · N t>L in c ,;��--r'r��� { : o; ; 1 r1�i ." ." _' _' : _' : .. , .

ti�R ." _' '. _' : .' · · · · · · · · · ·

or

2,165,800 l

-----==-

'

1,453,600 : ::!3,300 1,800 l,400

3-1,900 77.000 4•1,500

�, -oo ,::,

100.00 ,;r.10 1.10

.10

.06 1.60 a.5":i

A q ... ,a

,

'

109,300

136,100 !

25,000 l 5,,100

.3�

:1 -•(I'•

6.3�

1.15 .ii

47,�00

_.,-:->,o.:.oo

--·--. . . ' J::1 h�I = us�o . .;o.- -·- · . ·· --· -. -· · - - . . · · ;

, _

Iola!

_ _______ ,__ 1

,;n·d c������ ��i i�� · . ..: .. :

- · - -- . .

Perr.ent or

Gross producl. (in millions Ethiopian dollars I)

I

-.

,

1961-62

I•;conomir sr•c1 or --· · - Total gross naIional produrt ... J

....

BY

·--

95,400 .

31,600 f 3:i,-iOO :

· · · · · · - -, • - · --- · er· !

8111 BCI:: h11J>cri'1 ·J ·•111011uu1 • } l'al' D c' fire 1 · 1 · Scroud (,ovcrnn1cnt • .,,,,,, ·,it 1,1Q'/1 UI. /•"// ' 110 11 1 a: ()11tli11,· (.,\,ldi:; 1\bnba • .i\tay J!lli31, 11r- _.. :!a, ill, nntl i:!. b rulll• N llTI�: Il t�('IIUS(• · ( ' �,nu c·ity n f hnsir ,lata, (;NP ti!(U!'es cnn e .

PUled un s1 . \\. ll 111 . ll \\"Ill • < n1n1·g1 ns or 1 •o�siblc error.

0

'

r

•

•·•

•

.'

Majoi· Ethio1l ian expo1·ts <11·e sho,v11 i11 tabl e �- Coffee is the la1·gest single ex1)01·t, account­ ing ani1tially fo1· 50-60 }lercent of tl1e for eign exch ilge ec11·11ecl. Ethio1li�t's l1ei1v�r depeii dence � . ' 111nr· 011 this 011e c t.OIJ a11d 1. ts p1·1ce Id · ,,·01 on tl1e ·, in· m1c ket result,.s, 111 o · �t ce1·t,1i11 rleg1·ee of eco11 . :· e . . . . har ' stab . 1l1tv ·t.

S ff ' ' btit e Ol'tS to cl IVel"Rl f}' e.XpOl

' t ' ''

.

!

' ''

,r,\LlJE OF l\·fAJOR EXPORTS BY C0Ml\-10DITY GROUP, 1961--G:3 ( In thousnnds or Elhio11inn dollars, I -- -. -- ·--·- -- ---· .. ---------- . ----c· --· -· Con1nlodity �roup 19G I 1962 J!lG3 Total. . · · · · · · · · · · · ·. · . · · 183,47�.:_ ! 195,517.3 i 219,,189.0 _ ,._ Food,drink, tobacco. . ... ... .. . . l-10:isR. � = 1R�027-::i Cott:ce t"•C?uns and husks,....

9!1,873.,, 1 l55,(19R.� 107,130.7 I IO909.l Gr:un, L •ur. r•1ls c$...........

18.:180.2 , 11;,5:JG.,l 11: 1 a<1.:.1 T!'bacr.'> · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · 2.3 761;.2 {);l�rcd� ;1nc. tlU,"l . . . . . . . . .

14.f>�l.3 j 19,!lGO.l 31,(JG:J..j . ·. .. . . . . . : .. . .

Other . . . · I · · · · · · · · · 1 i�,2;}3.1 12,or.n.1 .

IO,I5-1.:i I·l1dcs and $Kins·.... ..... ....... ! :.: ;,132.8 I �-1.657.2 21,7!J"> : .7 Othr-r rav: matc-r1nls............ · 1 l�,338.(i I l l,78G.5 .

J;l,,HiH.'i i\lanu ractured �oods. . . . . . . . .. . . , 0. ,R2 2 ,, i : o "' 97 :1 • " ,. iJ I. "•1:.,"-, .J I -· , ' __ . ' -- ···- --·-..·--·-. ·- ·.. . . .. _ --. . . .. . - ' .-....

1 ELh�I . 10. ., " · US:�n . · crnn1ent.• Central St.-.ti ,-Li l'nl (Jfli(·c So1· 1n·1�: ltnperial Ethiopian (;o\ l:'thio1,ia: Staf.i.�/.ir"/ .l/1.�t., url. T!lfi!,, (,\rlclis ,\b::tba, 1H'1:i), l>P. G\J-';-1: TABLE

2.

f 1-

been 1)ostpo11ed, a11cl })riorit:'/ h,18 bee11 give11 to JJrodt1ction fo1· clomestic clen1ct11cl to 1·eclt1ce im­ }Jorts. Partici1Jation i11 the Inter11atio11al Cof­ fee Ag1·eeme11t si11ce Decen1ber 1964 has affo1·decl Ethio1Jia son1e st::-tl)ility throtlgh gua1·­ anteecl mcl1·kets for a certai11 coffee qt1otc:1.. I-Iicles ancl ski 11s ,111cl ge11e r,1l agri c tlltt11·<1 l J)rod tl ce 1· ,1nl< 11ext as foreig11 excha11ge ec.11·11ers. A sm,111 JJer­ ce11tage of the agricultt11·al p1·odt1ce is 1Jrocessed l)efo1·e eXJ)ort, cl1ieflJ' i11 Erit1·ea11 factorie�; this i 11cltides c,11111ec1 ton1atoes, 111ea t, fisl1meal, a11cl ho11e_1,0 The valt1e of foreig11 gooc]s shitJl)e(l tl1rot1gh Ethio1)ia ,11not111ts to froin US$1,:300,000 to USS2 n1illio11 ,1. ,,eit1·.

EthioJ)ia's chief t1·acli11g J)art11ers clre tl1e U11itecl States, It::1ly, Gre,1t Britai11, ,1.11cl \1/est (;er1nan)'. The U11itecl States js the la1·gest i1111)01·te1·, regula1�1.,.· tal(ing abot1t 75 1Jerce11t of all ex1Jortecl coffee, and Ita]3, ancl tl1e U11itecl States ::1re tl1e Iarg-e.st ex1Jo1·ters to Etl1io1Jia i11 val lte term�. s Ll})plyi 11g c hiefl:r· n1::111 t1 f act11recl goods. Etl1ioJJia's t1·ade has 1·emainecl fai1·ly consta11t \\7 ith ot}1er cou11t1·ies of Africa o,rer the past 5 �:ea1·s, }1as clecli11ecl slightl:if vvith the l\iJi(1clle East, a11cl i11cre;;1secl greatly ,vitl1 Asia

..

•

.

�

T.ABLE

-- .

. . - . . . -....

.t\lrira .\1i<ldl;, ,\!li:1 .,

1-:�:q, .

A r11•'rica q··

, _,.

.

:-�.

. - ,. , , , _ - ·

r: s.

• -::· ,,..., II·

Ifl :i8

-

·--

'

·

·

:.1, I 7-1. ,-, ;1,:;!J .I.!)

-11,fili:,.X .1:1, 7fl.l.fi X-1.11

.

- .1t' · aI ln11,,-1 inl Ethi,lJ,i 1t n C.1\• 1 .•1 ·n1nc11I.• (',:,1,t.ral Sl.al1sl

•

()I)'11·•·.

-·

-

- --· ­

- . ---- i ------·-----,--i Exports

. .... . __,,.....

__ -

J9Gl

··--·-·- -·-· --- I.........- -····-- - ,-- ---I 2 ' 7 (!5.2 1·1,!J!l!.O .. .I :.!9,700.!l

1-:un,p<· . · <)ih,-r fiiu:luding Aus1ralii1 , and N ..,..- z ,,al:�ndj : E: h _;· I . ·· ,,1,i·,., I.:

.

f In lhnusund-: of Ethiopian dollnr� 1 1 ..,_ ·-'--·-- . - - ··--·-··" -- ·---- --..

______ ·---·

1

V..\LUF, OF JJvlPORTS 1-\ND EXPORTS, BY i\-1AJOR \'VORLD ARE,\S, SELECTED YE,\RS, 1958-63

\Vorld ar ,·a

...

( table 3). Tracle \\ ith E,1ster11 Europe, vvith the exce1Jtio11 of Yt1goslavia, is small but grow111g.

011 the Ethio1Jia11 platea11 the soil is 1·ich and rai11fa.ll usL1ally aclequ�lte; in otl1er p::1rts of the cot1ntr)' ,vater is ,1vailable fo1· i1·1·igatio11 ancl the soil is I)ote11tiall)' goocl. Pri1nitive tools, a11cl la11cl te11t1re 8,ystems ,,,}1ich <li,1 ide the land into J)arcels too smc1l) for mocler11 tecl1niques ancl n1:-1chi11er�; a11cl cliscot1r,1ge the te11ant' s i nitia­ ti \! e for im1)ro,1ement. have impeded the realiza­ J-io11 of the cot111t1·y's agricultura.l l)Otential.

E,,e11 �o, EthioJ).ia has t1st1ally been able to meet i11ternal foocl neecls. Estimates place the amou11t of la11cl ct1rre11tl:v t111cler ct1ltivatio11 (i11clucling l,lncl left fallo\\' uncler present ct1ltivation prac­ tices) .1 t 10 pe1·ce11t of the total la11cl area of Etl1io1Ji�1, �t11cl ct1ltiv£tble l,1ncl at 50 percent.

Ethic>pia's ::1bt1ncl::1nce of livestock has never l)ee11 1neast1recl, bt1t acc.orcling to e8timrltes there �lre �l CO\V ,111(1 ,l .sheep ·for e\1 er}r l)eJ��on, abOllt 15 111illio11 f.;<)::tt8, a11cl :.35 millio11 chickens.

Agrict1]tt1ra1 p1·oclt1ction is characte1·ized by .�inaJI st1lJsi�te11ce fc1rming t1st1ally sup1)lementecl b,.. r livestock-rai�i11g. There (;1re $everal large 1Jla11t,1tio11s on \1.rhich cotto11, sugarca11e, ancl sis::11 �tre g1·0,v11 for Ltse i11 factories establishecl i11 co11ju11c.tio11 \.\r ith the JJl,111tationH. All are 111ecl a11cl 01)e1·ate<l, \\1 ith EthioJJian fo1·eio·n-o,, '=' Gover11111e11 t a11cl JJri v:.:tte }Jartici tJa tion, ,1ncl 11011e ex1Jorts i11 ::tny ::11Jpreciable qL1antity. Cof­ :fee gro\'.vs eitl1er v,,jlcl <)r 011 I)lantn.tions; the gracli11g ::111cl �ale of coffee c1re controlled by the N::1tio11al Coffee Boarcl.

Exploitatio11 of minera 1� i11 Ethiopia is still 011 ::1 sn1::1l] scale, a11cl no n1iner,1]s are exportecl in significant qt1antity. At present gold, plat­ int1m, manganese, salt, and quartz sand are

t :J,:J.fR.-1 i:I. 07 t.'i ,;n,1;79,11 'J 13 •• t _;

·.

lI

---.. ·-·

I mporls

-

..... . -----··· -·- ......

1961

--- . ]91;3

..

------,_ ----- ·--- -------- ---------

I

J 9r,3

.... I

I 3,ll�R.:i '

" - r:-- /)

1·1,7�-1.-l X,t,493.fi -., •l•)(J ,· ,, ,w- .• 1.:117.1

•) ;, I I) t L

·•

195R

:a!,830.fl

I I.'�"-" '.llJ,J:J;j,' fl.1,.1,10.2 :!:J<i. I

:l. l ,,,:, r•• •)'1 .....

I

1,!J'i�-() �0,(t!!H.O 1··1 "OO •I .,., ,:.,., 1 ......,.),,)� '1 1,,..,;), :"f•r ) ) '.,, •l "•) l • I';)..,.• 1,

· ( i \cldis ;\b:it.n. :-; lirfll .11,st,· rr,· t. 1:11,� ., ·· '-if(f/i J·'/J,io,,i ' '

I II.,,

•-

J!lt):i).

2,sso.:i 11.R!lti.R fiH, 79,1.fi 34,-1!!9.2 . i 153,G!l4!

•l.·111.G

I

J I

I

p. Iii.

5

·.

-�·-..-· .

'

'-

·

. ·, .'"-. ........•.-,:.:..

.

:,

'

n1i11ecl co1111nerci�1lly, c111c1 exte11si, re exp Ic)l'(ttion f· o1· pota8h, oil, (t11cl i1�011 ore is 1111cle1·vvay, ,,,ith JJ1·omi.si11g 1·es11ltH i11 the ctt8e of }JOtcish. l\tl::t1111fact11ri11g- is most}); lin1itecl to the J)l"ocessing o-J: 1·(1\V 1n<tte1·ic1ls ( cc)tton, :foocl, i111(l cl1·ink). T11e }1ar11essing of tl,e co1111t1·y's n1al1)' ,,,ate1·falls and ri,re1·s fo1· the l)l'Ocluction of elect1·ic1ty is expectecl to 1Jro·\1icle lJO\\'e1· fo1· f11rtl1P.1· cle\ e]op­ ment ot· thi� Recto1·, l10\\'eve1·. a11cl i11 pa1·tic;lJla1· the expa11sio11 of the b11ilcli11g 111ate1·ials, ft)ocl processing, textiles, a11cl cl1en1 ical i11dust1·ies is <�11visaged i11 the clevelo1Jn1e11t pla11s.

The ave1·<1ge size of m<1nuf<1ctu:.:i11g· establish­ me11ts in 1962 is sho\\1n i11 table 4. Sevent)'-five J)ercent of the ma11uf<1cturing estab]i.sh1ne11ts emt)loy fe\ve1· than 250 l)erso11s i11 each yec:11·; in retail Rhotls in Acldis Ababa, the ave1·age numbe1· of emJ)loyeeg J)e1· shOil is �1bout 2.

TABJ�E 4.

J\1ANUFACTURJNG ESTABLISl·lMENTS BY NUl\1BER OF PERSONS El\-1Pl,OYED, 1962 ·- .. -

- - - ---· ·-· I

Nu n1h •�r or pPrsons ,•rn [J luyed

A II <!Rlnblishmr.nts ...

I

Nu1nb�r

·--·· ----l----::

t lnd(•r I 0 . . .. . . . .. ' . . . .. · · · · · ·, 10-49. . . . . . . . . . . . . ' .. ' . ' . . . ' · 1

.

I : : : : : : : : : : : : : . . . . . . . . . . . . . : :: gg:��:.....

J500-999 . . . :: .::::::: . · · · · · · ·I .· · /i0-99. ' .

f�s I ab(ish 1nl'n rs

r-- - . -I

. .'.. .... '..

. . ... . . . . . . . .

1 ,000 and over . . . . . . . . .. · · · · · · · ··· · · · · · · Not •"lDted .. ······· · .........• ... ..... �

-· . -· .... l't•rrr.n I.

164 -·

.

100.0

_.....

27

1 (;.;i

•) ()

4!)

14.0

!!3

24

I •I. Ii I 1.0

IR

10

6.1 3.0 4.9

______________ __

-·- -

8

!I

I

.:._

, 8�r11!''�: !n1p!"ri_nl Ethio11ian Gov�rnment, Centro.I Stati,; ·, 1-0ffi. · l.e, �1: J )t.

J-.1111111,111: Stat,st,ral .-l bs1.,·e1rt, JfJG!i ( Addis Abnbn. 1966 l r.

T I

In 1962, Ethio1)ia hacl a total of just over 3:000 miles of c1ll-\\'eathe1· ro�1cls, a11d a11 adcli­ t1011al L100 miles of (lry-,,rectthe1· 1·oacls. L�trgely a legacy of _the I_talian occu1Jation, they ha,re . bee11 n1,\1nta1necl, improvecl, ancl exte11ilecl since then bJ' the Impe1·ial Higl1 ,va.y Authority. In th seconcl 5-) reai· l)lan ( 1963-67), c1nothe1· I, 750 m1:le8 of roads are e11viRagecl, 370 nliles of ,,,hich . ,,,e1·e 1111cle1· co11st1·11ction in 196..o.i. Eth1op1a ' h as • t,vo 1·ail,\r ,1yst the Franco-Ethiopian Ra1-1,vay, . �\ · .1t� · 1 ,190 m iles of t1·�1ck abo11t 45 n1iles of ,vhich is 111 F1·e11c? Somalil�tncl, a11cl the Ago1·dat1V ass�1 ,va �aI�\VEt�' i11 E1·it1·e,1 \.vith 190 n1iles of _ � t1 ack. Eth101J1an A11· Lines (EAL) c o 11nects Ad. . . elis Abab::t ,,r1th 13 cities in Et11·01)e, Afl..lC,1, .. ,llld . . the M.1clclle East, a11cl ovei· 30 po ints ��11th 111 Ethio1)ia. Eight other inte1·:1 at1·ona .,,Il' , l l\'a ys ., . . . 1.ve Eth101)1c1. Almos se t all o·f Eth 1.op1. a's sh1.1)6

I?1·e11ch Somalilan<l rt , • o11gJ1 the IJi11g i::-; thr l)O . . . . . ..

Jt • • L'C' M .

8 11 JI"l >1,1 l)f 1 or of th E . e , L th · ; lt ti lJO 11 D. 'l . ,lJ ,.,,.,,l\\''l ' 'li( A <.·c·•1JJ �li�e 8ccc)n<l,t1·v p1·i11c1·p,1II,. r, becaL1se ll0 11th • .i\tl s Al·.

1 then ,, ts 11ec con cli • JcluL a yet l111e 1·,t1l . st··111 . 1s 1ne sn1all; almost aJ1· Its me1 ·ch a11t. n1ar . .

• s. · ca1·r1ecI111 1·01·e1�11 s 11 1p r:11·go is EthioJJia · s balc111ce of IJ�l)'men�s has tracli tion. ally }Jeen (le1Je11clent 011 the fJ1·1ce of coffpe tht; \ ro1·lcl 1�1ft1·ket, \\ 1 hic� i11 t�e _past fe,\· ;:eaf�: has ,1ee11 mode1·ately high, g1v111g EthioJlia a fa vo1·;• L le balance. !11 1964, golcl and foreig11 ex­ cha11ge 1·eser,res i11crei1secl ove1· 1963 b), uss11 n1illion, cl1iefl)' ,1s a 1·esult of high coffee pri�es.

1,ot,11 n1011ey sup1ll) r inc1·e�tsecl lJ)' 17 percent over 1963 to US$121.3 million, altho11g h the holesale I)rice i11dex 1·emained stalJle. Indica. tions fo1· 1965 a1·e th�1t tl1e balance of l)aJ,ments ,viii 11ot be as fa,ro1·able, la1·gel) 7 becituse of de. c1·eased coffee re,re11ues ancl higl1er total interest p�l)'nle11 ts on (1e b ts.

Taxes are le,,ied 011 a variety of items and ca]c1tl�1tecl i11 \'ario11s ,,�aJ'S. Di1·ect taxe8 ii1clt1de a l)1·og1·essive tax on casl1 income 1·anging up to 15 pe1�ce11t ar1cl taxes 011 business income c"tncl livestock. Fo111· t::1xes are levied on land­ H. basic t,1x, �l t,1x i11 liet1 of titles, a11 education tax, ::111(1 c:l l1ealtl1 tax-t}1e amounts varying \.Vith the officially assessed 1·ichness of the soil.

Incli1·ect taxes incl11cle Ie,ries 011 sales transac­ tio11s and on moto1· ft1el, use of roads and b1·iclges, a11cl exci�e t,1xes 011 alcohol, tolJacco, stamps, etc. Reve1111e ·f1·on1 di1·ect taxes amounts a11nt1ally to ,1bot1t 15 l)erce11t of the orclinary 1· �ve11ue of the gove1·11n1e11t, and that f1·01n in· cl11� :ct taxes, to about 30 lJercent. Custon1 s cl11t1es c:lccou11t fo1· c.111otl1e1· :30-35 perce11t, a11d th� �,1la11ce comes f1·om the profits of public . tltrlities a11d State-o,v11ed e11te1·prises.

Tlie Unite(l States is the chief donor of :f<11·eig11 fticl to Etl1io1Ji�1. The prog1·an1 for the }'eai· e11cli11g J u11e 30, 1965, amo11nted to abo ut U�$9.:3 n1illio11 in gra11ts �111d loans, aimed cliiefl) 7 ,it st1·engt}1e11i11g the co11nt1·�• 's i11ternal • ernt�ectti·it�, ,ti1cl fi11ft11cial resou1·ces ancl at gen 111g locc:11 c111·1·e11c)'. Em1Jha8is on aid i11 tl1e fields · of· ec1 Llc�1t·ion a11cl l1e,1lth co11 ti11ue8 f1·om earlie r JJi·ogi·,,ms, bt1t the e1nph::-tsis 011 eclt1c�1tio11 has een modified to i11cl11cle s }rstematizecl ed�c�: _ ) er surve�. i011al JJla1111111g· ,, tl11·ot1g}1 �l manpo n· rai t al �tiicl �1 l)l·og 1·�1111 of J)l"}lctic�il a11d \!ocatio11 111g. Mi8cellf111eo11� p1·oje<."'ts i11clt1(le ::1gricult ur�1l '

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in1proveme11t, civil c1vi,itit)t1, l'clclio broadcast­ i11g, public safet}', ,t11cl labor rLncl self-help cle­ velopme11t activities. Speci,1Iized a.ge11 cies Clf re aJso given Ethiopia s ha\ itecl Natio he U � � � fi11a11c1::1l a11cl tech111cal assistance in the fielcls of

ecluc<1tio11, health, and JJt1blic aclministratio11.

Other cloners of financial ,1ncl technical assist­ ;;111ce i11clt1cle \Vest Ge 1·1na11)', s,veden, U. S. S. R., Yt1gosIavia, BLI lg::1ri,1, Czechoslovakia, and Italy, all on a comparatively small scale.

Chapter I.II. Tl1e I_,eople ,ln(l Tl1eir Ct1 lt11re E1l1nic Grot1ps

There a1·e 11 mc1in eth11ic groL1ps in EthioJJia, rep1·esenting th1·ee 1·aci,:1l tjr{Jes : Semitic, Cttsh­ itic, and Negroid. I-Iisto1·ic�1lly·, the most ·in,por­ tant ethnic grot1 ps politicallJ1 a11d ct1ltt11·ally­ ,vere the Amha1·a a11cl Tigrai, ,,•ho toclay to­ gether co11stitt1te abot1t 011e thi1�c1 of the l)OJ)ul,1tio11. Of Se1nitic stock, tl1e�, .:tre believecl b)' histo1·i,1ns to ha ,,e migrated ( })robabl11 as one 11eo1Jle) f1·om sot1tl1e1·11 Arabi�, bet\veen the l(Jth ,Lncl 7th ce11tt11·ies B.C. to the Ethiopia11 hi,gh­ l,111ds, \vhere the}' fot111cled the po,ve1·f11l l(i11g­ clom of Axt1m based 011 a highl j' developecl ag-rict1ltt1raI-,,,arrio1· society. Si11ce the11 tl1e,\' ha\'e spread �ot1th, conqt1eri11g 11eigl1bori11g grot1J)s, ,111cl grft cltl a I l;\1 cle,.-el o I) i11g se tJarate I ,111gu �tges a11cl cultt1res. The 1Jrese11t ImJ)erial f�1mil}0 is of lJreclo111i11,111tl)' An1hc1ra bloocl, �111cl Amharic is the offici,:11 1�111gt1age of the En1J)ire.

The n1c1jorit_\1 of 1Jerso1111 el i 11 the go,,er11111e11t ci \'it ,111 d n1iIitar}' ser\:ice �1re Aml1a1·c1, 1"'ig1·a i1 ancl G::1llcl ( see belo\\') : Etl1ioJJia11s i11 tl1e 1Jro­ :fessio11s ,lre cllso mai11ly fro111 these g1·ot1ps. : A thircl Semitic JJeoJJle of 11t11ne1·ical im­ !)ort,1nce are the G11r,:1ges, 11u1nberi11g abot1t :J501 000-5(Jl),000, mostly i11 Shoa P1·ovi11ce. }[ost are farme1·s ancl he1·cls1ne11. Some a1·e �:killecl cr.:tftsme11, ho\\'eve1·, a11cl 11ntil recently h,t\'e l)ee11 lookecl do,vr1 t1po11 b.Y the Amha1·c1 a11cl Tigrai grot1ps, ,vho conside1·ecl such \vo1·k de­ gracling. (See section on i\tiino1�ity G1·01ip P1·ob­ le1ns_) Because G11rages are kno,\111 to be ha1·d \\·orker8, they are in great den1rt11d i11 Aclclis At)aba. Recentl�r some l1a\ 1e 01Jenecl shops the1·e ar1cl l1a\:e lJecome s11ccessf'ul me1·cha11ts.

(Jf gro,, 1i11g im1)01·t�t11 ce J)Olitically a1·e the (;HIia }Jeo11les, ot · Cushitic stock. They are the ltirgc.st single eth11ic grotlf) i11 EthioJ)ia 1 con1J)risi11g �on1(:! .:10 l)ercent of the total })OpL1l::ttio11.

Their <)rigi1 1 is not c1efinitely kno\\1 11; tl1eir la111 t ) t-cla sen p1·e d e1·e ent v U lclg-eR ::t1·e ('.t1sl1itic. The"

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Ethiopi�t11 territory from the south early in the 16th ce11tury tncl settled over large areas of so11tIiern ancl ·.'.entral Ethiopia, mingling with the� different peoples ,vith \vhom they can1e into co11tr.ct th1·ough conqttest and t1·ade. This va­ riety of contact has subjected the Galla peoples to a variety of religious, cultural, political, and soci::11 i11fluences. Almost all have turned from a nomadic or serni11omadic life to one of seden­ tary farming, but a few on the Kenya border ren1ain 11omadic herdsmen. The Gallas who reached the 11orthern and western highland areas have intermar1·ied ,vith the Amharas on �tJl le, rels a11cl i11 recent decades significant num­ be1·s have been promoted to high positions in the gover11ment and Armed Forces.

1�\VO othe1· g1·011ps, also of Cushitic stock, are the Agcltl tribes of the l)latea11 whom the Arn­ l1 c:iras a11cl Tigrais fot111d when they first came to Ethiopia, ancl the Falashas of northern Begemde1· Provi11ce. Most of the former have been c1bsorbed b)' their Semitic conquerors, btit 8on1e 75,000 1·en1clin clisti11ct. In general they ftre f c1rme1·s, but some engage in such occupa­ tio11s as ta11ning. The Falashas number about 25,000 a11cl ust1c1lly live in villages separate from other g1·ou1)s. They· are also farmers and crafts­ me11. Nume1·ot1s sto1·ies tell of their origins: Scholars say that they were l)robably indigenous to the a1·ea ,1nd con,1erted to an early form of J LI d�1ism b.\' Yemeni missionaries; Falashas then1seI, ,es trace their ancestry to the Jews who ,1ccon1panied Menelik I home after his visit to hi�. father, King Solomon, about the micldle of the 10th cen tu1·,, ., B. C. The pri11cipal nomadic groups are the So­ n1alis 1 11u1nl)e1·i11g about 1.5 million; tl1e Afar (J)a11al<il), 60,000-75,000; the Beni Amir, 60,000; ancl the Saho� 50,000. They are thought to l)e origi11all,\' f1·om Arabia, and are basically Cushitic, �lltl1ot1gh some of the southern Somalis h<tve i11term�lrried \Vith Negro tribes farther

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south. All have mai11 tained mt1ch of thei1· tradi­ tional organizf1tio11 i11 co11federations a11d tribes based 011 clescent fron1 a common progenito1·.

Most Somalis a11d Sal1 0 a1·e sen1ino111acls, the forme1· herdsme11 and the latter farme1·s. IVIany Saho and a few S01nalis are beco111ing perma­ ently settled, ho\ve, re1·, as me1·chants and smiths a1·ot1nd Harar. The Beni Amii· li,re i11 11orth­ ern Eritrea, mostly herdsmen, althottgh some go seaso11ally to the St1dan to })icl{ cotto11, a11 d a fe,v arot1nd Ago1·dat ha, 1e become settled farmers. Little is known about tl1e Afa1· othe1· tl1an that their i11hospitable land (the Danakil De1)1·ession) fo1·ces them to wa11 cle1� i11 sea1·ch of water and grazi11 g land for thei1· flocl{s. They are i11 general a fie1·ce peoJ)le, althougl1 they t1·ade I)eaceft1lly \vith the Aml1a1·as 011 a small scale, a11 d have recently begt111 to ,, ro1·k fo1· mi11e1·al ex1Jlo1·'-1tio11 companies JJ1·0s1Jecting in the Da11akil.

Anothe1· Ct1shitic g1·ou1J, numbe1·i11g an esti­ m�1tecl 2.5 n1illio11, is the Sidamo, vvhom the Gctllas fou11cl ,111d co11 que1·ecl i11 Southern Ethio­ }Ji�l ,vhe11 the)' i11, raded i11 the 16th centu1·y. ,,, es ter11 Sid�1mo l{ingdoins, brtsed on so1Jhisti­ c;:1tecl <1grict1ltt1ral 1J1·actices, enclt1red f1·om the 14th thrtJt1gh the 19th ce11tt11·y. At the time of their st1bjug�Ltio11 to An1l1ara rule, many ,vere take11 as sla, es elsewhere in the count1·y.

The Shankell�1s comprise peoples of N eg1·oid Htock ,vho li,re alo11g the Suda11ese bo1·de1· i11 tl1e ,�est. Estimates of their 11umber ra11ge from 500,000 to 1 million. The more nortl1e1·ly of the g1·oups a1·e fa1·mers; the sot1the1·nmost are semi11omaclic. Most of these tribes have st1ffered r::tids ove1· the t)ast centu1·ies b)' Amharas, Arabs, and others vvho sought sla,res. l-Ie11ce 11eople ,vitl1 Shankella blood a1·e scatte1·ed all o,re1· the count1·y. Althot1gl1 freecl by In1pe1·ial Dec1·ee i11 1942, theJ still occut)Y the most me11i�11 J)Ositions.

111 addition to long-established commt1nities of Greeks, I11clians, A1·abs, �111cl A1·me11ians there are abo11t 37,000 f 01·eigners in Etl1iopia: The la1:gest 11t1mbe1·s come f1·on1 Yeme11 , It�il ', ) the U111ted States, the U11 ited Ki11 g(lom India a11cl G1·eece. With the exce1ltion of tl1 e Yemei1i� ::i11d soi:ne It::1 lians "''ho ofte11 occtllJ)r skilled fllld _ _ .

8em1sk 1Iled Jobs 1n E1·it1·ea, most fo1·e1·gners . .

1 \\'01· < II� comme1·�1al e11te1·1)1�ises (especially the Ar1:1e111a11s, I1�d1ans, Greeks, ancl Itali<tn s) .

Incl1ans a1·e ofte11 fot111cl ::1.lso �is teacliei·s alld 1

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school SlI}Jerintendents. . Tl1e A1·abs a1·e uslia.11.

1 1·ov1nces.

P • The British tr::tclers in the anct An1ei·i�,111s ::11·e most ofte11 111 the cou ntry on conti·act to the �o,,ern�ent as t�chnical experts tii1 clei· tl1 e at1s1)1ces of international assistanc e o 1·g,i11iz�t tions.

La11g11age

l\'Io1·e th,111 70 ],1nguages a11d over 200 dialects ::t1·e ct11·1·e11tl)r S[)01<en in EthioJJia, })ut only 6 in­ clige11ot1s to11gt1es a1·e s1)oke11 b)1 la1·ge 11un1bers o·f 1JeOJ)le: A111ha1·ic, Tig1�i11 j'a, Tigrai, Ar,tbicI G,llli11)'a, a11d Somali. Othe1· im1)ortant Ia11• gt1ages ,11·e A1·c:tbjc, English, Italia11, ancl French.

An1l1 a1·ic a11d English are the t,vo official Ian­ gt1,1ges of the EmJ)ire, and official government pt1blici1tio11s ,11·e gene1·ally in both. An1haric t111cl Tig1·i 11) .:l a1·e the 0111)� i11(ligenous ,,,ritte11 to11gt1es; 11e\\'SI)<llJe1·s anc1 magazi11es appe ar in tl1em, and i11 A1·abic, E11glish, a11d French.

An1h,1ric, Arabic �tncl Somali a1·e the languages in gene1·al t1se 011 1·aclio broaclcasts. Amharic is the la'J1gt1age o·f i118t1·t1ctio11 th1·ot1gh the sixth g1·acle; tl1e1·ea fte1· classes a1·e co11ducted in Eng M lis11 (one o·f the J)1·i11cipal st1bjects of study in the l)1·ima1·y g1·c:1cles) . Small literatures exist in Amh::11·ic, Tig1·inya, and A1·abic. Ge'ez, an old langttclge fron1 ,,rl1ich Amharic, Tigrai, and Tig1·iny�t <11·e de1·ived, is both the litt1rgical lan­ gt1age of the Co1Jtic cht1rcl 1 a11 d the basic lan­ gt1age of the Falasha 1·i tual. Since it ,vas virtu­ ,111 y tl1e 011lJ· Iite1·�11·y la11 gt1age of Ethiopia until the 19th ce11tt 1 1·y, 1Jrese11t-da}' Ethiopian litera­ tu1·e, n1ost of ,,,hicl1 is in .t\.n1haric, is stro11gly inflt1e11cecl l)�� its st)rle and fo1·ms. .t·\1nl1 a1·ic is a Se1nitic la11gt1age s1loke11 by it \'\ • ham �1b<)t1t of half tl1e some 1Jo1J11latio11 fo1� ' .

1s ::1 sec.:011cl lc.111 guage. It l1as fe\V and slight di,1lectic�11 ,0 ::lt·i:1tio11s, so all ,vho speak it can t111cle1·stc111d one rt11otl1e1·. It is an extren 1elY con1iJlex l,111guage, and vvhile a mastery of it ttiicl :1bility to 1n�1.11iJ)t1late its dottble meanings ,lde1)tl� a11cl g·1·acefully is a sig11 of intellig ence c'tlld high socic:1.l standi11g, fe\\r rnaste1· all its gi·an1 n1atical i11tric,1cies.

Tig1·iny�1 ancl Tig1·ai are also Sen1itic Ian­ gtl,lges, ,1kin to An1ha1·ic b\r vi1·tue of their com­ d n a z e'e G nio1 1 desce11t f1·om Ge' ez, b�1 t close1· to mar.

1 an gr 1·et,1i11 i11 g l)U1·e1· Ge'ez ,·oc�1bt1la1·y a11d 11Y8 ' gri T i A 11 egtirnrt tecl 1 to 1. 5 mi llio11 s1Jeak . rea Erit 111ostly i 11 Tig-1·e P1·0,·i11ce ::111cl 11 01·tl1er11 7

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Tigrai is spoken by abot1t 200,000 pe1·sons i n the central and so11ther11 parts of E1·itrea Province.

Arabic is k11o"vn to so m e extent by most of the 1111slim populatio11, bu t p1·obably ,,er.}1 few speak it flt1ently and ev en fe,,,e1· 1·ead an d ,vrite it. Th e largest concentrations of Arabic spe akers c1re in E1·itrea and }Ia1·c11·ge P 1·ovi11ces.

The holy la11guage of Islam, Arabic is t1secl in l\:It1slim 1·eligiot1� se1·viceR ,111cl tc:1t1ght in l{or::t11ic sc11ools.

Gallinya, a . Cushitic member of the Afro­ Asiatic fan1ily of languclges, i s spoke11 in its 11umerous di,\lects as a native tongt1e by n1o1·e people in Ethiopia than is any other language.

Principa.l concentrations of its spec1ke1·s are in ,vestern a11d south\.vestern Ethiopia, Shoa a11d Arussi Provi11ces, ancl around the city of Harar. Galla dialects are sometimes tran­ scribecl in Amha1·ic lette1·s by Christian Gallas, sometimes in Arabic scri1Jt b )' lVIuslim Gallas.

Its extensi\re literatt1re, l1oweve1·, is oral; it includes \\',lr songs, ad\·e11tt1re stories, ancl love lJallads.

Somali is a]go a Cushitic Iangt1age, s1Joke11 by about 1 million J)eople in Ethio1)ia. It is 11ot a \\·ritten langL1age in Ethiopia; its exte11sive literature 1·emains oral.

E11glish is the most important :foreig11 language i11 Eth io1Jia, cilthottgh rna11y olcler Ethio­ pians speak I talia11 01· F1·e11ch. 1\1:ost gove1·n­ ment officials ,incl highe1· level e111plo.)rees in comme1·ce ancl i11c1t1strJ�, es1Jeci,1l}1, i11 Adclis Ababa, SJ)eak E11glish, ftnd the olde1· 011es, French. IVIt1111,,,, clerical ,111cl lo\ve1· l€\1 el SLl JJe1·\'iRcJr.v emploJ·ees s1)eak English, F1·ench, or Italian, and ,;i1·tually all speak Amharic. Thus it is J)ossible to condL1ct 1·e]atio11s with Ethiopian a11cl gover11ment rep1·ese11tatives in E11glish; con tactg cl re i11cre�1secl b\7•. �t kno,vleclge of F1·e11ch or Itali,t11, clt1cl ft11·ther enhanced b} l\no,vledge i)f Amh,tric. It is 11ot acl\ isal)le, ho\veve1·, ac­ corcling to 8orne Ethiopians, ·for \-Veste1·ne1·s to cle1)c�nc\ o 11 their k r1<)\\'] eclge of An1h,11·ic i11 l)usi­ nes� rlealir1gs ,vith Ethiof)ia11s, becat1se of tl1e a n1 l)i_�u ities crf t}1e Jangu,tge. Nevertheless, �ll1 �1tt0m1)t lei lecl1·11 the cotirtesies of Am l1aric is . g-recltl�- }tJJl)l·eci::i. tecl }J,\' the cot1rtesy-minclecl Eth i,j l) ictns. r

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Reli gious Groups

Th1·ee of the ,vorld's major religio11s are rep­ resentecl i11 Ethiopia: Ch1·istianity, Islam, ,tnd Judaism. An esti1nated one-thi1·d to one-half ot· the po1Julation a1·e Ch1·istia11, the vast ma­ jorit:y members of the Ethiopian Orthoclox ( Co1)tic) ChL1rcl1; clnother estimated 35 percent are lV.Iuslim; and abotit 25,000 are Falashas (an ea.rly .J e\vish sect). The remai11der follo,,, ,l va1·iety of animist cults \Vhich freqL1ently blend into Coptic 01· Islamic J)ractices in areas \\1here more than 011e religio11s practice exists. The l�evised Constittition of 1955 la,','S clo\\·n the princi1)le of freeclom of religiotts \Vor�hip.

The EthioJJian Orthodox Cht1rch is the State cht11·ch, a11d the Re,rised Constitution states that the ruler of Ethiopia shall profess the Ethio1Jian Orthodox faith. Coptic Christia11ity was i11tro­ clt1cecl i11to the cou11trv in the fourth centt1rv A.D., \vhen it became the official religio11 of the Kingdon1 of Axt1m tinder the direction of the P<1tricl1·ch of Alexa11d1·ia. It h,t8 rem�1i11ecl closely ide11tified \vith the Amhar,1 iincl Tigrai peoples �ind has I)layecl a po\verft1l rr,Ie in the St�1tes the)r h�t\'e formed at different time�. 111 1951, ti1e Ethiopian branch of the Co1)tic Chttrc:h .. 1chievecl at1to11orn)! from l11e AlexancJri;l11 Church, becon1ing in theory as \veil a� i11 fctct cl 11atio11al cht1rch. The Emperor �llJPr>i11tR the head (<clJ·ii-nP. ) of tl1e Ethiopift11 (_;hltrch ancl is in tt1r11 con�ecr�ttecl IJy t}1e af)l1r1e as he,1cI of tl1e EthioJJi,111 St�lte. Virtll�tll j' ctll Amh.:1r,1g ,t11cl all 1,igr,lis ,111cl an estim,1tecl 10 percent of the Gallas are Ethiopi,111 Orth<Jclox.

Isl,1m cl,1ims as acll1erents the m,1,iorit. v crf the i.\f,1rs ,111cl Son1alis ,1ncl also }1alf the Callas. It ,vets fi1·st introdt1ced into Ethiopi,1 in the latter t)art of the 7th centtrry A.D. ,vhen the Axumite king JJl'O\'icled asylum fo1· :.VIt1slim refugees from the Arabia11 Peninsula, bt1t gained itR l)resent­ dcl.\' follo\,1ing later, at different times, from a ,·cirietv ot· sot11·ces and in clifferent forms. Its doct1·ines ::111cl practices a1·e mixed \vith local rites, a11cl 1Jerha1)s partially ·fo1· this reason it cloes 11ot constitt1te a basis £01· unifying the (Ii verse 1Jeo1Jles professing its faith in Ethiopia; tribal a11cl eth11ic loy,ilties remain stronger. 'fl1e F,:1lashas �tt one time 11umbered many times their 1Jrese11t 25,000, but their nt1mbe1· has p:r�tc!Lti: 1.ll.\' bee11 reclL1cecl b�, ,va1·s with the Am­ hcll'i: l Christiclns. The holy ,-vriti11gs of the Fa�

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'ei ver­ e G of l)' lasl1as t1·aclitio11ally consist on al 1Jh ·y c1 1)o A 1e tl 1cl �11 t 1 e1 n1 1 sio11s of the Olcl Test�: c111<l 18 n to 1s ct 1s ot i g· li 1·e 1y a1 s.

M Book of Jt1bilee e es th of 11 io 1·s ve e m conceJJts, basecl on tl1e sa s. ha t1s al F 1cl a1 s 1)t Co by ·ed s, a1 ·e ng a1 sh ti \vri The I-Iebrew la11gt1age ancl otl1e1· \Vritings sac1·ed to J e\.vs of other cou11tries l1a ve bee11 int1·ocluced is th of 1g 1i1 111 gi be e th ce sin as g e amon th Falash centu1·y, but onlJ to 1·elati\7elJ1 fe\v.

Fully develo1)ed pagan }J1·actices a1·e f ot1nd i11 purest fo1·m �ilong the southe1·11 a11d sot1th­ v-.,estern borders, bt1t individ11al elen1e11ts a1·e much mo1·e ,viclespread, esJ)ecially i11 G,1Ila a1·eas. Obser,,e1·s have rema1·kecl thc1t belief i11 magic and st1perstitio11s is commo11 to all g1·oups throughout the co11nt1·y. l\1a11)r peo1)le still p1·ac­ tice paga11 rites; the most common ::11·e animal s�tc1�ifices fo1· i11creased good fo1·tt1ne \, ritl1 cl1il­ dre11, cro1Js, and hercls; 1·ai11-maki11g a11d 1·ain­ cont1·olli11g ceremo11ie8, ancl l)l'OJ.)iti�ttio11s fo1· otl1e1· 11eeds.

A 11t11n be1· of foreig11, Ch1·istian missio11s are active i11 tl1e country, but by lcl\V a1·e allo,ved to JJrose]),tize only among 11on-Co1)ts. Tl1ey are occasional}�, subjected to l1a1·assme11t by local 11011-Ch1·istia11s i11 areas ,,rhere they are \Vorl{­ i11g, althot1gl1 the gove1·nn1ent has ,velcomecl missio11s if they establish scl1ools or meclical clinics. I11 1960, the major g1·oups active in EthioJJia were the Roman Catholic Cht1rch, the St1da11 Interior Mission (Protestant), the Amer­ ic�1n U11ited Presl)yteria11 l\1:issio11, the Swedish Lutheran National Eva11gelical Mission, the Biblet1·og·ner Va11ner Mission ( S\\•edish), the Se,•e11 th Day Adventist Missio11, a11d the An1e1·i­ ca11 Luthera11 l\iission.

I�ai·ge])r because of the long icle11tification of the :E::thiopian Ortho(lox 1·eligion ,vith the 1·uling Amha1·aH a11d Tigrais, the p1·ofession of Chris­ tia1� ity l1,1s t1·�1ditionally eased �tccess to high _ . social J)os1t1011, ,vealth, and education. Uiidei· the t)1·esent eclt1cational policies, howevei·, "'rhich offer ·f1·ee schooli11g at lo\ver levels ancl llLimei·­ ous scl1ola1·shi1ls ,1t highe1· levels, child1·en of a 11 . t1s g1·ou1ls are acqui1·ing trai11ing which reI.1� 1o (lt1al1fies them for \\•ell l)aJ•ing lJOsiti 0118 i11 gov­ er11n1e11t 01· tl1e p1·ivi1te secto1·.

The m�:1in effect of both the Coptic ancl l\i·1ru s1 1m · . .

1·e l1g1ons on �vork situatio118 is iil the i·e qtiii·ed observ,1nce of ma11y religiotis holiclays , ' mOS t o f . wh.ich involve ri. gorous fa.sti11g a11cl he11c e r edt1ce _ . · · th e {.>Ioduct1v1 tY of the vvo1·k force · Ne1'the1· 1

10

t co11su n1e l)Ork; Cot)ts d l\irt ·1 is • limi:; nor Co1) s O llrJt • eftt aiiin1al p1·od ticts <Jn \Ved�esda}·s or Fri days Jl(Jt· on other holy days, \vh1ch total about •) 3• cl�tys e,ich ye::11·. IVI11slims _may take rio fo:d� cli·iiik, 01· tobacco f1:om sunrise to su11set dul'ing t}1e IVI t1 slin1 111011tl1 o f l=ta1nadan, \vhich fre� (Jttei1t1�, n1ea ns tl1at much of the night is spent ii, cli·i 11ki 11g ancl eating. P1111ctt1ality and gen. ei·al J)er·f01·ma11ce st1ffe1· acco1·dingl) 1 from lack r f>f �lee1) a11cl ,, ell-s1),1ced me,11s. S01ne l\1uslims 01,1}r 1·ec1 tt i1·e ti 1ne off d11 ri11g ,vo1·ki11g hou1·s for r>r;;iJ·e1·, i11 theoi·)r said fi,,e times ,1 day, l)ut lJ)Jse1·\·,111ce is 11ot ge11e1·ttll)' st1·ict i11 Etl1ioJ)ia.

Becctt1se the 11 tis Ii n1 cale11dit1· J·ear l1as onl�· 354 r s, Ran1ada11 occurs da) �·e,11· 355 , c>r, 011 le,11J frorn JO to 12 d,1ys earlie1� e�1ch year in the C�l11·isti�1n c �tle11da1·.

111 fl 1nixed ,,·01·k fo1·ce, diffe1·ent religious g1·0111)8 te11cl to 1·e111ai11 se1la1·ate from each other, l)t1t 110 J),11·tic11l,11· ·f1·iction 01· se11siti,,ities based 011 1·eligiot1s cliffe1·e11ces a1·e 11oticeable. One ex­ ceptio11 \.V011lcl seem to l1e that Amharas and Tig·1·,1is, becat1se of tl1ei1· t1·aditio11all�! su1)erior }J(>sitio11 in Etl1io1lia11 societJr, might resent di1·ectio11 f1·om a n1en1be1· of a11other ethnic or 1·el igi OLIS g1·0 ll }) .

G1·ou11 Attilt1tl�s

The chief lo)ra}t�, of n1ost peoJ)le in Ethiopia is to :fclmil�r 01· t1·ibe, a11d st1·011g etl111ic feeling s pe1·sist, es1Jeci::1lly i11 the t1·aditio11al concep ts \vl1ich cliffe1·e11t etl1 11ic g1·01111s have of one c.l11othe1·. The co11ti1111ed u11itJr of Ethiopia as (> 11<� St�1te 1·est1lts Jat·gel�r f1·om t\VO factors: Lo)'ttlt)' to tl1e 11e1·son of tl1e Em1Je1·01· toget her itl1 1·es1)ec1' fo1· his a1·n1ed l)O\.ve1·, and the de­ gree of ,1uto1101n)r t111til 1·ece11tly affo1·ded n1anY ti·il)e::; l)y p1·imitive t1·a11s1Jo1·tation a11d con1mu11ic,ttio11s f,1cilities. tr11cle1· t11e Co11stitutio11, all Etl1iopia11 5ub· . .

Jects lia\·e ec1t1al 1·ights 1·eg·a1·clless of their ethnic <-11• 1·eligioL1s g1·o u1J. !1 1 th e 01itl)ring areas of the E 1n1Jii·e, ho\,re,re1· , tl1e 11olic)' of ce11t1·alizatioJ1 �t- iII 111<�ets 1·esist::111ce. Son1e E1·it1·ea11s. acc0rd· the h 111 g to J)l'eRs 1·e1lo1·ts, ,vit ,11·e dissatisfiecl i 11 tegi·atio11 01� E1·it1·ec1 i11to EthioJ)ii1 tJroper ,. e:, r ,,,hich the�r co11sicle1· hc1s in1p,1i1·ed t}1e Pro, inc 1

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eco11on1ic a11cl politicftl clevelo1)1nent. lYiost ob­ �erver� :feel, ho\,�ever, that 11one of tl1ese atti­ tticles i11clt1decl tl1e \\:ish to cha11ge the b,isic foi·m of go,·e1·11ment; i11 :fact these .:ttti ttlcles ha\,e bee11 more concer11ecl with 1·everting to a pi·e­ \'ious ,.-e1·sion of tl1e san1e go\rernment, in the sense that they ha,,e been ain1ed at p1·eser,'illg a11 atitonon1}' ,:i..1hicl1 is decreasi11g.

The eclt1cated elite, nltmbering perhaps se\'­ eral thot1sand, tl1e majority of ,vl1om ,i1�e in governme11t se1·vice, are th e la1·gest g1·ot1p i11 th e cot111trj' \Vith ,l 11,1tional 1·ather tha11 trib[tl iden­ tit�·- The�· h,1\ 1e bee11 exposecl to ,1 11umber of \.Vestern cot111tries, icleas, an d practices in the cotrr::ie of their eclt1cation, an d ma11y \Vish to • haster1 the Emperor's mode1·nizc1tion schemes.

The c1bo1·ti \1 e co1l-JJ cl.' etct-t of 1960, aimed at establishing �l constitl1tional monarchy ,vith the C'ro,v. 11 Pri11ce as tittilar heacl of State1 vvas the ,vork chiefly· c>f the eclt1Ci:'Ltecl elite grot11J. Yet fe\v seem to \\7iSh ill to the Emperor himself; rathe1·, most seem to ad, 1 ocate a form of consti­ tutio11al mon,1rch�l after tl1e Empe1·or's cleath.

Et}1iopia �111cl tl1e Son1ali Republic a1·e engaged in ,L borcler clisI)Ltte o,1er the lancl inhabited by a11 estim�ttecl 1.5 n1illion 11on1,tdic Som�1li tril)es­ me11 in sot1the1·11 I -Ia.1�arge Province. Tl1e Ethi­ OIJi,tn Go,·ernn1ent dis(Jt1les the Somclli Gove1·11n1e11 t's clc:1i n1s to these are,1s .::l11cl counters \\1itl1 its o,,·11 cl�lim ·for them, c111cl ·fo1· p,1rt of the S<Jn1,1li [{eJJt1l)lic as \\"ell. As of e::1rly 1966, the cliSJ)Ltte \\ 'els t111resol\recl, a11cl (,1r1necl co11flict co11ti11t1ecl t<J brec:lk ot1t s1)orc:tclic�1ll)' bet,,1ee11 l�tl1io­ l)ia11 secL1ritv • :fo1·ce8 a11cl Somalis i11 tl1e (,i1·e,1.

1,he l\I t1sJim JJO})Lllf1tion in Ethiopia h,1s been a t,lrget for J)c:111-Ar::1b p1�01)aga11cla clirectecl fron1 (.'�1i1·0, l)t1t ai-:i of niicl-1966, 110 11c:1tio11alist or sec:ess io11ist resrJor1se ·fron1 1V!t1slims had bee11 noticeal)le . \:'erv_ re(.:entl:'l some sigr1s c>f clisco11tent ha\'e c.tf)J"Jearecl i11 nevvsp,1pe1·s ,tnc1 rJeen 11otecl [11no11g url)a11 Ethic)pia nR \\:itl1 1·egarcl to the tlon1i11;:111ce of Et1ro1)eans i11 the mocler11 ecor101ny. 1�hese ret�ling-s .tre 11ot \,,iclesr>1·c::1cl or \ri,Jlent, ho\ve\'er. ftctlif111;-;, es1)ee.i,1lly, ,t1·e ger1e1·�1lly \\'ell tolerated, rle:-:p ite tl10 f,tct th,lt thev Ethic>})ia's • \\'e1�e IJriefly C<>lo11ial rt1} 1., 1..-, J

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Sot.•i,,l Strt1cturc

<111cl C11lt11rc

Patterns

Tl1e social structt1re of the whole of Ethiopia follo\vs the gene1·al form of the Amhara-Tigrai �oci,ll strt1cture; variations on this fo1·m among other et11nic g1·ou1Js eithe1· are lessening ,vith the syJread of Amharic culture or apply among J)eoples 011l.v st1perficially under the control of the Ce11tral Government i11 Addis Ababa. At tl1e toJJ of the social strt1cture is the Empero1· ,,,itl1 his in1mediate family. Just belo,v are the le::tcli11g nobles-persons of wealthy families closely �tllied to the Emperor through services rendered, ::tncl former rulers of other ethnic grot1ps who came into the Empire by treaty rather than by conquest, and \Vho have been "Amha1·ized." Equal \vith this group are the leacli11g cl1urchmen of the Ethiopian Orthodox ChL1rch and the high-ra11king military, usuall)' also from the \:vealthy nobility. Just below these t,vo grottl)S i11 the social hierarchy are provin­ cial nobles, lo\:ver church officials, the lower r�111ks of the military service and gover11ment, a11d the small la11dholde1·s and tenant ·farmers.

The basis for these divisions is the ovvnership c)f l�tnd. The n1ore lancl a man o,vns, the vv ealthier he is reckoned and hence the more JJ0,-verf11l ancl 1·espected l1e becomes. Nobles are gi,,e,1 l�tncl ,1ncl ,1 title by tl1e Empe1·01· in return for loy�tlty �111cl valorot1s service. Theoretically, 11eitl1e1· lc1nd 11or title is hereditary, although tl1e sons of the nobility are i11 �t better positio11 th,111 ot1tsiclers to \\'in the Emperor's favor, ancl i11 l)ractice t1st1ally do; hence i11 effect the lands ::t11cl t1tles �lre often inheritecl. The Church like­ ,vise O\\'l1S enormous tr�1cts of land, farmed (as is the 11obles' l1:111d) lJy tenant farmers. Despite J)c>,,ert}' a11d the cliffictilties of his position, how­ e\'er, the te11ant farmer consiclers himself far ::-t1perior to the cr,1ftsman who has no land even to \\.. ork. mt1ch less to own. Thtts craftsmen are l)elo,v te11c111t f,11·mers in pt1blic esteem. (See section 011 Eth11ic Grot1ps.)

Otl1er l<:i11ds o·f soci,ll organiz,1tion inclt1de the '',1ge-gracle" s:ir1 stem, prese11t i11 ,,a1·ying fo1·ms :lmt)ng Gall:1 tribes, ,111cl the trib,ll organizations <)f the Dl)TT1t1clic t)eoples. rrhe Galla systen1 bas­ ic ..111..v co11siRLR c>f the divisio11 of all males of a cert,1i11 ki11�hit) <.)1· g-eograJ)hical g1·ou1J into age g.rottJ.>f-\, eac::11 of \Vhich is respo11sible for the c:011clt.1ct of certain �1ff�tirs for the gener�tl group. '"rl1e thi rel ''g-rttclc," for examp le, i:-; com })osecl of 11 ,. ·I '

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men ageci 17-24 ,vho a1·e \varrio1·s; the fourth ''gracle," aged 25-32, a1·e the me11 \-vho go,,e1·n the t1·ibe, flltho11gh s0111etimes they s1)end tl1ese years i11 1Jrepa1·::1tio11 for go,,e1·11me11t a11d actu­ ,1llJ· ass11n1e the 1·es1)onsibility in tl1e fifth ''g1·ade." A fe,,r Galla t1·ibes maintain this sys­ tem today; othe1·s have clisca1·decl it 01· n1odified it b)7 addi11 g tl1e co11ce1Jt of a l1e1·eclita1·y, s01ne­ times cli,rine, kingship at the to1J of the st1·11c­ ture. Those adhe1·ing to the l�ltter f01·m have no,v becon1e ,,,ell i11teg1·ated i11to the Amha1·a­ Tig1·ai social st1·t1ct111·e, ,1ccepting the Em1Je1·or a8 the 1·11ler of their 1)eo1)I e in place of tl1ei1· t1·aditional king. The 11omadic peo1Jles of tl1e Em1li1·e a1·e largely 011tsicle this A1nha1·a-Tig1·c:1i social str11ct11re, as thei1· eco11omy ,111d ]i, 1 i11g habits do 11ot necessitate la1·ge-scale co11tact with it. 1�hey a1·e 01·ganized i11to clc1ns based 011 uni]iJ1e,11· cl escent g-1·ot1 IlS, a11cl a 1·e ge11e1·t1ll )r s11s1Jici<)tts �L11cl aloof to\\7a1·d othe1· etl111ic g1·011J)S a11cl outside at1tl101·ities. Tl1eir triba) leacle1·s ma11age 111ost i11te1·11al })olitical a11d j uclicirtl �tffairs.

A 11t1n1JJer oi! facto1·s a1·e l)egi11ni11g to modify the socic1l st1·11ctu1·e clescrilJed al)ove. Tl1e estab­ lishn1e11t of a Il,1id professio11al a1·1ny in 1941 1·edt1cecl the JJOlver of tl1e nobles, 11pon , 1vhom the Em1Jero1· f<)rme1·l)r de1Je11cled to ar1n a11cl trc1i11 their te11,L11ts fo1· clefense of the cot1nt1·y. The g1·ad_t1i�l i11tr()du�tion of a ci,,il bt1rea11c1·acy to c.1cln11111:;;ter }Jl'<)\'Incial aff�Lit·s i11 lieu of ti·adi­ tioniil l)l'fJ\'i11ci::.il le,.Lclers l1;;1s f t1rtl1e1· decreased the 11 l)bles' llO\\·er. Tax 1·efo1·ms h;;1,,e i·edticecl the �tn1ot111t of tctxes ttncl se1·, 1 ices tl1e 11obiIitv 01• the cht11·rh c,1n ret1t1ire of thei1· tena11ts; t;xes ��t1st �o\v l)e }Jaicl_ di1:e�tl)' to a cent1·al tre,.tsui·y 1 c:ttl1e1 thcln to 111cl1, r1dt1al nobles or cl111rc h . (� ffi� 1a 1�- The clevelo1Jment of free ed11catio11al . f�1c1lit1es hct� laid tl1e ground,vo1·l-..,. 1�. 01• c:l• p10. ·fe::.;�1011al ci,·il se1·,,ice, adn1issio11 to ,vhich is not cle1)e11de11 t o11 0\\'11ershiIJ of la11cl or f clinil}" co11nections.

These n1oclifications , ,vhile still on ,'t n1 ol..le .1 "t sc:a]e, l1ctve i11itiatecl a g·e11e1·al loose11i11g of tl:. soci�ll st1·11cttt1·e. ct nd e11crJ11raged the !-1.Ubst·t 1 � . Utio11 of' 11ev,r Vftlues 1:or old. T1�c1clitionall.l• 1·t \\'l• IJossilJle tc.1 1·ise th1·()Ugh the cl1u1·ch hierarch�;' r he11 11e\v conquests made "' 1e ·tin w,t1 i11 1· n ew 0 . .fo1· 1·e\:arcls, 01· th1·ot1g h an act of I ancl �t�a1lal)le exce1)t1011c1 l b1·,1, 1e1·J' 111 battle or of exceptioilal se1·vic.:e to the Em1)e1·01· 01· a high official. l1e­ ce11tly, }10\,1eve1·, ecl 11cation }1::1s beco1ne a llOssible I)c:ltl1 to hig·l1 J)ositio11. ....\.lthottgl1 the cl1tl11g e iR r still 011 a sn1,1ll sc,1le, it slo,,'l) increasing 11um­ }Je1· of l)eOt)le f1·on 1 JJ1·e,·iol1�l}· clisa(l,·antaged g1·t)lt}JS ,t1·e 110,,· �tl)le to ol>t�1i11 v,·e11-})ft)'i11g jol)s, eS})ecirLll)' i11 tl1e go,,e1·11111e11t, �1s a reSlllt of' tl1e 11e,,, school s�1sten1. This 11e,,, elite, \\'hile its 111e1nbe1·s ma)r 11ot have social preen1inen ce }1cco1·cli11g· tcJ t1·�tclitio11,tl �tan(la1·cl8, h,1s \•ret a g1·0,,·i11g })O\ve1· �tnd J)1·estige i11 the 11e,v Ethiopia.

Tl1e ,rrtrio1ts etl111ic gr<)ttps a1·e �1cl::11Jti11 g dif­ fe1·e11tl}' t<J the 111orle1·i1 i11 flt1e11ces i11 Ethiopia.

Tl1e G£1 I l�1s, A1nl1,11·as, and Tig1·ais ha,'e l)ee11 tl1e 1n�ti 11 g1·01 11ls to tal{e acl,rantage of the ne,,, eel t1c,1tio11 ,l I OJ)l)OJ'tt111iti es, ,,,J1ile the 11omadic g-1·ottlJ8 1·en1c:1i11 al111ost e11ti1·el}: ot1tsicle these in­ flt1e11ces. Tl1e Gt11·,1ges, beca11se of tl1eir ,villi11g­ ness to t111clertctke a11�· job, 11a\ re adapted ,vell to the op})o1·t1111i ties in n1ocle1·n ce11te1·s, ancl are �t8Rt11ning �111 in11)orta11t pa1·t in the commercial life a11cl i11 the ,vo1·k fo1·ce of the areas tl1ev•

The lite1·::1CJ' 1·ate in EthioJJi · natecI ·t. t . ac: 1-,s e8·t11 less th,1n 10 Jlerce11t of tl1e tot I JlO ·..

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The effect� <)f t1 1·b�111izc:1 tio11 on the traditio11al 80Cirtl Rtl'llCtlll'(� h�l\ r e l)ee11 slig·]1t, as the grO\\'th <) f cities cl 11cl to,v 11s h,ts 11ot bee11 lJ1·eci1Jitate, :-:ti1cl h�t::-; Jll'Oflt1cecl 1:elc1ti,�e1,, 1·e\\' tt1·b,1n slt1111s.

• 1'1i<)se Jlerso11� ,,,110 11:1\'e g·r�1,•itatecl to t1rua 11 ceiite1·8 i11 �etl1·el1 of t111skillecl jolJs l1a,r e ofte11 m, 1 i 11 t:a i 11 e(l C'() 11t cl Ct ,,. it11 t }1 ei1· f:-:1111iIies in the c<,tii 1 t 1·)1 sicle, .111<1 11�1 ,re Ll�ll�tllv 1·etai11ecl i:lS ,,·ell theii· t1·:1clitil)t1�1] \'ie,,; of tl1ei��el,res i11 tl1e socinl �trt1ett1re.

Ecl11cttlio11 a 11 d llealtli E. Ill ('tl ti Oil

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con cern of the Empe1·01·, as syn1bolized by the fact that he held th e office of lVIinister of Edttca­ tion until AJJr� l 1966; 1111der his guida 11ce its ,vork has bee11 1mp1·oved and extended considei·­ ably si11ce t}1e Italia11 occ11patio11. Man,, hin­ drances to its development remain, ho\�evei·: IsoJation of a major JJ01·tion of the popttlation shortage of teache1·s, an d res istclnce of sorn� co11servati ve elements to eclucc1tion as a11 tln­ \\'anted aspect of modernization .

Academic orga11izatio11 is modelecl after French, English, and Americ::tn schools, al­ though adaptations to Ethopian neecls have been introducecl in the past 5- 10 yea1·s. The school system consists of six elementary grades, t,-., 0 junior seconda1·y grades, and fot1r senior second­ ary grades. Specialized train ing at the post­ seco11dary level ma)r take cliffe1·ent lengths o·f time dependi11g on the a1·ea of study; acaclemic courses of stucly for a unive1·sity clegree a1·e 4 }'ears long.

There are five kincls of schools in Etl1io1Jia: Gover11rne11t, comn1L1nit�·. mission, 1)1·ivate, an(] Cht1rch schools. The first t\•.ro kinds �11·e fi11ancecl by the go\1er11n1ent ancl offer courses i11 gracles 1-12 (gover11me11t) ancl 1-7 (commt111ity) f1·ee of charge. Haile Selassie I U11ive1·sity (HSIU) is also st1bsiclizecl l))' the go\7e1·11me11t, a11cl re­ cei\1es aicl from :foreig-11 cot1nt1·ies as V11ell; it charges 110 tuitio11. lVIost mission schools are run b }' Ba1Jtist, L11thera11, ancl Roman Catholic lVIissions from the Unite(l States and Sc�tncli­ na\1ia. The}' offe1· from 4 to 12 gracles; six schools incl11cle specializecl trai11i11g cou1·ses.

Some receive assista11ce from the Ethiopia11 Gover11ment in the form o·f la11d, builcli11gs, or staff. Private schools inclucle tl1ose ope1·atecl by private persons, i118titutio11s, or 1·eligious 01·­ ganizations ( other than those engagecl in mis­ sio11ary activities) ; they may <)1· ma)r 11ot receive .

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5.

_ ----

help from the government. Schools for the chil­ dren of the foreig11 commt1nity and Muslim (Koranic) schools are in this catego1·y. With the exceptio11 of a 2-4 year cou1·se in Koranic schools, private schools offer f1·om 1 to 12 gracles; t\vo other private schools offer spe­ cializecl traini11g, one in nursing, the other in technical SL1bjects. All private schools charge lt1ition. Chu1·ch schools are those run by the Ethiopian Orthoclox Church. These are of t\vo kinds: The first has adopted the currict1lum of the gov·ernment and community schools, offers ·from 1 to 12 grades, ancl operates a Theological School in Acldis Ababa; the seco11d offers 4 years of study in traditional church subjects.

Fourteen schools for orphans and the handi­ cappecl also exist, most in Addis Ababa, !lnd most financecl directly or indirectly by the government. They offer between 1 and 6 grades.

The number of students in all grades in Ethiopia totalecl 357,411 in the 1963-64 school yea1·, or between 4 and 5 percent of the esti­ n1atecl 11t1mber of school age children in Ethio­ })ia. About 68 percent of those enrolled in 1962-63 we1·e i11 gover11ment schools (including cc,mmu11it) schools), 9 percent in mission, and 11 pe1·cent in p1·ivate schools, between 4 and 7 flercent each in the two kincls o:f Church schools, �tncl the remainder in SJJecia1 schools for the han­ clica1JIJecl ( table 5). A little over 011e-quarter of tl1e st11cle11tR in that year were girls, eviclence of the gove1·nment's efforts to overcome the tradi­ tio11al vie,,, of many in the country that women are t1nfit for edt1cation. DeRpite gover11ment effo1·ts, �1ncl the changing opi11ions of many L11·b,111ized Ethiopia11s, most girls drop out after 1Jrima1·)' scl1ool; in the yea1· 1965-66, 150 were e11rolled in !-Iaile Selassie I Uni\1ersity.

The currict1la of the government, con1mu11ity, a11d moclern Church schools are the same, 1

[ERS, BY TYPE OF SCI-IOOL, 1 TS, •,\'ND TEACJEN UD ST LS OO }' Sc , JNU !\-I SER OF

- -· - - - .....--· --- ··- --- ·

...

-

Number of

srhools

1\:pc• <if srhc,ol

.

Tot.al

· !. ---- -�r ule

,._

,, -

I .

R��a� - - ·- - _9'.7..7.�-- -----�·�� I __ _ ____ t 5; · · ----..

1· · r.:�!)[) !':,�- j - ... - · =-� ' 855

Fl'n1alc

=

rphan3 anrt handicaJ}J)r-d .

. ...

.

-- - - . -.

_· ·. ·. ·,

..

___ ___ -------_ � ll ·it('!·:: ·-1 (;,ivernrJ\('lll,

..

.•

. , •

,.,., ...,,� ·

·

rrir

ln1r1c-ri,d Ethi,,i,inn

1·11 . 1,.,, · ,:1r,2; ff/lj,1, ·,. ,,,,

'.JOf, ' I',!

'1

·-· -··

--

11n :ind :'I11n15 · · l ry 0f F:dutati

----

l ,.,,.., � l'R,!� •! ,G7:,! :; ' !_

I fl'J3 :. ·�:, " , ..

_,,

Fine ,\ rls, Jl11re1111

,,r

E:thiopian

To lo.I

.. -· ,. -;,,

--- ·--- _____ _____

1 :i,!'i IO ·; ,, :;,• -2 !

-··

1962-63

------ --.------- -- -· --------·-· Numht>r ol leachers - -- -- ·----- -- - __ .. ··- .. - -· . -- -- .. . . .. --- ------ --- - -

.

-_ _ 242.;; . ' -1,-0 . �-2 ,:_1 _ ___ ____ __ __ , __ . ... _____. , ____ ·-- --T 1-.�-,, .. f,():j- ....

- '. ... , . _ =s/ii9,� -; ' \ � :. . " · 0' � 2 ·-:c -;1 -� . . . . . . . - ·. "·· ·. , . _!� �·.

2 t 7 .

1 . , �� Go1·t·rn rn"· · n"I '.l,644 IR 7l4 · 92':1 --R : x,!Hi:, j . .

7J :o 21 ; !l l Z i '. �o . s1i:�"�nity I b� . . . . · · . ·: : ·: '. · · · · · · · · · , I !l,2!1,I i · · .

28 71;8 i Priva1 I �·:!�=; 92 : · ,. · . . . • {', ·I!Ur�h . . .... , . . !JRl ' 10, 10· 0 l

fmodt•rn) C-:hurrh fl rur.l'1t'1or1·.. �. J). · · .

O

: I

:ii I

l ,'.!07 ! ,

;!�� ".-". ·.1 '•

,)] 1

90!1

��:;

Non-Ethiopian

. ..

.. .

. ..

298

i'

43

.",.,,"3 ;,,, · ' 77 · · · · • · · · · · ;, R -' ! __________ _

Er!ucnlinnnl

R,·sc-arch

nncl Stntii::til.'!-, .t;rhnol

I

13

J

·' :

,

.. : '•. ,·

. .'

r------------------------- --......------

• , .'

based p1·imarily on French, English, ancl Ameri­ can models. Emphasis has been 011 academic subjects such as a1·ithmetic, scie11ce, histor}', and geography. Mo1·e 1·ecently, E11glish has bee11 stressed, because all education afte1· the sixth grade is conductecl in that language, anc1 inst1·t1ction in the 11att1ral scie11ces is also gai11ing in importance. 111 11011-Amha1·a parts of the country, the Amharic ]a11guage is an i1npo1·ta11t elementa1·y school subject. Prog1·ams a1·e t111de1·­ way to adapt currict1la to Ethiopia11 11eeds through introduction of courses in health ,tncl hygiene, handicrafts, home economic.s, �111d Ethio1lian histo1·y i11 the e]eme11ta1·y g1·ades; cou1·ses in practical subjects such as metal \\7ork­ ing, ag1·ict1Iture, or sewi11g a1·e to be adcled to the academic subjects at the seco11da1·y )eve].

The cu1·1·icula of mission schools a1·e 1·eg11lated by the Minist1·y of Educatio11 a11d Fine A1�ts; private schools ( except the Koranic scl1ools) have �imilar ct11·ricula. Botl1 kinds of schc>ols gene1·ally [J1·e1Jare tl1ei1· stucle11ts for the U11ive1·8ity. The mission schools, especially those in smalle1· towns, ha,1e Tong i11clt1ded courses in health ancl hygie11e, and c1·afts. Koranic schools emphasize memorization of the Koran, and 1·eading ancl ,,rriting classical Arabic. The t1·a­ ditional Cht1rch c11rriculum consists of rea(ling and 1·eciti11g Ge'ez, the la11guage of the Ethio­ Ilian Orthodox Church. Specialization in biblical interpretation, church music, 01· church lite1·a­ ture is offered if a student chooses to conti11ue after the 2-4-year basic cou1·se. The cur1·iculum at schools for orphans is the same as that at the gove1·nment schools; that at schools for t}1e handica1)ped varies \,rith the abilities of the students.

Higher eclucatio11 is offere(l at Ha,ile Selassie I U11ive1·sity (HSIU) in Addis Ababa and at an extension of the t1niversity i11 Asmara. All credits a1·e intercha11geable. As of 1963-64 the Asn1ara exte11sion had faculties of huma11istic _ st �d1es, languages, teachi11g, law and l)olitical sc1e11ce, cl �1cl science ( mathematics, engineei·ing·, ancl a1·ch1tectu1·e). E11rollment for the scl1ool yea1· 1964-65 \\7as about 550. I-ISIU i11 Addis �baba has Fact1lties of A1·ts, Scie11ce, Ecluca­ t1on, Ag1·ic �lt �1·al and l\.1echa11ical A1·ts, E i1gi­ _ neer111g, Bt11Jd111g, Public Health, and TheologJr. En1·ollme11t for the school yeai· 1964_65 \Vas 1,��0 lus 2,333 in eve11i11g cot11·ses. Anotl1e1· � , est1mc1ted 1,000 wei·e stucl)ring c:lt the college 1

14

, acl ro t-tb el lev princi t)ally 11 te ua ,1d g1· stpo 01.

1 i ta �tt 1·i 1·e B l G 1c n. a1 s te ta S ed it n U e th Specializecl education is offe1·ecl i11 a number of fielcls, at both the sec<)nda.1�y and universit, 1 Ie,rels. '1 hese i11stitt1tions tha t offer training 0� the university level ,:11·e colleges of HSIU, and ii1cl ucle, in aclditio11 to the facultie s alreadv listed, the Pt1blic Heal th College at G011cta r, ,,rl1ich hfts a 3-year p1:og1·am for pul)lic hea]t h office1·s, 11t11·ses, ancl lal)orato1·y technicia11s; the I-Iaile Selassie Commercial, Agricultural, and Tech11ic(1l Sectio11s in Acl dis AJJaba, the Agricul­ T ma, ,Ji1n the at \ ool Sch ocational al hnic Tec tu1·al Training Scl1ool in As1na1·a, the Ag1·icultural �111cl l\.fecl1(111ical College at Alema}·a, t,,ro mili­ ta1·y trai11ing schools, and four teacher train­ ing schools. Other schools offeri11g SJlecialized ecl11cation a1·e the eq11i,1 ale11t of secondar •v schools, (1ncl ofte11 inclt1de several academic cot11·ses i11 tl1ei1· ct11·1·ict1la; they flt·e listecl in table 6. w

TABl, E 6.

--- ·· ·

ENROLLi\<lENT IN SPECIAL SCiiOOLS, BY TYPE OF SCIIOOL,

1962-64

·-·- -· · · --·· . · . .. .

---- ·-1963-64

--- ---F�nroll n1l'n I

1962-63

-·--

·

----·--------·-----·l�nrollment

I

I

N um bcr i : · of srhools ! Total : !\1 ale I Female --Total---1--: ___ 1 . · - ... , 5,J 97 ' 1,142 3 I. !'i• 15'-, 1I 4,010 1 = = ·· = : = ---- =·=-I -Tcnf'hers. . .

I i ,:J,t-i J ::! : I ,Iii 5 i l ,�36 , · -"" Coinn1 l?rcial · · · · !

1, 069 :Jl I i 746 r, I Technical a�<i . , .. - i . vor.alional.. '.

1,7-iH i 9 I, 1,358 ·' l .,-103 ,_..,;, ' Public health. · · · • 220 l 157 , 377 7 i Agricultural...... · : :: .4 \ :J� · ·H'i•l il j - 154 Adult cduca tion I for won1en....... I' }f 3 o : 1 t 3 i1 · · · · · ·59· · , ·_> llandicrafts 12°8 I :;0 v 1 : l on i · · ( l;,iu(' arts. · · · · · · I- lorn<: eeo���1i��..· : l 1i !_ . . . I• 1 11; Typo o( school

I ,} 2�

1'

i

I· . . . . .

2°

1g

;

I

1

�8:.

I

I

· · . i\dn Pleil rron 1 J111 ll('l'Ja ?1l1n1str) · 1 · E:. th.101) ian Govt·rnment, or l�dlll'U lion .111 <1 1�, · 1 ne � \ rl �• "<'hnol Ct·11:;11s jar F:t ltiopia., I 9Gt-196S : : :ind SrJio,)/ (•., ,:1111"11 •,or l·,tl110 1,1a. l!16.?-J9fi!,. �01' in·,�:

••

Tl1e ge11e1·c1l q11alitJr of educatio11 in Ethiopia .

18 lo\, r ei·ed by an ::1cute sho1·tage of ,vell trained teacl1e1·s, ,vhich ca nn ot be vvhollv compensated f 01· bv · "' f-01• e1g11 teache1·s, Jla1·tict1la1·l)r at the lo,vei· levels, becat1se the y do not k110,,r the local lrtilgt�c'lges. Co11ve1·sely, n1(1ny stt1dents are hai1 d1�apped i11 tl1e higl1er g1·ades \\'}1ere in· ' · · · E11glish, because thev studied it • ·t1ct 1011 is 111 st1 lIIlder teache1·s ,,,ho kne,,r tl1e loc;l la11gua ge lJtlt ha�l a11 111 adeqt1ate g1·as1J of E11glisl1 . TJ1 e Et.� 1. �JJta11s ,vho are g1·c1d uates of the teacher ti·a1111 ng schools 1·t111 by tl1e l\iinistry of Educa·

'

. ''

·

. . '

.'.

.- . ·,' >.

.' .

r \V el l qt1alified ve 1·) re as bo th pi·imary a tioJl and seconda1·y scho�l teacl1e1·s bttt th ey satisfy onlY a small propo1·t1on of th e demand. A thii·d large grottp of teache1·s at the secondai·y level is from the Peace Co1·ps. Their appi·oach is mode rn ,111d enthusiastic, bt1t many lack formal teacher training.

Effecti,1 e ed11cation is also hamperecl by a lack of mate1·ials, ancl by traditional attit11cles ,vhich val11e tl1e fo1·ms of ed11cation above its st1bsta11ce, memorizatio11 above 11n(le1·standii1g, aitd factt1al kno,vleclge above 1·easo11i11g ability.

That s11ch methods fail to J)I'0\1 ide the stt1de11ts with the necessa1·y techniq11es for acqui1·ing seco11dary and higher lear11ing is 1·eflected in the high dropo11t 1·ates among seconda1·y and college students. Altho11gh the sit11ation has impro,red in the last 5 yea14s, highe1· educatio11al facilities are still u11cle1·t1tilizecl f 01· lack of q11ali'fied graduates f1·om lo,ve1· levels.

Lo\\'e1· lev·e] schools in 11rba11 Amha1·,t a1·eas JJroclltce better q11alifiecl g1·aclt1ates tha11 clo those in other pa1·ts of the E1n1Ji1·e \\'he1·e clesig11f1tic)11 of Amharic as the cot111t1·y,vicle official la11gt1age a11cl the 011e to lJe usecl i11 scl1ools has 11ot meant that a 11e,v l(111gt1age m11st be lea1·11ecl be·fo1·e education c�t11 begin. Thei1· i11�1ccessibilit)r also \vorks a.gainst cott11t1·y schools: Not 011ly do the more accon11Jlishecl ·teache1·s choose to teach in Addis Ababa, bt1t also cliffic11lties of t1·a11s­ portatio11 rtncl comn11111icc:1tions ge11e1·ally 1nea11 that co11nt1·y schools lack 111J-to-date texts ancl eqt1i1Jme11t. Notable exce1Jtions to tl1e gene1·,1l c1t1alitv• of education i11 Etl1io1Ji�1 a1·e the t111iversity ancl n1ost of the specializecl t1·aini11g· schools. This is accountecl fo1· by seve1·rtl fac­ tors: The teacl1ing staffs of these i11stitt1tions inclt1cl e many of the l)est Ethiopia11 i11st1·t1ctors, as \Vell as numerot1s ,vell qttalifiecl fo1·eig11 s1)e cialists. Also, only the mos t J)romising o:f the senior seconclary school grttdt1ates (in the cas e of the ttnive;sitieB) 01· of the j11nio1· seconcl(trJr school g1·aclua tes ( i11 tl1e case of the specializecl trai11i11g schools) a1·e aclmittecl to these higher i11stitution s. }""1e\v detailecl clata exist 011 the eclucatio11 al Qttalifications of cli ffere11t segments of the 1�1 boi· force. Some ol)se1·vers feel that ofte11 mc:tnY J)et·­ so11s holcl position;-; in the gove1·nment a11cl busi­ nes8 fo1� \\·}1ich they i11·e 011ly· n1inim::1lly qt1alifiecl accrJrrJi11g to \Veste1�n standards. A sui·vey of

I'

I

,

selected manufacturing and commercial firms of a given size, made by the Ministry of Com­ merce and Industry in 1962 and representing 011e-thi1·d of all employment in the former sector and one-ninth of that in the latter sector, tends to bear out this generalization (table 7). Ac­ co1·ding to labor leaders, one of the diffict1lties in lessening the shortage of skilled and semi­ skilled workers is the prevalence among the general })Opulation of illiteracy, ,vhich hinclers them from 1·eceiving traini11g. One labor leader estimatecl that 70 1Je1·cent of the membership of all 01·ga11ized Ethiopian labor ,vere illiterate.

1, A RI.E ,.,f.

.

EMPLOYEES IN COM:'>-lERCE AND

LEVEL OF EDUCATION

INDUSTRY, B'Y

[ �loathly ellrnings, Eth$200 antl over l

. - -. - -

I�cvcl 0£ 1?du�ution

- - - · - --·· -- - - - I -.. - - --f I

I

Both

sectors

; Industry

1

-· -

Commerce

68 l 2·19 ---= ·=-.,---= -=== I= ·-· --· Elementary , , . , , . , , , , , , . , . , - 1 185 107 Secondary , , . . .. , , . . , , . , , , , ..

20 210 Totnl interviewed, , , ,

,,,

lJniversity and hi�her.... , , , , - , . i Not stated, . , , , , , , , . , . , , , ... , . , i

36 310

.......... -·- - ·--·-·----,-·---·----···--

I

3 II

119

I

·-

-·.

432

,

78

190 33

191

-··---·-·

So1 ·nr1:: Adapte,I from In111eriul Elhiopinn Governm1:nt, Ministry of Commerce nnrl Tncluslry, l�Chi1.•1•ian 1-:r-011011,ic Revien•, 1\pril 1963, 11, 116, tnble ,l.

Effo1·ts to improve both the quality and avail­ itbility of education (ind training come primarily from the gove1·11ment. An Amharic literacy campaign ,vas lau11ched under the pe1·sonal sponsorship of the Emperor in July 1962. For the school yea1· 1963-64, 97,410 students were 1·eceivi11g i11strt1ction in this and other literacy 1J1·og1·an1s. Other improveme11ts are effected th1·ottgh the expansion of the government school sJr stem� ,vhe1·e the goal, according to the Second Five-Year Pla11, is a total of 13,000 schools and slightly ove1· 373,000 students by 1967.

The labor movement is making considerable effo1·ts to b1·ing eclucation and training to its members, but is hamperecl by lack of funds. It }1as offe1·ecl seve1·al cot11·ses in acaclemic subjects to its leaders (see section on Labor Or.ganiza­ tio11s), has conclt1ctecl �1 3-n1onth literacy cam­ paig11 in late 1963, ancl, clt11·ing the summer of 1965, 10 stuclents fro1n Haile Selassie I Uni­ ve1·sity ,vo1·lced fo1· the labo1· movement teaching i11 five centers of t111io11 activity throughout Ethiopia.

A numbe1· of em1)loyers offer in-se1·vice traini11g, a11cl some pay college tuition for prom­ isi 11g emJJ]oyees. Data on these iicti,rities a1·e 15

I

I

,

... .

,,:,

..

'

..··' . .'

11!!!11-----2-22---·---· -,;,f._

.• •

.

;•

''

.'� �"-·-·- - ;

• • •

· ·: ., -.:

,;

..·:,.• ,.,; . .··· '...

l·

,. ...�

..

ti 111 ortu 11,1te)y

8C�lrce ,111d i11c<)111J)lete. T1·,1 i11 i11g for go,1e1·111n��nt 1le1·so1111el i8 c,1 1·1·ied 011 i11 t}1e Institt1te f'o1· J)t1blic Acln1i11ist1·::1tio11 in Addis Ab�1ba. Est,1blishecl in 1956 \Vitl1 ,1ssist�111ce from the UN Technicrtl Assist�111ce Aclmi11ist1·�1tio11, it gi\'es traini11g to sn1,1l] 11t1mbe1·s of n1idrlle-le,]el and se11io1· l)e1·so1111el. l\1ost tr,1i11i1 1g ,,,ithi 1 1 the gove1·11n1e11t is clo11e 011 tl1e job, ,111d is 11ot unifo1·1nly 01·g,:111izecl. !

I-lousi11g., l·le1tl tl1,

1t11,I

Sanitatio11

I-I ousi11g fo1· the majority of Etl1io1Jians con8ists of circular or sqt1a1·e huts callecl lJy foreig11ers t11/c1ll.c;, made of woode11 !)Oles �111d cove1·ed \vith a mixtt1re of clay and stral\7• I11 the cot1n­ t1·y::-iide, roofing is ove1·h�111gi11g· th�1tch 01· some­ times cor1·t1gf1tecl metal; floo1·s a1·e ge11e1·all)' clirt. I-Itttf-1 usually l1ave 11either ,,,i11clo,vs no1· chim11ey::;; sn1 oke esca1)es through a hole in tl1e 1·oof. Tl1./ciils are often used to ho11se c:111imals a11cl sto1�e goods as ,vell as for li,1ing a11cl cook­ ing; i11 these c,1ses, i11terior partitions di, ride the areas of the different activities f1·om one a11otl1e1·. No111acls and seminon1acls live in sl1eJte1·s of similar shape and size, made of a frame of b1·anches covered ,vitl1 g1·ass mats, easil)' collat)silJle and portable. Thei1· 'fi1·es are ge11e1·all)1 built out of <;loors, and the livestock of the t1·ibe is cor1·allecl ,1way f1·om the h11ts.

I11 , 1illages, f'tt./citls co11sist us11ally of 011e-1·oom d,,,ellings of Illaste1· over wood often with cor1·ugatecl tin roofs. Cooking is usually done out­ sicle, i11 back of the house, ho,vever, and animals are qua1·tered se1la1·ately. The mo1.·e ,1ffluent homes may have an t1pJ)e1· story, a ve1·ancla, ::lnd a latrine. Generally, 110,vever, there a1·e 110 facilities fo1· wate1·, light, 01· sa11it�ttio11 eithe1· in the cot1i1 .,ryside or in villages.

111 la1·ge1· to\vns and cities, \vhere moclern d,velli11gs and occasionally ,1partme11t houses c11·e bei 11g bt1ilt, mo1·e mocle1·11 J:1:1cilities a1·e a, 1ailc1ble. A ce11s11s taken i11 Aclclis Ababu. i11 Septe111be1· 1961 1·evealed tl1at 85 JJe1·cent of homes i11 that city v.1e1·e \Ve::1ther1)1·oof ( clefinecl as ''l1ousel1olcls \\1 ith conc1·ete or metal roofs'') ; 44 .4 1Je1·cent hacl toilet facilities, of ,vhich 4.4 1Je1·ce11t ,ve1·e fltish toilets; ancl 58.2 l1ad elec­ t1·icity. The ce11st1s also sho,vecl that i 11 Acldis Abab::1 in the majority of hot1seholds the1·e \\]ere bet,vee11 one c111d th1·ee 1Je1·s011s IJe1· 1·oom · ii1 slightly ove1· 20 pe1·cent of all hot1sel1olcls thei·e 16

\-vei·e 4 pe1·sons 01· mo 1�e J)e1· roon1, and in 4_2 IJei�cent, less t}1rL11 <)11e r>erson pe1· 1·oom.

Jil i·trr,tl f11·e,1H the1·e i� no sanitary He\\"�Lge clisJ)Osi1 I system. I11 Aclcl1s Al),tbfL a11cl Asmara and occ,isio11ally i11 other large cities there are ser>tic t,111ks; mo1·c r)ften, ho\veve1·, se\\1age diH� })OScll is into cesspools 01· �tny con, renie11t l)lace.

The ,,,ate1· st1p1Jly in Etl1io1Jia is adequate i11 the JJlateau 1·egio11s, but not in the Og::1de11 Desert, the Danftkil Dep1·ession, and the Red "' Sea co,lstal �trea. 1 he ru1·al IJOpt1latio1l obtains \\'(.1te1· f1·om ,,rell� anc1 f1·om natt1ritl 1·i, 1ers and siJ1·i11gs ,,,hich ,ti·e con11Jletely u21J)1·otected. Ur� i)a11 ,, ,,1ter StlJJJ)lies come f1·om a variety o f 80t11·ces: Ri, rers, s1J1·i11gs, ,t11d artesia11 ,,•ells in Adclis Abal),l; a1·tificial lakes and ,,1ells in As1n,t1·c1; SJJ1·i11gs in Di1·eda,,,a. Althot1gh the ,,;ate1· is ofte11 chlo1·inatecl 01· otl1e1·,\·i:;;e J)tirified lJ efore clist1·ibt1tio11, most J)e1·so11s a1·e ser\ ·ed l)y ce11t1·c:llly loc�itecl h,rcl1·a11ts a11cl ca1·1·v t}1e ,,1 ater ho1ne i1 1 OJ)e11 co11tai11e1·s, ,, rhe1·ei11 it is ofte11 C<J11ta1ni11atecl befo1·e t1se.

L::1ck o·f healthftil sc:1nitatio11 facilitieR, c1·0,"·clecl li,,i 11 g co11clitio11s, eati11g hal)its. and 1·elic.1nce <)Jl 1J1·i1niti, re J)t·actices to co11trol a11d ct1re Rick11e8.s c:111 cont1·il)ute to a , 0e1·y higl1 in­ ! cic1e11ce o1 clisettse i11 EthioJlia a11c1 to a life ex1Ject,:i11cv of c.1l)out ;35 vears. The most ,vide� Rp1·eacl clisec1: ses a1·e n1ala1�ia, sJrphilis, tuberctt lt)sis, c:1.ncl those ca t1secl b)r intesti11a} JJarasites.

They co 1 1t:rilJt1te to t}1e lo,v JJ1·odt1cti, 0ity of the co Lt11t1·y l)otl1 lJ) the i1· cl ebil it�1 ti11g effect 011 the IJ011t1l,1tio11 ,111cl, i11 the case of m,1la1·i�1, l)ecat1se IJeople ,11·e ·fo1·ced to ab,111clo11 n1ala1·ial 1J]ai11s for le;:;s fertile btit n101·e l1 e:1ltl1ft1l a1·eclS. Other commo11 clisec:1se.s ctre leJ)t·osy, ty1Jht18, t)net1mo11ir1, t1·acl1on1�1, a11d conjt1 nctivitis.

1'11e c1,·e1·,1ge cli1il}· c;:1)oric i11take is Io,,'. con� Ricle1·i11g tl1e l )ll�'Rica] exe1·tio11 ust1all)� required 0 f tl1e l)O}) t1la ti 011 c.111cl t}1 e high c:1ltitt1de at ,, r l1icl1 n1t1ch o·f tl1e }JOJlt1la.tio11 ]i,1es. Tl1e diet iR 1r>,,· i11 ,,itc11ni11s ::1lso, ,vhich 1·est1lts i11 g1·0,vth 1·etc1rcl,1tio11 ::111d Rometin1es 1·icl{ets a11d goiters.

Deficie11cy cl ise�l8es, ho,,re, e1·.. ar e 11ot ,0ery IJre,·· ,lle 1 1t....� cert::1i11 ,ln101111t of �al11t1t1·itio11 an1011g the EthioJ)i::111 Ortl1odox c111cl l\'.It1sli1n JJOIJtlla­ ti<Jils rest1lts f1·01n rigorot1s c111cl f1·eqt1ent f.-1sti 11g · This, togethe1· \\'i tl1 ::1 11 i1nba),111ced rliet! ,lccot111ts for tl1e lo,,, ::t\7()l· <'.t ge ,,·eig·ht (�1l1ot1t 117 l)Ot111cls) of ,1clt1lt Etl1ioJJi;:111 111,1les.

IVIo�t Ethior>i,111s, eR l)l�ci,1)1:v· tll()Re in r11ral V

•

•

•

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M

7

1

I

'

!

'

,

so t11· e b� 11 d\ elle1·s, vie\v a)s o bt1 eas ar � � mocl­ � � eril n1ed 1cal. � 1·f1ct1c:s ·\v1th d1 s�rt1st and StlSlli­ ciOll, ancl piefer to Iel y _011 11at1,;e practitiollei·s evei1 ,,1 hen mode1·n. me. dical treatme11t is av a1.1_ able to them. Eth101J1a11 Ortl1odox Christiaiis often 1·eso1·t to_ t?e t1se ?� �oly ,va te 1· a11d amtilets and the exorc1s111g ab1l1t1es of semilay church­ men. The se1·vices of th e 'll'OgesJia, a combiiiittio11 surgeo11 a11cl he1·b doctor, a1·e ,videly ltsed, �ind he is legally I)errnitted to 1J1· actise. Al l other native medical p1·acti tioners ,ve1·e :forl) iclclen to practise late i1 1 the 1940's, b11t flPllrt1·ently thev continue to t1·eat man y peo1Jle, ttsing �1st1:olog- ;. . magic, he1·b b1·e,vs, a11d stt1·ger)r. Injecti0118 �tre the only phase of rnocle1·11 1nedicine to n1ake a real imp1·ession on the gene1·al l)OJ)ttlation­ especial ly penicilli1 1 for its 1·ernarkable 1·esults i11 the t1·eatn1e11t of syphi]is. Penicilli11 is 110,,� available cheaply a11cl ,vithot1t Il1·escri1)tion at local markets, ,vhence it is t�1l{e1 1 to a nearby to\vn a11d aclrniniste1·ecl lJ�r the local fi1·st aid represe11tati,•e.

As of 1963 in ,1 11 Etl1io1)ia the1·e ,ve1·e 128 hos1)itals ( mosti)· go,·e1·11me11t-01)eratecl) ,vith a total of 8,050 l1osJ)ital becls, 01· aJ)J)t·oximatel)r one bed pe1· 2,600 pOJ) ttlation, com1la1·ed ,,,ith 011e Jle1· 110 popt1lation i11 the U11ited States. In adclitio11, there ,,·e1·e i 1 1 that year 49 healtl1 centers a11d 463 cli11ics in cliffe1·ent 1Ja1·ts o:f the cot1ntry ,,'.hich offe1·ecl ot1t-J)atie11t t1·e�1t111e11t.

In 1964, there ,,·e1·e 331 l)hysicia11s a11cl st11·­ geons, of ,vhorn ;35 ,,·e1·e Etl1io1Jia11s; tl1is ,1,,e1·­ aged abottt one clocto1· l)e1· 65,000 JJOl)t1latio11, con1parecl ,vith one clocto1· l)er 780 in tl1e U11ited States. The1·e ,ve1·e i11 1959 ( the latest elate · f or \vhich reliable clat a lti·e �l vailable) 19 cle11tists ancl :38 l)harmacists. T he figttres C)Il s11bJ)1·ofes­ $i()Ilal n1eclical 1)erso1111el fo1· the same )1ec11· ai·e-

!

I I I !

:-: Ur:<;pg .. . .. . . . . . . . . · . · . ··· . . • ' rir�I •·1!"d as�!stants r1•lr.•m1:>ntar�,}.

Fi�t .. ·, · · · · · ' a!d as;;1�1anrs <advanr"cl'. . . . . . ... . ... .. . · · · · · · · · · · · · flrS I aid

ass i:;ianL'l (s1,P. r '•111·"'•Pr · ll· · :'lS�lSIants 1n (·•;p rlinirs• ,

· i'i.• (•ahh !.;° 1 . . . . . offi<'i•r . . · . . ·. . ·. .· ·. .

I l)IJl. mun11v nursr·s • i.i t1n!lalio n ·uilir,•�s· 1 1 · · · · · · · 8 . · ...... ,anaar:, -in!;pl·Ct or!!

0

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(;,;�,l;�r.

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· ·· ·· .

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·

. · ·. ·. .

• • · · . . · · · ··· · ··· · . · · · • ·· ·· . i•�1-hlic J J •alth ('1 1 ill'�C•

0

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Ahot 1t half of the hig h le\rel meclical pei·so11nel are in Eritrea, ftncl aln1ost a]l a1·e i11 the large P�r,u1atic)11 centerR . 1VI�1ny of the s11l)J)1·ofef-;­ :-:ioi1nl mec ic.:: 512 the taff i,; l tl \''01 ·ke 1·�.. ' h�,veve1· . ' ( in . lD6�) c]i nic8 t1ncl heal tl1 ce11ters a1·01111cl th e coll 11 try. 'l'he ilYl r• 1·(> \' ('111e 11 t (>'f 11 e �LI t11 fl 11cl 8 ari it,1ti<) n nd i ir, 11s i 11 E l: o of ility i l> )ons 1·es1 e ; :eq t hi 11ia i th (;

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1

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the l\iii11istry of Public Health in Acldis Ababa, its 12 ll rovi11cial health office1·s, the lnspecto1·­ Ge1 1e1·al of: I-Ie�1lth in Asmara, a11cl the six local he�iltl1 officers t1ncler his st11Je1�vision i11 Eritrea.

The1·e <=tre �tlso mt1nici1Jal health cle1Jartrnents in Adclis Al)aba, Asn1�tra, and Massa,v11. Until re­ ce11tly the chief emphasis in the field of health a11cl sa11itation h�ts been 01 1 ct1re. Lately, how­ e,�er, the go,•er11me11t, \Vith the hel1J of the U.S. Agency for International DeveloJ)ment (AID), the W01·lcl Health 01·ganization (WHO), ancl the U.N. Inte1·11ational Children's En1ergenCJ' l�11nrl (UNICEF), has begt111 to conduct ma­ laria e1·adication, vaccination, and environ­ n1e11tal sanitation programs. In cooperation \,rith one or mo1·e of these age11cies, the Ethio­ Jlia11 Gove1·nment has launched ,vell-drilling J)rograms to imJJ1·ove the water supply, and establishecl cl venereal disease control clinic �l11cl demo11Rt1·ation center, a le1)rosy control 01·­ gc111ization, a tt1lJerculosis co11trol clemonstra­ tio1 1 cente1·, c1nd :1 comm1111icable eye disease co11t1·ol ce11te1·. l11 a IJroject for improvi11g sanitatio11 initiatecl by the l\ilinist1·y of Natio11al Comn11tnit)r Development in the early 1960's, 17 HI)1·ings l1acl been cle(tned, 58 \Veils sunk, �incl 1,276 l)it-li1tri11es (lncl 147 garbage Ilits co11strt1ctecl lJy Cl1mn11111ity ce11ters in the pilot :treas by 196-4. The ,vork of tl1ese centers, ho,v­ e,•er, is 011ly the f<)t1ndatio11 of rt. 1Jrogr�1m \.Vhich \\Tl)ltlcl �1clec111�1tely meet the cot111try's neecl8. rl,]1e chief t1·ai11i11g ce11terR ·for meclical per­ so1111el i11 Etl1ic)11i,l ftre the 11e\v Fact1lty of ivieclici11e ,lt the U11iversity, �1t ])resent with fe\\'e1· tha11 �t clozen stt1clent�, ::1ncl the Gondar Public He,1ltl1 College, establishecl with the help <">f AID. WI-IO, a11c1 UNICEF, and 01lerated l)y the EthioJ)ia11 1VI.inist1·y of Pt1blic Health. GraclLl£1tes (>f the Gonda1· College a1·e reqt1ired to sei·ve c1 ye,1r of inte1·11shi1) at a t1·aining health ce11te1·, (Jf ,•lhich tl1e1·e \Vere th1·ee in 1961, l)e­ fo1·e assig11rnent to fl ser\•ice health center, of ,vhicl1 seven ,ve1·e 01Je1·�ttive that yea1·. By 1962., g1·,1clt1c1tes tota]ecl 230, a11cl in the academic year 1963-64, 65 stt1cle11tR \\·e1·e enrol]ed at Gondar.

There ,ve1·e three 11111·ses' t1·aining schools in s an ici d h11 an ·y tec to1 ora l,1b for i11g 1 1i1 tr� ; 61 19 fii·st aicl a�sist�tnts is offered at one hospital in Aclclis Abctl)ct: tt11d ,1 ce1·tificate as a second­ cl[tSS J)harm,1ci�t is offe1·ecl by tl1e Minist1·y of Ethio­ � Pttl)lic I-Tealth. In 1961, ther: ,ve1·e 2 _ ng l n1 ta1 1ca ou t1· ecl ecl m 11c v,1 acl g i11 iv ce re s �tii J)i sicle tl1e cot111try. '

'

17

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1rces Reso1 · )owe1 M�lilJ Po1>11l�1tion a11(l

LaJ,o .. St11>ply

The J)O})ulation of Ethio1lia in late 1965 ,vas estimatecl at about 27,000,000 :: a11d ,vas incre,1s­ ing at an annual 1·ate estimated fro111 1.6 1Je1·ce11t (tl1e official estimate) to 3 pe1·ce11t (the esti­ m,1te of a team of manr>o\ver expe1·ts t111cle1· contract to the Ethio1)ian Gove1·11me11t). O,;e1·­ all po1lulation de11sity is about 60 I)erso11s IJe1· squa1·e mile, but the rate va1·ies fron1 5.6 1Je1·s011s per squa1·e mile i11 Bale Provi11ce to 1.82.5 pe1·­ son:, per squa1·e mile in A1·ussi P1·0, 1ince. The most heavily populated areas a1·e i11 the Prov­ inces of Shoa, Gojjam, \Vollo, Tig1·e, a11cl the 1101·ther11 and north,vestern pa1·ts of Ha1·a1·ge (table 8), \Vl1ich cornp1·ise the centrc:11 plateat1 whe1·e the moderc:lte clin1ate a11cl fe1·tile soil can su1Jport la1·ge numbe1·s of l)eople. Fou1· of the five la1·gest cities are i11 this area (table 9), llt1t 011ly 3.5 })erce11t of the total 1101lulation li,re i11 u1·ba11 ce11te1·s of ove1· 10,000 pe1·s011s eacl1.

'J' ABLE

8.

ESTl.i\1 ATED POPULATION BY PROVlN CES,

-�--- ---·

1 B62

-- ---- - ---------- - --- ---- - ----- ------ - - - - - l'opulution (in th ousands)

Provinct>

.. .... .... .. . . . = 27,000 ,- ---'-= - ---- -----­ A russ.i .. .. . ... ..... . . . ... . .... . . .... . .. . . . .... .

1,350 . . . . . ... . ..... .. . ...........

Bale. .. . ..... . .

270 DC!-gcmd�r.. . ..... ... . .. , ... . . . .. . . . .. . ... . .

1,565 Eritrca . . .. . ... . ........ . . . . . .... . ..... . . . . ..

1,896 Tota l...__ ...__._ . ' . . .

G ei:ttu Gora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

GoJjam... ... . . . .. .. .. ... .. . .. .. . .. . . . ..... .

I-larar.:c . __ .._... .... _. _ _____ ._________.. __ .

l llu ba hor

_ ...._. . . . . _

____. . .

. __ _ _ _ _ _ .

1,080

1,912 3,791

----- - -- ----------···--···- --··----·-

3,510

'-·-- -

· Sot! l!l'E: ,\da pted front inn terial furnished by Im peri·\I ELIllot,inn Govern1nent, Central St.ntistical Office, Addis ;\babn, 11165.

F IVE LARGES'r CITIES IN ETllIOPIA

1'1\BLE 9.

__......_....,._

.._ __ _ _ -·-··--- -

-

---

City and provinr.r.

-----··--· .. - - ....

l->OJ)UI a lion .

1 I

Year

I Addis 1\ba�b:l (Shoaj ..._..._.... _ . -:-: _...-. - -\ 1 · 1180,7 00 -· l !} (ii I _ _ Asm:lra ( Erl I re-a) .. .. _ .._.__.._.. . -· ·- 1 14:1,000 I · 19(, 2 Diredawa (1 -lar:ir�r). . .. _..__.. _. .. : ·- · ,1,1,000 19, "r O,l. l·l arar ( ll ararge) . . _ _... . ... . .._.._.. : : : - · - - I, -11,:!.00 i 1!Hi!; Dcssc (\.\!, ollo) __. • .__ , ._ • ' ' ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • i :J!l,100 ! l91i:) I --··-· - . · - - - · · - •---····-•w-- • •• - . - .

--··- ----

· Sot:ucr-:: Ad ptcd from mnteriul rul'nishcd b . .ia I � l E,th101na1 . 1 � nblJ)CJ " -\,l Office Government. Centr·id Stath;tica l d i l s ,, ,a a 1'16"'•). ' ,

. .

1'here has n e\' !!1 been ;1 com Jl lctc cen !;Us Of the I , 1 0l ulnt1011 o[ the 1:::thiopi,111 Etn)lire. 'fhc stntistical dutn .n 'I . ' • '- 11s stud)· ("inc·I ud"ing . . . l"O\IH l ry\vHle pr0Ject1ons) u re ba sed chief!" OJ\ 111e resu ., · Its 0r surveys ·1

°

of the po))u)ution in four J>rovincn...�_, 'and of en1plo ed pe son s in 21 towni;. taken hy the Ccn ti·::i I Sta ti.·"'ti·c tl ,.. . y O · uu:e 111 l!Jfi6. r , '

18

TABLE - ·-· - ..

_ I;

--

-, I

'1

I I

,.

'I

' ESTil.\.ll\.TED POPULATION, BY .�GE AND

10.

1965

1l I

J I

Il

SEX,

'

·- - - -..- -....-------·---- --------·-

I

• I

1--Numb<'r _f_--1,&·ce11t

,\gc group

1' '

l

All:lgc>s.. .. - .. 27,000,000 ,

lJnd(�� 10 Yi-;,-"lrs - . - - ... -:. : 4 l 1 Undl'r ;:i :;c·ars . _ _ .i ,fi58,:!0 0 I .,:i-9 Y<'nrs. - - . - ... -1 31:l� -100 111- _9 years. - ' .. - - . - ' - I 9,'3(iS,' ·�o - o

9:0 ��fi l:O

10- 11 • Yl!llrM .. .. . - : r::

l ;)-19 yt>ars._ .. _ · "'ll :-; -•> · t years.· · · · , · ,.. :; 9 Yl'nrs · _,J-· · ·. , • ,IO-,l;t Y(!ars · - · · · - · · · · .J�-3 -t Y<'nrs - · · · · .

3:...-39 :,;t-:irs. - · · · · • 10 -4,l VC"lrS •I 5-'j9 rv,•ars· • · ····· · ." I • ' . ' years.·· - · - .

�·,-�o 0

•

0

•

0

'

•

•

•

:l ,O�fi.ROO .

•>•,.,,•JOO ., -,--o ,..

1, 2, 089,6 00

2 02a 600

4 •ti27' 300 l 11 955'4 1 00 1 '32:3 ' 300 1,3-18, fiOO 2 108 8QQ

•

'797'soo

_ ii:5i i:�:�:::::: :: 1�i:gg2 ······ l, :=-• ·> ',

hO and ovc}r.....

I

Not · -·· stated - · :..·._· · � -'-:.__:_ -

c})

SOURCP.. Ad

Gove rnmdnt•

I

,,

� 300 �91,ROO -

Female

--

!?�·o_ __ -- 33.5 · � 1 ?

1:··� ,, '·:... ,,4.'

l 1· ?8..3 7.7 -

�

17,.:f.,

,.� 4.9 5.0 ,. fl

3·'

�:8 l .5

•l.7 i.2

'

- ---� ----···-·-- -·­ 395,40 0 ,1 ,651,2 _ 4, ..00 ' .

2.as, . I .,2,...2-1 12.i,200 00

2,264,200

•l,676, 00

4,692,2011 1,fjfi-1, 1 OIJ

1,068,l!Oll 1,175,iOO

913,900 954,800 2, I 82,400

1 ,oss,soo

2,444,900

1 oGs,soo

886,600 682,000

'641,300 734,!lOO 908,500

613,800

1 200.300

-1-10 ,QOtJ .

3,600 13 53 -1,400

I

400�

191,000 I

t(!d from material furnished by Imperi. al

-,'' '

1

_,

I l' l'

3:i4,ooo

'463,HOO I 450,}00 I

7:!2,900

l'

1,362,700

1,159,400

'J"6 ' 400 -o

I' ''

9

000

Eth.JOpillU

enlral Stnlh1tical Office, Addis Ababn, 1!165.

In 1965, an estin1�tted 11 t:190 000 JJe1·son s "vere ' ' · �tccott11ted · eco11om1call:), acti,,e; ·1 tht1s, th e Jabor - ' 1

,.

13,360,000

13,64 0 ,0 00

_

\ '

Both s(�xes

''

..'I ,--o l ,�liO 2,700 1,Hifi

' I

u

-!J­ I I 82:1

..

. .. . .... . . .. . . ... .. ... . . . ..... . .. ...

S�oa . . . .. . ..... . ...... . . . .. . .... ..... , ....

Sida m o.. _. . _ ___ _....__....._ ._ . . .. . .. . . . . .

T"tgre .. . . , . . ... ... , .. . . ... . ... ..

- ·· . . _ _.. .. .__. .. .. __. _ : : . : · · ' \V l'llega . . _... . __ .

Woll o. . '. . '. . ' . .. . ' ' Kefn

' 1 ith 1 t1·y, cot1n \\ ' un ''yo o\ er t\vo. �t is Ethiopia � thirds of the pop�1lat1011 less than 30 years old One-tl1i1·d \·vere under 10 iil 1965 (table 10). )'eai·s of �tge ftncl about 011e-ti.,ventieth ,,:er e 60 �rears of ,ige ancl ove1·. Tl1us, the wo1·king age 1 een 10 a11d 60 )r ea1·s, bet,, , tion c011sti­ I)OJltl la tti tecl about 60 1)e1·ce11t of the total. Ct1stom, not lc:l\V, clict�1tes the J)1·evailing age lin1its of the \voi·k fo1·ce. The rnaj ori ty of those from 10 to lll yec1rs of �\ge a1·e c1cti,,e on farms and in mar. kets i11 1·t11·al a1·eas. 111 u1·ba11 areas fe,ver of rho clo are ,, se tho k; ,vor uJl gro mostly age this · famil)r's shops or i11 casual services, i1· the i11 althot1gl1 some insta11ces have been reported b,r the E1·itrea11 Labour Inspectio11 Offices of verr• yot111g chilcl1·e11 em1llo),ed in facto1·ies in that JJl'0\7 i11ce. Fe,v i11 tl1e o,rei·-60 age grot1p ,vork, ll1·i11ci1lally because of illness 01· othe1· disabi]i. ties, bt1t also becrtuse tl1e elde1·ly are generally• ve11e1·atecl c111(l the1·efo1·e 1·elie, 7ed of the burclen of lci.bor. lVIales and females a1·e about equal in 11t1n1be1· in the po1Julation as a ,vhole, but males ot1t11un1ber females i11 both the lower a11cl up1Jer age b1·ackets. \Vomen have a slight 11umerical edge in the 20-35 age g1·oup.

,. 11re use<l 'fh� lcr1ns. "eL·onon11c • e · forc -, . · ally •1ctivc" •·111-' u ··Jnbor _,1 ,-· , · int"I"( · · '-1l 11 n�'c I thr \\• � 1 1ly I " in ' i 11 t 11ts .study. llnpuid f·1mil ,• \\'ul'kcr:; • • • •ni:r age group a re 1:1_u\i;idered vn 1·t uf tht, In bor force .

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..

·:

force constituted abot1t 43 pe1·ce11t of the total populatio11, an?. 71 pe1·cen� of the \.Vorking age grotip. In add1t1011, an est1�1a t�d 2 million chil­ dreii age 5-9 help ot1t on family ·farms in the traclitional economy. No age-sex b1·eakdo,v11 is available for the labor force; bt1t females prob­ ably co11stitt1te no m or e th an 20 to 25 pe1·cent of the economically active. Religiot1s precepts 1 ·e­ strict economic activity a1no11g iVlt1slim ,11., omen, and cultural an d eco11omic f�1cto1·s lin1it that among Ch1·istian, Je,vish, �tncl n1�1ny pagan ,vomen, even as t1npaicl fan1ily ,vorkers. 011 farn1s, fan1ily hel1Jers a1·e mo st ofte11 male chil­ dren ,vho ,vo1·k i n the fielcls a11d te11d the live­ stock; the ,voman's sha1·e of the ,vo1·k is mo1·e often the spinning, ,veaving, marketing, and cooking: chores \\·hich �1re n101·e hot1sework than economic activities. Women a1·e often the ones \Vho go to ma1·ket ,,,.ith �1g1·ict1ltt11·�1l l)t·oduce, ho,,reve1·, a11cl amo11g the noinadic l)Ol)Ulation, \Vome11 sha1·e most kinds of work with men.

Abot1t 57 percent of the labo1· fo1·ce a1·e settled in isolatecl g1·oups, seve1·al hot1rs' mule 1·ide from a 1·oacl. An aclclitional 35 pe1·cent live in rt1ral a1·e�1s close1· to roacls a11cl to\,111s. Approxi­ matel}1 3 pe1·ce11t of the labo1· fo1·ce are non1acls, mostly i11 the Ogacle11 Dese1·t; the 1·en1aining 5 llerce11t Ii,re i11 to,v11s a11cl cities.

Aln1ost 98 pe1·cent of the total estimated labo1· T J\BLE 11.

· ---------· ...- -- --

forGe a.re engaged in traditional economic ac­ tivities, i11clucling 93 to 94 percent in subsist­ e11ce fa1·ming and animal husbandry, and 2 to 3 pe1·cent in se1·vices. Most of the latte1· group a1·e clergy and lay officials in the Ethiopian Orthoclox Church, the rest are in entertainment activities. The 1·emaining 1 to 2 percent are in trade and ha11dicrafts; however, most trades­ n1e11 are probably· active in other sectors at the sc1me tin1e, since many of them produce the itemg they tracle. In the same way, the handi­ craft a11cl agricultural sectors overlap some­ \\rhat, as many IJersons who a1·e pri11cipally farme1·s or herdsmen may weave cloth or straw goods, or fashion \.vooden or metal decorative objects i11 slack seasons.

Activities in the modern economy occupy the 1·emaining 2 to 3 percent of the total labor force, 01· almost 295,000 persons (table 11). Between 53 a11d 54 percent of this group are employed i11 the government and other services. The next la1·gest groups a1·e in manufacturing and trade.

Most mode1·n activities are concentrated in th1·ee geogra1)hic areas: in and near Addis Ababa i11 Shoa P1·ovince, in the Diredawa-Harar area in 1101·tl1ern Ha1·arge Province, and in the L11·ban centers of E1·itrea Province. The major exceJ)tions to this are the Bahar Dar Textile Mill i11 Gojjam, the gold mi11es in Sidamo, and seve1·al plant,1tions noted below.

· J...A , BOR l<ORCE IN T lIE i\"10DERN ECONOMY, BY ECONOl\lIC SYSTEM AND PROVINCE, 1965 . - - .· - - - . ··- - - ····-· ..

- - ·,----.. ..,.. . . .. -· -·-- ·--····.. --·. ____.. _ - .. - ...... - - . --· Total

Begem-

Bale

l•:conomir s,:,r1 or

--- -

-

--·---- .. -· _

fi�ri lrca

der

Gemu Gora

Gojjam

1-1ar11rgi:>

- ------ •)94893 JOQ,() 2,8119 -----· -209 !l, 5 12,406 :!, 41, I--=� 13 ---Tot al ' ..... ' .... ' ' . ' .............. ' .. . . ' . .

---·=:� -·--- -- ---- - -- -- =..:=.== == - =--- ----- --.

0 2 2 1,6 11 '>, 09 0 'I 7 •1 . .... .... .............· .. ·· ··· · ···· •) l f�3 Ai:ricull un• .. . .

8 0 0 O 1,000 O w O · ·· ;). I l ll,7 8 �I inin� . . . . . . . . . . . .. . · · . . . . . .. . . . .. .

• •

.

.

•

-·

-

·

7

t

-

0

bor

. . . ..

....

O !\30

�

6 0

.f'i

.. , _,.,

.3

00

0

o o

o

g

0

II II � 22 o

Kela 35

:._ 54 O

411

O

8�i

o

8 O

291 7

---·

-- ·-- ·- · -· --- · · .. --··- ·- · --------- • - - .. ---·-- , ..

0

O

631

7,200

O

g

o

O

�A

7

Shon

Sidamo

_!0,01 �

17, 632

11,722 O 1� ,7�� :,, 8..:, 1 i

1 :i, 5oo O O 85�

21i,OOO

O �3K

:��g

2,927

820

:!,�li,,,G l•l,6..8

216

;,

(·�,lO

2, 012

Wcllcgn

20g

63

o

:

1o

i

659

0

\

9R

�go

O 395

329

0

3,021

9

7•1 14 0

0

2, 900

52

0

580

330

209

382

0

1,690

Location

unspecified

Wollo

-

108,250 ====---=

6,6 6 4 4,

4,135

65

0 0

=��� -

83� 3 l,005 7 O 371

0

1, 000

Tigre

"·��

0

lCi,��g

179 7

1,975 237 578

0

0

0 g' 108 °0 n 1, 892 28!i 13i 293 -199 4 ,6 50 0 127 .

--1---1---1---1- _ _ __

37,f, ·6?

9.5

-1�-· --··:. · - --:·_1_= =_:·

,\i:rir.ulturl:!. ... . .. ··· · · ·· ·· · ·· ·· · · · �1inin� ... .: : :. ..:: . : ............. ...... .· ·· ··· · ·· '.1.lanufa ctu in:,:-. . · · ·· · . .. . · · · · · ·· · r · : · · · :· ��:d�r_u,�ti _ on . .. : .: : .: ... . : : : : .: : . :: 1 ...: : .: · Bankini;c �� 1i i �;� .;�1:(; • . · · · • . . .

• . . • ' • • . . . . r . . . . . . . .. .... . · ·· · · · · · ·· rr��!'lpnrtal ion .. .. .. .. .

Jiih11,�s <i>lr>rlri r.il\'· an d \•:ater J .. .... · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ..

Govnrnm1>nl · ... .. . . .· · ·· · ·· ·· · i · · · · Sn�ia ls"'rvir.e�.: · . ... ......... .. ···; : : ... ::: ..: 01.hr·r :iert·h·c-s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·· ··I · ···· · · . . . . .

fi1

13.3 ·1 .R 12.1

6 7

900

0

0

J :)

1Ianufar.turing . . .... . . . . .......... , . ... · ·· · · ···· · ·· 39,12 6 J •l, 06 5 Construc1i on . ... ... ..... .............. ····· · · ···· 3:'l. i34 Trade . · .. · ·· · · · ·· · ·· · · · ·· · · · 1,796 Banki�g -��d i�������� . . . .. . . · · · · · · : : : : · : :. . . . . . .

7 ,:'159 T ran!lporlation . . . ... .. ... .. .. . ..... ..·· · · · · ·· · · · · ·· · · · · 916 Utili Iies i elect ri ci Lv and 'l'.a ' t er) . .. ... . . .. ·· · ·· · · · ··· · · · · · · ·· · · ·· · · 111,000 �overnmr>nl. ....' .. ..... .. .... ... ... . . ....

• ocial servicns..... .. .. ... . . . ... . . . .. · · ··· 18,437 ·· · Othl'r 11ervices .... . .... .. .. . .. ....... . ..· · · · · ·· ·· ·· · 28, 079 Illuba· Total . . . ..

367

-- - - --- - -·

-

03

i

307

g 10,75 0 8,0011

6�

gn

o

0

867

lo

O 625

1

73 7 ,

1

76, 900

9,600

3,000

___!__ _ _ .,......!.___,:__________

. � i>cilic ��<.·ugrophic distribulion is. '! nkno,vn. . , · ,vhu s,'. · es. pro vin c the , M_, h! �H·y IJ�r�nnn cl and )!O\'• •rn men l offic .• in one cl nl ComNnt,on of y . i,d�. �l.1l .;. , flCc rn 1 Stnt.istiral Ollice, and lw11n1str n t t. . men n (;nv . l.'r nn • , 1� In!·.: l�th inpi fm I ieriul Adaptpd fr., ,n n1nterial rurn1!ihed b>. t rn•.111ity D(>V('l, ,. , • n ba, l91°'> -,11m<'n t.. l,n hour TJP.pu rtml'nt' 1\d<l1l'I �{b

19

.

\

�-,........-------------

-----------��-----­

� ·:

.......

Se1·,1ices of all ki11ds accou11t fo1· 53.2 pe1·ce11t of employment in tl1e n1ode1·n econo1ny; gove1·11ment se1·vice alone, including the civil service, Armed Fo1·ces, a11d the I)Olice, employ ftln1ost 38 pe1·ce11t. A little o,re1· 9,000 lle1·sons e�1ch a1·e i11 educ::ttio11al a11d health se1·,;ices; togethe1· with 400 i11 community develop1ne11t, they n1al{e up the social services secto1·. A sn1all pe1·ce11tage of those in social ser,1ices are in the p1·ivate sector; ho\veve1·, most teachers, health ,,,01·kers, and community de,1elopme11t 1Je1·s011nel a1·e on the government's payrolls, though 11ot co11sidered to be civil serva11ts. The 9,600 \-vhose specific locc1.tion is 1111known are health a11d commu11ity development ,vo1·ke1·s. Most of the fo1·me1· are in Aclclis Ababa, Asma1·a, and otl1er urlJa11 cente1·s, but 110 SJlecific data a1·e available to sho,v how many are i11 wl1ich cities. iVIost comm11nity development v\ro1·kers a1·e i11 ot1t­ lying a1·eas of the Empi1·e.

Cateri11g �111d tou1·ism, and clomestic ancl other 1)erso11al se1·,,ices, �1re st1bsumed t1ncle1· ''Other Se1·vices." The fo1·me1· accot111ts fo1· about 7,600 1Je1·sons, mostly in the hotels in AddiR Ababa; domestic service fo1· an estimated 20,000. The remai11de1· are purveyors of casual se1·vices co11nected ,, rith t11·ba11 life·-shoeshi11e lJoys, guides, J)orte1·s, etc.

There is no hea,ry industry. Textile produc­ tion a11d foocl IJrocessing accot1nt fo1· ove1· two­ thi1·ds of the emplo) ment in n1anufactt1ring ( table 12) ; ll1·ocessi11g of forest 01· livestock p1·oclucts fo1· about one-thi1·d of the 1·est.

1

TABLE

12.

Et.IPLOYl.\1ENT IN i\'1ANUFACTURING,

- -· ----- .. ·-. - -·--- ------ - - --

____

............ · -· --

1965

....... -·-- ·- -

... ·-

-

Nurnh<-r •'mployt,d

Branch of nianufacturing

-·-·-···-------------1---ToLal............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = ·:-s·... =-.,,.:·. a:·: .. . .

Te:1;tilr.· '

' '

'

'

:s....._...,...,., .... .. ,, � I• ood p roces.�1ng . . . . ...... ...... : : : : : · : : : · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · Beverages.... ... . . . .... ... . . . . ...

Toli.1�·1'.o JJ rod ucts. , _ . . ... . . ... .. . . . : : : : : · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · ··· Tanning and fooLv.·car.. _ . .. . .. ... · : :: · \Vood i1nd wood produrt11...... ..... . · ·· ·· ·· ·· ·· · · ·· · ·· ·· ·· ·· Furnitur1? and fi xtur�s · :::::::::: :::: · · · · · · · · · · · · · · g· in ish l,l . d . . ri pu g un in nt P N on�etallic ,nineral producLs ........... : : :: : : ·· · ·· ·· · ·· · Chemtrals and ch1:mic.al product!'! .... _ . . . . . .. ' .. · 0 I hl'r . .. .. ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... · · · · · ·· ·· ·· ··

0-. 0

1 :J, OH !} l 1 ,21i.: !

1 , 8 la 499 1, 5!)(1 l ,2lill 936 !J55 3,27� 1, 122 1,3:J(i

Sn1·1:1·r,:: lr1111el'iul Ethio1iin11 c:ovc · i-1unent' Centr·ll • •Sl11 t-1s--:--L1ral Ollice, ,\ rid is ,\ baha, 1!11\:..

Of the a1)1J1·oximateljr 14,100 pe1·s011s 1· 11 C011S t1·t1ct'1011, ab 011t 6,000 ai·e einployed ill th 11ume1·ous cor1tracting fii·ms, nlostly itl Adc li: Abal)a; a11d about 8,000 by the Inl})ei·i::1I I-Ii. gh­ _ r \it, �1y Autho1·1tJr (II-IA) a few of ,,,hon1 ar.e _111 . . . . acl1111111strat1\re llOSitio118 ill Adcli·s Abab�1. a11cl 1

20

. . ··-

. '. ' ...!.:.�� ..., . : I 'j

-· .. - :· · ··'• ,;',rz

st of ,vl1orn are t mo bu ls, ta pi ca l cia i11 ·ov pi the cre,vs tl11·oughout thri o11 cti 1·u 1st co1 tcl ro:: the � in count1·y. c.01nn1e1·cial sector (i11cludin, 111 tlie moder11 g . . e). t·he majority nc ra s11 111 1c �11 1 k in 11 ba 1d a1 , le ac ti· . � 1Jo1·t-expo1·t fi1·ms ; at least ,11-e em ployee] 111 1111 4,000 a1·e in fi1·n1s exporti11g coffee. Small i·etail stoi·es accou11tecl fo r an estimated 10,00012,000 1Je1·sons.

1Yiocler11 ag1·ic11ltt11·al enterp1·ises empJ 01. ,tbot1t 21,700, or 7. 4 pe rc en t of those active i� t J1e n1ocle1:11 eco11omy. M os t of them ,vork for t111cle1·taki11gs establishecl l)y fo1·eig11ers in con� 11ectio11 ,vith an i11dt1st1·y. Tl1e la1·gest, ,vonji ctncl Shoa St1ga1· Estates 11ea1� Acldis Ababa and thl� l\1et�1l1£1ra Plantations fa1·tl1e1· south, ,vhich 1·�lise s11gc11·ca11e fo1· ::1 suga1· refi11e1·y a11d candv• f ,1cto1·)�, a1·e Dtitch-o,, rnecl ,, rith son1e Ethiopian l)artici1)atio11, ,111cl l1ave c1 combi11ed 1Jeak labor fo1·ce o:f abo11t 11,500 (1·ougl1l�r 5,000 a1·e sea­ so 11 c1 l ,,ro1·ke1·s). Tl1e I talian-o ,, r11 ed Bara ttolo Textile Facto1·y i11 Asmara ope1·ates t\,ro cotton })la11tatio11s i11 1101·the1·11 E1·it1·ea, en1plo)1i11g ::tbottt 1,600 c1g1·ict1lt111·al \\'orke1·s. Other co11ce11tratio11s o:f 111ocle1·11 ag1·ict1lt111·al labor are on tl1e Te11dahoe cotto11 l)la11tatio11s i11 ,vollo Prov­ i11ce (pa1·tly B1·itish-o,, 111ecl), ,vl1e1·e 4,000 agri­ c11ltt11·c1l \\ 701·ke1·s a1·e em1llo)red (1,000 sea­ s011al); ,1nd i11 the gove1·111ne11t-sponsored A,,,assa Develo1Jn1e11t Fa1·n1 i n A1·ussi Province, \.vhicl1 e1nploys abot1t 2,000 pe1·s011s.

The go,,e1·11n1e11t-01)e1·atecl g·old mines around Keb1·e lVIe11gist i11 1101·tl1e1·11 Sidamo Province e1n1Jloy 11ea1·l)' all (15,550) of the estimated 16,700 IJersons i11 tl1e mi11i11g sector. Other grottl)S ,, 701·k i11 the salt fields of lVIassa,va (300) i:tncl Assab (200) 011 the Red Sea coast. Several hu11cl1·ecl 11101·e a1·e en1ployed by the foreig n0\:4i7 necl co111JJct11ies explo1·i11g fo1· potash and oiL An estin1ated 7,400 perso11s are active in the tr:::tllspo1·ti1tio11 secto1·. The Ethiopian Air Lines eni1)loys 1,700. The F1·a11co-Ethiopia11 Rail,vay ein1lloys 2,800 tll1cl the Ago1·dat-Massawa Rail­ \\r ciy iii E1·it1·ea P1· 0,1i11ce seve1·a hu11clred mor e. l Rotlghly !,000 �11·e emplo)red by ,1a1·iou s munici­ l)al a11cl 1nte1·urba11 bu s compa11ies a11d probal)\,Jr ,seve1·'1 c l h t1ncl 1·ecl mo1·e a1·e taxi· d r1,,e1 · · ·s· Tl1e 11timbe1· emJ)loyed in utilities is p1·obably ,· 1 u11de1·st·:1ted on es c: , as tl 1e figu1�e re1Jo1·ted includ · _ c­ tl1ose ,,,orki11g· fo1· the In Ele pia n Et hi o 11le1·ial _ er· tric Lig·ht and Po,ve1· Aut p 00 · ho1·it1 (1,2 1�. n 80118), foi· the E1·it1·ea11 Li Co r er gl1t c:111d Po\\ 7

--

. .

J• '

'

'' ..

·1' ,

''

'l_,

-

,'

I• •\

••

.I-·

er so a n d slightly over 1 0 0 other n s) , 0 46 ( Y � IJan \v th at e e1 · depa1·tments of provin­ 1n es o} ·e m pl e cial to\vns. No figt1res ar e available for emP1oy· of Acldis Ab · the wa ter companies rnent 1n b Asm�ra, and other towns w it h pumped w:t:; supplies.

Statistical data on the occupational distribulabor force a1·e scanty• The lac. rgest tion of the • • occu pational grot1p. 1s th at of th e farmer-herd s men, \Vh.1ch comprises 90 to 94 percent of the esti�ated labor force: Only about 0.2 percent of this g1·oup are agr1ct1ltt1ral workers in mod­ ern undertakings. Ma ny of the fa1·mer-herds­ men are also e11gaged i� handic1·afts 01· ti·ading. _ Ft1ll-t1me craftsmen (1ronsmiths. silversmiths and goldsmiths, tanners and \voodcarvers) and full-time traders each account for probably less than 1 perce11t of the labor force. In the tradi­ tional economy t1·aders are most often handlers of small manufactured goods such as combs ' scarves, umbrellas, and packets of penicillin.

Some are t1·aveling peddlers; others operate small shops. A very small portio11 of this occu­ pational group a1·e commercial worke1·s in the modern economy, chiefly employees of import­ export firms, banks, and insurance companies.

Most se1·v·ice ,vorkers, comprising about 2 to 3 percent of the total labo1· force, are in the traditional economy. They a1·e J)riests and lay churchme11 ( teache1·s in moder11 church schools and chu1·ch admi11istrative officials are included in the professional grou1ling), festival dancers and singers, medici11e me11, etc. In the modern economy, the majo1·ity are domestic servants.

Smaller numbers are workers in hotels and c atering firms.

Miners, t1·ansport worke1·s, and pro(luctio11 workers i11 modern factories comprise p1·obably less than 1 percent of the total labor force.

Profe ssional, technical, aclrninistrative, and clerical \vo1·kers make up the remaining 1 to 1. 5 l)ercent of the estimated labor force. The over­ :"helming majority are professional and admin1strative personnel-milita1·y personnel, civil servants, teachers, and health workers. There are relatively few technicians or clerical ,vorkers; those that are in these categories are abo ut evenly divided between industry ( chiefly m::,11 ufacturi11g) a11d government service. \� ome11 are primarily employed in homecraft · such as potterymaking, sometimes in act.ivi·t·1es

hel�ing i11 the fields, and in ma1·keting the small agricultural st1rplus from the family farm.

Othe1� concentratio11s of women are in the civil sei·,,ice ancl in such other government activities as teaching a11cl nu1·sing, although the number �f ,vomen cloes not approach the number of men in these occu1)ations. Women are also found in domestic se1·vice. About 7 5 percent of the em­ ployees in textile manufacturing are female; several tl1ousand more are employed in other manufactt1ring establishments, such as food processing establishments (canneries and the Wonji and Shoa candy factory mentioned above, for example), cigarette and match factories and button factories.

Data on unemployment are incomplete. In 1961, the unemployed registered with the Eritrean Directorate of Labor numbered about 14,500. This figure excluded those in farmi11g and animal husbandry, where the chief problem is underemployment. There are no available estimates of the unemployed in any other part of Ethiopia nor for the country as a whole. The Employment Offices Section of the Labor De� partment reported more than 4,000 persons registered i11 May 1964, but some were already employed and seeking to change jobs. Although all levels of skill were represented among the 1·egist1·ants, most were unskilled laborers for \\1 hom it was difficult to find work; skilled ,vo1·kers a11cl qualified professionals are still in short supply and have less trouble finding em1lloyment.

S1>ccial Characteristics of the Labor Force

Seasonal labor activity is widespread in Ethiopia. Most of the population are engaged in some form of agricultural activity, including p1·ocessing of raw materials, which is seasonal in nature. Statistics are almost wholly lacking on the actual numbers involved in seasonal em­ ployment. However, the Metahara Plantations 1·eported in 1958 that while 800 workers were 1·egularly employed, up to 5,000 were on the payrolls during harvest periods. The Wonji and Shoa St1gar Estates also hire seasonal help, the number of workers on their payrolls in­ creasing from about 5,500 to 10,500 at sugar­ cane cutting time. Dt1ring the coffee-harvesting season, tens of thousands of subsistence farm­ e1·s f1·om the Provinces of Begemder, Wollo,

21

.

::"r: •. ,:.·-. .. ·.

:-, '.. . -�,. . .••. ,.. • , r • · ., � .

' 1

'.

........ .1.....

r:-......,� ,

--------

-

- ---------------

,..

, ..,!�,

.

i5 ·•. ••:•.,,;••,. :.• .•,• ':'' · '. ·- 1;,

!

,."

: ····.-; . �: •-:,...·

.

:�

,.

11

Arussi, c:1nd Shoa supplement thei1 · i11co1nes by finding tempo1·ary employme11t picking coffee beans on plantations 01· i11 the f01·ests of ,vild coffee t1·ees in the llrovi11ces of Kefa, Wellega, and Illt1babo1·, where the)' sell them to t1·avel­ i11g buyers.

There are an estimated 13/.1• n1illion Ilomads in Ethiopia; tl1e largest groups are the Somalis, in southern Hararge Province; the Da11akil, mostly in Wollo Province; ancl the Sabo along the central part of the Erit1·ean coastline.

There are also a few smaller grot1ps i11 no1·thern E1·itrea. These groups 1·eprese11t the only la1·ge­ scale migrato1·y activity i11 the co1111try. With rega1·d to migration of basically sedenta1·J· groups, there has been some cluste1·ing in the new industrial centers in the last 10 to 15 years. These })eo})le ust1ally come f1·om areas qt1ite near the ce11ter ,vhe1·e employment is soug}1t, a11d are ge11e1·all)r J)eO}lle who, if tl1ey have 11ot actttally }lartici1l�tted in the mode1·n economy, have at least been in co11tact ,:vitl1 it and have felt tl1e attractions of 1-vage em1)loy­ me11t. The 011ly single mig1·ation notable for its size i11 recent yea1·s is the moven1ent of young, skilled men f1·om Eritrea, Province, compelled by the 1·ecession i11 the Eritrean economy after Federation in 1952, to Etl1ioJ)ian towns to fill positions as J)ha1·macists, teachers, clerks, c:lnd mechanics. Withi11 the traditio11al economy, there is only occasional individt1al migration to a neighboring province. Migration mea11s living among st1·angers, perhaps hostile and with differe11t customs; this is distasteful to ma11\r • Ethiopia11s. Hence, among these people, an individual mig1·ates only if he is in severe 11eecl, a11d since economic necessity is usually the 1·eason fo1· mig1·ation and paid employment is considered degrading, he is apt to go f�11· from home to avoid shaming his family.

There a1·e almost no data on skills i11 the modern JJc:1rt of the economy. Ha11dic1·aftt ancl later mechanical, skills have tr,1ditionally been 1·eg�11·ded by ruling CoJJtic Amha1·as as a mis­ fortt111e to tl1ose \Vho possessecl them. A11 Am­ haric proverb wa1·ns ''F1·om cleverness of mind )'Oll become boss, f1·om cleve1·ness of hand yotl become se1·va11t," and until 1·ece11tly st1ch sl{ills have lJee11 relegated to ethnic g1·oups co11sidei·ed infe1·ior by the Amharas. Toda)'., i11 the context of t1rban life, these tr�lditional feeli11gs ai·e

22

ic necessity slo\vly giving \vay before_ econom _ and the ne\.\ values filtering 1n from contact ,vith the West. Nonetheless, even in modernized circles, and much more so in the countryside the preferred occt1pations of th e r11ling grotip� ai·e ag1·icult11re 01· a11im<1l husbandry, the rnili­ ta1·y, white-colla1· jobs in p1·iv ate or go,1e rn­ ment se1·vice, a11cl the cht1rch-that is, ,vork \vl1ich involves mo1·e mental caJ)ability than n1a11t1al dexte1·ity. Th ese attitudes, combined with ,vides1)1·ead illiterc:1cJr and the scarcity of t1·ai11ing })t·ograms, restilt in acute sho1·tages of ma11ual skills in all a1·eas.

These shortages have led to a dependence on foreig11e1·s i11 the 1·esident population and on fo1·eign expe1·ts tem1lo1·arily in Ethiopia to per­ fo1·m many 11ecessa1·y functio11s in the economy.

(See sectio11 on Po1Julation a11d Lallor Supply.)

Foreig11e1·s employed i11 Etl1iopia i11clude over half the e11gineers; abottt t,vo-thirds of a)l medical }lersonnel and of all teachers above p1·i1nary level ; ancl o, er two-thirds of those at tl1e c:1clminist1·ator-di1·ecto1· le,;e} in commerce and indust1·y. An article in a11 Ethiopian ne\VS· ])tt}le1· statecl that i11 the comme1·cial sector in AJ)ril 1965, of the total of 4,286 individua] traders registe1·ed ,vith the l\.finist1·y of Com­ me1·ce and Ind11st1·y, 78 }le1·cent a1·e Ethiopians a11d 22 percent fo1·eigne1·s. Ho,vever, the Ethi­ OJlians cond t1ct 011ly 011e-tl1i1·d of the volun1e of bt1siness, ,vhile the f01·eig11e1·s co11duct two­ thirds. The nationc1lities n1ost in,rolved are G1·eel{s, A1·n1e11ians, a11d to ,1 lesser extent Arabs ancl Indians. Pe1·s01111el in the la1·gest firms are ofte11 mixed, \\'ith Eu1�01)eans as ,,,ell. The lt:1lia 11s a1·e fo1· the n1ost pa1·t a1·tisans and s1nc:1ll i11dt1strialists in the cities. A11 employ111e11t su1·ve)1 conducted by the Ce11t1·al Statis· tical Oflice i11 1962 an1011g ma11ufactt11·ing firn1s ith a registe1·ed ca1)ital of Eth$25,000 ( US$10,000) a11cl o,,e1· sho,vecl the same 1Jatteri1 J)re,,aili1 1g. P�11·tial 1·et11rns, covering about 011e-tl1i1·cl of �111 employment in manufacturing, sho,,, non-Ethiopi�1 ns n1a1·l{edly J)redon1inating at the admi11ist1·ati,,e le,reI and occUil)ri11g about 4o �)ercent of the tecl111ic�ll, clerical, anc1 secre· tc:11·1al })Ositio11 s (table 13).

Tl1e Fo1·eig11 Nationals En1plOJ'n1e11t Regula· _ tions, 1964, gove1·n the em1)lOJ'n1e11t of foreign1

1

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TABLE

13.

IN

El'YIPL0Yl\-1ENT

l\'IANUFACTURING

OCCUPATION AND 1 NATIONALITY 1

1962

BY

-----,---· ____En1 __plo__ ----··- --- ymcnt ..

------

Non-Ethiopian

Total employmen·t

·' n Occupnuo

-N· um ber

9, = 43 = l=== 74. \drninistrntors. . . .

266 Technicia ns... . . . .

Clerks :1nd 206 S('cretnries. . , · · · Production 8,666 workers.. .... _ ..

5,82l ;\,Jule..... ....

2,8,15 Female.. ... . .. . ' '>31 ..

Ot her I ...... · · · · · ;

.

I petc<-n1: .I lot.al I ?111f Cllr.h I I Nunih·"nr , grou11

---· __9 � '.l .== _:�-�- !""

I � �=-� � 10 13.5 -

--�-nt-1---:::---:-:-:I----4 4 ions All occup

I>crccnt of tot· \ in cu�i1 group

"=

l53

123

8,527 5,(jf!2 2,8•15 '-"31

\ ,

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G�11 ::i

57 .5 :i9.7

9�-·� 9,.b I 00.0 100 . 0

1 1.

· · -··-

1

83 \

-Rr. " ,12:�

,10.:l

139 · l.li ,, .1 139 · . . . .. . . . ..... • ..

M•

\. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .

--�---'----

' Guards, t"antecn staff, ntessengers, cleaning help,

l !LC.

SOl!lil'ES: _.\dnp�<'d_ rr�t;n Ethk,ria, C _cnlrnl Statislit>nl

Officl·, S11111111ar!I Re11ort on bth10111<1 s 1\la1111Jurturu1y l11<111str11, t!l:'iii /9G-:! (i\ddis Ababn. .July 1961).

.'

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t.

ers in the private secto1·, including commercial and indust1·ial e11te1·p1·ises J)a1·tially o,vned by •• the Ethio1lia11 Gove1·nme11t. The Regt1lations encou1·age the training of Ethio1Jia11s to 1·eplace foreigne1·s, ancl i11 practice many have appar­ ently been replaced; the1·e are, ho,vever, no comprehensive statistics 011 the st1bject. It ap­ pears that, in the mocle1·n secto1·, quotas are often set on the nt1mbe1- of foreigne1·s who may be hi1·ed in a give11 ente1·1)1·ise (the qt1ota may be revised if the enter1J1·ise ex1Jands), and the management is J)e1·iodically unde1· pressu1·e from the Public Employment Aclminist1·ation in the iVIi11istry of Commt111ity Develop1nent a11d Social Affairs to adhe1·e to tl1em a11cl ft11·the1· red11ce foreign pe1,son11el \vhe11e,1e1· I)ossible. In the trc1clitional secto1· there is less 1)1·esst1re, a11d Greek or Indian trade1·s, f 01· example, continue to use family help in thei1· shops.

The l)ast disinclination of Ethio1)ians to e11gage in t1·ade has restrlted i11 almost all t1·ade outside the chief t1rban centers being in fo1·eig11 hands. Arabs clominate trade in the cou11try­ sicle, a11d to a lesser extent Indians, Greeks, and Armenians a1·e also engaged in t1·acle. Crafts • in the countryside are in the hands of no11Cop tic grot1ps: Smithing by Falasha men, pot­ terymaking by F,1lasha women; silverwo1·king l)y lVIusliins, a11(1 tanning by almost any non­ .�mhara, non-Coptic g1·ou1J. An1ong l\.1trslims the participation of ,vomen

i� the labor fo1·ce is severely limited by reli­ giot1s l)1·osc1·i1)tio11s against ,vomen mingling in m,1.le society. The cultures of the Christian, J e\\'ish, and pagan elements of the population place some restrictions 011 their women, but in the traditional sector of the economy women work 011 fa1·ms, gathe1· coffee beans, sell in the ma1·kets, and act as singers and dancers at ,,reclclings a11d communal celebrations. They �tre tattooers and hai1·dressers; the Falasha "''Ome11 make pottery, as noted above, a11d Amha1·a ,vome11 suppl) homespun thread to \-veave1·s.

In the modern sector of the economy, employ­ n1ent of women is still ve1·y limited, bt1t if a woman has had some edt1cation there is no ostensible barrie1� based on sex alone to her em­ ployment and advancement. In high-level gov­ er11me11t positions one ,voman ,vas a membe1· of the Hot1se of Dept1ties, one was an Assistant Mi11ister, and t,vo were Directors-General in 1

1965.

011ly �catterecl statistics on })roductivity are a,1ailable. The Second 5-Year Plan estimated thfLt p1·ocluctivity in manufacturing had risen by abot1t 10 percent between 1956 and 1961.

In the cotton textile indt1stry especially, pro­ clt1ctivity has recently imJJroved throttgh the installation of ne,v machinery, the establish­ n1e11t o·f 1·egt1la1· 1Jrocedures for the handling of labo1· management dispt1tes by unions and m�1n­ ,1gement, ancl by on-the-job ·training and im­ l)t·ove1ne11t 1J1·ograms. However, some employ­ e1·s i11 this secto1·, which includes a large nt1mbe1· of ,von1e11, complain that the constant tt11-nover in their \.Vork forces because of mar1·i�1ges a11d confinements renders their training effo1·ts almost meaningless. Other employers have 1·epo1·ted that lack of familiarity with mocle1·n p1·actices a11d lack of training are the ma.Joi· cat1ses of low prodt1ctivity in Ethiopia.

Othe1· contribt1ting factors inclt1de the preva­ ler1ce amo11g the work force of debilitating cliseases, the high altitt1de at which many ac­ tivities are ca1�ried 011. rigo1·ot1s and frequent fasting 1·eqt1ired by the Ethiopian Orthodox and Mtrslim 1·eligions, and a lack of motivation to \vork harcl sten1ming, a])l)arently, from a general satisfactio11 \vith life as it is.

23

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�---------- - - - - - - - --·-· -----------­ . .. ...,.

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.... :;;·· . ,. .. ,. •.::.

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Natio1111l Se1·,•iee System

The Ethiopian Armecl Fo1·ces a1·e estimatecl to total slightl)' mo1·e th,111 39, 000 n1e11 of ,vhom ove1· 31, 000 are in the regular Army a11d 6, 000 in the Impe1·ial Bodygt1a1·d. There is also 1 squadron of jet fighte1·s ""'hich fo1·m tl1e nt1clet1s of the Air Force, and a very small Navy fo1·med in 1956 ,vhich has chiefl)r a coast gt1a1·d missio11.

All peacetime se1·vice is voluntary, and the1·e is no reserve system. In \Va1·tin1e any able­ ·bodied male is subject to mobilizatio11; as the regt1la1· A1·med Forces a1·e small, la1·ge numbe1·s ,vo11ld lJe rec1·t1ited i11 time of eme1·ge11cy. Since n1ost rec1·t1itment wot1ld be fo1· the e11listed ranks, the chief effect of la1·ge-scale 1nobiliza­ tio11 '"rould 1)1·obably be to 1·elieve some of the }J1·esst1re of t111employment ,111d t111de1·em1Jloy­ n1ent in the cities and tow11s.

Men 1·ec1·uited i11 times of eme1·genc)r ge11erally are 1·elea::;ecl ,,,hen the en1e1·gency is o, re1� a11d ha,,e 110 training except �1s fighti11g men.

S11ecialized trai11i11g 1·eceived by regula1· mili­ t�11·y }Je1·s011nel is n1ade a,r�tilable to the lal)o1· force 011ly tl}Jo11 1·eti1·en1e11t fron1 the A1·mecl Forces, si11ce fe\v 1·esign vol1111ta1·ily ancl tl1e1·e is 110 clraft. Beca11se the 1·eti1·eme11t system ,v�ts i11t1·oducecl only recently, ho,:i.1eve1·, the effect on the skills a,railable i11 the civilia11 labor force h�1s not been ve1·y great. A1·my units have

24

been ttsed more a11d more to help ,vith loc,11 con1m unity im1J1�oveme11t lJrojects i11 th P ai·e::1s ,vl1ei·e the)' ,1r·e stationeel. Tl1e n1ilit,trr have �1Iso cont1·ibt1tecl to tl1e civilia11 ecoi1om� by lei1cli11g 1)e1·sonnel to fill posts in mi11i8tries ttncl i11 the lJrovi11cial adn1inist1·c:1tio 11s, by OJ)­ e1·ati11g· a second�1ry level technical school at Deb1·e Zeit, by souncling a11<l el1a1·ti11g the \\1ater� off Massa\va, ancl by establisl1ing comn1unica­ tio11s facilities at Massa,va fo1· use by the port autho1·ities.

A 11011milit,1r) fo1·n1 of natio11al service ,vas i11,1 t1gt11·,1ted in Se1)temlJe1: 1964.

Callecl the Etl1iopi::1n U11ive1·sit)r Se1·, r ice (EUS), it is a con1J)ttlso1·)r p1·og1·am ,vhe1·eb)1 all stt1clents at the H::1ile Selassie I U11i, 1e1·sity n1ust ser\'e 1 ye,11· in the Pro, 1i11ces at the encl of thei1· third )rea1· of stucly. 111 the fi1·st yea1· of its O})eratio11, 133 st11dents f1·01n all 10 colleges ,,re11t out. 011e ht111cl1·ed ancl fot11·tee11 stt1clents taught school, 111ostl)r grc:1cles 7 lt11d 8; the geology majors se1·,,ecl ,vith the 1VIi11ist1·y of l\fi11es, hel1)ing to l)rosJJect fo1· 1ni11e1·als; the ag1·ict1ltu1·e majors se1·,,ecl at ,1g1·ict1ltt11�al stations; st11de11ts at the B t1si11ess College \Vere accottntants i11 gover11ment offices. The })1·ogram's sta1·t l1as bee11 ve1·y st1ccessft1l, ,,,ith most stuclents undertak­ ing ext1·a 1)1·oj ects i11 lite1·ac)r, pest control, l1ygiene, etc., i11 adclitio11 to tl1ei1· 1·egula1· duties.

1-ecently

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PART II.

.,

GOVERNi\'IENT AND LAB OR

Cl1apte1" VI. l'ul>lir Acln1inistr�.1tio11

The E thio1)ia11 Go,1e1·nme11t estimated the total ntimber of gove1·11ment em1)loyees i 11 mid1965 at abot1t 54,000. Rotlghly 20,000 of these ,vere emJ)loyecl i11 the mi11ist1·ies clncl in the Adclis Ababa mt111ici1Jal go,re1·nme11t. Another 10,000 ,vere em1)loyees of the E1·it1·ea11 1J1·ovi11_ cial go, e1·11ment: the 1·emaining 24,000 ,ve1·e in the speci,1lized age11cies i11 the ca1Jit�tl a11cl the administ1·ation of the otl1e1· P1·ovinces. The services of foreign adviso1·s a11cl ex1Jerts ai·e. freely tised i11 aclviso1·y or tech11ical ca1Jacities.

No tJrecise figt11·es 011 the 1111mbe1· of st1ch fo1·­ ·�ig11ers are a,,ailc1ble : ho,veve1· � most depart­ rne11ts a11cl agencies i11 Adclis Ababa have one 01· t,,ro. ,, e1·y fe,v f01·eig11 aclviso1·s a1·e employed i11 the P1·ovinces.

There is little t111ifor1nit)r i11 the 01·ga11izatio11 ancl OIJera,tion of tl1e gove1·nme11t mi11ist1·ies.

Fe,v explicit 01·ganization cl1(11·ts, jol) classifica­ tio11 tables, l)ay scc:1les, 01· othe1· sta11da1·ds fo1· ,vorki11g co11clitio11s 01· pe1·sonal co11clt1ct of offici,ll en1plo)rees exist, c:111cl those that do ,vere t1s11ally evol,•ed ,vithot1t 1·ega1·cl fo1· exist• Ing }Jractices in othe1· aclminist1·ative t111its of the gov·er11me11t. The Cons ti tt1tio11 1·ese1·ves f 01· the En11)e1·or the 1·ight to ap1)oi11t, 1)1·on1ote, transfer, sus1)e11d, and clismiss all l)ublic officials at all le\'els of governme11t se1·vice, a11cl i11 fc:1ct he has often exercisecl this 1·ight. Othe1· 1Je1·­ sonne l actio11s ha,re t1suc:1lly bee11 taken by eac.h ' . m1111ster for his o,v n mi11ist1·v. ,, In rece11t )rears, ho,veve1·, several p1·ogr�1ms hi:1ve been i11iti�1ted to moder11ize the 01Je1·ations atifl fJl'gcl11ization o:f the gove1·11me11t, to create ,l r egltlar civ·il se1·vice, a1�d to standa1·flize con­ . _ ditio n8 of e1n1)loyme11t in all gover11ment �1ge11_ cies. 1'he ImJ)eri�il Ethir>pit111 I11stitt1te for �\11 �ic Arlmi11is t1�ati(Jfl, e8tablishecl \Vith U11i�ecl � .:ltii)tls �1s8i�t�1 11ce in 1956, is a const1ltat1 ve ; )f)ll} · \\' l1ich, ::1 t: the� 1·ec1 t1est fJf �1 minist1·y 01· ,1 der1�1 t·tn1ent fJf �1 minist1·y, stu(lies prol)len1s o·f

·,

I

1

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org�t11izatio11 ancl aclrninist1·ation ancl makes 1·ecommenclations on their solutio11s. The In­ s�itt1te has no powe1· to implement its sugges­ t1011g, a11cl the cleg1·ee to ,vhich its proposals have lJee11 accepted ancl pt1t into JJractice is not s1)ecifically kno,v11. The Institute also co11clucts cotlrses a11d serni11ars f01· all levels of govern­ n1e11t en1ployees in many aspects of public ad­ mi11ist1·ation, ptlblic fi11ance, 01·ganization and methods, ·filing, a11tl accot111ting. In the first 7 yP.a1·R of its existence, 1,130 pe1·sons 1·eceivecl t1·ai11ing. An Institt1te st11·vey of ma11y of the midclle and lovve1· level employees \vho attended its cot11·ses reveals that the 11e\vly lear11ed methocls rtlll co1111te1· to n1a11y olcl a11d estab­ lished ,vays of operating, ancl challenge en­ tre11cl1ed 1J1·e1·ogatives of older officials.

A ft11·ther ste1J i11 mode1·nizi11g employment in gove1�11rnent serv·ice \\7 aS the establishment in 1961 of the Ce11trrLl Pe1·son11el Agency, at the suggestion of tl1e l11stitute. The Agency has severcil clt1ties, among \vhich a1·e recruitment, exami11atio11, anrl hiri11g of all ,,vhite-collar gov­ er111ne11t em})loyees UJJ to the 1·ank of Assistant IVIi11iste1·, \,,hose sala1·ies mt1st come from the 11e\\7ly i11troclt1ced sala1·ies bt1clget for each Min­ ist1·y, a11cl the establisl1ment of a uniform civil se1·,,jce th1·ot1gh the formulation of pay scales ft11cl job cl(1ssifications aJll )licable to all min­ istries a11d agencies. The Agency has been per­ f01·ming the fi1·st of these cluties for several yea1·s. (See section on Hiring.) Toward fulfill­ me11t of the second dt1ty, it has dra\vn up pro­ IJosals o·f stancl(1rcliz,1tion \Vhich i11 micl-1966 ,,re1·e l)efo1·e tl1e Cot1ncil of Ministers for �t111J1·ova I. U11til st1ch time as the JJ1·oposed scales go i11to effect, it is cliffict1lt to con11)a1·e \vages and s�tlft1·ies i11 the civil se1·vice vvith those offered e at ·iv e )J1 th i11 e os Th . or ct se e �tt iv 11r e i 11 th s, ion le sit J)o ·ab )a1 m1 co for 1· he hig c:1r l)e �tlJ · secto1 ·h0,,,eve1·. J·Iot1 rs ,1.11cl otl1c1· conclitions of em­ t l)loyme11t a1·e simila1·, bttt some gover11men 25

-·d' , · - -

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Go,,erninenl

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leave J)1·0,risio11 s a1·e mo1·e f,t,ro1·able, ,l11 d 1·e­ ti reme11t ancl Jlension benefits a1·e l)t·ovided fo1· the civil Re1·vice but 11ot 1�01· most of the JJ1·ivate secto1·. The Jlrestige of gove1·11ment se1·vice is t1·adition,1lly greate1· than that of employ1nent in the JJ1·i,rate secto1·, althot1gl1 the financial ad­ \�,1ntages of JJri,rate em1Jloyme11t a1·e begi1111i11g· to out,veigh the att1·actio11 of this p1·estige. Op­ JJortt1nities fo1· ,vhite-colla1· em1Jlo:{ment i11 the J)1·ivate secto1· a1·e , re1·y limited, ho\veve1·, a 11 d the gove1·nme11t conti11t1es to employ the ma­ jo1·ity of EthioJ)ia's best-trai11ecl J'Ottth.

All1ni11istrati,·e Bo<lies (�011cerne<l Witl1 Lal,01·

The IVIi11istry of Co1nmu11ity De,,elo1J111e11t a11d Social Aff(1irs has an1ong its dL1ties 1·espo11si­ bi lity fo1· lalJOJ� n1atters i11 the Ethiopia11 Em­ l)ire. Se, e1·Etl grOUIJR ,,vithi11 the Mi11 ist1·)r sl1a1·e tl1 iH re�1>011sil)ility: The Divisio11 of Pt1blic En1ployn1 ent, the Di,1isioi1 ()f Labot1r Relatio11s, the Lilbou1� I11s1)ection Se1·vice, and va1·iot1s boa1·ds.

T11ese g1·ou}ls a1·e loosel) 1·efer1·ed to as the Labour De11a1·tment. A small b1·anc.h office of tl1e De1Ja1·tn1e11t, \Vith identic,11 ft111ctio11s, 01ler­ �ttes i11 Di1·edawa.

The Di, risions of Pt1blic Employ1nent a11d of I..,abou1· Relatio11s, both establishecl i11 1962, ar� each headed by a11 Assist,1nt Minister res}lonsi­ l)le to the l\ii11iste1·. The Public Employment Di­ ,,isio11, through its tl1ree sectio11s, di1·ects all em­ })loyment offices (EmJlloyment Offices Section) ; collects and publishes statistics on emJ)loyment tre11 ds, 1·u1·al migration, and related manpo,ver matters (Ma11power, Research, and Statistics Sectio11) ; and implements the gover11ment's Ethio1)ianizatio11 policy th1·ough its control ove1• the isst1a11ce of \Vork Jlermits to foreigners ( Fo1·eigne1·s' Em1lloyment Sectio11). Tl1 e Labou1· Relation Division is resJlonsible fo1· the promotio11 of good labo1·-management 1·elations through the conciliatio11 se1·vices of its Labot11· 1

1

26

Relations Sectio11; a11 d fo1· inte1·11atio11al labor

activities a11d the d1·aft �1i1d revie,v of all labo�· legisI£1tion, i11 its Legal anrl Internatioi1 al l.1iaiso11 Section.

The Labou1· I11s1)ectio11 Se1·vice, c1·eatecl in 1964, is cha1·ged \.Vith the enfo1·cement of all legal c1.1·1�,111geme11ts 1·elati11g to \\1orki11g condi� tio11 8 ,111 d employme11t b}' st1p1llyi11g technical ii1 fo1·1 11�1tio11 a11cl advice to ma11 ageme11t and l,llJoi·. It st1pe1�,rises tl1 e \\'Orki11g conditio11s of ;;1 }1 \\TOt'l{e1·s a11cl em})loyees ,vith the exce1Jtion of those i11 clomestic en11)lo}rme11 t, the ci,!il ser,·� ice, a11d ,1g1·icultu1·e, exce1)t \\1he1·e the agricul� tt11-�ll e11te1·1)1·ise is ope1·ated i11 co11 ju11ction ,,·ith ,111 i11clt1st1·)' a11cl en1plo}rs more tha11 IO J)erso11s 011 a pe1·mc111e11t bi:lsis. The Inspection Service beg,111 to OJ)e1·ate i11 tl1e field only i11 111icl-1966, p(11·tly because it \\'fts 11 ecessa1·y to familiarize tl1 e i11s1)ecto1·s \\1ith the n1an)· aspects of their ,vorlc ,1nd to t1·ai11 them i11 ins1Jection 1nethods c111d J)1·oc.eclt11·es. Also the Se1·,�ice had to a,,,ait tl1 e 1)1·om11lgatio11 of the Labou1· Sta11dards P1·oclam,1tio11 ,vl1ich en11}0,ve1·s it to enter a11d i11spect ,vo1·ksites a11d exact com1)lia11ce ,vith Jeg,11 ,11·1·,111gements th1·ot1gl1 ,1. systen1 of fi11es ,111d J)ossible in11)1·isonn1e11t.

Th1·ee bodies have bee11 c1·eated to act in a11 aclviso1·y capc1city i11 the field of labo1� affairs: 1,he Labot11· Sta11da1·ds Ad,riso1·y Board, the l\1a11po\ve1· I11 fo1·matio11 Ad, 7iso1·Jr Boarcl, and the Employme11t Acl, iso1·)� Bo(11·d. The first t,,,o began meeti11g e,11·1)-' i11 1966; the composition of thei1· membe1�shi ps is 11ot k110,, 11. The Em­ Jlloyme11t Adviso1·y Boa1·d is co1nposecl of 15 and ma111·e1)resentati,1 es, 7 1101ni11,1ted bv • Iabo1· agement 01·ganizatio11 s, 1·es1)ectively, a11d 1 by tl1e I-I�Lile Selc1ssie I Fou11datio11 , a v,,elfa1·e asso­ c.i,ttio11 co11ce1�11ed witl1 , an1011g otl1er thi11gs, en11)J0)7 n1e11t of the l1a11 dicap1)ecl. The Board ineets at le�lst 011ce e,ich qtiarter ,vith tl1e Public l�m1)lO)r n1e11t Divisio11 of the Labot11· Depart­ me11t.

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MINISTRY OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS

LABOUR DEPARTMENT, MAY 1966

Labour Standards Advisory Board Manpower Information Advisory Board

Public Employment

MINISTER OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

AND SOCIAL AffAIRS

Labour Relations

Employment Oflices

labour Relations

Manpower, Research, and Statistics

Legal and ..

International liaison

Labour Relations Board Employment Advisory Board

Labour Inspection Service

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Foreigners Employment

Source: Adapted fron, Imperial Ethiopian Government, Ministry of National Commu nity Development, Labour, Cooperatives , Social Welfare, and Community Development in Ethiopia, November 1964, pp. 11-14.

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A fot1rth boarcl, the Labour Relations Boarcl, has functional res1)onsibility. Establishecl }Jy the Labou1· Relations Decree of 1962., it ha11dles dis1)utes ,vhich the Labou1· Relations Section is u11able to settle. It has tl1e povver of both co11cili::1tio11 a11cl a1·bit1·ation, a11cl its decisio11s a1·e legal}�, 1)i11cling. It has ft,;e members, aJ)poi11tecl b)' the Emperor L1JJ011 the recommenclatio11 of the lvli11ister of Comn1unitJ' De,1elo1Jme11t and Social Affairs. Tl1ree are go, 1er1 1n1e11t la.,vyers; 011e each :ire retJresentati,,es of lalJ01· a11d of manftgeme11t orga11izatio11s, 1·esJ)ecti,r e}�,7.

There is also a Lal)our De1Jartn1e11t i11 Erit1·e,1.

Province; it differs some,:v·hat from the Labot1r Departme11t i11 Addis Ababa becat1se it ,,1as es­ talJlishecl befo1·e Eritrea ,•t1as com1J1etely i11te­ gratecl i11to the Em1)ire and still hac1 se1Jarate la,\'R ::t11d �tdn1i11jstr::1ti, 1e machi11ery. The em­ ployment, labor relations, statistical, and other ft1nctio11s of the Eritrea11 Departme11t are the same as those of the Departme11t in Addis Ababa, but the orga11izational st1·L1ctt1re ,vithin ,v11ich they 01)erate is still somewhat different.

The c:l1ief ft1nctio11al differe11ce t1ntil 1·ece11tfy h::1s bee11 the existence i11 Eritrea of ,1 Divi­ sio11 of LaboL1r Inspectio11 vvhich directed the \�,rork of local offices i11 Ke1·en, Agordat, Mas­ sa ,va i a11d Assab from its headqL1H.rte1·s in Asma1·a in accordance ,vith an Eritrea11 law.

The Erit1·ea11 LaboL1r De1Jartme11t is g1·ad11ally being mo(lified so that it ,vill eve11tuall)- ha ,,e the same strltctL1re ancl fL1nctio11s as the De­ l)artment in Addis Ababa. The Eritrean Divi­ sio11 of Labour Inspection is being incor1Jora.ted into the Labot1r I11s1)ectio11 Service as the lattei· lJegi11s OJJer,1tio11.

Tl1ere is no uniform system of social i11sur­ ,1nce in EthioJJia; hence the1·e is no official agency to �1clrni11ister social insura11ce matters.

7

Cl1a1)ter VII.

i11

Intcr11atio11al Organizatiort"

Ethio])ia is a charte1· men1ber of the Ui1 ited N,1tio11s �t11cl belongs to all of its SJ)ecialized age11cies exce1)t the I11te1·governme11tal I\'Iari­ time Co11sultative Organization (Ilv1CO). It h,ts 1·ecei\reel fi11ancial and technical assistance fron1 the I11ternational Labor Organization (ILO), t�e \�To1·Icl He,1lth Org,:1.nizatio11_(WHO), _ _ and U111ted N�tt1011s I11ter11at1onal Chilclren's Eme1·ge11cy FL111d (UNICEF). It has in rett1r11 sLllJl)lied t1·00J)S to the UN forces ,vhich fought i 1 1 Ko1·ea ancl in the Congo.

Ethio1Jia ha.s been a n1emlJer of the ILO si11ce 1923. ILO ]1eaclqua1·ters in Africa are in Adclis Ababa, and the seco11d Africa Regional Co11ference of the ILO \,1as held there in No,,e1nber-Decen1ber 1964. As of late 1965 ' Ethio1)ia hacl 1·atified 5 co11ventio11s, as follov,'s: Cot1i,c11lion

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11........ llight or AssociaLion (Agricul1 urc:)

80 ...•.... l�ina I A rti clcs R!1v illiO n 87 ........ J.�rcedom of 1\s.c;ociat ion and Pro1 i:c! ion of lhL' Right to Or1:uniz1•

88. . . . .. l�n1ploy 1nc:n t Servic,) 98. . . . . . . Right t:o Ori.:anize and Collrrtive 13::irg:iining

DL1ri11g t11e last 10 )Years, Ethiopia has sought closer ties ,vit11 the 1·est of Africa throt1gh par­ tici1)atio11 in 1)a11-African organizations. It ,vas a leader i11 the establishment in 11ay 1963 of the Organization f01· Af1·ican Unity, ,,rhose ain1 is contine11t-,vide coope1·atio11 i11 politics, eco­ nomics, eclucation, a11d clefe11se, a11d ,vhose head­ quarters are in Addis Ababa. Whe11 the United Nat.ions Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA, or ECA) v,ras fot111ded in 1958, Addis AbalJa w::1s selected �1s tl1e site of its l1eadqt1ar­ te1·s also.

1"he tlcti,rities of Ethiopian labor a11d man­ agerne11t org.:111izatio11s in internatio11al grouJ)S are di8ct1s�ed i11 the ::,ection on International . , 1 1 es.

J_,egislatio11 Affecti11g Labor

(�onsl itutiona I G11..1ran tees

The re, risecl constitution of tl1e Ethio}Jian _ Em1l11·e "''as IJrornulgatecl by the Emperor in Nove111be : 1955. Cl1�1J)te1� III, 811titled ''Rights and Duties of the People," iilclLlcles article:-;

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Par·tici1•atio11

gt 1 arc1nteeing· freedon1 of religio11, speech, the l)ress, l)eacef Lll assembl,; n10\.·eme11t, and p ro­ tectio11 for Ethio1Jia11s �1g(1i11st ba11isl1me11t, ex­ t excep 11t raclitio11, ,111cl ;;1.1·rest ,,:ithot1t ,1 ,varra � 111 cases of ''fl,:igrant or se1·ioL1s ,,iolatio11s" of the la,,,. It forlJicl� di::-crimi11atio11 a111011g Elhi� 1,

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''enj oy1:1ent o� all civ il rights the i11 ns '' opin _ Eth1

op1�1n s�tl)J ects eqtlal })t·otec al l re s st1 ns Alld ,1nd the 1·1ght la\vs to t11e pi·esent })et·1of t1.011 • tions to _the E�p �1·or. A1·t1cle 42 pi·otects all person� 111 Etl1101�1a f1·om censo1·ship of coi·re­ sponclei1ce exce1Jt 1n cleclared 11�ttio11al emei·ge11_ cies. Article .:17 g11ar�nte es to e,rer)r EthiO})ian the right to e11g,1ge In the occtt})ation of hi 8 choice, ancl to fo1�m 01· join \Vo1·ke1·s' ,tssocia­ tions i11 accord,111ce ,vith the la,v. Ai·ticle 64 states that it is the dt1ty o·f all Ethiopi,1118 to •;perform lltlblic se1·vices, i11clttcl ing n1il itai·v· · ,vhe11 callecl 1111011 to clo so." services.,

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There is 110 labor cocle in Ethiopia, ancl all labor legif!l,1tion is of 1·ece11t 01·igin. Ct1r1·ent la\VS govern the ·formation of inclividt1al ·�vork contracts. l1ot11·�. \\"ftges. em1)loye1· liability for \\·ork-connectecl accicle11ts ancl cliseases, J)en­ sions, ho] icl,1�ls, 1·e11e,,·al ancl te1·mination of c o11tract8, �l}Jpre11tice�hi}), don1estic servants, agrict1llt1ral ,,ro1·ke1·s, l�1lJ01· ins1Jectio11, ,vo1·ki11g co11ditio11s. the form£1tio11 ,111cl activities of em­ ployers' £111cl ,, 0orke1·g' a�sociations, collective bargai11ing, a11cl st1·ikes. vVhe11 E1·it1·ea P1·0,ri11ce h,1cl fecle1·atecl stat11s \\"ithi11 tl1e EmJJire, it • hftcl its o,v11 labo1· Ia,1.r , the En11Jlo)·ment Act of 1958. Si11ce E1·it1·ea's integr atio11 els a P1·0\"i11ce of the En11Ji1·e in 1 962, ctll legisl,1tio11 }J1·om11lgatecl i11 Acldis Al)ab,1 (l{l1CJ\\'n els ''E1n1)i1·e l[L\\''') l1fts £1}J1Jlie(l to Eritrea fls ,veil. Des1Ji te this, ho,\•eve1·, a11cl tl1e fact th,1t Erit1·ean ,Lt1 tho1·ities c1clo1Jtecl tl1e Etl1i­ ovian Ci,�il Cocle of I960, the stt:111cl,11·cls e11fo1·ced by the Erit1·ea11 i11s1Jectio11 se1·, r ice co11ti11t1ecl, on a,11 interin1 lJcLsis pe11cli11g the estal)lishn1e11t of ,t llfttio11,\·icle I11spection Se1·vice, to be t11ose <,f the Ern r>lrJ.vment Act of 1958. ( See sectio11 o n E11force1ne11t.)

Em1)ire labor Ia\-V cove1·s clll secto1·s o:f the �eonom}', c1lthot1gl1 legislatio11 fo1· the civil se1�,,­ ice is general}�, se1)a1·ate f1·on1 th�t t cove1·in g t!1e _ Pri \",tte sec trJr ,ln <1 commercial �111cl i 11cltl st1·1�11 ente rr1ri:-;es <Jper�ltecl by the gove1·11111e11t. In Ola)l�r C�lS es, llOtltbJ:\r \\ ages fllld tl1e Cl l',L\Villg ll}) of in( li,·i(l Ltftl co11t;·�tcts, the let \\7S clo 11ot sJJell '1 Ut it1 clet (1 il th f� st�t11clarcls to lJe f ollo\\'ecl. 111�t�rld, i 11 the <tlJ scnce (rf an v crJllective ag1·ee­ rnei it l)e t,\·ee11 ll1e \Vo1·kc;·s �tn(l einployei · c,incr:fl'Ilecl. i·eancl hi1·ing of the cc)n(litio11s

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Illtlnei·,ltion a1·e left to the regulation of local ct1ston1.

While conclitio11s for those in the ag1·icultu1·al ai1cl J)astoral sectors co11t int1e to be governecl l)y Cttstom, collective 1),11·gai ning is JJlaying a 1�trge1· �tncl 1arge1· role i11 the establishmen o·f t rorl ii1g ' r co11ditio11s fo1· \vage and s,1la1·y ear11e1·s : 111 the 1nocler11 secto1·. Even thot1gh }a\vs }ler­ n1itting the formatio11 o:f labor 01·ganizations :1ncl the negoti,1tio11 of collectiv·e b�1rgai11ing C<>11t1·(1cts �lJ)IJea1·ecl only· i11 1962, EthioJJia's 11e,,rly clevelo1)ing 11nions h�1ve alreacly con­ cl11clecl �everal contracts ,vith management set­ ti11g \\'orking conclitions in some of the largest ente1·p1·ises i11 the cot1ntry. The conditions thus set are i11 some cases alJove the minimttm re­ qui1·ecl b)r }a\V, There a1·e several cliffe1·ent kinds of legisla­ tio11 i11 Ethiopia. A clec'l·ee is isst1ed by the Ern1lero1· lletween the an11ual sessio11s of Par­ ]ian1ent, and mt1st be p1·eRe11tecl for a1lp1·ov£1l to Parli�irnent ,lt it:.; next annt1al sesRion. When a decree, 01· :1ny 11iece of d1·aft legis)ation, has bee11 }Jassecl by Parli�tme11t a11cl signecl by the Em1)e1·or, it becomeR a p1·ocla1riatio11. A11 01·de1· 1n,1,y be isstied 1Jy the En11)e1·or a,t �1ny time and· 11eed 11ot be prese11tecl to Parliame11t for ap­ J)roval. Ch,11)te1· 2 of the Revisecl Co11stit1ttion 011tli11es the a1·ec1s \vhere the Emperor is }Jer­ n1ittecl to legislate in this manne1·. GeJie·r(tl ·11<)f ices an(l ler1al r1ol'ices co·nce1·n 1·011tine mat­ ters of appointn1e11ts, mi1101· adminiHtrative cl1tLnges, 01· implementi11g regulations of orclers or IJ1·oclam,1tio11s. They 11eed only the a1Jp1·oval of tl1e Cot111cil of lVIi11isters to l)ecome effective.

Ct1rre11t labor Iegislatio11 incl11cles tl1e follO\V­ i11g }�t\VS:

:Ptiblic I·Iolidays and Sunday Ol)servance Proclan1ation,

1956.

Penal Cocle, 1957, articles 92, 96, 102, 103, 106, 413, 707.

Civil Code, 1B60, title XVI, chapters 1 and 2.

J:>ubli(· Servants' Pension Decree, 19Hl.' , ice der c rv Or l,li Se d Pu an cy e11 Agcl 11n rso Pc I Ira n Ce 1961, as an1enclecl by Order No. 28 of 1962. gula­ Legal Notice No. 2liH of 1962 (Public Service Re tio11s No. 1). )(i2.'

J.,nl .1otir l{elation� I)ecree, 1! on Orcler, 1962. ti ra st ni ni cl1 \ 1t en n1 oy JJl ttl E public 1 Luter rei.s�ucd a, r,ro<·l:1n1al ions.

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Legal Notice No. 295 of 1964 ( Foreig11ers E n1ploy111en L Regulations).

Labour Inspection Service Order, 1964.

Legal Notice No. 302 of 1964 (f\.-Iinimun1 Labour Condi­ tions Regulations).

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Labour S ta11dards P roe I an1ation, 1 �) GG. E11 fort'ernen I

Laws establishing minimun1 standa1·ds ancl a Labour I11spection Service to enforce tl1en1 ,ve1·e promulgated only i11 late 1964, ancl the Labou1· Standards Proclamation, \vhich gives labo1· i11spectors at1tho1·ity to ins1lect vvo1·ksites a11d e11force com1)liance with all legal obligatio11s, \,,as IJassed by P,trliame11t onl)1 i11 the spri11g of 1966. He11ce it is difficult ,ls yet to assess the nature ttnd extent of e11fo1·ceme11t in the En11)i1·e (excluding Eriti·ea) of Etl1io1Jia11 labo1· la,vs.

In the six i11dt1stries wl1ere lallor ancl ma11age­ me11t have concluded collective ,1greements on wages, hours, and working conditio11s, the mi11i­ mum conclitions of the law are met and in son1e cases im11roved t1pon. Elsewl1ere i11 the moder11 sector son1e of the minimum sta11dards cle­ sc1·ibed in the law often al1·eacly existed, bt1t information on actual conditions i11 the \vhole count1·y, a11d thorough e11forcement of legal standa1·ds whe1·e they do not already obtai11 must a\vait the 1·eports a11d effo1·ts of the labor inspectors.

Informal opinio11s by both Ethiopians a11d 11on-Ethio1Jians \vo1·king in tl1e labor-manage­ ment field divide employers into three groups, ,-. 1ith regard to the cleg1·ee of thei1· compliance ,vith the new laws. The first g1·ot1JJ, foreign employers whose firms a1·e t1sually u11ionizecl, in gene1·al complies fai1·ly 1·eadily a.11d thor­ ougl1lJ'. The second grou1J, employers ,,,hose f11·n1s ,lre often u11ioi1izecl also, inclucles Italians, G1·eeks, Inclia11s, a11d others v,rho have livecl in Ethiotlia sometimes for ge11erations altl1ough they �11·e often not Ethio1)ian citize11s. They• f1·eque11tly ig11ored the laws at fi1·st, but mo1·e recently have te11ded to com1lly, unde1· J)1·essu1·e f1·om the Labo11r Relations Section of the Mi11ist1·y o·f Commt1nity De\ 1elopme11t a11d Soci::11 Affairs which has tried to uphold the ,vo1·l{e1·s' legal rights i11 the co11rse of settli11g g1·iev::1nces b1·ought to it by unions in these emplo}1 e1·s'

fii·ms. The thi1·cl g1·ou1l is com1Josed of smal l einploye1·s, Ethiopian as \Vell as Greek, I11dian, etc . , ,vhose firms are not unio11izecl. These eni­ IJIO)'e1·s by a11d la1·ge do not understand tl1e 11ecessit)r fo1· com1)liance, a1·e unaccustomecl to gove1·nme11t inte1·fe1·ence in thei1· pri,,ate affairs, a11d i11 m::1ny cases a1·e fi11ancially unable to con11Jly. The selectio11 and traini11g of labor i11s1Jectors b,, tl1e l\1i11istr)' of Con1mt111ity Develo1Jme11t ancl Socif1l Aff::1i1·s in the }JOJicie:.,, methods, and J)rocedt11·es of lalJ01· i11s1)ectio11 lJega11 \\'hile the la\v est,1blishi11g the I11s1)ectio11 Se1·vice ,,,as still in d1·aft fo1·n1. Se,,e1·al se1ni11,1.1·s on these sulJjects have bee11 held by the ILO, a11d a1·rangeme11ts ::11·e t111cle1·,,,ay to sect11·e S}Jeciftlized t1·aining i11 the n101·e technicc1l aspects of i11spectio11, such as i11clt1st1·ial health, ·f1·om the a1J}J1·opriate s1Jecial­ ized i11stitt1tions. Until the ins1Jecto1·s them­ seI,1es are trainecl in all as1Jects of thei1· duties, the l11s11ectio11 Ser,1 ice has ar1·a11ged \vith other ::1ge11cies and institutions to bo1·1·0,v, on a short­ te1·n1, acl hoc basis, J)e1·s01111el t1·ai11ed in 11eces­ s,11·y s1)ecialties; fo1· exam1Jle, a chemical engi­ nee1· f1·01n I-Iaile Selassie I University to assess the cla11ger of escapi11g fun1es in a n1ine or chemic,il plant, 01· a s,1nitatio11 officer from the IVIinist1·y of Pt1blic Health to inspect plumbing facilities.

Re1)01·ts of the Depart1ne11t of Labour Inspec­ tion i11 Asma1·a indicate that com1Jliance ,vith tl1e Employment Act of 1958 was difficult to en­ fo1·ce l)l'OJ)e1·ly ::1nd 1ni:111y b1·eacl1es ,vent uncor1·ected, esJJeciall1• ,,,ith 1·egard to 1·equired health a11d safety 1J1·ecautions a11d employment prac­ tices. The chief im1Jecliments to thorotigh en­ fo1·cement seem to be financial i11ability to com­ }Jly, a11d the l)ractice on the pa1·t of some 1J1·ovi11cial officials of overlooking infractions in ce1·t,1i11 insta11ces. With the p1·omulgatio11 of tl1e L�tlJou1· Stt1ndards Proclamatio11 and the ii1t1·oductio11 of a 11ational' ce11tralized inspectio11 se1·vice, n1a11y of these difficulties are exl)ected to be o,,ercome. In n1id-1966, t1·aini1ig fo1· E1·it1·ean i11s1Jectors i11 Empire law and its e11forcement \Vas t111de1·\vay, and the i11corpora­ tion of the Eritrean Division of Labot1r Ins1Jec­ tion i11to tl1e Labou1· I11spection Service ,,ras being ,vo1·ked out.

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PART III. Cl1aJ}ter •

VIII.

LABOR AND MANAG EMENT I.J�•bor '111 <1 l\'Iai1age 1nent Organizations

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Lahor Organ1zat1ons

Traditional forms of labo1· orga11ization per­ sist in most pa1·ts of Ethiopia, ,vh ere indt1strial­ izing inflt1ences ha ve 11ot ye t macle a sig11ificant in1pact. l\tlany of these 1·orn1s are i11tegral pa1·ts of the social organization of t1·ibal grot1ps, as \Vith the l{onso people in southern Ethiopia : ,vhere agric11ltt1ral labor is 01·ganized on the .• basis of mt1tual obligation among the people of a district or village, lab or on })11blic ,vo1·ks is ·, performed by members of a specific age group, and so forth. Othe1· fo1·ms of ,,101·ke1·s' orga11iza­ tions existing i11 rural Etl1iopia, s1Jecifically the er/er ancl the nia.hel)c1,1·, \\1 ere brot1ght to tl1e cities and adaptecl to tl1e i11dLlst1·ial context. The ecle1· is a rolt111tar): association o· f l)e1·so11s ,:vho make regular co11triJJutions to a con1n1on funcl from .' \vhich payments a1·e made to membe1·s as 11eeclecl -for death, illness, acciclents, etc. The nict}ieb(t.1· is a group v.1 ho aicl one anothe1· as the need arises, fu11cls lJei11g collected 011 ::111 acl hoc basis.

Both of these types of orga1 1iza tio1 1s 01Jerate indepe 11clently of the em1JloJ'e1·, solely as \\'orkers' groups. }[oder11 labor orga11iz,1tio11 is �l compa1·ati,;e}), recent })}1e11ome11on in EthioJJia. Ea1·lier ex,1111ple� \\·ere 011 the Franco-Ethio1Jian R,1ilvvay a11cl Eritrea, \\'here the British e11cour,1ged ti·acle Unionism dt1ring their aclminist1·ation of the Pro\'ince afte1· the Italo-Ethio1)ian "'' ar · The fi rst unions i11 E1·itrea ancl Eth·IO}Jia · \ve1·e formed sho1·tlv afte1· the Seconc] Worlcl Wai·.

In Eritrea a · lal'Jo1� moveme11t flot1ris11ecl until unions \ver e disbH,nclecl }Jy· the EmJ)eroi· follO\\'­ ing a ge11eral strike i11 As1n�t1·�1, jn 1VI�trcl1 1958· · · 111 �-• • 1..,., 11 1( · I . G, hO\\re,re1·, orga111z1 ng \..196 . ,,as.. begin'ling ag- �ti11 cla. ­ Pi·o r rds ncl�1.

St�t er t1nd ot1r Lat ) the 1' rnatio n. foi· mall)� Unio ated oper ns opia ·in Ethi i' ·Y!.!(·11··i:; c·J11· ef1y ,ts • I 1 tions' n1· z ·· �, ga 01 \Vel. f;:1re \\'(Jr r ke _ ! . "'Irn · i\ar t() tr1 e tr�tclition�tl ecl e r anrl 1;1ri.Jz.el)cl·i·, bttt thP\··. <icci -tsl<) • 11all .\' m,1cle l)t'<)tests to n1 a11 ageme11t ;-

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ov·er co11clitio11s of employment, as in the 2n1onth 8trike in 1947 of 7,000 Ethiopian workers 011 the Franco-Ethio1Jian Railway. By the earl ' ) l 960's, \V()rkers' associations had bee11 formed in ,l number of f,1ctories, chiefly in Addis Ababa, and they were beginning to engage in classic t111ion activities. These 01·ganizations ,,,ere gi,ren legal basis by the Labour Relations Decree (later reissued as a proclamation), of Septembe1� 1962. As of December 1965, 70 trade unions hi:1cl been registerecl \.Vith the Ministry of Com­ munit)r De,,elopme11t and Social Affairs.

All unio11s in Ethiopia are affiliates o:f the Confederation o· f Ethiopian Labor Unions (CELU), recognized by the government in April 1963. As of late 1965, CELU had a total meml)ership of about 25,000. Its member t1nions are almost all orga.nized on a plant basis; 011lv . a few ' like the printing press workers and constrL1ction \Vorkers in Addis Aba.ba, are orga11izecl 01 1 �1 craft or inclust1·y basis. As yet there l1c1s been little nationwide coordinatio11 of 11 11io11 01·ganizing activity, ancl CELU is, there­ foi·e, tl1e 011ly bocl)r i11 the country which can coorc1i11ate t111ion action and mobilize the latent stre11gtl1 of the labor group as a whole.

The 11e\\' CELU constitution, ratified by a CELU co11stit11tio11al assembly in January 1965, l)ro,,icles for the c]i\;ision of the Ethiopian labor n,o,1eme11t 011 a regional basis, under the ge?­ er .. -11clirection of the 11ational headquarters 1n Aclclis Ababa. The basic governing body of CELU is the A11nt1al Conferen�e, made up of tlie rei)reseiitatives of the affiliates based on paid ttp members}1 ip. The Confe�ence estab. 1 1es the Ge11eral Pu1·pose and Finance Com1is . mittee i:111d elects the Genera] Co� nc1l. The t 1t m om ce C an in F a 11 a se IJO tlr P �e dra�ts l Geiler::l .C1.111 g oi·clers ' ai1 c d the Ge11eral Council, wh 1ch 11 s tfl • • • 1b1l1ty for s on sp re s ha s th 1 oi m •3 y 'er ' e,, n1eets . . . te, 1.1-11 g CEL u funds, settl11 .

1g differences m1111s ad n eio ov un e m th g in ot ·om JJi , s te lia ffi a · lJet\.\1een

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ment, and electing men1be1·s of the Executi,,e Comn1ittee, which ru11s the day-to-day affai1·s of the Confederation. It is com1losed of tl1e office1·s of the Confederatio11 and eight othe1· members elected by and from the Ge11e1·al Council. The Executive Committee has a Dis­ putes St1bcommittee 1vhich settles diffe1·ences between affiliates. In practice, these functions are not so clearly separated, a11d n1embe1·s of the Executive Committee tend to handle a11y problem as it arises.

The scope and nature of union activity is de­ scribed in the Labou1· Relatio11s P1·oclamation i11 the fallowing manner: ''. . .labo1t1· unions shall have as their pu1·1lose the regulatio11 of labour conditions ..., as well as the study, protectio11 and developme11t of the eco11omic, social a11d moral interests of their membe1·s."

The P1·oclamation }lrohibits u11ions a1nong civil se1·vants a11d states specifically that unions ''shall not pt1rsue political aims or engage i11 any political activity ,vhatsoe\rer'' (arts. 22 (a) a11d 22 (c)).

Accordingly, labo1· organizations i11 Ethiopia ha,,e concerned themselves with the im1)rove­ ment of wo1·king co11ditions and of educatio11 and t1·aining prog1·ams for their members.

T11eir efforts i11 the former sphere were 1·e­ \Varded v-1ith the sig11ing of Ethiopia's first col­ lecti, 1e bargaining agreement in March 1964.

In the latter sphere, CELU efforts have included the pro, rision of training to union leaders both in Ethiopia and abroad (in Uga11da and the U11ited States, fo1· example), and literacy classes for 1111ion members and their families. T1·ain­ ing programs and a cooperative v-rorkshop to imp1·ove the skills of members are now (micl1966) bei11g organized. CELU has received asRistance in these projects from the ILO, the ICFTU, and the Friedrich Ebert Fot1ndation.

In additio11, faculty n1embe1·s f1·om I-Iaile Selassie I U11ive1·sity helJl on a vol11nteer basis by givi11g 11ight classes to lc1bo1· leaders it1 Amharic, history, geogra1)h)', mathematics a11d t1·ade 11nio11 subjects, and college students �ssist the CELU-sponso1·ed edt1cation programs by hel �li11g to publish a union ne,vs1)aper, Tlie Vo �c � of Labou1·. I11 spite of these t1·aining _ act1v1t1es, CELU leaclers estimate that 70 per­ cent of CELU membe1·s are illite1·ate ancl pla11 . to cont1ntte and ex1)a11d tl1eir educational pi·o­ grams.

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Plans for a rene\ved organization drive to ii1c1�e,1se t1nio11 membe1·ship are also ttnder\vay.

Of the aJ)proxin1ately 4,500 business e11terprise s i·egiste1·ed \Vith the lVlinist1·y of Commerce and Indust1·y, on ly abot1t 60 ar e organized, and CELU officials estimate that only about 1 011t of eve1·)r 4 wo1·kers i11 t1·ading and industrial esta.blishme11ts belongs to a labor u11ion.

The organization of all plant unions is quite simila1·, beca11se thei1· constitutions are based 011 �l moclel clra,vn Ull in 1963 by the Labour Departn1e11t's Labour Relations Section. An Executi,,e Committee, consisting usually of a P1·esident, Vice Preside11t, Secretary-Ge11e1·al, T1·eas11rer, and sometimes members at la1·ge, is electecl every 2 )rears b)r the full membership sitti11g as the Gene1·al Assembly. All but the smallest u11io11s have shop stewards or their equivale11ts, 11st1ally elected by the members of a shift, cle1la1·t1nent, 01· bt1reau to represent the s1)ecial interests of each unit before the Execu­ tive Committee. The Ge11eral Assembly ma)' also appoint s1)ecial committees, such as legis­ latio11 01· edttcation committees. 111 practice, ho\vever, unio11 busi11ess is usually carried on by the union office1·s a11d the shop ste,vards.

Plant unio11s' inte1·ests a1·e com111u11icated to CELU chiefly th1·ough thei1· representatives at the a11nual CELU co11fe1·ence, and also through \risits of CELU officials to local unio11s.

Plant u11io11 leade1·R seldom have more than 8 yea1·s of educatio11, a11d all a1·e from the ,vork force of their u11io11's ente1·prise. Se,reral unions have full-time cle1·ks 01· secretaries, but only two 01· th1·ee ha \re f11ll-time elected officials. The chief activ·ities of plant t1nio11 leade1·s inclt1de dues c ?l�ectio11, g1·ieva11ce settling, a11d collective ba1·ga111111g·, and most of the union official's time is 8 llei1t i11 these activities. Occasionally unions h�1,,e 01·gn.11izecl athletic teams \.vo1·ke1· clubs , bi11 1ds, 01· educational cou1�ses.'As of the sum­ mei· of 1965, fou1· ttnions l1ad the checkoff, a11d sevei·al ,ve1·e 11egotiating fo1· it. Othe1·,,•ise, clues clI·e collected b)r the 11nion treast11·er or someone de�ignated by him, ofte11 the shop ste,\·a1·d. l'v1°st u111011s ha,,e l)1·og1·essive dues, i.e., the more the \vorket· ea1·ns, the highe1· �11·e his dues. Dties amount t1suall)1 to �1bout Eth$! (US$0.40) a 1 �th foi· n108t \Vo1·kers, lll11s ltl1 i11itiatio11 fee � � �� E :timates of t1nio11 offici�1ls i11clicate that about 7 0 l)ei·ce11t of the 111e1nbe1·sl1i1J pa)r dues e,tch n1011th.

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Six collective agreements ,vere in force in se,,e1·al t1nio11s a1·e in th e miclst an cl , 19 66 lj' enr 011e or t\vo unio11s have at­ ion . s goti at ne of .

1at e a n_ clo e go sed shop but \vithotit t to ted mp te uccess. Strike s are cal1ed at the J)lant level. �nioi1 constitt1tions reqt1ire strike action to be approved by t\.vo-thirds of the paid-up members, but, in practice, the fe\v strikes ,vhich have been called appear not to ha,1e been subject to this process. Union discip�i11e is not ve1·y good, 1eral union le�lcle1 se\ c to rcling ·s; ho\,,ever, it c o a is improving as the 1·ank a11d file come to 11ndei·­ sta11d more the pt1r1Jose of a 1111ion ancl the value of the prope1· condLict of 1111ion affai1·s.

Leaders of several Ltnions have n1ade te11t,l­ tive mo,,es to\vard fo1·1ning i11d11�tr�'v. ide feder­ ations. Their efforts have not met \vith success, chiefl), l)eca11se of the geog1·a1)hical separatio11 of the t111io11s, the cliffiet1lties of co1nmt1nication, and members' relL1ct::1nce to l)ay mo1·e dt1es.

CELU has 011 a n11n1be1· of occasio11s comn1t1ni­ rated ,,,ith the lVIi11ist1·J' of Co1nmt1nity Develop­ me11t and Socic1I Affairs a11cl the Ministt")' of Justice on rnatte1·s relati11g to labo.1· legislation and the establishme11t of labo1· sectio11 s in tl1e courts. .,.i\.sicle fron1 this, l10\,;e,1e1·, CELU has 11ot public!)" taken an}' 1Jositio11 011 the ove1�a11 labor or eco11omic l)olicies of the gover11n1e11t, largeljbe cause a11�· stich tJ1·011ot111cerne11ts cot1lcl be in­ terpreted as a \·iolatio11 of the te1·ms o·f tl1e LaboLtr Rel::1tio11s Proclamatio11. CELU ho1Jes to pla_v a11 infll1e11tial a11cl t1seft1l 1·01e th1·ot1gl1 its repre!->e ntatives on the ,ra1·iotts bo�trcls of the Labour Department. (See section on Aclmin­ istrative Boclies Co11ce1·11ecl vVit}1 Labo1�.)

Eve11 as the Labol111 Relatio11s P1·oclan1atio11 forbids political actio n on the part of t}1e laboi· moveme11t, so has CEL U exhil)ited ,-1 clesire to re1nain inclepenclent of the fi11a11cial ancl 1na!e­ rial sup1Jort of the government. A U.S. officia.l observer notecl i11 late 1965 that in 01·igin, fi­ nancing, a11d admi11ist1·ation, the EthioJ)ian labor movement is a grass 1·oots n10,,e�ent_ of the ,ro rking cl,lss, and gi\ es every inclic.-1t1011 of ,vi�hing t<J 1·em .t1i 11 so.

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I:,lhiopia: Tl1e lll Et of ce e1· n1m Co (;hambe1· of ?Pia a ncl the Fecle1·ation of Em1Jloyers of f•'.th. iotlia (F EE). The fo 1 ·mer is a qu,1si-govei·i11

mental, nonpolitical body organized in 1947 by the Em1)eror. The latter is an independent organization founcled and registered i11 March 1964.

The prin1arjr function of the Chamber of Con1merce of Ethiopia is the encouragement of foreign investment i11 Ethiopia and the promo­ tion of the cou11try's economic development.

In carrj1ing out this function, the Chamber issues pubJicatio11s, holds meetings, trade fairs, ancl exhibits in Ethio1Jia and abroad, operates a library, and has an exhibition hall, audito1·ium, ,1.ncl seminar rooms for the use of its members.

The organization also provides arbitrators for commercial or industrial disputes between members and no11members, aids members in p1·esenting complaints to the government, a11d helps to settle p1·oblems bet\veen membe1·s and foreign companies. Chamber activities are financed by membership dues and by a revenue of Eth$0.10 (US$0.04) per 100 kilos of im­ ported and ex1Jorted merchanclise.

The memllership of the Chan1ber has in­ creasecl rapicllj in recent years, ancl since 1960 Ethiopian as well as fo1·eign concerns have been re1J1·esentecl. Jn )ate 1965, the orga11ization had about 1,000 members, one-third from Addis Ababa, one-third from Asmara, and the re1nai11cle1· f1·om other to\, ns, chiefly Direclawa ancl towns in Eritrea Province. Most of the members a1·e foreig11 busi11essmen prin1arily f1·0111 com1ne1·cial ancl service concerns; only abot1t 011e-quarter of the tot,:11 membership rep­ resents agricult11ral or indt1strial enterprises .

A large p1·01Jo1·tion of the membe1·ship is from sn1 all e11terprises. lVIore tha11 50 percent of the men1be1·s are from companies with capital of less th,111 Eth$100,000 (US$40,000) and only 15 perce11t of the membership falls \vithin the Eth$500,000 to Eth$5 millio11 (US$200,000 to $2 n1 illion) 1·ange o·f capitalizatio11. Two or _t�ree .

011 5 ll1 h$ m1 Et e1· of O\' ,11 pit ca a ve ha rs be em m The Feclei·ation of Employers of Ethiopia is C r of be m­ am e Ch 1 th a1 th 1· le .-1J sm y bl ·a ei consid � ng t1 en ·es 1·s p1 be 1·e em m L!O o ab Lit s ha It . ce mer seve�al om 1 fr v1 a\ 1cl dr a1 es ti li na io at 11 nt ·e e1 fi di rs ai e aff .

Th B) . pp (a y m 1o o1 ec e th Of sectors 1 1t e ct xe an E d by te 1c dt 11 co e ar 1 o1 ti ra le � ec F of tl1e l ia ec d sp an l, rc oa B 1t e1 m ge 1 , an lVI ·t , Comm1·ttee ( t en em ag e an th M by d te 1 ii J)o lI:> ' • 8 ' ee tt 1 ' sL1bcon1n1 1

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I Boa1·d. The Board, electecl at an a11nual ge11eral meeting each June, consists of a Presicle11t, Vice President, and a rep1·esentative f1·on1 each of the seven economic groupings i11to which FEE membership has been divided.

The FEE has concentrated its activities in three fields: Labor-management 1·elations, edu­ cation, and inte1·national contacts. Like labor organizations, the FEE is fo1·bidden by the Labour Relations Proclamation to e11gag·e in political activity. The Federation is a n1en1l)e1· of the Labour Relations Board of the Minist1·y of Community Developn1e11t ancl Social Affai1·s and provides consultative services i11 the field of labor-m::111ageme11t 1·elations to its men1be1·s. In tl1e field of educ,ttion, the FEE cond11cted a sm,111 t1·�1ining }lrogram fo1· membe1·s i11 1963 ( Jl1·io1� to its forn1al 1·egist1·atio11), a11d, witl1 ILO tech11ica] �l8sist}111ce t a seco11d, la1·ge1·, seminft1· i11 1964. Both dealt wit11 Ethiopi::ln labor legisla­ tion and sought to familiarize employers ,vith ways of maintaining good labor 1·elatio11s. Sev­ e1·al smaller seminars were held in 1964 ancl 1965 on managen1ent JJ1�actices ancl techniques.

In addition, the FEE ci1·culates pamphlets, ne\vsletters, and compilations of labo1· lalv and terminology to its membe1·s. The Federation's activities i11 the field of inter11ational affairs are discussed in the section on Inte1·national Ties.

The majority of the entrepreneurial and management group in Ethiopia is made up of farmers or small shopkeepe1·s. In addition, the1·e are some foreig11 b11si11essmen \vho ope1·­ ate indepe11dently or in joint vent11res \\'ith the Ethio1Jia11 Governme11t. There a1·e few l::irge ,vholly Ethiopian private t111de1·t�1kings. Mem­ be1·s of the ma11agerial g1·oup describe thei1· activities as almost wholly conce1·11ed ,,,itl1 the busi11ess operations of thei1· ente1·1J1·ises. Fe\v activities are directecl towarcl i11fluencing the formulatio11 of economic }Jolicies 01· standa1·ds, exce1Jt }Jerha1Js in Eritrea ,vhe1·e the I t�tlian business community is active i11 p1·ovincial affairs. In light of the t)aucity of formally organized advisory committees with 1ne1nbe1·s elected by tl1e mass of employe1·s to 1·ep1·ese11t their inte1·ests, n1ost influence is exe1·tecl th1·ot1gl1 perso11al contacts ,vith higl1 gove1·11n1e11t officials.

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Training in scientific management practices i11 Ethiopia is i11 most cases 1·udimentary, except an1ong the foreign g1·oup, where it is ofte11 ade­ qt1ate and occasionally outstanding. Acco1·cling to Labour Depa1·tment officials, ho,vever, most employe1·s, fo1·eign or Ethiopian, have an insuf­ ficient ap1)reciation of the role of personnel ma11age1nent. �rhe pater11alistic 1·elatio11shi1J \Vhic11 has ofte11 cleveloped l)etween them and tl1eir employees h�ts usually been tantamount to the 1·elationship of a master and ser,rant. The 1·ece11t fo1·mation of labo1· and management 01·ganizatio11s an<l the trai11ing a11d ex1Jerience ,vl1ich tl1ei1· rnen1be1·s have acqui1·ed in labor­ ma11ageme11t 1·elations in the last fe,v years have al1·eady effected a consiclerable modernization of tech11iqt1es, an<l �i slo,,, cha11ge in attitt1des is becoming appare11t. l11t<�1·11atio11i1l

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Ethio1)ia has belonged to the I11ternational Labo1· 01·ga11izatio11 ( ILO) si11ce 1923. The ILO held its Seconcl Af1·ica11 Regional Confe1·ence in Addis Ababa in N oven1ber-Decembe1· 1964, and has also established a l)ermanent field office the1·e. Ethiot)ia ,vas rep1·ese11ted �1t ILO Con­ ferences by gove1·11me11t delegates until 1963, \Vhe11 t1·ipartite 1·e1)1·esentation ,vas begt111. 1\1an­ ageme11t cl eleg�l tes a1·e d 1·a\\�11 f1·on1 tl1e Fed­ er(1 tion of En1plo)7e1·s of Ethio1)ia and labo1· re1Jrese11tatio11 is fron1 the Confede1·ation of Etl1io1)ia11 Labo1· U11io11s ( CELU).

CELU has bee11 an affiliate of the Interna­ tional Co11fecle1·i1tio11 of F1·ee T1·ade Unions (ICFTU) si11ce Marcl1 1964 and has l1ee11 aided b)' the ecl11catio11al p1·og1·an1s a11d ex1Je1·ts of the ICFTU. (See sectio11 011 Labo1· 01·ganizations.)

CELU hcl.S 1·eceived i1.ssista11ce fron1 the West Gern1c111 F1·ied1·ich Ebe1·t Fou11dation as ,vell. ,vl1ich has assignecl ad,,ise1·s to Ethiopia to assist CELU i11 \Vo1·ke1·s' educatio11 a11d coope1·ative clevelo1lment. CELU also mai11tai11s 1·elatio11s ,vith tl1e African-A1ne1·ican Labo1· Ce11te r i11 Nev.r Y 01·k ,vhich 1·ece11tl)r assigneel a vocatio11al t1·ai11ing specialist to Etl1iopia to \\'Ork ,vitl1 r l an ith CELU. CELU hc:ls 11ot c:1f iliated ,v ) regio11al labo1· 01·g·c111izatio11. In June 1964, l10,v ­ eve1·, it se11t a 1·e1J1·esentative to a co11fe rence of the 11el1tr�tlist All-Af1·ica T1·a(le Unio1 1 Fed­ e1·ation (AATUF).

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Two unio1 1s a1·e affiliated \vith Inte1·national Trade Secretariats : the W onj i a11cl Shoa s Llgar Estates \.Yorkers' U11io11, affiliatecl \\rit}1 the Intern atio11al Federation of Plantation, Agri­ cultural and Allieel W01·kers; ancl the Ethiopia11 petroleum vV 01·ke1·s' U11io11, affiliated ,�.rith the Inter national Fede1·(1tion of Petroleun1 ancl Chemical W01·kers.

The Fecleration of E1nplo:\rers of Etl1io1)ia, ,vhich represents Etl1io1Jia11 ma11agement at the annu al conference of the ILO, se1·\1ecl as ho st to the manageme11t 1·eprese11tatives attencling the

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Seconcl African Regional Conference of the ILO, and its Exectitive Secretary was chairman of the employers' group at the Conference. In c1clclition to these ILO activities, the FEE is an associate men1ber of the Organization of Em­ ployers Fecleration in Developing Cottntries, ancl maintains contact with the Inte1·national 01·ga11ization of Employers, as well as with employer federations in several African coun­ tries. The Ethiopian Chamber of Commerce is a men1ber of the I11ternational Chamber of Commerce.

l11clt1strial Relations Colle<·l i,·e Barg .. i111 i ng

Chapter I"\1 of the Labo111· Rel�1tio11s P1·ocl.:1matio11 pro\:icles the legal basis for col1ecti,1e bargai11i11g. It stiJ)11lates tl1at 011ly duly a1)­ pointecl pe1·sons re1)1·ese11ti11g the en1ployer anc1 a majorit�/ of the ,vo1·kers ma}' engage in collec­ tive bargaini11g, a11d that u11less the co11t1·act expressly JJl'0\1 ides other,,,ise 01· u11]ess a majo1· change i11 eco11omic co11clitions })1·on11Jts the Lal)our Relations Boa1·cl to say ot11er,vise, 110 collective ag1·een1e11t n1a}' be cl1allengecl fo1· 3 years a.fter it comes i11to effect. Collective agree1nents must be i n \\'1·iti11g, signecl by re1)1·ese11ta­ tives of the ba1·gaini11g l)a1·ties, a11cl se11t i11 du1)!ic,tte to t}1e l\Ii11istr,r . . of Con1n1t111it:,,1 De\ 1e1opment ancl Social Affairs. ..t\11 J)c11·ties to tl1e negotiatio11s a1·e 1·equirecl to 1·ecog11ize ecich other, to negotiate in goocl faith, ancl to i11clt1cle in all agreements �1 J)rovisio11 fo1· \iO]t111ta1·�,7 co11ciliation. Re1)1·esentati\res of all pa1·ties i11volvecl are ftlrther requi1.·ecl to do everything they ca11 to restrai11 thei1· organizatio11s fron1 actio11s \Vhich cottlcl hincler or inflt1e11ce the negotiations.

The IVIinist1 ·�r of Commu11it)' .Development ::1ncl Soc:ial Affairs iHst1ecl a moclel collec.ti\;e b::1rg�1 i11ing i:tgreement i11 1963 cleRig11ed to be ct gt1icle ·fo1· unions ancl em1)lO.}'e1·s i11 the fo1·111t1latio11 of co11tractg, l)t1t 11ot a f'orn1 \\'hich the:>' \-Vere leg�1ll)' boun(l tc) 1·0110,v. The mocle1 agrecme11t cont�1i11s Procedttres to be follo\vecl i11 negoti�ttic)n a11cl clis­ Pute �eltleme11t �tncl li:,ts st1bjects st1itable for collec.ti\'e bargaini11g (,,·ages, hot1rs, 1e,1ve, sicl<-

11ess and accident compensation, working condi­ tions, etc.), bt1t sets no standards for them.

Encouraged by the promulgation of the Labot1r Relations Proclamation, collective bar­ gaining is becoming more and more widely usecl as an i11st1·t1ment in labor-management relations in Ethiopia. To elate, six agreements have lJeen signed, covering a total of about 10,000 perma11e11t employees: at the Won.ii and Shoa Sugai· Estates (also k110\vn as I-I.V.A.-Ethiopia), the Bc1ha.r Dai- Textile Mills, Ethio})ian .Air Lines, I11clo-Ethio1)i;:1n Textiles, General Ethiopian Tra11s1Jo1·t Co1n1Ja11,y, ancl AG IP-ITCO." Sev­ er,11 otl1er L111io11s ha.ve negotiations L1nclerway \\ 1itl1 thei1· res1Jec.tive employers.

The i11itiative fo1· the formulation of a col­ lective agreement has always come from the t1nion. Tl1e first clraft, ust1ally based upon the 1noclel ::1g1·eement from the Mi11istry of Commt111i ty Develo1)me11t a11cl Social Affairs, is dra\vn up by the t111io11, often with the hel1J of CELU officials. After consicleratio11 by management, it is rett1rned to the union, and joint negotia­ tio11s begi11. CELU officers t1sually represent the u11ion's interest; the Labour Relatio11s Section of the Labour De1)artme11t acts as a mediator llJJon the reqtiest of either management or the •

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A 1najority of the six ag1·eements currently j 11 effect aJJJ)l}r to emplo)rees \vho are not ltnion memlJers as \veil as to those who are. The items r

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thc1:<e cslubli�hn1en ts were! .-. :\ ir.r('cni c n t� r11n1 on I l he Ii rst our ·ivnilnl.dt · during- th,· prcpar11tion nf thi,; study, llnlc�s otherwise :,<>tcrl. thr:i·,·fo rr�. dil-','11:-:�inn!.I nr p1·n,•i,;io11i1 in c:oll<'ctive barf:<nining L"vntrncls rcrer 1111ly Lo those four.

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cove1·ed in the ag1·eeme11ts include those me11tioned above as part of the model ag1·eement, �1s well as probation pe1·iods, suJ)pleme11ta1·)' J)ay­ ments and be11efits, g1·ieva11ce settleme11t lll"O­ cedures, promotio11s, a11cl llay i11creases. (See Part IV, Conditions of EmJ)loyment.) The con­ tracts are in effect fo1· fron1 2 to 3 ) rears, a11d �1.re automatically rene,Ji7ed in thei1· existi11.g form for the same period as thei1· original du1·atio11, unless eithe1· party to tl1e agreeme11t ,visl1es to modify it. Pro}Josed cha11ges must be suggestecl, usually in \\ 11·iti11g, to the othe1· pa1·ty �rithin a fixecl period p1·ior to the ex1)i1·ation of the ,1gree­ me11t (va1·)·i11g f1·on1 30 to 90 da)rs). Accorcli11g· to 011e co11tract, the lvii11ist1·J· o:f Co111111t111it�, De, relo1)ment ftnd Soci�tl Affc1i1·s 111ust �1lso be 11(1tifiecl i11 "''1·iting of c111y l)l'O})(J8ecl n1oclif1.c�l­ tio118.

The collective ,1.g1·een1e11ts co11cluded thus fa1· have 1�esulted i11 clefi11ite imp1·ovements in the ,vo1·ke1·s' lot, es1)ecially as 1·ega1·ds ,vages, fringe be11efits, a11cl 1Jrotection agai11st arbitra1·y dis­ missi1l. l\'la11age1·s in e11te1·1)1·ises no,:v 01Je1·�tting unde1· collective ag1·een1ents have rema1·kecl that, cont1·a1·J1 to thei1· expect,1tio11s, tl1e co11clusio11 of the co11t1·acts l1as 1·esulted in much smoothe1· l�1bo1· 1·elatio11s, fe\\1er work stop})ages, ancl in some cases, increasecl productio11.

The Labot1r Relations Proclamation 1·equi1·es that labo1· and management 01·ga11izations ''set­ tle labour dis1Jt1tes by peaceful means ,vhe11e,,e1· })Ossible," and states that tl1eJ7 ''shall be e11cot11·­ aged to engc1ge in \70Jt111ta1·y conciliatio11 as ,111 essential pa1·t of collective ba1·gai11i11g." Pa1·ties to a clis})t1te, individual 01· collective, may �tt a11y tin1e call tl})On t11e co11ciliatio11 ser\1ices of the L,1lJot1r Relations Sectio11 of the L�lbot11· DeJ),1rt­ ment. If these co11ciliatio11 eff01·ts a1·e 11ot suc­ cessful, all collecti,re clisputes, and i11diviclu�1l disputes if tl1ey co11cer11 t111fai1· labo1· })1·,1ctices, a1·e 1·efe1·red to the Labot11· Relatio11s Boa1·d.

Other indi,ridual clis1Jt1tes may be tal<e11 to tl1e ci,1il cou1·ts.

Tl1e Labot11· Relations Boa1·cl is con11)osecl of five members a1Jpointecl by the Empe1·01· fo1· a 3-yeai· te1·m 011 the 1·ecom111endation of the i\1li11i:.;te1· of Com1nt111it)r De,,elo1)111e11t ,l11cl Soci:11 Affair:.;, \�/ho h,1s 1·eceivecl 11c.)n1i11,lti<)J1s f1·01n 1,1_ ))or �1ncl emJ)loyer 01·gc1.nizatio11s. The Boa1·cl \VflS 36

e�t,1blisl1ed l)y tl1e I.Jabot11· Rel�ltions Proclam ft� ti<)11 to co11cili::1te and �trl)it1:ate dis1Jtttes and l(J i�stte ft,,ra1·cls ::111cl (lecisio11s \\•hich �1re enforcible }}. ..,, l[t \V. If 011e of tl1e J)�l rties to tl1e cl i8 flUte is diss�1tisfied ,vitl1 the decision of the Boa1·cl, appeal l)e n1ade to the Supreme ImJ)erial Court. ma,, • Tl1us the go,1ernn1ent's ge11e1·al J)olicy i11 tl1e fielcl of labo1· relatio11s is to encou1·�1ge labor ancl n1anagement to hc:1nd]e their l)1·oblen1s incle­ pe11cle11t of oflicial su1)e1·visio11 or interfere11ce, bt1t facilities a1·e J)rovide(l sl1ould t11e J)a1·ties to a clis1)t1te ,,,ish to c�1ll U})On then1. Up to the })1·esent ti1ne, 110\\"eve1·, tl1e se1·, 1ices of the Labot11· Relatio11s Sectio11 ha,·e lJee11 t1sed often, l ll'imaril}· becat1se of the lack of ex1)e1·ience of n1ost le,1de1·s of the 11e,,1ly en1e1·gecl lrtbo1· move­ n1e11t. Dt11·i11g the 12 n1onths from Jt1l)' 1963 to Jt1ly 196,1, fo1· exan1ple, tl1e Section ha11dlecl 468 cases; 011e-thi1·cl of these ,,,e1·e st1ccessft1lly con­ cili,1tecl. IVI01·e 1·ece11t estimates a1·e that alJout 90 })e1·ce11t of clis1)11tes b1·ot1ght to tl1e Section a1·e settlecl the1·e. l\'Iost dis})t1tes a1·e settled qt1ickly by t11e LalJot11· Relatio11s Sectio11. Since most t111io11s a1·e in tl1e Aclclis Ababa a1·ea, J)arties to clisJJutes ca11 easily con1e in })e1·so11 to tl1e Lal)our De1)a1·tme11t, a11cl 1 01· 2 clays t1st1all)' suffice to IJ1·i11g abot1t a11 ag1·eeme11t. The most common cat1se of dis1Jt1tes is "'rages, altho11gh dismissal ,vithout just cat1se 01· d t1e con11Je11sation, \Vo1·k­ i11g conclitio11s, a11d alleged disc1·in1inatio11 against Ethiopians also figt11·e as p1·omi11ent IJ1·oblems.

If �111 i11cli, riclt1al grie,1a11ce is taken to the civil cot11·ts, the Lal)ou1· Relatio11s Section pre­ })(l1·es a s11mma1·y a11d 1·ecomn1enclation 011 the case to se1·, re ::1s ::l g·t1icle to the j11clges, a11d i11 l)1·�1ctice, tl1e Sectio11's opi11io11s a1·e f1·eq11entl )' 111)l1eld.

Collecti, re clispt1tes not settled b11 the Labot1r · Relations Sectio11 a11d 11111·esolved unfai1· labor lll'�lctice cases go to tl1e Lal)ot11· Relations Board fo1· co11ciliatio11 01· arbit 1·atio11. As of Januar)' 1965 tl1e Boa1·d had handled 99 cases. It n1ust 1·ec:lcl1 a decisio11 ,vit11i11 60 da)rs; other,,,ise, a strike is clllo\vable unde1· the te1·111s of the Labou1· Relatio11s P1·ocla111ation. Ho,vever, if coi1ciliatio11 effo1·ts ::11·e 1101: st1ccessful, a11(l tl1 e 60 clclys are d1·a,,,ing to �1 clo8e, �111 a1·bit1·atio11 r 1 ,:l ,, �:trcl is ge11er<-1l l)' l1::-lr1(led clo,vn. \ er�� fe,, . of these , 1,,'�l1·d� hc1,�e bee11 a1)11ec11ecl to the Stt111·en1e I 111 lle1·i al Coti i·t.

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n1ovement matt1res a11d its leaclr labo e tll As experience, more disputes are mo1·e e 11i1· ers acq facto1·y level by proceclures out­ the at led sett agreements. The grievance ive collect in lined agreement at the Wonji and proceclti res in the for example, provide f01.

Estates, r 11ga g Shoa ,vo1·ker 01· workers, with a ui1ion ved ggrie a e th as alone they or ative prefer, to Jlre­ esent repr sent their case to thei1· immediate supervisoi·. If unresolved, the case goes to the department heacl and the11 to the company's labor 1·elations office.

If t11e case is still not settled satisfactorily, both parties n1ay agree to st1bmit it to a thi1·d party for conciliation or to any autho1·ity in accord­ ance ,vith the law.

Procedu1·es i11 the other tl1ree ag1·eeme11ts closely pa1·allel tl1ese. All p1·0, ride that decisions n1ust be 1·endered and appeals be made ,vithi11 1 to 5 clays. The Baha1· Dai· Textiles agreement differs f1·om the othe1·s, ho,veve1·, i11 that the union cloes not participate in tl1e disct1ssio11 until the aggrieved Ilart)r has talked 1Joth with the approp1·iate st1pe1·viso1· a11cl ,vith the pe1·son11el office. The JJ1·oblem ma); then be settled at tl1e regula1· "''eekly· 1111ion-managen1e11t meeti11g, 01· it n1ay be st1bmittecl to an ''impa1·tial medi,1to1·'' if both com1Ja11y ancl t1nio11 agree. Failing set­ tleme11t at this level, the case is 1·efe1·1·ed to the Labour Relatio11s Section of the Labot11·

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Union s and management i11 the e11te1·prises oper ating unde1· ag1·eeme11ts 1"e1)01·t that the gri evance proceclt11·es a1·e ,vo1·king ve1·y ,veil, and most dispt1tes submittecl to these proceclui·e s have bee11 satisfacto1�ily settlecl ,vithout the servic es of gover11ment ftutho1�ities. Neverthe­ less, CELU continues to play a1J active 1·ole i11 advising its atliliates dt11·ing clisputes ,vith managem e11t. The CELU constitution requires that all disp t1tes ,vith manageme11t be reportecl to the Ex ectttive Boarcl. 111 p1·actice, membei·s of t lie CE LU staff a1·e i11volvecl .in most clisputes, �:l)ecially those in enterprises ,vithout a collec­ �·I'··e agreement. 111 seve1·al instances, CELU l1 as

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beeii called in by man agement to help solve dis­ P ltes ,vith t1nions, a11d ge in neral, CELU exer ­ � cises a n1oderating i11fluen ce on its membe1·ship in cl1·8 Pt1tes settleme11t ta lks. Both management and labor appear to be satisfi ,vit the im­ ed h pai·tiality and fairness of the decisions 1·enclered by the Board, ancl with the conciliation se1·vices given by the Labo11r Relations Section.

Conditions uncle1· ,:vhich the 1·ight to st1·ike �Lncl lockot1t may be exercisecl a1·e listecl i11 the Labot1r Relations Proclamation. It is deemed a11 t1nfai1· labor practice to incite or concluct a strike or locko11t ,vl1ich is, among other things, ''initiatecl ...withot1t ,villingness to 11egotiate in good faith; ...prior to the submissio11 of the labo1· disJJt1te ... to the Board and before the ex1)i1·ation of ,1 periocl of 60 days follo,vin.g such st1b1nission." Not\vithstandi11g these limita­ tions, there have been reports of 11umerot1s st1·ikes si11ce the legalization of labor unions. In ge11e1·al, the go,,e1·nn1e11t has not actecl to penal­ ize t111ions engaging i11 any kincl of strike activ­ ity. I11 n1any cases the ,vo1·kers on strike were not a,vare of the details of the la'vV nor familiar ,,,ith the alte1·11ative l)rocecl11res ope11 to them fo1· settling grieva11ces. A]so, many of these st1·il,es 1·est1ltecl ·from mi11or clissatisf actions a11cl \,,ere c,1st1al wo1·l( stOllPftges not clirectecl to­ \\'ai·cls cl ,,rell-(lefinecl grie,,ance. As 011e labor Ie�lcle1· h,1s clesc1·i becl, ''A ,,1orke1· ,vou. lcl get ti1·ecl �tncl call 011t to some of l1is friencls t<J stoil \vork­ ii1g. Afte1· 2 01· 3 cla)'S the}' \vo11lcl come back and st�11·t \Vo1·ki11g rtgain." Tl1ere vvere, however, a fe,v o1·ga11ized st1·ikes i11 1964, ,vhich tool<: place g tin y ai a, w -cl e 60 th of 11 tio 1·a 1Ji ex e th ·e 01 bef an i1· pi A io e th th E at ns 1io t11 , ly ab ot N I)ei·iocl. les con­ ti ex an T 1Ji io th E o1cl I1 e th 1cl a1 es itl L ed ng · lo ·o e1 s p1 ov ge 1Ja op st k or ,, l 1·a ,re se clucted i c ec e sp th of 1t e1 m le tt se e th · ei ft A � I)ei·iocls. _ r er111ne11t co11t1nuecl its o, g e th , stril{e _griev�111ces e l ec th of lv o v s ie in rt a p e th 1 ce i, ,, 1 i effc)i·ts to co e1·e ag he s.

T ct ·�t t1 11 co ve ti ec ll co . '"'., of tu;;e r Lt lne:-1 e1·e 1n large \\ 5 f)6 1 . ly 1r e, r 1 i1 111e11 t� s. 1· g· 11 e(l . ts r o ff e e s 1e tl f o . t il t ..:o c i· meastll c tli� 1

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Relations in Non11nion Enterprises n

The majority of 11011union e11terprises in Ethiopia are in the traditional sector of the economy, where the conduct of busi11ess rela­ tio11s is usually a family matte1·. ,v01·ke1·s in nonunion enterprises i11 the moder11 secto1· ma)r present thei1· individual or collective grievances to the Labou1· Relatio11s Section i11 tl1e Labot11· Depa1·tment, whe1·e they are ha11dled in the same ma11ne1· as grieva11ces ll1·ese11ted to tl1e Section by union 1·eprese11tatives. N 011u11ion workers may also attem1lt to settle thei1· g1·iev­ a11ces by presenting them di1·ectl�l to their en1ploye1·s, or by 1)rosecuti11g t11ei1· em1)loy·ers i11 the civil courts. In practice appeals are t1s11all)r made to the Labou1· De1)a1·tment, sometimes after a di1·ect ap1lea) to tl1e employe1· has failed.

Few wo1·kers l1�tve the fi11,1ncial 1·esources to prosecute a case in the courts.

In Eritrea P1·0, 1 ince, \\1 he1·e labo1· unio11s h�1ve bee11 allo,,recl to 1·e-for111 011)), \rel')' 1·ece11tly, dispt1tes �l1·e ge11e1·al])r take11 b)' the aggriev·ecl incli, 1 iclual to the J)erson11el (>flicer or t}1e cli1·ecto1� of the e11te1·1J1·ise. Collective cliR})tttes �Lre usticLll)' }J1·esented to these persons by sev­ e1·�tl ,vorkers i11fo1·n1al)y clesig11.1tecl ,ls g1·ot11J s1Jokesmen. If the i11clividual 01·, i11 the case 11

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of' collective disputes, tl1e grotll) does 11ot ac­ cei)t m("lnageme11t's decision, they 1na }' take thei1· com1Jli1i11t to the Labou1· Relatio11s Sec­ tio11 of the E1·it1·ea11 Labot11· De1Ja1·t1ne11t, u11_ cler the E111ployn1e11t Act of I 958. The ,ict JJl'o­ \:icles fo1· tl1e s11bmissio11 of the g1·ie,7a11ce to 1ithin 1 tio11 \\ Sec ns atio Rel mo11th, or ou1· the Lab rages , \\ lving invo and fo1· con­ 15 days i11 cases ciliation by an office1· of the Sectio11. If, after a give11 tin1e has ela1Jsecl ( usually 15 clays), the ofl1ce1· has 11ot l)een able to 1Jri11g alJout an agree­ n1e11t, he 1·eco1·cls his opi11io11, �111d the case mav ' ,vithi11 a yea1· follo,ving tl1e 15th da)1 be submittecl to a civil co11rt. If, afte1· a year fron1 the time of subn1ission to the cou1·t� the case 1·e­ n1ai11s t1n1·esol,,ed, the l�1lJ01· relatio11s office1·'s 01Ji11io11 has the effect of a fi11al j t1clg1ne11t.

111 }J1·actice, j:e,v clis1}u tes i11 E1·itrea are set­ tlecl a.t the ·f�1.cto1·J' Ie, 1el. Almost all of the griev­ ances brot1gl1t to the Labot11· Relatio11s Section a1·e i11cliviclt1al 011es i11, 1olvi11g ,vages or 1Ja_vn1ents of son1e other l{i11cl. l\1a11y of the g1·ie, 1ances are 11ot lia}Jle fo1· co11sicle1·atio11, ho,,re, e1·, beca11se, fo1· 011e 1·eason 01· a11othe1·, the aggrieved party cloes 11ot p1·esent himself to tl1e Section within the 15-day li1nit. 111 the yea1· e11di11g Septem­ ber 10, 196£1, Eth$29,778 (US$11,911.20) \Vere l)aid out b)' em11loye1·s i11 E1·it1·ea fo1· com1)ensa­ tion of g1�ievances brought to tl1e Labour Rela­ tions Section. ,

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NOTE: This stt1dy was dra.fted p1·ior to tl1 (' '·1cti,•·i • tio 11 ()f r··· 11c 1,a IJour 1 11 s1Ject1on · , erv1ce of· th e E• tl11op S · 1i11 · 1 D�partn1er1 t: of l,ctbour i 11 t\tig-ust l .')C . · l i\1ocl 1·�• ca �.·1011 s 11 1 :� the text to i·e:f'lect this develo11n1 ent 1 1,1 ve bec•r1 rn,1de ,,, 11 ere . l�? s. � 1 Jc, as 111 I art II, Governrnent and Labor. It ,vas 11 ot possible 11 0,ve,•e. t ·r, o ' C'\-JSe u ll o� JJ :11 ·t II_I or Part IV, and it should be noted tl1at E111 1,ir� l::tbor l v , :1� not. oi �l�r np1)l1es 111 Eritrea Province, but tl1al (si11ce the OJJC · l'tltiorl of · ti, .... 1118 }Ject 1011 Service ltas 111acl poss1· 11 .

• le e the un1f orn1 , 11at1011\vide enforcciiient of tll i.8 l· , ) . . . ·. l tl1ere, �1 ltl1 ugh, 18 er f it o c rcc o i · • s ptllJlicat " i·or, ' uctt1,cl l r.1\'> as of the date of this studv' e111p}O)l · n1e· nt COll<{"It··1011s l1 ad 11 ot been st1bstantiall�· affected.

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PART IV.

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E111Jlloyn1e11t Pract ices

Re1>orts

All pri\·ate e1nployers i11 Eth iop ia, except those in Eritrea, are 1·ec1t1i1·ecl b)• Title XVI of the Ci\ril Code of 1960 to ft11·11ish ·thei1· ,,,orkers and employees \vith certific�1tes of employment upo11 termi11ation of the ,vorke1·s' 01· employees' ,,·ork contract. The ce1·tificatio11 n1a)r co11tain on1v• the n atu1·e flncl dt11·atio11 of tl1e inclividual's ,vork a11d the 11ame a11cl adclress of · his en1ploye1·, unless the em1)loyee exp1·essl)' 1·equests that his employer i11clt1de also a11 evalt1ation of l1is pe1·­ forma11ce. The \\'01·ke1· 01· employee, upon dis­ charge, mt1st gi\re the en11)loye1· a signecl receipt for \Vages 1Jaicl him, a11d sin1ila1· i11di,1idual re­ ceipts for othe1· amou11ts IJaicl l1im. Title XVI also rec1t1ires that all 1·egt1lations of a11 e11te1·­ prise mt1st be i11 ,,·1·iti11g a11d macle k110,, r 11 to erer�· em1)lOJ'ee ,, 1l1e11 he is hi1·ed. E1n1)loye1·s are reqt1i1·ed also to 1·epo1·t in1n1ediately to the nearest JJt1blic em1)loyment office a11y J)la11s to estalJlisl1, exp,111cl, 1noclify, 01· close a11 econon1ic undertaking; any pla11s to hi1·e pe1·sons fron1 rural areas i11 an i11clust1·i,1l t111de1·tal(i11g; ancl an�· labor dis1Jt1te ,vhich may lead to a st1·il{e or lockot1t (PtllJlic Em1)lo)r1nent Admi11ist1·atio11 Order 1962) . .�II employe1·s i11 the JJri, ate secto1· i11 E1·it1·e�1 Provi11ce a1·e 1·equi 1·ed uncle1· the En11Jloyn1e11t Act of 1958 to 1·epo1·t a.11 hi ri11g a11d fi1·i11g to the nearest E1·itrea11 LalJot1r Office. They mttst also gi,�e to a \vorker 01· en1J)loyee absent because of ,vo rk i11j t11·y 01� ilI ness a ,v1·i tten 1·e1)oi·t on the amot111t of com1Jensatio11 dt1e hin1 a11cl ftJl explani1tio11 of the f::1cts \v·hich led to the calctt­ lat ion (>f the com1)ensatio11. All clispt1te s ovei� the an1ot111 t of comJJensfttion in sttch cases mt1st li e rer) orted to the Li:tlJottr Office i11 Asmar� i. _ 1 _l1l� la,v (t1so reqt1ires the emr)loye1· to ft11·nisl1 hi� l)et·:-;r,1111e1 · · ,v1th '"·1·1tten accot111 ts o·f the· cal .(:ti lation <)f lJ,t so h ·it Jay m en t� ii: tl1ey J y \.'r ch ea r�q�ie8t; a of atio11 11cl t(> te1·min gi\!e 11po11 then1 th �ll' �er\·ices a ce1·ti fic::tte of em1Jloyn1ent con1

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CONDITIONS OF EMP LOYMENT

tai11ing 11ame, address, age, identity card num­ be1·, kincl of \Vork, basic wage, and dates of hi1·ing a11d discha1·ge. Tl1e employer is further 1·eqt1ired to keep a 1·egister of workers and em­ l)loyees \vith the above information on each, a i·egiste1· o:f all overtime and night,vork per­ fo1·med, and a register of all disciplinary actions take11, a11cl he m11st post a timetable of ,vorking l1ou1·s and Rhifts in his establishment where all IJersonne) may see it.

Tl1e Ce11tral Personnel Agency a11d Public Ser\1 ice Orcle1· cov·ers all pttblic servants in the En1pi1·e, i11cluding those i11 Eritrea. It requires that all gover11ment age11cies iss11e periodic effi­ cie11cy reports on their employees, ancl keep J)e1·son11el files , .rhich inclttde such information as pe1·sonal a11d service histo1·y, edttcation, t1·ai11i11g, s1}ecial skills, job clesc1·iption, and effi­ ciency 1·e1)01·ts. All personnel mt1st be notified i11 ,vriti11g of ::111 changes i11 their status affect­ ing their J)ay a11d 1·esponsibilities, of the ap­ J)1·0�1ch of thei1· 1·eti1·ement age, of st1spension �1ncl co11c111·1·e11t \vithholcling of pay, ancl of cliscipli11�11·y actions. W01·ke1·s ancl employees a1·e clt1e lette1·s of separation and may 1·eq11est 1 ·eferences as ,vell at the time their employment is termi11atecl.

J 11 tl1e six est�1blishments operating under collecti\�e l)a1·gai11ing ag1·eements, personnel and atte11d,1nce 1·eco1·cls are ke1)t on each worker _ancl eini)loyee. Othe1· 1·eco1·ds a11cl �-eports 1·equ1red b,, these ftg1·eeme11ts i11clt1de a 11s t of all offenses a�1 cl disci1Jli11�11·y actio11s take11 against a ,:vorker_ ed ct ne on acc1-c rk \\'o l al f o· s rt 1Jo re e, ye lo l{) en 01. l ne on rs s of pe er st 1·o d an , es as se cli cl an s clei1t 111 practice many esta b­ n. io ot ·om JJ1 1· fo le ilJ ig el y e om th on ec or of ct se 11 er od ni e th itl s 1t e1 m sh li 1·s e he th ot as l el w as s rd · co 1·e · e , es th 11 1na111 t·a1 pt s ·e ke a1 rd co re l, ra ne ge In • v ,:1' c la 1 I y .

J · 1·elf t11rec · cl es 01 f 1s an }1· r1 1te e1 cl ze 11i io 1 t11 11 i v l tll f ·e· ai n101• e CL .

11e1· businesses a sm t os lVI . el 1 · i on t·s · l)e i· , lla e-co \\' h1·t . e ad tlIJ of m y el rg la is e 1·c :fo ·lc 01 ,,: r e th \\ he1·e s. d r o c i·e ' \\ fe p e e l<: s 1· e 1b 11 e ·f�1mily m 1

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Widespre�:1,d illiterac)r among mt1ch of t11e labor fo1·ce i11 the i11dust1·ial secto1· limits the usefulness of i11formation bt1lleti11s, poste1·s, c:111cl circulars. Thei1· use is inc1·easing, howeve1·, especially i11 unio11izecl JJlants, whe1·e t111ion leaders ca11 pass on i11f ormatio11 to the mem­ be1·sl1i IJ in 1·egula1· u11ion meetings.

Pree111J>loy1nent l11quiries

The c1ualificatio11s of a job c:1pJJlicant in Ethio1Jia a1·e t1suall:-{ ve1·ified by contacti11g tl1e ap1Jlica11t's J)re, 7 iot1s emplo) 1e1·s 01·, occasionally, by exitn1ini11g ,,v1·itten 1·econ1menclatio11s. I-Io,�1eve1·, i11 la1·ge enter1Jrises, 1·eco1·ds of all b11t the JJ1·ofessio11al c:1ncl skilled perso1111el 11s11all) r i11clt1de only lJasic i11fo1·matio11 011 \Vages, employ­ me11t d,ltes, numbe1· a11d ki11cl of offe11ses, ancl attencl,l11ce. Smalle1· enter1Jrises ofte11 1<:eeJ) no records ,1t ::111 lJ11t tl1e employe1· ge11e1·al)y l{nows the lle1·s011 i11 (Juestio11.

If the ap1llicc:111t }1as bee11 1·efer1·ecl to a 1Jro­ s 1Jecti, 1e emJJloye1· b) 7 a11 employn1e11t agencJr, the aJ)JJlica11t's ca1·d 011 file ,1t tl1e office n1ay be checked to ascertai11 details of his edt1catio11, tr,ti11ing, a11d, if he has usecl tl1e office mo1·e than 011ce, l1is previotts expe1·ie11ce. This procedt11·e is becoming mo1·e useful as the Empire e1nJ)loy­ me11t offices extend thei1· acti,rities and 1·efi11e thei1· 1·eco1·d-l{eepi11g tech11ic1t1es, ,1nd as 1nore employe1·s and w,1ge and si1lc:1ry ea1·ne1·s �1vail then1se1,,es of thei1· se1·vices. l11 Erit1·ea, ho,:4.r­ e, 1e1·, e111ployment office reco1·ds a1·e not mai11tainecl i11 a '"·,1y to make uRe·ful informatio11 011 i11cliviclu,tls registe1·ed t11ere easil )1 c:tccessible.

The qt1alific,ttio11s of JJerso11s hi1·ed di1·ectly ·fron1 the Uni,,e1·gity, from seco11da1·y scl1ools, 01· ·.f1·om training colleges n1ay be checkecl i:1t tho8e insti­ tt1 tio11s, ,,·he1·e fact1lty n1embe1·s may be c1t1es­ tioned, a11cl c:1c::-1de111ic 1·eco1·ds exa1ni11ecl.

111 some cases, job a1�1)lica11ts are tested befo1·e tl1e) 7 ,11·e l1ired. Tl1e Ce11tral Pe1·s01111el Age11c,, 1·equi1·es civil se1·vice a1Jplica11ts to }J,1ss ex�tinI11£1tio1 �s i11 the fielcl of ,vo1�k fo1· ,vhich they �ii·e a})pl r�ng, ancl so1ne l)l"i\rc1te em1)loye1·s ha,,e }Jositio11s, st1cl1 as tyIJ�pec1 f1c tes �s for ce1·t,tii1 _ 111g tests fo1· sec1·eta1·1a.I 1Jositio11s, \v}1ich c:"tt·e 11se(l i11 gagi11g job-see1,e1·'s qtl::llificatio118. lliri11g

I11 Erit1·e<1, 110 1Je1·so11 t111cle1· ltl ,,''e·<ti·"'.� of· cLge . . _ • 111.:.ty be hir ecl \v1• thot1t a meclicc.tl certific�1te. I11 40

f itcto1·ies a medical certificate is requi1·ecl before r ea1·s of age n1ay 6 J I 11de1· u 1Je1·son be hired. �111y 111 aclditio11, E1·it1·et111 lc:t\V p1·0, rides that 110 one tl11de1· 16 may be hi1·ed for ''heavy or dangerous ,:vo1·l{'' (E111ployn1ent Act of 1958). There is no leg�1l mini111t1n1 age fo1· hi1·i11g in the JJ1·ivate secto1· i11 the 1·est of Ethiopia, although persons 18 yea1·s of age mt1st obt�1i11 special permission :f1·om tl1e Ce11t1·al Personnel Agency in order to e11te1· tl1e pt11Jlic service.

Tl1e Pt1blic Employme11t Acln1i11ist1·atio11 ii1 the I....abot11· De1Ja1·tme11t operates an employ1ne11t se1·vice for the p1·i,rate secto1· i11 Addis Abi1bc:1 a11cl in Di1·ecla,, ra. These offices 1·egister JJe1·so11s lool{i11g fo1· ,,,01·k a11cl issue 1·egist1·atio11 c(11·ds ,,1l1ich i11clt1de basic JJe1·sonal data, ex1Je­ rie11ce, skills, a11cl eclt1cational backgrou11d.

Registe1·s of ,raca11cies ,,,ith a desc1·i1Jtion of the tyJJe o·f 1Je1·s011 11eecled a1·e ke1)t, and i11t1·oduction cc11·cls to be JJ1·ese11ted to an emplo) re1· by a pro­ SJ)ective \\701·l<e1· 01· en1plo)ree a1·e isst1ed. These e1nJlloyme11t oflices also })ro,�icle a1)J)licatio11s fo1· foreig11 \-\1ork 1Je1·mits, ,vitho11t ,vl1ich foreigners may not ,:vo1·lc i11 Ethio1Jia. Tl1e Pt1blic Em1)l0) 1me11t Ad1ni11istration Or­ cle1·, 1962, reqt1i1·es tl1at Ethio1Jia11 11atio11als, he11 lltlcllifiecl fo1· �l 1Jositio11, be given p1·efer­ e11ce ove1· fo1·eig11e1·s. No otl1er fo1·1n of dis­ c1·i1ni11atio11 i11 hi1·i11g is pe1·mitted b)r tl1e 01·der.

White-coll,11· em1Jlo) rees a1·e 11s11all)r hired t1ncle1· c1 ,,,1·itte11 co11t1·act, altl1011gh the Civil Cocle sti1tes tl1at the co11t1·,1ct of hi1·i11g need 11ot ''lJe st1bject to a.11)' s11eci::1l fo1·mality." P1·os1Jec­ _ t1,,e pe1·so1111el a1·e occc1sio11all)· 1·eq11ired to pass inecliccll exc1111i11titio11s, a11cl n1any e1n1Jloyers re<111ire �tn i11itirtl l)1·obatio11a1·y 1Je1·iocl. l11 }J1·actice, the en11Jloyme11t offices are 11ot )'et tlsed t<) c.-11)acity by en11)lo�rers, and a1Jplic a­ _ t10118 fo1· .iobg f�1i- ot1tnt11nbe1· 11otificatio11s of job <)IJ �l �ii1gs. Acco1·di11g to e1111)lo)rme1 1t ser,,ic e c)flicrc.11s, tl1is is i11 pa1·t because e1111JloJ'ers ,1re ill 1·elticta11t to i11,rolve tl go,,e1·11 me11t age11cy tl �e�i- ::tff,1i1·s, becc1t1se theJr a1·e acct1sto n1ecl to hii·iiig f�1mil�r 01· f1·ie11ds, a11cl beca11se the)' fre­ qtler1tlJr ca11 flricl 1111skill.ecl labo1· n101·e qt1ickIJ· rer I)ut it. l cl 1 cl ea.

1 )lJ' lJ)' e1111 )l0J hi1·i11g, ::-1s 011e �� � 11·0111 the c1·0\�,1d 011tsicle tl1e facto1·,, gc.1tes." �l,he cliL·ec:to1· of the Di1·ccl�t\\!�l· of-lice e5ii� 111ate(l ii 1 tl1e Rt1111n1e1· of 1965 th�1t 100 to zoo cll)l)licit11ts ,,,e1·e 1·eg·iste1·ed e\·e1·)� ,,,eel, b�· ]1i.s l !fice ,t11cl o11l�· 20 to 50 \\ ·c1·e }Jlc1cecl e,,er)" 11101 1tl1. � e ar I lie (lJ)et·,1tio11s <.)f the ...· L\ e offic 1 ... b;; .clclis �ut1

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t}1ose of the Di1·eclavva office clltl1otlgh to r nlila �i The scale . r en11)loyment ofl1ce clt large 8 11 0 t,11 t I)la a cetl l1-� 821 l'.lers0118 1b�1 Ab, � is (as Add 1 11e,, reg1st1 ·,lt1011s) cluri11g the 4,684 inst aira e un 1-J 1·cl , iVIa iod per 1865. th 011 01 4� r11 Erit1·ea, 11e\v J)erso1111el mt1st sig11 a \\'l·itte11 contract (Employment Act of 1958) listiilg basic l)ersonal clata on the incli,,tclual ai1 d de­ scribi11g tJ1e job ,1nd \\ age. The E1·it1·ea11 La­ bour Office operates an emp loyn1e11t sei·,,ice also. but e1nplo)'e1·s clo not t1se it ve1·}r 1nt1ch, ·for t:he same reasons that the excha11ges i11 Adclis Ababa and Diredavva are not usecl.

Professio11al level empl o)rees ,11·e ge 1 1erally re­ cruitecl b}' e1nployers i11 the ,, 1hole o:f EthioJ)i�t from the tech11ical a11d hig h schools 01· tl1e u11i­ versit.y. The Uni\1e1·sit�,; l1as a. J)]aceme11t bu1·eau for its graclttates, ,111d emplo:r·e1·s who 1�egLtla1·Jy hire s}Jecializecl J)erso1111el n1,1i11tai11 co11tact \\'ith the acln1i1 1ist1·�1tions of the scl1ools vvhich t1·ai11 persons i11 st1ch s1)ecialties.

Hiri11g in the JJttblic. se1·vice is governed b j, the Ce11tral Perso11 11el Age11c;v· ::111d Pt1blic Serv­ ice Regt1lations of 1961. 1"11ese 1·eg11latio11s establish the follo,vi11g p1·iorities for filli11g va­ cancies in tl1e c.i\'il se1·vice: (1) A s11ital)]e l)t1blic serva11t of the san1e g1·,1cle i11 the sa1ne mi11istry; (2) 01· i11 a11othe1· 111i11ist1·y; ( 3) l)1·0111otio11 of a public se1·,,�t11t i11 tl1e san1e n1i11ist1·)r; a11cl (,1) or fro 1n a11otl1e1· n1i11ist1·y. All vaca11cies belo,,, the lerel of Directo1·-Ge11e1·al 111t1st be 1·e1)01·tecl to the Ce11tral Perso1111el Age11c)r, Y'>7l1icl1 is 1·e­ sponsible for recrL1itrne11t. Tl1e Age11c:it1 acl, 7er­ tises job ,,a.ca11cies i11 tl1e 11e,,,sp�ll)ers, 01 1 the radio, and by ci1·c11lati11g its o,·1.111 l)t11leti11. Tl1e more J)romisi11g ::11)1)lica11ts t::11,e a \�:1·itte11 ex­ ami11atio11, L111cle1·go a medical exan1i11atio11 b}r � he Age11cy, a 11cl are t1suall )· gi,,en a J)e1�so11a] 1nte1·,!ie\\· clS well b)· the i\ili11ist1·) t o ,vhich the:,i,. are apr.,I}·i11g. A )})oi11t1ne11t i11cJt1cles a I)e1·iod of l J)� ·obatio1 1ary emp]oJ·n1ent of f1·on1 6-9 months.

Names of eligil'Jle ctJ)plica11ts \Vho "\-Vere 11ot se­ lected �tre 1n,Lintai11 ed on ::1 ,�.,aiti11g list fo1· 1 re�u·. The Ce11tral Perso1111e1 Age11cy 1�e1)01·ts th he f:ie l)roceclt1 res a1·e fu 11ctioni11g "''ell ; tl1e a_t t mai n r>r(JlJlem is tJ1e c1.ct1te sho1·tage of CJL1a1ified apr>licants.

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111 Pri11cirile, 1 ,t b;\ 11cl Lt bo be a}' 11 <) n1 l)e1·soi1 . \\qrk. c·u 11tlact · ITI(Jl'C tl1an 5 } e,trs (Civil C.,10(Ie · Jor 1

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of 196 • 0) · 111 cases ,,1here a contract has been . sig iIecl for ,l longer l)e1·iod, howeve1·, 6 mo11ths' _ . oti ce rs reqt1irecl to terminate it afte1· the initial � o )'ears are com1) leted. (No provisio11 is made foi· termi11ati11g a fixecl-te1·m cont1·act of 5 }rears ? 1' lesg before the end of the fixecl term.) Du1·­ • 11g !)rob::1tio11ar;y lJeriocls, either part)r ma)' .tei·minate the contract 1,,vithot1t notice. \Vhe11 ,l ,vo1·ker or em1Jloyee has bee11 em1:lloyecl for an i11clefinite period a11d has ,vorked less thJ:\11 a year, his employment may be tern1i11,1t:ecl vvith 7 days' notice by either party, the 7 clayg begi11ni11g 011 the dav the next salar,1 !),l}'m�nt is dt1e after the 11oti�e is give11. Thu;, if 11ot1ce is given on the first clay· of the mo11th, �ll1cl JJa.\rcla�, is the foLtrth of the Sclme month, tl1e 7-da}' pe1·iocl does not begin until the fourth of t'he 1no11tl1. If the \vorker 01· employee has IJee11 emploj-'ed for more t h. a11 1 )rea1·, 2 months' 11otice is relJuirecl, the 11otice l)eriod beginning ctt the e11cl o:f the mo11th i11 \vhich notice iR gi"'en.

A11 en11)lO)'er ma;\' substitt1te for a notice period i1nmecliate pc1.v·n1e11t of \vages for 7 cl�t.'lS or 2 1no11ths, cleJJending on the \vorker or e111ployee's Ie11 gt 11 r> f ser,:ice. 0ther,v ise, i11 cases where termi11�1tio11 is agreeal)le to both JJH,rties, 110 �eve1·a11ce })}lY i� reqt1irect \J\' 1�1"''· When an • e1111)lo.ver ter1nin.:1tes ,1 contract or reft1ses to 1·e11e,,, it "' ritl1out goocl caLl8e, 110\ve\'er, the l)ay­ n1e11t of crJ1111>e11s,tlion i� required (lVIi11i1num Lc1bot11· Co11clitions l{egL1littions, 196iJ). If the 01·l<e1· 01· en1plo>:ee l1,1s lJee11 ernJ)loyec1 1 year, co1111)e11sation �1mot111ts to 30 times the averctge clail>· \\ ,1ge of tl1e ,,,orl<e1· clt11·ing the 6 pay I)eriocls i1nmecliately ·prececli11g his discharge.

Tl1e �1n1ot111t is i11creased b)1 25 1Jercent for each ,1clclitio11aJ )rear of co11ti11uot1s service lllJ to a 111,tximt1111 of 180 times tl1e a\ rerage daily ,vage of the \\101·l<e1·.

In E1·itrea, tl1e Em1)loyment Act of 1958 outli11es the 11ecessar.} 11otice periods for different g·1·ot1ps of ,, age a 11d s,11ary earners. A mi11imurn of 7 cl,lj'S' 11otic.e is nec.essclry for ,1 bl11e-collar ,vorl{er l1a,ri11g l)et,,•ee11 6 ancl 24 mo11ths' serv­ ice, a11cl a maximt1n1 of 3 mo11ths ·fo1· an em­ !Jlr))·ee �1t the clirecto1· level ,vith mo1·e than 3 1 me11t.

0)l }J 1 en ' 1s t} 11 > 1c n rstem. Under s) nt re .ffe cli L :: ,·e h,l s 11t "t , 1·,, se Civil 1·\ ­ the ('.e11tral Perso1111e l Age11cy a11cl Ptiblic Se ' r­ 1· te l fo ec ir qu re is ce ti no 1's 1t} o1 m 1 r, le ice 01�c d in 1t an e1 m 11t oi )l) �ll y 11· r, 1)o m te cl (Jf 1 ()l ti t �· miil reti r 1·e fo e l 1e du 111 ·so e1 P .

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ment n1t1st be notified 3 montl1s in ctd, 1a11ce.

Dismissals fo1· i11efficiepcy 01· othe1· disci1lli11,iry cat1ses mttst be p1·ecedecl by 4 ,veel{s' 11otice, u11less the ,,,orl{er 01· em1)lo)ree h,1s IJee11 se11tenced to cl mi11i1nt1m of 2 ye,11·s' im1)1·iso11n1e11t, in ,,rl1ich case 110 11otice })eriocl is 11ecessary.

P1·ovisions co,re1·i11g 11otice l )erioc1s a11d sepa1·ations vrtl"}' in collective co11t1·acts. None, 110,,r_ eve1·, requi1·e a11y notice fo1· terminatio11 of l l1·0bationa1·y en1ployees 01· fo1· tl1e clisci1lli11a1·)· discharges outli11ed i11 each co11tr:::1ct. P1·ovi­ sions diffe1·i11g from those 1·ec111i1·ecl l)y la,,, i11clude a sho1·teni11g of the notice I)e1·iod 1·e<.1t1i1·ecl of 11e1·so1111el \\'ith ove1· 1 ye::114's ser, 1 ice to 1 month in the lndo-Etl1iopi<1n Textiles Ag1·ee­ ment, and the payme11t of con1pe11satio11 to pe1·­ son11el \vho a1·e u11i1ble to rest1me tl1ei1· clt1ties :-1fte1· 1 yea1·'s ill11ess. rrhe Bah,11� D�1r Textiles Ag1·eeme11t re(1t1i1·es payme11t of 1 111011th's 1 r \\ ages to st1cl1 ,, o1·ke1·s ,vith less than cl yec11·'s se1·vice �t11cl ;3 mo11th8' ,,,}1ges to tl1ose ,vith n101·e, a11d the Wo11ji a11cl S110::t St1g·ct1· Estates Ag1·ee­ n1e11t 1·eqt1i1·es thc1t ;3 n1onths' ,,,ages be ]laicl to ,ill such ,, 101.·ke1·s 1·ega1·dless of le11g·tl1 of service.

Othe1·,vise, 110 se,re1·a11ce llc1}r 111e11ts are 1·e(Jt1i1·ecl. ., 1 1·aclitio11ally some notice l)eriocl ,1ncl some form of se1Jttratio11 1Ja)'n1e11t are considered prOJ)e1· i11 ,111 pc11·ts of the economy. Such J)::1y­ ment� i11 arec1s ot1tside tl1e 1no11ey eco11omy ofte11 take the fo1·m of cl gift i11 l<i11d. \Vitl1i11 the mode1·11 econon1)r, ft11d esi)eciftlly i11 fi1·ms 01)e1·­ ,1tecl l)y 11on-Ethio1Jia11s, J10,,,e, 1e1·, ec1uivale11t p,1)r1ne11ts ,Lre not as comn1011, cl11cl ctrbitrcti·v clismiRs�1ls as ,, r ell (:ts tne tin,11111ot111ced discll)­ pei:1ra11ce of \vo1·l{ers co11ti11t1e to be 01·clina1·y ., 1 occt1 r1·e11ces. he J)e1·sistence o·f the::;;e l )J·ol)lems is ma11ifestecl i11 tl1e l,1rge 1111mbe1· of g1·ievc111ces conc.erning t111f�1i1· c1ismissals JJt·esentecl to tl1e l::tbor offices i11 botl1 Erit1·e�t �l11cl Acldis Ababa. �

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Cl1�t1)te1· XI.

J)is(�ii>li11a1·y Actions

No I)1·0,•isio11s exist i11 Em1)i1·e lct'\V co\1eri11g tlisci llli11�t1·�1 ttctio11s i11 the 1)1·i,,ate ::;ector. The r �tnc l J Pt1l:.lic Ser\·ice e11c Ag 111el ·so1 Pe1 (�e11t1·r1l Qi·de14 lists the f o]Jo,\·i11g l)enalties ,,·I1ich 111a,• · be im l)osecl 011 IJt1l)lic se1·,'c:l11ts :for breach c,f cl Lt ties : \V c1r11i11g, re111·in1ancl, fi11e 11ot exceecli11g· 2 111011ths' }J,l) 7, J)ost1Jonerne11t of 11ext 1)1:l)' i11cre­ n1e11t 1�01· ::t JJe1·io(l r1ot exceedi11g 4 ) re,trs, clo\\'ll­ g·racli11g, ,t11cl clisn1iss1:1l. ,.!\ formal i11vestigcttio11 111c1,· l)e 01·de1·ecl if the e,�icle11ce in a c,1se i8 co1111Jlex, 01· if the p1111ish111e11t is ex1)ectecl to re}.

11 i11 1ctio le 1·eclt g1·ac le, a t le,1s flt l,re 11,·o i AIJIJe,11 }Jt·ocecltl1·es �.1·e also ot1 tli11ecl. l�mt)loyecl 1)e1·so11s i11 I�1·it1·ea st1l)ject to the E1111Jlo:,·111e11t Act of 1958 111a�· be 1·elJt1kecl, fi11ed tl }J tcJ 1 rl,1:,r' s JJa:,�, 01· 1·emo,·ecl f ron1 the \\'Ork­ Rite for tl1e 1·est o·f tl1e claJ1 011 ,, '.hicl1 ,1 n1iscle1ne,111or ,, r::1s co111n1ittecl. I111n1ecliate clischarge ig JJe1·n1i:;;sjlJle f01· g1·ft,·e1· b1·eacl1es of d11t�· ,,·hicl1 �t1·e l istec1 i11 tl1e ::tct. These inclucle 1·e1)eatecl clisr>beclie11ce, abse11teeis111 ,1ncl ta1·di11ess, 1)ro\�o­ c,ttio11 to ,�iole11ce, cl1·t1i1lren11ess, cl,1111ilge to bt1si11ess e<-111i1Jme11t, c1·in1inal acts agai11st the em­ JJloyer, l1is family, 01· bt1si11ess, a11d co111petition \\'i t h the en1 ploye1·.

All six collecti,·e ,1g1·een1e11ts set out ,1ery cle�t1·]� the clisci1)]i11(11·.\, 1neastt1·es \\•hich 111ay· be t,tl{e11 �1gt1i11st })e1·so11s co111n1itti11g c1iff ere11t kinclR of 111iscleme,11101·s, ,,11cl list tl1e conclitions t111cle1· ,,·l1icl1 in1mecliate clis111issc1I is allo,vable.

Disci1Jli11ctr�r n1e,t�t11·es i11clucle ,,e1·bal ancl ,vrit­ te11 \V,l1·11ing·s, 8t1s1Je11sio11 fo1· f1·om one-half cl::l)! tr> ,111 i11clefi11i le JJe1·iocl, fi11es, \"vitl1]1oldi11g of }),l)', c:111d ,,:ithl1olcli11g i11c1·eases i11 JJ�1)'.

I 11 e11te1·1Jri:;;eR 11<.1t 011e1·ating· u11cler a co1lec­ ti,,e ctgreen1e11t, c:111cl es1Jeci,1ll)' i11 11011t111io11ized l)ltl 11 tR, cli8ci lJ l i11i11·y 111ea8111·es a1·e selclom regu1,t rizecl, a11cl t111skilled ,,,01·ke1 s ,,1ho do not [)l'<JlJe1·I�· cc11·1·�1 ot1t thei1· 1·es1Jo11sibilities are LISlI�t 11}' cliscl1,1i·ged.

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lVI �t xim Ltn1 ho ttrs of ,v01·l{ �1 re fixecl clt 8 pei· dctJ' �t11(l 48 11e1· ,veel( l1y tl1e lVIi11i111t1m Labot1 r Cc)11clitio118 Regt1lt1tions 196.::1. 011 sl1i·ft ,voi·l{

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regt1la1· hOLl l"S ITI�l••\" be exte11decl to 9 () � some d�l)7S, so long 1:1s tl1e �1.ve1·�1ge 1111n 1ber ot hotii·s of clll en11)lo)ree clt)es 11ot exceecl 8 ,l dtiY oi· 18 �l \\�eel{ ove1· �l11y ::�-,,,eeli: 1Je1·ic,d. Pers0115 \Vllose \\'Ori{ is i r1te1·1nitte11t clt1 ri11g· a 24-l1ottr

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Hot11·s of Work a11<1 pre111iu111s

l-l011rs t>f �'ork

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,1 rni11in1t1n1 of IO hotii·s' hav·e .. rest . . pe1. ·1nd Spec1:: 1 l 1)e1·1od. r·egttlation s govern stich ch in ea ·h,1uffeurs. l n Eri re,1. Provi11c�, the Employn1ent Act of � I the max11num hou1·s of \Vork foi· its lim g 195 perso1111el to 48 pe1· weel<, foi· olla r te-c. ,rhi pe1· \Veek or 48 if the:)r \Voi·l{ 56 ers \vork l nua nta bet\veen Ap1·il and Octobei· , for nds lo",,la the in \ratchmen 84 hou1·s a ,,,eek, fo1· those in l )Osi­ the EmplO.)'ee's ere })rese11ce is co11 ",vh s tion . . . te rm itte11t, (>r ,v11ei·e tinuous btit h1s \VOrk 1s 1n his prese11ce .i � also i11termitte11t," 66 hottrs a ,reek, or 60 rt �e us �all:{ l1as to be st,111cling.

• ..\t least 8 hottrs co11t111t1ot1s rest ei:-tcl1 cl,lj' mttst be provided for \\1 01·kers i n the lattei· t,vo categories,. ,vorki11g hot1rs in the go, 1 e1·nn1e11t �tre established by the head of eacl1 ministry 01· age11cy. _ In ge11eral, \Vo1·k1ng hol11·s i11 Acldis Ababa offices are 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. a11d 3 IJ.n1. to 6 p.m. �Ionclay throtigh Fricla}·, \\'itl1 son1e oflices O})ei·­ ating from 9 a.m. to 1 l).n1. 011 Sattt1·day also.

There is no legal limit on hO\V mLich o,,e1·time may be \Vorkecl in a11)r secto1· of the eco11omy 01· in any l)art of the coL111trj�.

Hours of ,vork in collective ba1·gaini11g agreements are limited to 8 1Je1· clay a11cl 48 per ,,,eek, except i11 cases oi� force ,,1ia.ie1cre.

Et�iopi�111 Air Lines shift \\1orkers 1naj' be 1·e­ qu1recl to \Vo1·k UIJ to 9 hot11·s a clay, but total regular hot11·s ( 11ot incl ucli ng o,1e1·tin1e) ma)' n�t exceed 48 in a11y· 2-\veek per·iod. The Etl1io­ pian Air Lines co11t1·act also limits tl1e tot�1l n� tmber of l1ot11·s \'Vhich may be v\ro1·lcecl. It 1)1·0rides th�tt 110 011e ma}' '\\.'01·k n101·e tl1a11 12 11� h ours a clay i11clt1cling O\'e1·tin1e a11d limits o,rer­ _ time lo 22 1, 1� hot1rs a \veek unless the ,:1.,orlce1· or employee ag1·ees to \vo1·k mo1·e or 1111less tl1e sation of work would cause m;nifest damage. ��e \\i 011j i ancl Shoa St1ga1· Estates agreen1e11t �onta ins a 12-hour li1nit ·for \\'Ork 011 �111\' 1 cla)' i ncl�� lin g overtime, and limits o,,e1·ti1n� to 12 h ou1 :-; a ,\·e Th,e cu1.-. ek, �llb..1ect to_ �he sa m e exceptions. re1 1t legal }1m1ts on hot1rs of \vo1·k _ . t \\ rre in roc-l11cecl only in 1964 i11 Etl1iot)ia : !Hoper .· t.ra ct·1t·1onall:')', ,vorking hot1rs \Ve1·e 1nt1ch Io 11ger A , . C�l1 ctl ho11rs worlcecl 1 n 1nost � nt_er. _ Prise� ' th ei efr>re, 11s t1al1,.,, exceed these l1n11 ts.

1-1(1.J\\'f�Ve1• . . � 1 \\'01·kclay th , 11·\ 111, e d <)r gth le11 of: the · I,1d�.

• . beP11 , 1• �e(It1cecl some\vhat s111ce tl1e format1011 of 1 a)1 or rlf . · u 1. 11 'JI1� ct11d the clevelo11ment of Et mea11s . "ll - f ()t'Clllg the law i11 the Labour Dep�l1·t111 ust

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Lac bOtlr Re1ati• ons Sectio11 (see Enforcen1e11t, flbO\'e) · R eports of the E1·it1·ea11 Labour De1)art1ne11t ind1ca · te that hours wo1·ked in many E.Jr 1t1·ea11 . �.st�bl"1shn1e11ts a1·e frequently above tl 1e Iegal l1m1ts. n1e11t's

Nigl1lwo1·k

u :icler :he ter1ns of �he Civil Code, appren. tices may 110t be reqt11recl to work at night llllle�8 SllCh ,vork is 1·eqt1ired by the nature of th� J(>l?. Otl1er\\1ise 110 limitations 011 night\vork ex�s� 111 Em1)ire la,v or in the collective bar­ �,11_11111g agreeme11ts co11c.lt1decl thus far. The Eri trea11 Em1Jlo:>7ment Act ap1Jea1·s to provide for a 11igl1t diffe1·ential of 11/1- times the basic l1ot11·ly JJa:1i of perso11s doi11g the same job in the _ cla).rt1me, but tl1e \\'ordi11g of the law is u11clear. !11 p1·actice, ,�.,rork dttri11g the night is common 1n f�1ctories ope1·ati11g 011 shi'fts. Only one con­ tract J)rovicleR for a pay differential for night \Vork, although overtime ,vo1·ked at night is 1·en1l1ne1·atecl at a higher rate than overtime \Vo1·ked i11 the clay.

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E1n 1Jloyees i11 the 1J1·ivate secto1· throt1ghout the Em1Jire a.re e11titlecl to con1pensation at the r;;1te of 1 1/4. tin1es their normal hot11·lj' rate for overtime wo1·ked be·fore 10 p.m. ancl at the rate of 1 ½ tin1es for 0\1ertin1e bet�1een 10 p.m. and 6 a.n1. (Mi11i 111un1 La,bot1r Co11ditions Regula­ tio11s, 1964; and Em1J1oyment Act of 1958).

Civil servants ,vho have \Vorl<ed overtime clo not receive l)remium pay; instead they are granted com1)e11sato1·y time off. o,,ertime com1Je11satio11 provisions in collecti,re co11t1·acts are generally highe1· than those 1·eqt1irecl by Ia,v. The Inclo-Ethiopia11 Textiles ag·1·een1e11t 1·eqt1i1·es the premiums set by law, 11 io at at er un 1· m fo 1·e es id ·ov p1 on iti lcl ac i11 1t bt the 1·ate of 21/2 times the no1·mal rate for over­ ic bl id pu d pa an s ay 11d Su on ed ·m o1 1·f pe tin1e e os y th to pl t ap no es clo n io is ov pr s l1i T .

'S holida.) . sis ly th ba on m a on cl te 1la 1cL ca is y pa e \\rhos d Shoa an ji on W e th by cl re ve co es ye lo Emp ­ er d p 35 e ai b p st u m t en em 1·e ag es Sugar Estat r ll y a fo a p e f o at l r a rm o 11 r ei th n .

1a ce11t more tl i11g piece­ r e v s co le u r l ::1. ci e p S . l{ i· o ,v overtime ey t a th s th o m s t1 1i n e r p · i1 e th e g n a 1· 1· ,vorkers ,1 rn1ent for overtime. } a }J t n 1-eceive eqL1ivale 43 .,

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The Ethiopian Air Li11es co11t1·act provides fo1· ove1·time at the followi11g rates: None fo1· the first quarte1· hour each day up to a n1axi­ mt1m of 21;:! hou1·s a ,veek (legal 1·equi1·en1e11ts notwithstanding) ; after the fi1·st 011e-l1alf l1ou1·, time and one-thi1·d fo1· ove1·time bet,vee11 6 a.n1. and 10 p.m. and time a11d 011e-half bet,vee11 10 p.m. a11cl 6 a.m. Compensatio11 fo1· o, re1·time performed 011 llaid public holidays recognizecl by the company is at 21/:.! tin1es the 1101·1nal 1·ate of pay. The Bahar D�lr ag1·een1e11t 1·eqt1i1·es ove1·­ time pay at the rate of time and 011e-ha]f fo1· the first 2 hou1·s, and time ancl th1·ee-qt1�11·te1·s the1·eafter.

Until the fo1·mt1lation of the fi1·st collective agreements very few ,vage a11cl sala1·:v ea1·11e1·s 1·eceivecl premium JJay fo1· ove1·tin1e ,vo1·k i11 Ethio1lia. Now, howeve1·, .some employers in aclditio11 to those pa1·t)r to collective co11t1�acts have begun to pay overtime premiun1s i11 compli­ ance \\rith the Ia,,,. Repo1·ts of tl1e Labou1· Office in Asma1·a, ho,,reve1·, indicate that, des1)ite the la\v and tl1e l11s1lectio11 Se1·vice, ma11y em1lloye1·s i11 Erit1·e�i P1·0, 1ince co11ti11ue to 1·eqt1i1·e thei1� ]le1·so11nel to ,vo1·k 1011g hou1·s with 110 extra pa)'. t>t,i«I Leave

The 1964 Minimum Labour Co11ditio11s Reg11lations establish leave 1·ules for all establish­ ments in the p1·ivate sector of the En1pire except in E1·it1·ea. U11der their })1·ovisions, 14 consect1ti,,e days of an11t1al leave with pay are due personnel ,vith 1-3 yea1·s' se1·vice; 16 consectt­ ti,re days fo1· personnel ,vitl1 3-5 years' se1·,,ice; 20 fo1· person11el ,vitl1 5-10 years, se1·vice; ancl 25 co11secutive da)rs ·for })erso11nel ,vitl1 over 10 yea1·s' service. Unless othe1·,vise ag1·eecl, a1111t1::Ll leave must be take11 i11 the :y·ea1· in ,vl1ich it is earned and all at 011e time; it may 011ly l)e post­ poned or divicled in exceptio11al cases. Pe1·son­ nel ,,,ith 3-12 mo11ths' service 1·eceive 2 ,vee1{R' sick le(1ve 011 half pay; ancl those \vith over 1 yea1·'s service, 1 1nonth. Mate1·11it), lea,,e 01 1 }1alf pay is clt1e all fe1nale 1le1·sonnel fo1· I mont}1 clu1·i11g· con-fi11en1e11t.

Tl1e E1·itrean Em1Jloy1ne11t Act of 1958 }Jro­ . s that all perso1111el \\ritl1 1 )rea1·'s \11de se1·,1ice or m<>1·e be g1·i:111tecl 6 consect1tive clays' leave a ,re � a1 . g St111c �1.,r ), paicl t1t eacl1 ( 110t· co�111t·111 emiJloyee's � .

1·esJ)ect1ve b�1s1c cla1ly 1·ftte. Le::t,,e 1na:{ })e )Ost­ l I)o11ecl for 11ot n1ore t:l1a11 1 ye�lr, \Vith the COll4-4

sei1t of the ,vorker 01· employee. Tl1e act con­ tc:iii1s 110 mate1·11ity or sick lea,,e pro,risions; 110,,,eve1·, a11 employee \vho falls ill 01· has a11 ::1ccicle11t ,vl1ile i:1t ,vo1·k is e11titlecl to a full da)r's r ,,r,1ges e\ren thougl1 }1e is }J1·e\ entecl f1·om ,v orking· fo1· the 1·est of th e da y.

Civil se1·, ran ts 1·eceive paid a1111ttal lea,� e based 011 thei1· g1·ade �l11cl length of service. A minire11 th e lo\vest grades; gi, is ys da for 15 of 1n1 111t all othe1·s, LlP to 5 yea1·s afte1· apJ)ointme11t, 20 clays; 1no1·e tha11 5 ) 1ea1·s afte1· a1)l)Ointment, 26 cl ::1)rs. Le�1,,e mt1st orcli11a1·i}}, be take11 each )rea1·; it may be postponed fo1· 1 year onlJ' in r e ,vith full IJa)i for , lea k Sic es. cas al io11 ept exc 1 n1011th a11d ,vith l1alf })i:l)' fo1· 2 additio11al months is g1·antecl i11 e,re1·Jr 12 mo11th period. v\T0111e11 may take 6 '\:\'eeks of 1nate1�nit,·• lea, re clt11·i11g co11fi11en1e11t ,,,ith ft1ll l )ay i11steacl of sick leave. F111·the1· n1ate1·nit) r lea,,e may l)e taken if the ,vo1·l{e1· 01· en1t)loyee has a ,�ailable sick lea,1e ::111d can Il1·oclt1ce ,1 1neclical certificc1te stati11g tl1at ft11·the1· le�1., re is acl\�isable. I11 the case of a deatl1 i11 the in1n1ecliate family, a ,, ro1·ker or e1nployee is g1·anted 3 clays of n1ot11·11ing leave \v ·ith ft1ll }Jay. J·f a 1·elc:ltive 01· close frie11cl dies, 1 cla}' of leave with ft1ll 1Jay 1nay be taken1 but the total amot111t of n1ou1·ni11g lea,,e may· 11ot exceecl 6 clays a )rea1·. S1Jeeial leave ,vith J)ay maJ' be gra11ted to a \\101·ke1· 01· em1Jloyee for 3 cla)'S on the occasio11 of l1is n1a1·1·iage, fo1· taki11g })t1blic se1·, rice ex,11ni11atio11s, 01· fo1· reqt1ired cot11·t atte11cla11ce. E11te1·1J1·ises 01)e1·ati11g u11der collective ag1·een1entg IJt·o, ride thei1· pe1·s01111el ,,r ith mo1·e leave tha11 tl1e mi11i1nt1m 1·eqt1i1·ed b y la,, r , a11d mo1·e tl1c:111 t}1at o-e11e1·allv 1)1·0,,icled i11 otl1e1· estalJlisl1me11ts.

Majo1· lea,re JJ1·0, 1isions i11 collective co11tracts �lre set ot1t i11 table 1.:.1.. Seve1·al of tl1e co11tracts l)ro,r icle for aclditio11al ki11cls of leave. I11do­ Etl1io1)ia11 Textiles and B,1l1a1· Dai· Textiles, for ex,1m !)le, allo,v 3 ancl 5 clays 1·especti,rely for ,veclcl111g· leave 011ce i11 an employee's tern1 of en11)loyn1e11t. I11clo-Ethio1)ia11 Textiles l)ro,rides ,1s '\'ell fo1· lll) to 4 clc:1)rs of lea,,e i:1 mo11tl1 for .

311d .

1110n 1ess officials busi1 to t111ion condt1ct � 111 s1)ecial cases mrtnage111e11t ,,,ill g1·a11t a11 �lclcli : _ t1on,1l ino11t]1 fo1· this pu1·1Jose to a i11axi111t1n1 ot · th1·ec · u111011 1·e1)1·ese11tati,�es. Se,re1·al n10 11ti1:;�' . l)�lid leave fo1· eclt1catio11al pt11·1Joses is also J J��­ t,rri ible fo1· in u11io n fo1· � 111embe1·s. if ,1p1Jliecl 1,11g · 'l"he E thio1)ia11 ... � Li11es co11t1·,1ct }Jft)videB i1· · J 3•,· · 11 . · tor 111110 r)il1ce1·s t<) be gr�111tecl lea,· e ,,·ith J 0

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14.

MAJOR PAID LE,\.VE PR OVISIONS IN COLLEC TIVE BARGAINING CONTRACTS,

1965 --------:, ----------.____ _ -·t Annunl leave Item Sick leave 11,fatcrnity leave Mourning leave ---- ------- 1 -=-=-= 1 ==--=.:::__ 1 and Shoa Sugar

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1-,l " yh"ars' i;crvtce, 10 consecutive days; 5-15 years' service• 15 consecutive davs· . ' over 15 years' servi�c.

20 conscculive days. .. I year's service, D:ihnr Dnr TIJXLiles. .

10 consecutiV(! days; 2 years' service, 13 consecutive dnys; 3 years' service, 14 consecutive cluys; •1 years' service, 15 consecutive days; ovt-r 1-;:, years' SC 'rvict>, 20 consecutive days.

Inda-Et hiopian Sarne :is Ethiopian T!'xtiles. .-\ ir Lines, e:itcept Sundays and holidays are included in leave .

Ethiopian Air J..inc-s- . . . 1-3 ,r ears' Sl'tvice, I 1-1 consecutive days; ·1-5 years' scr,·ice, , l fi l"Onser.u ti,·c days; l 6-10 years' service, 20 consecutive days; i I over 10 y1�ars' service, 2ii conscculi\"C days; for less than 1 year's servic,:,, a proport ional.e number of davs' leave is • granted, as outlined in the contract.

Onlr fo r personnel with at.

IP.ast 2 monlhs sr!rvicP: ,, n1onths with 70 perePn t. P n Y ir hospil11li 7.cd, or RO pl•rcen1; pay j( not hO.\lpit;1[ j Zl'd . l) nly for Pl'rsonncl v,.iI.It at least 7 5 cloys' se>r\lice: First -1 inonths aL 7 5 11crcenL of nornH1.I pa)'. Next 8 months' !,•av(' without pay.

()nly Cor 1,c•rsonnP.I wi I h at

lrast lo months' service: da.ys nl half pay, 40 nd­ di lional days with no l>ay. (>nly for personnel with al. least 3 months' continuoua service: Sick leave accruc-s al Lh!! rate or 2½ days for <·ach 1nonl.h of service u)) to 30 days a year, and

t,o

·12 days .

.

'

... . .' . .

.

'

.

'

. . ' ...

days,

Only for n1arrir.d TC'male

pP.rsonnel with at leasL I yl•ur's service: 51 d:i�·s ,,;jth hair pay.

For marric-cl personnel only:

One mont.h durin� p<'riod of confincmP.nt.

cc•ivl·s full pay, but does not slat<! I.his exr1licitly.

No.re: ,\II leave i.s \•:i th full pay u n lo.:ss other"·isc noled .

for attenclance at u11ion-managen1ent n1eeti11gs,

and meetings of the Labot11· Relations Boa1·d, or \vhen they a1·e summonecl in ,v1·iting by tl1e Labour Relations De1)a1·tment.

General 1·t1les governing the t1se of leave a1·e inclt1decl i11 most of the co11tracts. Fo1· exan1ple, 1 month's notice is t1st1ally 1·eqt1ired befo1·e a11nual leave may be taken. Gene1·ally, unt1secl ai1nt1al leave is forfeited at the e11d of the leave Year, bt1t a11 eq11ivalent st1m of money is us11ally Paicl the vvo1·ke1· or employee fo1· leave still 11ot take n at the time his cont1·act is te1·mi11ated.

Pre1ni11m

p The Public I-Ioliclays ancl Su11day Observitnce

: roclarnatio11 of 1956 states that eve1·y S1111clay · 111 the y . ea1. s ha I l lJe a clay of peace an cI re st.

En1 1)loyer� \Vho � e11gage ·persons £01· 1·eg11la1· �• u11cl· a,,,r •t ' e"':s vC tlro1·k 110t p1·ov1·a111 g esse11t"·1aI ser''l · incur a' flne. A ll 1�s011nel i1 1 Eritreit P1·ov1nce, pe

3 days for death of father, mother, wire, child.

2 days for death of sister, brother.

I day for death or grandpnrent, aunt, uncle.

No :,-earl,}· mnxi mum.

I :J days for death or father, , moth"r, wifc, child. .:-Jo yearly maximun1; notic1� must l)e given . :J dayii for death of father, 11101.hcr, husbnnd, wife, sislPr, brother, child from day of burial inclusi..,·c; 1 day for death o( a grand­ parent, stcJJfather, step­ mother, a parent of 11 s11ouse, uncle, aunt: 8 hours lo ,ll tPnd funeral ol friend or 01.h1>r relntive, which may he made up through overtimr. with no loss in pny if em 1>10yt>I! wi11heB.

cmploy1!C on sick lcav,� rr.­

_:

.

'

Contract intplics an

__'.,__

3 dnys for death or fnther, mother, wire, l"hild • l\,1n :ximum of 9 d,lys yearly.

!.

____________________ __________ ___ ____ _ _____

Peric>,lic· llesl llat·

. .

'

may accumulate up lo 60

•

'

1 monLh..... . . . . ' . . .

- - - --

--- -..

--- -·--

· -- ·-·--·--

except shop,vorkers ancl watchmen, are entitlecl to 1 full da)r's rest a week; pe1·sons employed in sl1ops m11st be given 1 half day a week. Although the pe1·iodic 1·est day 11eecl not be St1nday, Erit1·ean la,v llrovides that if an establishment is completel.)t closecl f01· a day or half day, it shall be on St1nclay. An exception is provided, ho\veve1·, fo1· establishments o\vned by Jewish 01· Muslim employers, \Vhich may be closed instead 011 Satt11·day, 01· F1·ida;y·, respectively. vV01·ke1·s i11 E1·itrea a1·e p�ticl for a full clay's ,,·01·k ,,rhe11 they have \vo1·ked half a clay a11cl the establish1ne11t is closed the othe1· half; if the establish111e11t is closed it ft1ll d,1)7 how­ ever, they 1·eceive 110 pay. \:Vo1·kers and em­ JJloyees ma,y l)e ftsl<:ecl to v\'orl< 011 1·est days only in case of emerg·e11cy. Fo1· ,vo1·k pe1·formed on a 1·est dftY, they a1·e clue com1)ensatory time off as ,vell as compe·11sation ::1t 1·egt1lar overtime rates. c;ollec:ti ,1e 1 _, �11·ga i11i11g ,1g1·ee111e11 ts 1)1·ovicle f(.)l" �l clrty o·f 1·e:::;t ,1·fte1· 6 cl�t>'g of ,vo1·k, �111cl ,

45

�----------..

-

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-· ·-.

..

.

.

--------------·--·-- - -

.

�·i!'.

.•

several stipulate that, as a rule, the \\1eekl)1 rest day be Sunday. At the I11do-Ethio1Jia11 Textiles, work on the "''eekly 1·est day is 1·e­ munerated at double the 01·dina1·y pay. Otl1er­ wise, the agreements co11tai11 no special ove1·­ time rates for work on tl1e ,veekly 1·est day.

Holiday Premiu1n

1

,,., '

tI

1

The Public Holiday and Sunda)' Obse1·va11ce Proclamation of 1956 lists the follo,vi11g 14 da)1 s as public holidays: New Year's Day and Eritrea Reunion Day ( also known as Federation Day) .......... 'fhe Feast of the Finding of the True Cross ........... .

Tl1e Coronation Day of Jfis Majesty the Emperor , .....

Christmas Day ..............

Feast of the Epiphany ....... .

Feast of tl1e St. Michael the Archangel ..................

Ethiopian Martyrs' Day (also knowit as Comme111oration of the Massacre of Addis Ababa) ....................

Commemoration of the Battle of Adwa ....................

Good Friday Easter Sunday Easter Monday Return of His Majesty the En1peror to Addis Ababa ( also known as Liberation Day) ..

The Birthday of His lfajesty the Emperor ..............

Feast of the Assu1nption ... .

Septe111ber 11 Septe111ber 27 November 2 JanuaTy 7 January 19 January 20

February 19 l\.farch 2

May5 July 2� Aug-11st 22 t

Personnel with 2 months service receive 6 paid holidays out of these 14; the remai11ing 8 are unpaid. The specific da)7 S 1·eceived are set out in collective agreements 01· a1·e chosen by agreement between the e1nploye1· and each em-

Cl1a1)ter XII.

FederfLtion Day (Se1>te111ber 11) Coronatioi1 Day of IIis l\:Iajesty tl1e E1npe1·or ( N ove111ber 2) I�tl1io1)ia11 l\.fart)•rs 1 Day ( Fel>ruarJ' lfJ) Co1111ne1noration of tl1e Battle of Adowa ( ..\.d,,•a) (.l\1i1rcl1 2) Liberation Day ( 1\-1 ay 5) Tl1e Birtl1cla;y of I-Iis l\Iajesty tl1e E1111)eror (Jtily 23)

Employees m11st also be give11 tin1e off ,,·ithout })a.y to obse1·ve the holy days of their 1·eligion, p1·ovided they i11fo1·1n thei1· en1ploye1· in ad, a11ce of their i11te11cled abse11ce. Pe1·s011nel n1aj; be asked to \vo1·l{ on �1 holiday 011ly u11der e1ner­ .ge11cy conditio11s. vVhen so 1·equested, tl1ey must be paid double the 1101·1nal ,vage �1ncl be given com1)e11sato1·y ti111e off eqt1al to the time ,�rorked.

The collecti,re cont1·acts also p1·0,1ide for <louble pay fo1· �111y ,vo1·k done 011 a holiday. A]l but the Ethiopia11 Ai1· Li11es (\vhich g1·ants 13 1 �aicl h �licla)r s) p1·ovicle fo1· the 14 J)aid holida ys l1stecl 111 the P 11blic Holida), and S11nda1 Ob­ s �1·va11ce P1·oclamatio11. l11do-Ethio1)ian Tex­ tile� en1ploJ1ees wl10 l)1·ese11tly 1·eceive 11 }Jaid �ol1cl�ts·s ,vill 1·ecei\1 e tl1e ft1ll 14 paid begi1111i11g 111 Se1ltembe1· 1966.

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Wages a11d S111•11Ie111e11tal Pav111ents .,

Ethiopia has no n1i11imum ,vage legislatio11.

Wage and salary levels in the J)ri,,ate sectoi· �Lre established by IJrivate em1Jloye1·s inde1Jendei1 t of go �ernment control. Wages �111cl salaries, f'or skilled workers a11d p1·ofessic>11al8 resi)ecti,,ely t 46

Illoyee i11dividuall)r (Minimum Labou1· Coildi­ tio11s Regt1l,1tions 1964). Employees ,vhose pay is ctLlcu)ated on a monthly lJasis a1·e not en­ titlecl to tJa)' fo1· \\'01·ki11g on a lJaid JJublic ho)icl,l)'; 1Je1·s011s \.Vhose })ay is calculated on a tin1e J)e1·iocl sho1·te1· t)1a11 1 mo11th, a11d piece­ \,ro1·ke1·s, 1·eceive a 50-1Je1·cent }Jremiun1 for \VOl'l{ 011 a11) of the 14 da)rs listed above t whether tl1e l10Jiday has bee11 clesig11atecl paid or un1)aid.

In E1·it1·ea en1plo)re1·s in establishme11ts 11ot 1·eqt1i1·i11g co11ti11t1ous 01Je1·atio11 must give the follo\vi11g IJaid holidays to all empl0)7ees who ,ve1·e p1·ese11t on the days i1nmecliately before a11d a.fte1· the holida)r or ,,re1·e absent th1·ough no f�1t1lt of thei1· o"\\1n:

are tlsually set 011 a co1n1Jetiti,,e basis, but ,,,ag e rates fo1· unskilled \\1 01·ke1·s are often set \,,ith _ li� tle 1·ega1·d fo1· 1·ates J)aicl fo1· si1nila1· ,�_rork by cliffe�·:11t emplo) e1·s. Go,,e1·11111e11t s�1la1·ies have traclitio11ally bee11 set i11 tl1e s,1n1e fashio11 (see sectioi1 011 Pt1blic Ad1ni11ist1·atio11).

Most ITic111u,1l \\'Orke1·s in the 1node1·11 sect or 1

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1·ates , whicl piece 1 tie the .,.,,a id a p , e ,v ge re,,1 • " . p1·oduct1011.

The strt1·ti11 to g ed ,vage ceiv · ' 01· J) Iece .

1 1·elatecl to the �1ll ) us t1 is ty pe of ,vork rate el· ·for1necl, al.thot1g} 1 son1etimes... the haza1·ds . .

P 11·a ble co11d1t1011s u11dei· \.V hich th un de s e1· oth or e job must be })erformecl a1·e also taken int account. lVIos� ':01·kers _a1·e })fticl a set weel<ly 0� la1·1es f01· \Vhite-colla dail )r ,vage. In1t1al s,1 , r posi. tions ar� strong 1Y 1nfluencecl by the edtl catioil (in pa1·t1ct1Ia1·, the 11umber of acaclemic deg.1 ees ) · I statt1s of -�h� �· 11clividt1al, as ,veil rls by and soc1a the level of 1·espo11s1b1l1ty to be ,1sst1n,ecl. E�­ perience is ofte11 of seco11cla1·), in11)orta11ce. Con,­ pa11i e s 01Je1·ati11g t111der collecti,re conti·acts have pay scales ,vhich a1·e direct}), 1·elated to th responsibility and clifficulty of the job in,,olved� ,,r ages paicl in fo1·eig11-o,v11ecl establishn1e11ts are often highe1· than those })aid in 11ative esta1Jlishments, bt1t fot·eig11 employers are 110t necessaril)r expectecl to offe1" highe1· pay. Except in the IJUblic se1·vice� ,,rhe1·e me11 ancl ,,ron1en must receive tl1e s�1me pay for· the same ,voi·k {Central Pe1·so11nel Agency ancl Pt1blic Se1·vice Regulation8, 1961), ,,�oi11e11 a1·e ofte11 tJaicl less than men for the same ki11cl of ,vo1·k.

Com1Ja1·ative statistical clata 011 ,,rages a11cl salaries in Ethio1Jia a1·e sca1·ce. The ge11e1�ally acceptecl 1ninin1t1m \Vage fo1· t111ski]lecl, crlst1al labor i11 111o�t of the CCJll �1 t1·�r is Eth$1 ( US$0.,10) a da�·. Tal)le 15 lists 1·e1J1·ese11tati, 1 e ,vages �1ncl sa1aries in 1960. The 1·ates 14eflect the I,1cl<: o:f uniformity in \\·age 1·ates and clesig11atio11 of skill levels, as \Yell �1s the ext1·en1e sca1·cit\r of highJ�, skillecl tech11ical a11cl 1J1·0:fessio11al tale11t.

St1pplemental pa,rme11ts i11 tl1e f: o1·n1 of •.

I-10nus es 01· s1Jecial allo,,,ances a1·e s01netimes added to ,,rages in Ethiopia ( see sectio11 011 Su1)plemental Pav·ments) The I11te1·11atio11al Financ e Cor1Jo1·ation esti�1atecl i11 1965 that ,rin ge benefits to Ethio1JiEL11 m::tnuc:11 �111cl cle1·ical Personnel a'lnot111tecl to 45 pe1·ce11t of JJ3)'l·oll, and to fo1·eig11, technic::11, a11cl aclmi11istrative Person11el, to 50 })e1·cent. I11 gene1·al, Ethio1Jia11 employers a1·e apt to pay �1 com1J�11·ativelJ ' ]cl1·ge1· · · · Perce11tag • · 11 · • e1g :01 .

1 CO l an t s fit h ne 111 f1·111ge be re ' ''h1 P loy erR, ,,�hose base \.Vftge rates are o ·ften ighe r than those of 11�1tive e1nployers. �

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'1' .,O .}Pn·•tl l) r(J\�1s1011s 1·eqtlll·e StlPl)]emei1 t c:l. } pc N' n1Pt . clel 111 ,vi y ·ies Vtti (1 cl <JfJ thi ce cti E c111 ia I)r \t lts ' · rm · h tt \·e •°'l f:! · ele88 i ct1stom clen1a11(]s that sc>me fo

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T.AllLE

15.

R l�PRESENTATIVE

\VAGE AND SAl,ARY RATES FOR SPECIFIC JOBS 1960 ' -

------

- --- __ _ ---·-··

---

· · ··-- ·- -· -

Wage or salary (in Ethiopian dollars ')

1:;cono n1 ·, ,. " "C<' Lor ancI occupatio n -·----

·--··­ -------

A GilI C-UI.T 11Jll�

....

'

..

.

.

. ..

-------

. . . .. . . .

l.00-

1.50 day.

lNDllSTUY

L;,orcman:

Skilled

S!!miskill,;ci · · l1 uski lied . · ·· ·· !\I :iehin(' l<>nder : Skilled · · ; 1i ki 1ii:t d 'n �( ( · ·

· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ···· · ·· · · · · ·

· · ··

· · ··· · · ·· ·· · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · ·· ··· · · · · · ·

· • · ·

40.00- 700.00 month.

30.0090.00 month.

25.0050.00 month.

9.00- 20.00 10.00........

6.007.00 ,t.00lt OO 250. 00- 850. 0IJ 7R.00- ......

70.00- 600.00 7.90 f,_701.002.30 625.000- 93-t.00

week.

Wl'Ck, week. day. ntonth. month. month. dav.

J ,500.00 .... .. · · ·· · · · · · · 600.00 . ... . . . · · ·· · · · · · · · 2!i0.00- 350.00 · ···· ··· · ······ ·· · 750.00-2,000.00 · · · " · · .. · · .. · · · · · · · · · En,.in .r� •• .. ,.. llli�.-. . .... .... .... . ........... :450.00-1,010.00 •rl'aChl'ri . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 40.00- 750.00 Steno�rapher. . . . ' ' ... ' · · ' · · · · · · · · · · !Hi0.00- 800.00 Sccrrlary . . . . . ' . . . . . . ....

465,00- 660.00 · · · · · · · · · . y p1sl . .. . .. .. .. . ' . ' .. . . . . . . . . . . 250.00- . .. . .. .

Cl()f{ I ... . • , • • . . . • , . . • • • . . . . . . . ' . . . ' .

50.00- 500.00

ntonth. month. month. month. month. month. month. monlh. month. monlh.

·· · ·· : l\J al'hin,� ope�al �r; �kili�ci: i\1 •·1�hanu•, sktl l r•d · · . lini:1l<illed.

· · · · · · · · · ·· · · · ·

·· · :.:· ····· ··· ··· ····· ········

· · · · · · 'l'Pr hni�ian, i;1•n1iskilird : · ···· TY ))P!!('t Irr, sl< iIIc•d ·· · · · (�ler k · · · · · · ·· ·· ·· · t,ahorer; ��s-ltiil;�;, · 1,; ngi Ill)!!r, skillPd . . . . . . . .· · .· . .· ·. ,,- .

· ?nc1r:; r cctor-G 1 I. · Di s scur > du ra at o n G P hysi!."innl! . . . .

,..

·· · · · · ·

· ·

·· · ··· ·· ·· · · · · · -· · · · ·· · · · ·

.

'

.

· ·• · · · · ' . . ..

GOVER�llfENT

,� 1n1�t(•r ...

.

· ··

· · ··· · ··· ·· ·· ·

.

()T111,;n Rr-.:nvrcr.:s I r.·1 f•J>hon•� oprrators · · · · · · · · · f-tc•I aii sah•s work1•r · ·· ···· ··

.

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Ilot.PI v.•ork�r!!. . : · 13u!l drivers. . .

.

-

' .

··

..

.

. . . . .. . . ..

·

·····

.. .

···· ·

.'

.

.

=

month.

100.00- 26!i.OO month.

40.00-· 100.00 n1onlh.

30.00- 150.00 mont.h.

150.00- 200.00 month.

----·--·-··----·-·--- -···-

. -··· ..... . , . - - -. -- .

- . .- - - --- ' l�:thS l USSO.•I 0. � Bal'e 11:1y rl c11cnds r111 111111thl•1 · of year� "' l'tluca lion. h11 \·e a bout -1 ;ve11r:,;: hiJthel-l 1>11 irl hold 11 Ph.D. dcgl't'I!. .

d:,y.

...

J .owL·sl paid

of extl'a hel1J be given in keeping with the }Jate1·11alistic 1·ole o:f the employer. These sup­ }Jlemental payme11ts may be in cash or in kind.

Fo1· ex�1mple, p1·oclt1ction }Jont1ses are common in the i11dt1st1·ial sector, ancl \Vork clothing is fre­ q11ently s11p1Jliecl by the employer. The emp]oyer ,1l1nost al\vays s111Jplies tools as ,:veil. Sometimes bo1111ses amot1nting to f1·om 1 to 4 weeks' wages ,11·e }Jaicl at the e11cl of the year. On occasion, an en11Jlo)re1· n1a)' Jlay some of a \vorker or em­ IJlo}·ee's income tax. Some employers also sell goocls ,1t reduced JJ1·ices at stores run by the comp,1n}r ancl others perioclically provide basic fooclstuffs, t1st1ally g1·ain 01· salt, to their em­ ed id ov e es p1· ar nc ,va 110 1 :: lly r na sio ca Oc s. ee ) l)lo for child1·e11 of 1Jerso11nel.

S1Jecial sala1·y acl,it1stments are macle for Ethi­ er O}Ji,111s ,vo1·king ab1·oacl, a11cl sometimes high ­ rd ha of nd a ki as sfit 11e 1Je e ng 1·i : f cl an ,vages ts en to m ce clu in as 1t 01 lcl l1e ·e a1 al ti 11 ·e e1 ff s11i IJ cli e. ir p m e E th f o ts 1· �1 }J te 1o n e 1· 1 vvo1·k i1 ­ ec ll s it co , in es itt st E · ai ug S oa l1 S 1cl a1 i '''on.i er s p to m iu m y re a p p to l ec 1·e g a , tive ag1·eeme11t s u ·o e1 g n f s a o d cl in k 1 i1 ta 1· ce in cl e 801111el e11gi1g n o o n ti ts n e 11 e m m e e 1· g ,1 1· 1e tl o e h activities. T ts.

11 e m y :1 l JJ a t 11 e 11 1 le JJ J) tl S 8 l)ecific 47

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• of em1Jloye1·s i11 but the maj' o1·it,, . . the ]Jt'ivr1.te sectoi· ha ve 110 fixed pol1CJ' go\rer111ng 11s em1)loyed i 1 1 the ci,riJ o i·s Pe . es s , ea ci· ii1 )'l se 1·ea i11c )� l)a ,·e cei 1·e lly urt us ce �7i 1 �; � at r�gt1lar . t·e1·v,..., 18. cleiJeilclii1gr 011 tl1e length of ser. vice. .

111 Ince'litive bolltl�es a1·e not comn1011 1 n Eth1.

OJlia. 1 11 tl1e fe,,, cases \\�here they ha,,e beer1 · 1e ct o11 the Ie,,e able e f�� c1 ·I 1·e Jp a1 110 cl ha r t1sed, the) r ages. ,, 1c1 a1 11 io of tJi·ocluct

S1)011S1"bi· 11·ty,

Empi1·e lavv pe1·mits tl1e attacl11ne11t of ,va�es and sala1·ies f01· pa)rn1e11t of clebts ti11de1· SJlecrfic co11ditio11s laicl clo,, 111 in tl1e cocle of civil lJI'o­ ceclu1·es. '\Vhe11 a ,vo1·ke1· 01· en1 1Jlo) ree h::1s intention�1ll)' clam aged his en1plo)re1·'s p1·01Je1·t)', 1Jayment for the clan1age may be clecl11cted f1·on1 his \Vages. In Erit1·ea, tl1e Ia,,r li111its sucl1 cle­ d11ctions to one-fou1·th of \Vages.

In the case of ci,;il se1·va11ts, }Ja)rments to the pension fund a1·e auton1atically cled11ctecl, a11cl sala1·y may lJe ,vithheld cl111·i11g ,i 1Je1·iocl of susJJe11sio11 fo1· disci1Jli11a1·)r 1·easo11s 111 1less special permissi.011 is g1·a11ted, i11 ,,rl1icl1 c,1se one-half sal,lt'Y is \vitl1helcl. If a ci,;i} se1·,;a11t, absent f1·on1 work becat1se of it11 inj 111·)' 1·est1lti11g f1·om the ::1ction of: a tl1i1·cl Jlarty, 1·ecei,res co1n­ pe11satio11 f1·om tl1e tl1i1·d }la1·ty, the a11101111t of· the con11)e11satio11 111ft): be cled11cte<l f1·01 n tl1e ci \1il 8er\1a11t' S sala1·) I11con1e tax is also ,,,itl1l1eld; tl1e a1not1nt cle­ Jle11ds 011 the i11clivid11al's }Jay. I11 p1·actice, the n1ost con11non J)t1r1Joses o1: deductio11s f1·0111 \vages i11 ,111 e11te1·p1·ises in tl1e n1ocle1·11 con1n1e1·cic.1l and i11d 11strial secto1·s are clt1es cl1ecl{off and disciJJlinary meftSt1res.

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The Civil Code states that a \vorke1· 01· em­ plo) ree t1·a11sfe1·1·ed to a job ca1·1·ying a l1ighe1· \Vage 01· saJa1·), is e11titlecl to the highe1· sala1·�1, a11d i11 no case may an employee lJe t 1·::111sfe1·1·ecl "''ith ::1 loss of SH.lat· )' 01· ''a s11bstantial cha11ge in }1is 1·anl{.'' T1·c:1111::,fe1·s i1 1volving civil se1·,ra11ts 111ay 11ot e11tail loss of salary or of senio1·ity ( Ce11t1·al Pe1·s011nel Age11cy and Public Se1·\7ice 01·de1·).

1"'hese legal p1·0,1isio11s ::t1·e ,lIJJllied i11 tl1e go, re1·n111ent offices ,i11cl i11 collecti,,e ag1·ee1ne11t establisl1n1e11ts. P1·on1otio11s a1·e }Jasecl 011 1Je1·­ forn1a11ce 1·ati11gs, 1·est1lts of ex,11ninatio11s, clnd, vvl1e1·e othe1· qualifications a1·e eq11ctl, 011 se11io1·­ ity. Most of tl1e collecti,,e ag1·een1ents co11tai11 Pcl.Y scc:1les ,vl1ich co1·1·es1Jo11cl to s1Jecific jolJ :::i.

The Ce11 tral Pe1·son11el Age11cy has d1·aftecl simi­ la1· scales a11d job c1esc1·i1Jtio11s fo1· the civil se1·vice, a11cl ho1)es to pt1t tl1e111 into effect \Vitl1i 11 tl1e 11ext yea1·.

S01ne compa11ies g·ive }Jay 1·aises at 1·egt1l,l1' inte1·vals ,,,ith 110 SJJecial cl1a11ge i11 jolJ or 1�e48

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1 11 the f)l·i,� ..rte secto 1 ·, n1a11t1a] ''�? 1·kers n111st ;I. ·, ·fo1·t11ight; OflJCe a11d S}101) 1 � • t e\"el•\ ue }1,l 1·c1 ,··tt lG'lS . C·\t le·1s t 011 ce ,t 111011th, ancl clon1est1c \ ..:s \\. ()I·I·ei· sei·,,ttll t.!-i ::1 t least e\·e1·)r 3 mo11ths ( C1v1l Code of .

1.!)60). 111 ��1·it1·e,1, all 11111st be IJa1cl at least once e,,er)' 111011tl1 ( E111JJlO)'n1ent i\ct of 195�) · The _ . ge11e1·c1 l IJl'c1ctice ·f01· tl1e ,,·l1ole o·f Etl1101J1a 111 the i;1�iv,1te secto1· is to J)r1y ,,,hite-col la1· ( JJrofes­ sio11,1 l, tech11ic,11, a11cl cle1·ical) l)e1·so1111el 01 1ce cl n1011tl1 a11cl n1c11 111al labo1· 011ce a ,,,eek, 01· occa­ sio11 �tll)' ( in n1ost o·f tl1e collecti, 0e ag1·eement e11te1·1>1·ises, f01· ex,1n11lle) 011ce a fortnig �t.

G1·ievtl11ces ll1·ese11tecl to the Lal)ot11· Offices 1n tl1e E1n1li1·e son1eti111es i1 1vol,·e 1101 11JaJ;ment or i11correct c,1Jcul�ttio1 1 of \,rages, ho\ve,·e1·, a11d it is lil<el, r that 1nc111)· s111�111, 11011t1nionized estab­ li8hn1e1�ts do 11ot ha,,e 1·egt1la1· \Vage })a)rment ll 1·ocedL11·es.

Go,r e1·11n1e11t e1111)lo)rees a1·e Slll)J)OSedly paicl 011ce cl 111011tl1, }Jut foreig11 ex1)e1·ts \Vho ha,re '''t)l'l{ecl fo1· tl1 e Etl1 io1Jia11 Go, 7e1·111nent report th::1t so111eti111es ll�l)�111e11t ig less f1·ec1ue11t.

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Etl1 io1Ji::111 1::l,,� p1·0,·ides fo1· t1·a,1el allo"vances l'or ci\·il se1·v,111ts ( Ce11t1·,1l Pe1·s01 1nel Agency a.11d Pt1blic'. Se1·, r ice Regul,:ttions 1962) and for 11erso1111el i 1 1 l�1·it1·eit P1·0, 1i11ce to 1·ecei, 1e pa�r 111e11t fo1· ex1Je11ses i11volvecl i1 1 tra11sfer (Em­ lJloy111 e11t Act of 1958).

111 JJ1·actice, ei tl1e1· })e1· cliem 01· I u1np st1ms ,1re ofte11 l)�lid to t)e1·so1111el \Vho t.1·avel 011 b11siness eitl1e1· f:01· tl1e go,,e1·11n1 e11t 01· fo1· ::1 J)1·i, ate em­ JJl<)y·e1·, ,111 cl eXJle1 1ses i 11 ct11·1·ecl in tr::1nsfers are ,llso llc.licl l)y tl1e 1ni11ist1·)' 01· co1111J::ti1y· co11cer11ed. l\'.I�:t11y co 1111la 11 ies, es1)ecial}J! tl1e l::11·ge1· ones, pro,,icle bt1s tr}l11s1)01·tittio11 to ::111d f1·om ,,· oi·k �1 s ,,,ell, ::t11cl so1ne (vV011ji a11cl Shoa St1gar Es­ t,t tes, :f01· ex�tllll)I e) g·i\re a,cl,r�111ces 1�01· t}1e J)Lll'­ c)1 :=tse of bieye] eR. 1

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Chapter XIII.

Healtl1, Safety,

Sanitation i � 111rl iltl Jfcr

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The Ci,,iJ Co�e of 1960, which co,,ers em­ p1 �1 vate secto1· of Ethiopia ( excei)t the i11 rs o)1 e pl . ge e1·al s a co11ta1n requirement that , ea) � El'itr \vo1·l{111g healthy condi tio11s be J)i·o­ a11cl safe loyees The em E1·it1·e�1n Emt)loy­ �\ll for d p vide : . .. ment Act of 1908 1·eqt11res establish1ne11ts ,�lith more tha � fi,,e employees to keep �1 fi1·st aid box, an d pro ,r1des that ev·e..1y em1)lO)'e1· ,vhose estab­ . lishment is ,,rithi11 3 miles of a Qtl�tli fiecl n1 eclical practitioner i11form him as soon as l)Ossible of any e�1ployee's j o?-c �nnectecl ill11ess 01· injury. . _ _ Sanitary f ac1l1t1es 111 most p1·ivate establish­ I

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ments are minimal. Lavatories a1·e seldom pi·o­ vided 01· mai11tai11ed i n goocl ,vo1·ki11g ordei·, floors a11cl ,valls are 11ot 1·egularl)r swe1)t 01• ,rash ed, a11cl ertting and 1·est a1·eas are t1st1ally not separatecl f1·om ,vork areas. P1·otectio11 agai11st ext1·emes of heat a11d cold ancl against dampness is selclom 1J1·0,·iclecl. Health a11d sa11i­ tation conclitio11s i11 governme11t buildi11gs are generally goocl, a.lthot1gh la,�ato1·y facilities �1re sometimes inadequate. )Jany of the ttnionizecl e11te1·1)rises and the more mocler11 })lants i11 E1·it1·ea P1·0,1i11ce have in1pro\.·ecl thei1· sta11cla1·cls of health �lncl sa11ita­ tion. These ente1·p1·ises a1·e gene1·ally ,,,ell ve11tilatecl, fairly ,veil lighted, a11cl 1Je1..ioclical)y s,rept a11cl moJ)JJed. The fi1·st fo111· e11ter1J1·ises to �ign collecti,re ag1·een1e11ts l1a ,re clinics, ancl 3 ome ha,·e either tl1ei1· o,v11 in-1Jatie11t facilities or S})ecial a1·1·a11g·eme11ts f 01· lo,v-cost n1eclical

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treat me11t at 11ea1·by hos1)itals.

Lunchrooms a1·e 1·a1·e; gove1·11me11t employees and ,rhite-colli:11· em}JloJ�ees i11 t11e pri'i.rc1te secto1· !0 hon1e to eat. Bltie-colla1· ,vcJ1·l<e1·s t1st1al ly go

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home if their hot1rs pe1·1nit; othe1·,vise they 1nay ·-:i t no It1nch. ClrJ�1krooms are 1·a1·e, althot1gh tney are �ometimes }Jt·ovided £01· \,rhite-colla1· �mpJo�·ees

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•. . ,11 treft) IJC\'()tlcl th (� ge11e1·ftl state1ne11 t · ;JJ the r· · · · r e1·s n1t1s t· ) l lo ) ). n e1 i t it 0 l <>f l f)6 th i t,r · , .·l<i(, · ,· (_'.()( e · · ce n �·1 la ·c 1 0 t· · e · ac n 1 1s 1 (>1 1t1 c >11 k. c< g 111 .)t· \\'( e c.. ·-..,. il h · , '· c· e tr . t111 1·eq 1 l l erct ica hn i tec !)t"�1cticel (,a11cl - .·n '1H S,,f,•tv · • ('-•> 11 < 1•1 l •

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Work111en's Co111pensatio11 · · The n1a.101·1ty of the collective ag1·eements . incl icle reqtiii·ements fo1· the provision of pro­ � tective clothi11�. The Bahar Dar ag1·eement al80 �·e(Jttires that tl1e ma11agement keep the l)I'en11ses as dt1st-f1·ee as possible. Some em­ l)�oye1·R report that 11nio11s clemancl and are pro­ \lJcle(l J)i·otective devices, bt1t that worke1·s do 11?t \.vish or 1{110,v ho\v to 11se them once pro­ : iclecl. Slowly, thro11gh ed11catio11, the sitt1ation 1 s cha11ging, ho\vever. Wo11ji and Shoa Sugar Est�tes, ·fo1· example, uses safety posters to 1·em1ncl workers to use the clothing and other p1·otective gear pro1)erly.

Ot1tside the mode1·n and unionized plants, ve1·y fevv 1)1·ecat1tio11s are taken to ensure safe "'ro1·king co11clitions. Reports from the Labour I11s1lection Office in Eritrea sho,v that in many facto1·ies there ma.chinery is olcl and moving p,11·ts a1·e L111covered. Poisonous fttmes are not controlled, ancl the \vo1·ksites are crowded and })oorly 1nai11tainecl. These repo1·ts also indicate that employers a1·e often financially incapable of taking ren1edial action. .i\cci<IPrtl a11cl Dise11s1� Co1111 1e11s,1t.ion

The Civil Cocle of 1960 p1·ovides fo1· compen­ sEttion fo1· vvo1·k-connected £lccidents ancl ill11esses :f01· J)e1·s011nel i 11 the p1·ivate sector. The e1n1)lO)'e1� is to I)ay all ''reasonable'' medical, JJl1c1rmace11tic�1.l, ancl hos1)itc1l expenses, plus a mi11imLlID of 15 })e1·ce11t (increased by 5 percent fo1· eacl1 )'ea1· of service) of the \vorke1· or em­ IJloJree's l)a)' each 1no11th for a maximL1m of 1 ve£11·. Payme11ts may 11ot exceed the ,vorker or em1JIO)'ee's 1·egt1la1· pay, ho\.veve1·, nor Eth$500 ( US$200), ,vhicheve1· is the lesse1·. If, after 1 or lf t s ha los ha ee oy pl em e th , ecl ss 1Ja \S h.: ,1r ••\·e moi·e o:f l1is \vo1·ki11g capacity an d he cannot be t · e1 t1s m oy pl e em th , ily m fa s hi · by ecl 1·t J0 sttIJI . en dr il · ch o1 in m is h 1cl a1 im }1 ·t 01 1) 1p st Civil serv�111ts r·eceive compensation for occu­ of th e Public s 1·m te e th · e1 1cl t11 s ·ie 11 jt i11 l r1a io tt JJ, rof se pe ca In .

61 19 e re ec D n io 1s e1 P Sei·,r}t11ts r assessecl ,it more than ) it il ab is cl tl i� 111�tiiei1t })art t an rv ic se bl e u p th y, it 1c 1)� ca l ta to f o 1t l () r>ei·ce1 : t a is 'h h es \\ m �e ti fi, l to a t1 eq 1m s1 l) tID lt �t i·eceives e er e ,v h if to 1t 11 o1 m a l lc tt O \V 11 o si en J)

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1·etired at the time he sustai11ed his i11ju1·)r , 7 that sum being 1·edt1ced i11 p1·01)01·tio11 to l1is assessed i11capacity. If the i njt11·y re 11de1·s tl1e public servant pe1·mane11tly u11fit to 1·esume his wo1·k, he recei\res from 45 to 60 pe1·ce11t of his average basic sala1·y for the 3 mo11ths }J1·ececli11g his injt1ry, depencling on his length of se1·vice.

In Eritrea, simila1· requireme11ts are co11tained in the Em1)loyn1e11t Act of 1958. Whe11 a worker suffers a job-con11ected accide11t 01· illness, his emJlloye1· must pa)r medical, pha1·ma­ cet1tical, ancl hospital ex1lenses inct1r1·ed du1·i11g the 180 dayR followi11g. I11 acldition, the ,vorl{e1· or emrJloyee receives 011e-half of his pay ,vhile he is totally or 1Jartially clisabled ( 01· one­ quarter while he is in tl1e hospital) d11ring the 180-cltLY 11eriod. At the e11d of that pe1·iod, the employer must JJay the worl<e1· 01· emplo)1ee a lump sum which, whe11 added to the com1)e11sa­ tio11 paid d11ring the i11itial 180 da.)7S, amounts to six tin1es his ::i11n11al earnings in the case of permane11t total disability 01· six times the amount by which l1is a11nual earning capacit)' is reduced in case of JJe1·ma11e11t partial dis­ ability. When i:t worker or en1ployee's death has 1·esulted from a ,vorlr-connec.ted inj111·y 01· illJ)('nsions arc calt:uh1 ti:-d in the roll11\l.'i11ii n1nnner: After tL rnini­ n1un1 (Ir 10 y,•ar:;' .service, r1·on\ �\II lo liO 1>ercenl of nveraµ-e b1u;ic , ,ulary for l ht· :I rnonlhs 11rc(•e1ling retirt•melll, depending on leni.:-th or �crvit•e. 1:-or 1h·lnils sec section on Government Systems of Insurnni:l'.

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11ess, 5 tiines his an11t1al ectrning capacity minus a11y compens�ttio11 paid the employee because of l1is i11j111·)' must be paicl to l1is heirs. Provisional l)�1yments mt1st l)egin '"·ithin 20 daJrs after the 1 pendi11g a it) pac inca the of ent 1cem comme1 clecisio11 by the Labour Office or court on the exte11t of i11capacity and employer liability.

Be11efits }lt·ovidecl in case of job-co11nected illness 01· i11jt1r)' i11 fot11· collective bargai11ing agreen1ents a1·e summarized in table 16. £�11 ag1·een1e11ts rec111i1·e that accidents be 1·e­ l)orted and investigated, ancl specify that only company-desig11atecl doctors may estimate the an1ou11t of i11capacity incu1·red. The Ethiopia11 Ai1· Li11es :.:1green1ent inclt1des special pro,7isions fo1· ha11dli11g acciclents occur1·ing outside Addis Abc1ba, a11d the Bal1a1· Dai· ag1·eement stipulates that 1)e1·s011nel n111st have at least 75 days' ser,7ice before they are eligible for be11efits. I11 other �1g1·een1e11ts t)e1·s011nel a1·e eligible as soon as hi1·ed. lVIost of these companies a11cl man)' others in the mode1·11 sector carry g1·oup insu1·ance \,1ith p1·i\1ate com1)a11ies to cove1· these ,vorkn1en's co1n1Je11sation expenses. Companies ,vithout collective agreeme11ts, ho\veve1·, usually p1·ovide only those benefits 1·eq11i1·ed by la,v. Compensa­ tion 1·ates 1·epo1·tedl) 1a1·y greatlJr fron1 em­ ploye1· to emplo)1e1· ; no estimate of emplo�1er cost is available. ,

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T A LE l 6 ·. ACCIDENT AND DISEASE COMPENSATION BENEFITS IN C<)LLECTIVE CONTRACTS, ETiiIOPIA, _ _ _ _ !. ____ _

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M,:-dical ex.pt'nS(!S. . . . . . In accord u nee, wi Lh Ci vii Cod<'.

In casl! of dca th. . ... . Co111pcnsntion c-qual to fi ycarH' pny, up ro n1axin1un1 of ELh$30,000 <liS$l2,000).

Pcrn1ancnt lot.al disability.

San,e as d�ath ..............

'fcmpurary partiul disability.

l�ull 11c1r until em11loyc•1• dies, or is de,:lared pr.r1nanenUy disahled, up t.o 111:ixi rn u111 or l ye;Lr.

Pt!rtnunrnL part.in I . d.IRllul , . 1•IL}',---··

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I11dc1-l�thiopian TP.xtilcs

Wonji and Shoa Sugar E:stnl1!s

·I Accordin� to n 111�,lhi includl 'd in the ni:---·· :rccn · --·-�� __.;..· · - -·· -u•nl. ··- - 1

1965

Ethiopian Air Lines

Dnhar Oar Textiles

Pnid by medical allowances 1\II 1nt•di<"nl (•xpcnscs ........ .

(Eth$7 USl!:2.80 a month paid by en1ployer)­ accumulated up lo Et.h$300 (US$120), Conipany pays all expenses exceeding employee's allowance, if company doctor recon11nends, to a total of Eth$5,000 (US$2,000), Lump sum varies according (:ompensat.ion 1!qual to ,I I�tnployr.l's' heirs receive • to salary; in nc('.ordancc years 1>nr, pny1n1�nt or r.01npcnsat.ion cqunl lo ,,·ith 11 scale set out in the rUn1�ral I�X IH.'nSC!;. br.11r.fit for permanent agreement. toull disability.

SamP. as death.

Co,npunsal.ion equal to 5 1 month's pay ir crnploy,:e yearK' pay. has less than l year's service: 3 months' pay if OVC\r 3 years' servir.r>.

Full pny for Iirst. i.i 1nt>nths: ( :. Jl(•rr.enl. or pay rur l.'irst 4 nionths-75 pcrr.l'nt' 7 5 p1�rt•1•n I of pay for nl.'xt maximum ur l y1�ar. or pay, 1nini ITIUlll of 1; 1nonlhs -incr1•ascs by 5 l�t h$26 1 US$ l 0..101. perc<>nt fo r euch i,·c11r of s<>rvice ur1 to u m11xir11u1n or ,,n1ploy111·'s pay or · J�t h$ti00 ( ll::;$:!-iO), \\ hi(!hti\'Pr is tht! h:ss1•r. .

Ai:cor<1In� t.o 11 scale in� · No provh:iion . ........ . . Acc-nrdini,:- i.o :1 s<'.i.\l! inI cI1 1d•·� h! I h1· ar�r_c_e1nnnl. dr-<l in thl' 1Lgrcen1enl, C!lu _ ! _ _ _ . __ . .

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Cha1)te19 XIV. Go,·crii nicr1 t

Systc111s of lr1st1r.-.1ncc

o11ly g1·0LtJ)S in Ethiopia covered by govThe I ins11ra11ce a1·e civil se1·va11ts a11cl soc ial it 1me i ' er1 I i ers of the A1·mecl F� 01·ces. The P 11 blic en1b ' !

I' ;erva11ts Pension �ecree 1961 J)ro,,ides socic:ll . .in��ura nce benefits fo1· all PL1bl1c se1·vants clnd men1bers of tl1e Armecl Forces ancl police. Pt1blic ser,:ants receive 1·eti1·erne11t a11d cleath be11e­ fits. The 1·etireme11t pe11sion is l)a) tlble to pe1·­ r ears' se1·vice (men 10 ) least �1t f1·om ,vith sons age 60 and ,vomen f1·om age 55), 01· at any age if 20 years' service has been completecl. Pe11sions eqLtal at least 30 1Je1·ce11t of the employee's average basic sala1·y :fo1· the 3 yea1·s preceding f 01· each his retirement, i nc1·easecl b�· 1 1)e1·cent • • 1 vear of ser,,ice 0\ e1· 10, to cl n1ax1m11n1 pension ' of 60 J)ercent of ,1 \1erage basic s�1la1·y. If the public se1·, 0a11t reti1·es befo1·e com1)leti11g 10 . rears' ser,;ice becaltse he has rec1checl 1·et11·e­ �ent age or becat1se l1e is clecla1·ed medica]ly unfit for cl11t:{, a lt1mp st1m is l)a)-able, equi,�alent to his basic Sfllary of the n1ontl1 p1·ececli11g retireme11t mt1ltipliecl bJ' the 11L1n1ber o:f years of service.

Deatl1 ancl sL1rvivo1· be11efits a1·e pa�,able to the \vido,v a11cl chilclre11 of tl1e i 11s L11·ecl J)erson.

The \viclo,v's JJe11sion an1011nts to 011e-half of the pension he1· ht1sba11cl ,,ras 1·ecei, i11g ,vhe11 he died, or ,,roulcl have 1·ecei,7ecl hacl he bee11 1·e­ tirecl. The pe11sio11 is cliscontintlecl 011 he1· re­ marriage, ,,,11e11 a lt1m1J sum ec1ual to t,vice the amount of the mo11thly })ensio11 is JJaicl to her.

Surri,,ing chilcl1·e11 ttncler 18 }rea1·s of age i·e­ eeire a pe11sio11 amot111ting to 10 1)e1"ce11t of tl:e parent's reti1·eme11t I)e11sion, or to 20 pe1·ce11t if both J)are11ts are clead. The1..e a1·e special 1·t1 les f for benefits for \vido\vers and pare11ts. Tl1e ' total an1ot111 t of Sllr\ri·1/01·s' pensio11s 1nay not exceed the retirement l)ension tl1e cleceasecl \Yould h�tve rec.eived. If the cleceasecl pei·so11 I'

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Social 111.surance \\'011lcl 11ot have been due a pension, a gratuity eqt1al to the lump sum payable on retirement is shared amo11g the survivors in the same pro1)ortion as the pensions. l\iI.en1bers of the Armed Forces and police receive slightly higher benefits upon retirement.

The n1inimum pension of 30 percent of basic salary of the 3 months preceding retirement is i11creased by 1 '/� pe1·cent for each year of serv­ ice over 10 Llp to a maximum of 60 percent.

The lun1p SL1m l)ayable on retirement before l O ye�trs' se1·,1ice is completed is 1 ½ times the pa_y for the mo11th preceding retirement, times the nt1mber of years of service. Retirement age fo1· n1ilitar) a11cl police personnel also differs from tha.t of civi} servants : 45 for junior com­ missioned officers, noncommissioned officers, and belo,v; 50 for senio1· officers; 55 for brigadier­ �Lnd mc1jor-ge11erals; and 60 for lieutenant-gen­ erals, ge11erals, and marshals. Other benefits are simil,1r to those enjoyed by civil servants.

The s:1{sten1 is fi11anced by worker or em­ ployee, �11d gover11ment contributions and ad­ n1i11iste1·ed by the Pttblic Service Pension Com­ n1issio11. The chief current difficulty with tl1e system is the lack of uniformity in pay scales in the JJL1blic service. Some government �fficials feel also th�1t the benefits, especially those fo1· sti1·vivo1·s, are far too low.

There are 110 gove1·nment-sponsored social iilst1i·ance systen1s covering personnel in the JJ1·ivate sector.

1

Pri"alc l11st11·a11c-c

an<l Reliremenl Systems

I11 son1e e11terp1·ises, prov·ident funds appar­ e11t]), OJ)erate as a kind of i·etirement insur�nce, _ r bt1t 110 othe1· i11forn1ation is a, a1lable on � r1vate 1·etireme11t systems operati11g in the Empire for Ethiopia 11 em1)loyees.

51

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1 65 1.9 , es at li ffi A , 1s o1 11i U r )o al L 1 Ap11enclix A. Confederation of Ethiopii11 ---·-·------------------· ----- ----- ---------- ---------- - ---------- · A. Bcsae and Company Workers' Union.. . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. - . · - · · · · · · · · · · · · · Addie Ababn Tailors' Union. . . . . . . .. .... . ... ... . ...... .. · .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · AGIP nnd International Tradin� Company \Vorkcra' Union (AGIP and ITCO lJnion} · · · · · Amropa l\totors Company \Vorkers' Union. . . . . ... ... ........ . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Artistic Printing Press Workers' Union' . . ... .. . ... ... . . . ... ..... ·. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Asco Shoe Fact:ory and Addis ALaba. Tannery Workers' Union. . . ....... , ... , · - · · · · · · · Bahar Dar Textiles Factory \Vorkers' Union ............................ · . , · · · · · · · · · · Bakery Workers' Union. , . ... .. . ... .. .. ... ... . . .. ... . . ...... · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Cement Factory Workers' Union. . .. ............................. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Cera Michael Ceramics Factory Vlorkers' Union... .. . .............. . . .... · · · · · · · · • · · Commercial Printing Press \Vorkcrs' Union' .............................. - . · · · · · · · · · Cotton Company of Ethiopia Workers' Union (Direda\\'a Texlilcs)..... . . .. ..... ..... · · Dnrmar Tannt'.!ry and Shoe Faclory Workers' Union. . . .. ................. , .. · . · · , · · · Diabaco Colton I;'actory Workers' Union ....... .. ........................ · · · · · · · · · · · I-:thiopia l- Iotel \Yorkers' Union. . . . . ................................... - - . · .. · · · · · Ethiopian Air Lines Workers' Union (Nesre Ethiopia Worken3' Union) ..................

Ethiopian Fibre Company Work!'.'rs' Union (Elhiopia.n Sisal Factory Workers' Union) .....

Ethiopian General Transport. Workers' Union ........ ..............................

Ethiopian Greek Cotton Proces.qing Workers' Union... .... .. . ....................... .

Ethiopian Iron und Stt>el l-'octory Workers' Union (Ethiopian Iron l�oundry Union) ...... .

Ethiopian Pclroleun1 Workers' Union. . . . ......... .... ...... .... ........... . . .. . . .

Ethiopian Slaughterhouse Workers' Union. . . . ..... .. ............................ .

Ethiopian Woodworks S.A.E. WorkC 'rs' Union....................................... .

Fogat.ad Woodworks Workers' lJnion=· ..... . . . ........................... .......... .

Gnrui:;e Workl'rs' Union (Awurnris Union) ......................................... .

Gen era! Conat ruclion Workers' Union. .. ...... ....... . . ... .... . . ................ .

Gblon l·{otcl \Vorkcre' Union. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Gucnct I-Iotcl Workcra' Union. ... . . ... .. .

Harnr TrnnsporL Workers' Union. . l-l11.r11rgc Chut ExJ)ort Cornpnny \Vorkcrs' Union . . . ..... . ... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ........ .

Indo-Ethiopian Text.ilea Factory \Vorkcrs' lJnlon .. .......... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lt.cgue I-lot.el Workers' Union. ··· ··· ·· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · �· �i� ;: : : : : : : : Jo 9cph I·lansen and Sons Worke u 1 Marble Factory Workers' lJnion (Ebine Bered W�rk�;�.

Mei.al �'arks Workers' Union (Scrap Iron Bourd Workers' Union). · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Milchcl! Col.LS and Company \Vorkcrs' Union.... .. ..... ..... : ·: · · · · · · · · · · · ·· ·· · · · Mosvold Company Workers' Union. ... ..... . . ..... ... . . . . ' ' . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · Nicolo Aslnndis Cernrnic l�nclory \Vurkers' Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · Nicoln Papasinos Fibre Company \Vorkera' Union. . · .

Nicos, ConsLantinos, Mi<:hu, and Puranello \Voodworks W�rk�r�: · · · · ·· · · ·· · ·· · · Overseas Shipping Company \Vorkers' Union. .. . . ... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Paul Ri�s and Sons Company Workers' Union .... ........

Quarry and Pipe Works Workt'rs' Union (l\fas���; ·c��s��-c-tl�� Workers' Union) . . . .......... · . · . · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · : : : : . '. .. ..-. ... . . . . . .. .. . . . . -. . . .. . . . .. .

Railway Company Workers' Union. .. ..

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336 ( ') 63 54 66 162 1,725 (Septernher 1965) . .

96 340 (August 19G5) ... .. l 'i1 6-l 1,800 (August . l !lli 5) ... . 1 64 556 5fJ (eslin1at1:d) ... . .. · I I 213 1i8 800 (Dcccn1her l9ti5J ...

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January I963.

January 1964.

Fehruary 19G3.

August 1963.

March 1964.

Januar,' 1963.

December 1962.

April 1963.

December 1962.

March 1963.

1\farch 1963.

January 1964.

November 1962.

Dec<:mbcr 1962.

February 1963.

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January 196:l. ( 3) June- 1 !)63. l'vlay 1963.

No\•em ber I9fi2 . tlay 1963. (esLimated) ....... . ?>larch 1965.

Janunrv • 19G.J.. ;\fay 1963 ( l) June 1963.

(August. 196fi) ..... January 1963.

I . ..\pril1s6a.

June 1963.

I Novetnbcr 1962.

I' January 1963.

1 •..\pril 19G3.

I December 1962.

December 196:!.

January 1963.

I December 196::!.

1 ! N ovcmber 1962. ! August I963.

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:\larrh 1964.

1,600 {August I 9f,5) .

De,�em her 1962 (founded 19·1GJ. ltus lfotel \\'orkers' Union • . . . ... . ... .... .. . . .. . .. . .. .. ' . ... . . . 174 ; �; August l963.

Bar Wo and rk B r11n . . t. . . . . . ' . . ..

Rcsu1u · 76 !\tarrh 196-1.

St. Ru(acil, Dregantti, nnd Ashame Woodworks \Vorker�; i · · · · · ······· ·· ·· ····· ·· 93 February 19133.

Sarris H.est aurant. Vlorkers' Union. ... .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ····· ·· · ··· · · · · 1'22 :t-.f ay 1963.

Scrarian Company Workers' Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · ·· ······· ·· · · ···· ·· l::! (i Noven1hcr 1962.

The Sixteen Garages Workers' Union. .. . . .. · · ·· · · ·· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ··· · · ( ?) ··· · (a) Thomas Tcllc•fscn \\'ood-...•ork \Vork crs ' Union ··· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·· · · · · · 62 · Jnnu11rv Transport Insurancc Co n1 pany Union......... : : . · : · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • l 963. · · · · · · · ·· ·· · :!91 V askin \Voodworks \Vorkers' Union• .. . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · February 1963. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · 138 Dl�ccmber 1962. \Vonii and Shoa Sugar Esto.tcs \ Vork t>rs' Uni o;1. . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . <·,;,7:Jti (l)1!('e1nb 1.>r 1965) .. N ovcin1her 1962.

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-�1�I:nc _____________ ___ __ l_______ · ··--· -- -1:... --------- --- --- ._ � ________ _ � :o�n;11�,le� �le�l:is�l _ _ 196'i I -.: All memhershir, firrurel' are fot- the dnte r ·1-:· n .fune I ! il \Vas• L·er�orted. 8 ·t• rel unless other1�,11l,•!·11·!< \'arious th:� 1 t fro1n. \\'ork rs l! ,vise indicated. l'rlosl fhcures arc those reporteil 6 Y unio J)l' rses in ,\,!di � A � . l. _ en tini: ns s1n1 l,lba united to d e union. rei11es to ; pr " . form C E L a .

U , t ..

1\ 1111CI, 11re probably undcrsuitt'(l a� dues tc., CELU nr(• cnl<: 1 in in · l · u•1 tl)· 1�)65, ,--. 111 ?<!' \\'Qrl,ers· • ,,·hi(' ulnt...,rJ on tht' in ,v:is h n1z� �-ecog··· Jn ScJ>t, inliC bns1s or reported n11:mbcr...·hi11 . . _ er • l! !r .

3 Nol available. . ):-i, thcse l1n1ons united us n re�. ult of a merl!er b1: t,vcl.!n the 1 .;•>�Sl a_l1 an d Vn,-;kin \.Voochvorks " lnclu 1 I e:; npproxtn1 ately :,,000 scns on nl ,\'o�ker s.

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Fe(le1·:1 tio11 of E 111 >loye 1 1·!S of Etl1 iopi�1, Jt111 e 1965

lr1<lt.

1 1:.,try 11 i('tio stri (:on

iVI i11 i11g; I>etrolcun1 Di s trilJ11 tion

�Iosvold Compa11y Limitecl Ethio1Jia11 Cen1ent Cor1Jo1·ation

Mobil Oil East Africa Shell Ethiopia Limited Societe cles Salines cl' Assal) Total S.F.P.S.

food In,luslry

H.V.A.-Ethio1Jia Share Com1Ja.n)r ( \\1onj i a11d Shoa. S11gar Estates) Printi11g. Leatl1cr, Bottling, lnrlustries

t111cl

1\lctall11rgical

•.\rtistic Pri11ters Limited B. I. Surme1'a11 ,i\ssco Shoe Factor�· Darmar Shoe Facto1·j' Tanner�r of Aclclis St. George B1·e,ver)� Alun1int1m Con1JJa11y Textiles Inclt1str)' Cotton Com1Jany of Ethio1Jia (Di1·eclavva Textiles)

Diabacco Cotton ComJJany Sabea11 Utilit}· Co1·1Jo1·atio11

Gene1·al Ethiopia11 Tra11sport Company Im1Je1·ial I11sura11ce Con1pany l�1·a11co-Ethiopi,:1,n Railway Na,var and Compa11y, Chartered Accounta11ts l1111)01·t a11cl

Export

A. Besse and Company Mitcl1ell Cotts and Company Arabian Trading Company B. Kurz,:vei1 I11ter11ational Trc1cling Company ( ITCO) Gellatly I-Iankey anc1 (Jompa11)1 (SL1dan) Paul Ries a11d Sons PhiliJJS Private Limited CAFEX S.A.R.L. Seferi::111 ancl ComJJany 01·bis Tracli11g a11cl Technical Ce11ter Am1·opa Moto1·s Private Limited Fic1t Dist1·ibutors (Sac,ifet) l\1otor ,:1ncl Engi11eeri11g Con1p,1ny (Ethiopia) Teclla Desta Jos. Ha.11se11 ancl S011s (Ethiopia) Li n1ited

53 .

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Political, Econo111ic, a11cl Social Ba<·kg1·(Jt1ncJ

I

1 i, l96-'3-1!)67 . la P 1 1.t 1 n e op el ev D 1• ,ec Y e Imperial Ethiopian Go\1e1·11ment. Seco-r1d Fiv Addis Ababa, Octobe1· 1962. is . cld , 64 A ba 19 ba , A ct ·ct t1 l)s A l. ca ti i.c; cit St a: i --, Central Statistical Office. Etliio11Sep tern ber 1964. t eii ·tm of e, ai at ep St D . .S U n, to 11g hi ,1s v,' . . 'ia oJJ lz.i Lord, Edith. Cult1.r1·a,l Patte1·ris i1z. Et Agency fo1· Internatio11al De\1elop1ne11t, 1963. r Meclica1 Center. ) m Ar ecl Re er �1lt \V Walter Reed Army Institute of Resea1·ch, .

61 19 ne Ju n, to ng hi as \1/ ia. o7J hi Et : 11s tio ·ica .bl ta lth Pu Da Hea

l I

I

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l\1anpo°"'·er Resources ancl Trai11i11g

In1perial Ethiopian Gove1·11n1e11t. Seco-11d Five Yea·1· DeveloJJlJl.etzt Plct11- of Etli.i­ opia 1963-1967: Outli1ie. Acldis Ababa, May 1963.

Etliiop·ia: Stc,,f.isticcrl A bst-,·ctct, 1964. Addis Ababa, --1 Central Statistical Office.

September 1964. . P'rel-i111ina·r11 res1,lts <Jf s,,, ..ve?JS 0.1· JJ<>JJ1.1lcttio1i ill fr>1t-1· P1·ovi11ces, ct11cl oj: --, - e11i11loyecl JJerso11-s in. 21 tou>-Jis. Addis Abc1b::1, 1965. l\!lft11t1sc1·ipt.

--, Mi11istry of Comme1·ce and Industry. Etliio7Jicc11. Eco1zo·111ic Revie1r. Selected • issues.

--, Ministry of Eclucation and Fine Arts, Bureat1 of Eclucational Resea1·ch and Statistics. Sclio. ol Ce11.s1.ls f01· Etliiopict, 1962-63. Acldis Ababa, 1964.

--, --, --. Scliool Cen.su.s f01· Etliiopia,, 1.963-64. Acldis Ababa, 1965.

--, Minist1·y of National Community Develop1nent, LaboL11· DeJ)artment, Addis Ababa Em1lloyment Office. E1nployr1ient Jn,f01··11iat1·011 RcJJ01·ts. Addis Ababa, 1965. Mimeographed.

Municipalitjr of Addis Ababa. Repo1·t 011, C ensus of Po711.rla.tio11,. September 1961.

Typescript.

I

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Lal)or a11rl l\1a11ageme11t Organizations

I

Chamber of Commerce of Ethiopia. T1·acle D-i1·ecto· 1·y, 1962. Adclis Ababa, 1963.

Updatecl through 1965.

Fecler�tion of Emploj,ers of Ethiopia. A11:11. ucl-l Repo>·t: 196,._19 • 6,..

4 0' v 0l · 1 ' N 0· 1, Addis Abab::1, May 1965. Mimeogi·ailhed.

MacDonalcl, Robe1·t. Ethio7Jia11. L(f.bo1· 111ove1,1 c-Ji.t.

Jantiar)r 1965. Typesci·ipt.

Zack, Ar11olcl. Ne,,, I..1abo1l1· Relct-tio11,c; 'l'JI. Et /iio 111·a .

Al) ri l 1964. T)1 IJesc1·illt.

L,1l>or-]\-Ia11age111<> 11t

Relations

Von Baudissin, CoL111t Geor.ge. ''La bour po li · · ,, Inte1·1-icit-i·o ·1zal. LalJo·111· c·y in Ethiop1a, Revie-iv, Jt1 11e 1964.

Gebreselassie Geb1·ema1·iam. Labo1 t1 .•. A Ne1.u F01·ce i1i Et}i-iO']Jia,. Ma.) 1964. T)1pescript.

MacDonald, Robert. EtJiioJJia.ii La,b o? . · �1 .1 O·ve111.erz.t Jan L1 ari.r 1n65 T J ,J • }'J)escr1 pt .

Zack' Arno1 d. Ne1.v J.,al101t1· R elct.t·io ·11" . ..-, ·i"n· E th · iopi:rt · A}J1·i1 196�t. T�rpesc1·ipt.

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Sel ec lecl Bi I>I iogr<l phy-Contin11ed L,tlJor Legislation �tn<l Go,·ern111e11L Lill>ot· Agencies

(Eritrea) , Vol XX, sttpplement to No. 5, May 23, 1958.

Ga. z ette a11E1it'J·e Tlie g pia11 Go\;er11ment. l.\Te Ethio a1it Gazeta. Selected rssues, 1956-65. p e1·ial Im -- , Mi11istry of National Comm11nity Develo1lment. Labo·ii1·, Cooperatives, Social T,,Velfa're , a.rul Co1;1,ni1i1iity Develop·rrt.erit 1:1-,, Ethio1Jia : A B�rief Revieiu, 1957-1964.

Addis Ababa, November 1964.

Wages, Hot1rs, �tn<I \Vorking (:011<litio11s

Confederation of Ethio pian Labot11· U11ions. Collective bargaining agreements signecl by affiliated t1nio11s, 1964-65. Typescript.

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241 218 227 217 220 242 280 223 244

189 276

221

290 297 274 240 282 265

271

253 269

289

285 268 267 258 294 239 264 270 275 212 250

Title

Labo1· Law a11d Practice in A L1st1·ia (Se1Jtembe1· 1963) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ..

Labor Law and Practice in Bolivia (Novembe1· 1962) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ..

Labor La,v and Practice i11 CeJ'lon (November 1962) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · .

Labor Law a11 d P1·actice i11 Colombia (October 1962) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · ·.

Labor La,v and Practice i11 Costa Rica (November 1962) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .

Labor La \V and Practice i11 Ecuador (Feb1·t1ary 1963) · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .

Labor Law and Practice in El Salvado1· (lVIarch 1964) . · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .

Labor Law and Practice i11 Gt1atemala (Decembe1· 1962) .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·....

La bor Law a.nd P1·actice i 11 Haiti (AugL1st 1963) ..... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Labor La,,, and Practice i11 Hondt1ras (Septembe1· 1961) . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · .

Labor La,v and Practice in I1·an (lvla y 1964) ......... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Labor Law and Practice in Iraq (No,1ember 1962) ... ·. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Labor La,v and P1·actice i11 Laos (Ma1·ch I 965) ......... · · .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Labor La\v a11d Practice i11 Libya (Ja11t1a1·y 1966) ............. · ·. · · · · · · · · · · .......

Labo1· LaVI' and Practice i11 1\1:a]aysia and Singapo1·e (Augt1st 1965) .................

Labo1· La,1/ and Practice in lVIexico (Nove1nbe1· 1963) ......... · .... · · · .. · · · · ......

Labor La,,, a.n d Practice in l\101·occo (Septembe1· 196t1) ............. .............. .

Lal)or Law and P1·actice i11 Nicaragt1,1 (Janua1·y 1964) ........................... .

Labor LaV11 a11d Practice in Pakistan (December 1964) ...........................

Labor L�lw ,1.11d Practice in the Pl1ilippi11es (October 1963) ....................... .

Labor La,v a11d P1·actice i11 Sat1di Arabia (Ap1·il 1964) ..... ........... ........... .

Labor Law a11d P1·actice i11 S1Jain (A1J1·i11965) ...................................

Labo1· Law and P1·actice in Svveden (December 1964) .............................

Labor La\\1 and Practice in Tai lvan (Formosa) ( A1J1·il 1964) ......................

Labor La\v and Practice i11 Thaila11d (Ma1·ch 1964) .............................. .

Labor Law a11d P1·actice in the Trust Territo1..y of Ne\v Guinea (Uncler Australian Administratio11) (Jt1ly 1965) ...............................

Labor La ,v a 11d Practice in Tt1nisia (Jt1ne 1965) ..................................

Labo1· LaVI' a11d Practice in Turkey (March 1963) .................................

Labor La\\T and Practice i11 the U11ion of Bu1·ma (Ap1·il 1964) .....................

Labo1· Law and Practice in the U.S.S.R. (Jt1ly 1964) ..............................

Labor Lc:1,v a11d Practice in the United Arab Re1)t1blic (Egy1Jt) (December 1964) . . . . . .... . .. .. . ..........

Labor Law and Practice in Venezuela (Decemb�; Labor Law and P 1·actice in Yugosla vi::1. ( J.uly 1963) ....................... ........

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