Journal of Ethiopian Law Vol. 3 No. 2 (1966) by jahrastafari89

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f'LtLOJc : '1'1'1(1 : 1--':f":f· I fOD�dt� : hftr't :: CASE REPORTS ARTICLES Some Aspects of Ethiopian Arrest Law: The Eclectic Approach to Codification Stanley .z. Fiisher The Law of Filiaition un.der •the Civil Code George Krzeczunowicz Natural Resources: State Ownership and Control Based on Article 130 of the Re,ised Constitution Russel S. Be11naa Third Annual Report frorr. , the Dean James C. N. Paul

CURRENT ISSUES BOOK REVIEWS

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PATR ONS OF THE JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW I

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Law was_ inaug, 1 rated n b� His Imperial Majesty Ha}le Ethiopia of al ourn The J an important step m the development of Ethto 1964 as of er summ the in 1 . ss s�I� ;: system. Subse�uently, · the Bo�d of Editors of the Journal has invited . pia s al are inte:r ested 1n the conrt1noot1on and expansion of the Law Journal's 1to · 5 th� � _ :" to express the.ir suppor-t by becoming Patrons of the Journal of Ethiopian actIVIlJeS LaW, u k te i H.E. Tshafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte Wolde a t Y _ w a , it 1:(s u g e n fe A H.E. k r o H.E. B.itwoded Asfeha Woldemich· a el tw e 1l s H a ti a M a tt Ja Hon. B in b d e e M H.E. Ato Mammo Tadesse ld o w e T s o g a H to A H n a e id H.E. Dejazmatch Fikre Selassie Habte ld K o W e .il a H a tt la B H:: Mariam e n e y e B u b e ib T to A Hon. Haregot H.E. Ato Seyoum � bb � . G.N . Mr Hon. e k a Ato Ketema A. h ebe H.E. w a 1t 1e F s s u g e N to A . . Hon ... m a. M H.E. Ato Assef a Gab re Mariam r1 re a , eb G e m ho es T to A H.on. , · H.B. Deiazmatch Berhane Meskel Wolde Selassie H.B. Col. Leghesse Wolde Hanna H.B. Teshome Haile Mariam H.B. Ato Aberra Jembere H.B. Ato Belatchew Asrat H.E. .A!to Muhamed Abdurahman H.B. BTig. Gen. Abebe Wolde Meskel H.B. Ato Nirayo iEsayas Hon. Ato Ammanuel Andemichael Hon. Fitawrari Bayisa Jemmo

Ato Abate Tefferi Ato Abate Wondemagegnehu Ait.o A·bebe Gire Ato Ad.arra Francois Ato Admasse Gessesse Ato Admassu Wa.sse Dr. Maurice J. Aelion Ato Agegnehu Teshesh· eg-0 Lt. Col. Ahmed Aminu Ato Aklilu At1abatchew Ato Aklilu Bete M,ariiam Ato Alazar Ambaye Ato Alemu Kassa Ato Amare Degefe Ato Am e de Lemma Ato Andarge Achenef Mrs. Marica Arvanitopoulo Ato Asfeha Kahsai Sgt. Asmara Wolde Sellassie Ato Asse-t a Bekele Alto Assefa Geremew

Ato �ssefa Gete Ato ,\ssefa Li·ban Ato Assefa Makonnen Ato ,\.ssefa Metafaria. Ato .�ssefa Tsegaye Ato Atsheba Fanta Kegnazmatch B,aye Tessema Ato Befekadu Tadesse Dej,ru:maitch Bekele Beyene Ato Bekele Demissie Ato B·ekele Gebre Amlak Ato Bekele Habte Michael Ato Bekele Nadi · Alto Bekele Tesfaye Col. Belatchew Jemaneh · A.to :BeJiay Meketa Ato Belay Mengesha Ato :Belete Wolde Sellassie Woiz. Beleyu Work Gebre Meskel Aito :Berh1ane Kefle Mariam Lt. 0)1. Berh·ane Woldeyes V

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n a m r e B , ll e s s u R . r M Ato Beyene Abdi . u 1l a ;H 1 . a h e s T . a g e in B . Ato ...�. : · tr ia g a h u .B m a li ii Dr.",_W Alto. Bulcha Demeksa_ Grazmaitch Cha.lie Y·adeta . Dr. Christopher Clapham Lt: •Col. Dama Zeng Egzer Blatita Demissie Work-agegnal111 . ew ey L ew eb er D A to ' Ato · Doota Geb1ru Mr. Harrison D_unning Alto B1;1dale Wolde Mi�hael Ato Endale Mengeslra Kass Er1nJas Kebede Ato Eshete Berhane · Capt. Eshete Wolde yohann�s Mr. Wil11run Ewing Capt. Eyassu Gebre Ha\variat Dr. Eyob Gebrecristos Ato Fasil Mammo Graz111a tch Fessahaie Zegheie Atto F . ij1aw M,akonnen Alto Ri:sseha, G·ebre Ewo.statewos Ato Fisseha Mebr,at Mr. Stanley Z. Fisher Ato Gebeyehu Fantaye Ato Gebre G<!!bre· Gjorgis Kego. Get,a Gebre Hanna Kitaw Alto Gebre Hewot W.olde H .aw . ariat A1o GebTe Meskel Ka.ssaye Bash·ai Gebre Meskel Zeilo Ato Gebreyesus Haile M!airi,a m Balambaras Gemeda Urgessa Ato Gera Work Menber Ato Getachew Admassu Aro Getachew Asfaw Ato Getachew Kibret Ato G�tahun Hunegnaw· . A1o Gila Mikael Bahta Ato Girma Aibe· be · Ato Goitom Beyen MT. Everett Goldberg Dr. Phillippe Graven· Dr. Saba Habacliy · Ato Hailu Alemayehu .. .. . . Capt. Hailu ATsede Ato Hailu Recla ' Ato Hailu Shenqute Ato Hailu Tesfaye Mr. G. Hamawi. Mr. N. Hamawi · ellassie. Awulatchew Ato Haile s Aito Haile Leot1't Hab-te . Giorgis · · '

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Dedjazn1:atcl1 Idris Lejam A to Inquo Bal1rey Gebre M ile ae 1 Miss Me:· el1tild. I m menkotter . Capt. Kanaa Guma Arto KasiSa Beyene Ato Kas.sal111n Fanta A!to Kebede Cl1ecole Ato Kebecle Gebre Mariam Ato Kebede Kelel Ato Kelkay ,Gobena Ato Kibinad Wasse . Ato Kidane Equba E gz i Ato Kidanu Kassa Mr. Michael Kindred Dr. Stanley Kirkor Mr. La\vrence- Knowles Ca.pt. Legess� Wolde Mariam Ato Lemma Wolde Sen1ayat Dr. Marcello Lombardi M,r. Steven L·o\venstein Alto Leoul Tsegaye ..A.to M:akonnen \Volde Mariam Aito Marcos Ambawe Mr. Patil McCarthy Mr. Robert C. Means Lt. Col. Mehrete Gebre Selam · i\to Merawi Mot Bainor Ato Mesfin Fanta Mr. Nor111an Metzger Alto Me\vail Mebr1a t: 11 Kegn. Geta Mezen1er Hawaz Ato Micl1ael Fasil Ato Mitiku Kassahun Ato Mohammed Gayid Fitawrari Haji Mol1ammed S�redge Ato Mubamud Nurhu Sain Ato Mulugeta Beri:hnu �to Mulugeta Wolde Giorgis Arto Nabiye Leo11l KifJe Ato Negash Yjrfru Ato Negga Tesemma Kegnazmatch Nurid.ine Zayenu Ato Omar Yasin Mr. Donald E. pa· rra.dis Mr. James C.N. Paul Mr. Robert P.icot Mr. G. Prota Mir. Kenneth Redden Mr. Harry D. Ric.hards Mr. Ezio Rus111ini . Mr. Arakel Sa�adjian .. Ato Saleh A. Kebire .. . . . Mr. Peter H. Sand .. Mr. Olin B. Scot:t •

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D. Scott r.t obe R Mr r Sedl � A vt Robe . Mf.· 5 ·"u Wolde Kidan , . AtO · e-� 1 J. Smger an Nonn M ebe A{� Solomon .Ab Mr• Roland J. s,tanger Mr- Peter L. Strauss Asf aw . esse Tad f\Jto is rg 1o le G ek T e ss e ad T At, o Ato Tades,s e Yersaw A,to Takele Tesemma Ato Tec�a Fanta Alto 1:efer•a Degefe Ato Tefere Sertse Dengel Aro · Tefferi Berhane Ato Tefferi, Lemma Ato Tekle ,Gebre Meske! Ato .Teriiesgen Worke · Ato Tereffe Gessesse . . . . . Ato tesfa Alem Worku Ato Tesfa Mariam Sebhat A!!o Tesfa Zion Ey.assu Ato Tesfaye Dubale Ato Tesfaye Kebede Balambaras Teshome Getaw Ato Tessema ... Wolde . . Yohannes . .. . . - .. . . . . -.. -. .. .. .. . . .. . .. •

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Alt)• Tewolde Medhin K.irfle At.1:> Tillahun Fettera Aito Tibebu Abraham 1Ato Trobe:bu Tagegn At:> Tsegaye Tefferi At-) Tsegaye W:olde Mariam Mr. Michael Topping Ato T se h a i Gessesse Dr. J-acques P.M .Va n derlind �n Mr. Vi�bor�o Vercellino Mr. Nicola P. Vosikis Ato Wakgira Bonsa Mr. Frank D. Winston At1) Wolde Leoul .Seyoum Ato Woldu B-erbe Alto W orku Wa, cka At· ) Woube Woldeyes Ato Yeshewa Work ·Hai1u · .. At) Yilma. Gebre Ato Yilma Hailu ·: At) Yirsaw Zelleke Dr Yohannes Berbane Ato Zelleke Desta Ato Zemene Kasse·gn Ato Zeude Engeda . . A!to Zeude Mekwanent .. _. . . .. .. . ... . . ..

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AN INTRODUCTION TO 'I'HE LA\-V OF TORTS John G. Fleming

Clarendon L aw s eries

25s (UK) The principal concern . of the law of torts is �o !l"epair . accide�t losses. Once practically the only available source for compensating the disabled, 1t has Jong been shrinking in relative . importa� ce as o�hers l1a�e assui:ned a larger share: most important are the s-oc1al security benefits associated with the welfare state and private insurance against the calamities of life. At the same tim.e, liability insu�ance has drastically changed the role of tort law by not only easing the burden of adverse judgements but, more importantly, by spreading the cost. To ponder the effect of these changes on 1he content, place, and future -of the law of torts is the primary aim of this book, ratl1er than to offer yet another potted version of black letter rules.

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PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW Ian Brownlie

63s (UK) This book is a treatment of .Public International Law which emphasizes the technical aspects and major issues of legal ,principle. Whilst there is a degree of selection, all the major topics are covered, including sources, law, legal personality and r, ecognition, the nature, creation and transfer of ter -ritorial sovereignty, the law of ;the sea, con1mon amenities and co-operation in the use of resources, jurisdiction, nationality, state responsibility, admissibility of claims, tl1e ,protection of individuals and groups, the law of treaties, internatio11al organizations, and the judicial settle· ment of disputes. Careful a.ccount l1as been taken ·of rece11t developments in the subject and references a,re provided to tt1e literatt1re i11 English and French. The over-all treatment, involving selection of topics and e1nphasis on the technical, is intended to provide a convenient work of reference for practitioners and a textbook suitable fo,r both first degree courses and postgraduate w•ork. I

LAW IN THE MAKING

Oxford Paperback No. 29

18s 6d (UK) This standa.rd work was first issued in Oxford Paperbacks in 1961. Subsequently the author revised his book to take account of new case-law and statutory change, and the hardbound seventh edition was published in 1964. That edition will now be available as a paperback.

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HAILE SELLASSIE I UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF LAW Haile Sellassie I University, established in 1963,. of La of ty acul ': Tlle F LL.B. degree and to a Diploma or Certificate the to leading law in rses cou s er · � eff · · A th t t ac con e ss1stant ormat1on f 1n Dean r Faculty of Law . furthe ' For w. a i,n ·1 . e Sellassie I University, P.O. Box 1176, Add is Ababa. Hai1 FACU LTY n a ., e .B D . L L .A B l, u a P . N James c . J.D., M.C.L., D.ES., Assistant Dean B.A., ed, Kindr J. el Micha . il h . . P D .A B 1, n a h p la C er h p Christo . . .B L , .A L g B in n n u D se a C 11 o is Harr . .B L ., L .A B r, e h is F . Z y le Stan Jean-Denis Gagnon, Lie. Droit, D.E.S. Mechthild Immenkotter, ·Referendar, Assessor. Lawrence Knowles, B.A. LL.B., LL.M. George Krzeczunowicz, B.A., LL.M., Lie. Sc. Comm., Lie. Sc. Polit. Robert C. Means. B.S., LL.B. Paul McCarthy, A.B., J.D., M.C.L. Norman Metzger, B.A. L.L.B. Keneth Robert Redden. LT.,.R Peter H. Sand, Referendar, D.E.S., LL.M. Norman J. Singer, B.S., LL.B. Roland Jonathan Stanger. B.A., J.D. Peter Strauss, B.A., LL.B. Jacq_ues P. M. Vanderlinden, Dr. Droit PART -TIME FACULTY Abebe Guangoul, LL.B. Amanuel Amdemichael, LL.M. Assefa Liban, B.A., B.C.L. Awai Adam, B.A., Lie. Droit Bekele Nadi, B.A., B.C.L. Belatchew Jemaneh, B.A., LL.B. LL.M. Getachew Kibret, B.A., B.C.L. Legesse Wolde Mariam, M.C.L. Negga Tessema, B.A., B.C.L. Negussie Fitawake, B.A., B.C.L. Nirayo Essayas, B.A., LL.B., LL.M. Tafari Berhane, B.A., B.C.L. Yohannes Berhane, Dr. Jur., M.C.L., LL.M. xv

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1,ABLE OF CONTENTS Page

iopian Law . .. . .. th of E al urn Jo e th of patrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. d orte Rep s Case Table of · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·· · · · rts o Rep Case

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Natural Resources : State Ownership and Control Based on Article 130 of tl1e Revised Comtitution • ... •• by Russel S. Ber111an

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Articles: Some Aspects of Ethiopian Arrest Law: The Eclectic Approach to Codification by Stanley Z. Fis}zer . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Law oi! Filiation under the Civil Code •• •• by George Krzeczunowiz •

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Third Annual Report from the Dean by James C. N. Paul . . .

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Current Issues :

Turning the Legal Clock Back by George Krzeczunowicz

A Further Note on an Introduction To the Sources of Ethiopian Law by Jacques Vanderlinden . . .

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Book Reviews H. L. A. Hart, The Morality of the Criminal Law by Stanley Z. Fisher • ••• •• •••

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Table J·able Iotlex 1ndex

ef of to of

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Contributions Authors (Vol. III) ... Contributions - Titles (Vol. III) Cases Reported (Vol. III) Laws Cited (Vol. III) ... ..

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TABLE OF CASES REPORTED Supreme Imperial Court n ia aj as gd lu Ba ai H v e av ob Ar ., AImal,., • . (Civil Appeal No. 268/57 E.C.) ...

�

·· · ·· ·

···

· .. ...

•••

369

Bayessa Jemmo v. Assefa Wolde Giorgis (Civil Appeal No. 1475/57 E.C. ... · · · · · ·

···

••

• ••

•••

•

••

401

n o ti ti e 's P sh ra e b A e et el B (Criminal Appeal No. 216/57 E.C.)

• ••

...

. ..

...

35 8

•••

••

•

Bisrat Woldehanna v. Fitawrari Gessessa M-ckonnen (Civil Appeal No. 718 /55 E.C.) ... •••

•

• •

•• •

.. . . .. . .. .. . .. . 348

.. .

...

369

Hajlu Bagdasarian v. AJmaz Ambaye (Civil Appeal No. 251 /57 E.C.) ...

•

Te,vabech Inquosela.ssie et al. v. Wodiajo Yimer (Civil Appeal No. 964 /57 E.C.) ...

••

•••

.. .

...

.. .

377

•• •

• ••

...

406

•

Tigist Fisseha v. Birhanu Abba Gossa (Civil Appeal No. 329/58 E.C.) ...

Shewan Gizaw Ingida Worq v. Nigatu Yimer (Civil Appeal No. 1359/57 E.C.)

... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 390

High Court In. the Matter of the Adoption of a Minor Child, Gunawork (Civil Appeal No. 270/58 E.C.) ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... ... ... 422 IUdane Temelso v. Shebira Gegnie (Civil Appeal No. 492/55 E.C.) ...

•••

•• •

...

Tekle Gebre SeIJassie v. Sebhatu Woldemariam (C ivil File No. 202/57 E.C.) ... ... .. . . .. ...

•

X.XJ

...

411

.. . ... ... ... 416

"•

••

•

Ill

"•

•• ••

tl d

•• ••

-·

SUPREME IMP·ERIAL COURT DIVISION No .. 1

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H. E. AFENEGUS KITAW YITATEKU }',,t',.

;J•f..(I : ,f--}J ft : 1..f-C1,.() ::

ATO TADESSE TEKLEGIORGIS

•f,�1l"'i°f 1 KEGNAZMATC H

OD °I " 6liJ

f ::

: 01'.,}•f-ky : ,�,,., : f01/.hTfr:'f• : hP'C : 'l1�l- : mf,'J° : 1-�r·l. . '"r : m�l\f, : fi:C.l!- : n,:,,� : h'i:1-,;: : 'i:C.l!- : n.1,:i� : r+ P (ID1'1JP :,.. : ' �'I : : : fi:C.l!h"'IC�m· ('1&.ifA) : ill\ : tr'I : h1'1"1 ouy._n,;: f c;:fo,. :: (I) : tJJ = == A = U'J° L ilt\'lr· f,1� nJrt.,}-f-kfm•f1� = nm•6lh = h1c = +,:qu 1f�OJ: A. -- : 1 � -- : ) : : : .,} 01'1'?1\.11;;: Oh"'/Cf� ilt\i'OJ(l :'f r o:1� (/DlthA 1f-:f : t\ : 1,

,,f� : ouKci,:fm·'}. = "'lil+'PA : hilt.l\"L : ',ro• :: 1t'IH. f. f f Jii),�. � f. : tA : tJ9'1 = nil..,..yr,r,:f = h1P,. = ti1J;.. = r,�,t·t.1nOD = h1'Y-.tr'J° i,1�,� =

�c� = t.fr1 = r:1:" = n.ir1'J° = n��:f = DDtihA = flt\ = P't. = '11?-t; = fill .

oP"1,l il (I}«

(I}«"� :

il'J°'J°',,}, : ht\

- 339 -

.REPORTS 'fhe following are ten cases decided by the Supreme I:mperial and th · · e B 1gh Courts of Ethiopia. The Amharic jud.gment is official and always precedes tlic English· It is important to note that i11 those cases heard before mixe d b enches o·r both Ethiopian and foreign judges, two separate opinions a.re written·, One 1n Amharic and one in English. These opinions are not translatio ns of one another I

but are independent judgments based upon common agreen1ent among the judges

as to the principles and final outcome of the case.

•

- 340 -

fm-A:'?J?..:J·?':f . :-«J> fl:1-r, :-f>t1Y.:'�:1·1 'Pil:1-r, :- (l'lt\b-'�a,.: ltf.,: fll\'61..•l•coar: hll: f"7/, 11••\4'1°l:1-0t.·1· ui,. r...r =-ill\ibl\ • (flw•.) �P, : >tJ-11,&.A: f"'I.Y.t..si: fDT/f.,14•1l<f'll, 111 •·o,1t.c = ,1,oi = ,,...'l'c?:f rrn:ifwii ! ;'in:if01: -� fll:v.x«!.ic f liif.nf©f! 1 1 00111· =- f'i-':·1·,h jiif.jif@�; : $.i"i.fi�:l!i = 'h<; ;:1t:f1; :2

t.·r

= =

t)f. � fionAfl : fl''l}•m•: l\Y'fl•l·� • (l,o • l\"l·fl,n : •O.J.'.·c: f'Pll:1,c;: uo,r1r i f°1f.,1 ! mt.4':,. : 1,11:J· : l\OD(A{I : (l.ti[!>m• : 1,•tmt. ! .,,'1.,,il I 1·flt.•f:"} I r•l/\ U•0·1·�;,. : f{:il.'J· I 9''ilhc ll·f•tJJ.OTft9° : '''lt\hP,m• : °l.e..:J· tD·1 1 /ll1DJ.?.'J0 : Yf.\:f-l\ : >,1�lf}� 'lt\11110-: (111•01.•I:) : 7i.r �: f·f••J7(1}-"}: 111111 : /\. lD il.J.'.": f.,°:f·l\.tA'' : fl.IA: ,J·illl1°'1 :r 'll\hP,m- : (l.-J•m(l.}m-: •1>1: bP,m· 1 , ""hri::A OOD�t.-1: 1 f.,'?'l� 'IV-� rr,::,- ,,, 11,11.c = ,'h'? "1··Tc {in:u1.0i1 , nonT<f'll , 00/;\/l I (l.�}•(D- I {lfl.J.'.·ll�: '19°1:J",r I m-llrr I hll : O'll\bP,m•: ,.,., : ,\·t.t;,f<f,C,fl : mf-t•m- u on Ail , (l"f!'m• • llflY.:'ll:1- : '19"1:r•1· : m-llrr , hll '11.,,C·ll : 000:1,1.,1: x f.,'?fl� 'It, f'll\U•0·1· �-l-, rcil:,.: f'J°ilhc: mt.4••1:1 • oof.\il. = (t.tif!'m• �,1J;.onf.\il. >11�..�t..sil\:1- .eu1, hil r 011,;:: ,t�m-, ri::c.�- o.:i• , lt.,,t.n :1 h'i!-1·?;:m- = 'i!C.J.'.' : ,�:,-: 011fAil (l.6J!•m◄ Oil.e.·l'l-l· : m&.:,- m-ll "r: OCll\bP,m-: ltf., : hil : 1,:1>;.J.,,C•ll ! J!,U1-1: 111\l'.t.1 : 'P(t..: })) : .etrc;A: (t.f,\ : fLt.f.m-1: n oo:J>m9" f.,,t.n: 1,"I{)� :: f,"1'1:�

ro•'1>.:; ff.,'?{):� '11' hct,c = •l·cJ•f11,-.,:,-: >i�·1·'i·?" 1 oi1 'i!C.�· n.--11 ODAil = n611-m•1: �, : "OD/,\,J•:,· : ill\"'11,":f•f.\ : r11r,:,1-�w- : r,::c.J.'.•: ft.:,. : 'i!CY: : "f·1 A"flt!l.A u

ii/ lt'}X·: (am·: bJ;ro• r tiA·l"hLl\: l\'Pil:,-c;: °1ilf1r: f(l.mro-:1·flt.,f: : 'h1-':. 7frr: l1·l· •ll °'/UT/; flt'}.J.'.•}·)· : 'Pil : ?,1;� : •f•&. : 'Pil : 111,f.l\'r :: 2/ 'll\·11,,n- : (l(Jl\6P,m-: ,.,, : flilX-h:i•: ll9°1;:J·,)·: m◄il'r: hll : ?,1.';.f l>C•{l: f"'/il1f.�•. 01••rt.-l· : >1'i!:,. = r1r�a1• t\•l·t:• = 'P(t:f. 1\1:� • 111i1.�-.,·1·: rp(t:f. 1,J!,f.l\?" 11

"l�C = = +1 = P...h+c: 'f!.il.f9°:

j;e

I!if2i = '¼ = 9°:: .v,7r:f :- h�.1�P' = �flJ(D• = f,:J--m4'. •

Pm:�,c

t ·!- h·Y..: : •f...(t: aJ/;\f...: 1.f-C"l.il :=

,urili!

n,h9°lb = = '¼ = 9° = ntt�.il = ttn'l = 0?11,:,;q = fb,)· = n,,. = +1 = 00 tf1{l: (Ir/A: ��:J-- ·t-t";:,;;;lP: 00\1°,1 : -fl+i11flPIT: +nil'"/Cf9°: {ID w :1'1.ctf = n1t1', = ·flP't-:i• = mAf... = 'l'i = rO?f,1+ti4'il = 111l:,• = oo 1 1 = f(Ja,. : cp(t:,-c; : itP't- : ilf..•il:i• : 7i.tJ : •llC : tinY..-l'PA? 11Y..'?-19°: nc119° ll. = ?i'i = +1 : = q : 9° = ootAflw· = t\..h'i!ll� , n,1•wfl�m· : +1 = llf,h 'i!,\- : hh�fr' : (lOD•flD• : ·OC I l}01J:,-: j). : •flC : lD/l.f.•: al,9°l(D• : 11�" -;.'} : 00t\fl· : 1:lil : t\..h<j:t\• : f, •il 0'19°,J-'PA : :

r,;

,uriif i:-lii·;

- 341 -

......

re '' '' UJ" :l. .. : = "Of»t i"1"f" : : '¼ riJo = B 1.,.,,,} 6: : 'I° , ;,. ,._ : : !i •1 ro�,,_.,..,. l O /{\II:, l»\h t-i : (o ,v°}(]�i• "' •t t: "l lP : (on A{) : 0611·): t\,e : , . , r,: Ok;J l OJ : • : Oh ,, � (),(?,): OhO,�t OJ• ° ,. l : .. :, : n ti ::lD·9 �: 0:. r 1t£l'l0";: /{ u 0,81:,C: ,)1�: 'l>"' 'PC: ,::�� r,-: till: , : �? c tJTJ fl,1,. = }<D ":: .., .. fl!Ji n = A ii' A ... CP lD = r� c; -lt:, 'P = • l:, {JDIP ° -- m- J : ww . : : 9 · ;urqo : '} l\&.. J .. 1. m.-. .. 01 ,:f,1 : : :1-: � 1 " .. 11 1 A .,_,....,,_.,.... .,... -. II : 01 1 _, 1 L, • '"OJ? p a,,, : 1'1,<;,ll(l• : ,n_e,,1:t,:c:a,, : {)f,h(l• = OOD;l t..;J··:a-:w..: rl,�: 'Pft;t•r; : m � e -A"?f/;\t; : t\t,;J�m·t-t : 1 IPIP : 0a:'J''1f : f,f fnm W": r fl;J--('-o : fCl),).. : \19°il tiC: lDlcJ>;l.: (tiC;J--): f- 00 1\lll,\�: flt\W•: «if,<IJ>'Pt\.:: "' _µ a:9, ,n, Cl" . '' ' 1 1 = m = 0:.,1• .. ,. O;J· • ' } � ,.·,iJva;2: = � nri:, .�m = �c�...._ __ ,._ q: 7 11mm•: ri:c..�--: '''lt\11 ti� : h:r'� V-1 P': ill I cf,'}: I!l f.1(; : q : 'I°: :�'1°{!1: �,flh: il R.· lt:r: OJC: {ID,(l;J--:flD·1 : 0,11"1: fUI/ .e,,n ,,�'k : htr':v : ( l(lm•: 'f'ft,),c;: r1n·�·� ai�;J.. : &.�"li : ?,lft;l,\ ;: cp(le = 'i'l : f,IJ't;t\. ilt\lf'l� = Oro ..t\:1:m.. : :,..: r,t-(lmlD•· : f"} 0l,r: OD f '1f : OJ,,f..&»1-- : f0°l..:J..f., : ll/\tr� : (\9 °'}9'1: t\, m��I! .e-1:lttt--'' : ,ntr, : 1.1-r, = OtLrr : un,,.,l:,.. OD"O:J... :1:ar 1 rollS:A :: 0 e 111:� 'l� hchc: 11 = : = )W";: f ti� r(l'l(l<D" a1 nr· L U l\f, ,, e. �"1'11"· �.rf'7i:ro.: lj.:C� : 0:.:,.: i',fl�tO}•: (ouA{l: () 6£1'): ,f•fl,�tro•, : �,1,tho•: (l ( : n�,) e : : ·d, ·fl,l1�C ,)1 ('(lll);f:ro, : ' '1 htlY•'f'C : -�li7f·�-� f..•{l:," : ro : LtL : Hroif: ... � ;,c = fOl/f,llUIJCPJ = 'l<D· 0(1111\:,- = '!ro· == ·1r 'I:,... : (l'r,y. : 1,, f. 'Pc;(De: OD t\ ll: (l611" (De '}'1 : 'P fie : ft-ft .1: C ll:,. : .rf'0Pi t: f°t,�,n C: If 'f : f,.,..cpq>fl : ',roe : ·flt\me: ,,... t\ t\ q> t\:: llrrtt--: itflcJ>..�•qo: fli',O�tt; : {lq>(l.. : ool}hA : f'Pll:,--,;ro, : m·n1:r 1 fOl/,roo'IOJc = nro•l\i:m.. = 0°,.,.,l:1� = ltt\ll''i 1 nchc = f.rf"'l'10:i•1 = rm ·A = ft' A 1 :PA.: fl:l'A: 1,tl..U : ri:Cf..": lD·ll'r: 11°1 0'1... 1 : J,"}{JDC9°1..£D•:: r•Of..·�: (De/A: ''h.� : < f,�'J·fffl/1•: 1·hi\0[1Cf9° : OD;J..&.tf: 11&-;rtD•t t = 1rPrP 00}1°11 11 n.u = •Oc oo.e...c i 'P ll = Jt,f-- = ,nP't--,1· mA.e..= �'i' = 1'.1�,'Po•t; = tic:t-:i::m,19° t,ll1t: = 1\1..�,n..e.co,1, = fll\&.cJ>J;..A:} ilttcil,f: = ,,,,,:,.. : f,t-oo(lnln:,.. : hmt.� : 111,1: : o,,,,.,,rc : ?;.ri.?Jr.Ir/�/9.� : ('t},t;,)· : llJ!, � 1/9.� : q 9° = foullJ UIJllt..:<f '1I%�ro- ODl\,11&�,r = @1 111 ..n :r7i�IA f01J..l\ro•1 = 4',..,r� = 1'itl:r;i;:i: = fll''lm·1 tic,_,.. 'Pll t,.e:c·i =,.,..,1 f.."titl\U·•: a>(l ',,t--?1--: fC()(l� �:OC;lDt\..('.f{l: mt-7•�}·�: f}', ..f· : £D/,\f,�J'..'1': ro� r1... : {'rof,,, {!1 : ffi. : }\OD {l. ,1.. : ,f• n l\01/ C.,CJ 9° : OD r; "l ..�' : t1�1 tJ : V112.'P(l e ',a>•1: fl:J": },illl: o,,v.:1:: (l,1,�l:: ,t-o ,n: ll..t1&.l\:1:cD·: 1,:f·i\l,\ .: 7,0·: 11: 'l,,eqof\ : 1,'}(0(ll : hl',,C',J; : h..e,.�·11'J1/:f... : uu;J·&.tf : (llD•(:{l : f"liU•:t•'} : � ,n,1: = flOD•/\:· = ,,,- --7i.. (ll t\.ht.1\:1:w..: J!,:1·•1\A:: .e·,1co· 1::ia.u =,{JC: ° = 'J = q 9 , ° h2i h /b 1;i ,,,1 "f.9° (C: .,,,,fl, = r.·e = ,111 •iil�E = q =0'I° : 0 · : , ' ll: · n qoo:,-: llit1f..:�: ....roe: f.•lll: (l'}on,)•: llh1-�: aJC...= {l.r.. fl )· :f : f.. l. 11c = roflY: = �9°fu = AouAlt = ,,..n�t:1i',l\u•, 11.a..u = ,oc O,f• 4''PA1n,J· · ODJ"'tf: {1;,-.: h'J°'f',f•OJel,\�: ''" ">"0,ft\V• ., OJ;}·•: {1,f•llJ{l�OJ•: ,,,,: (lt\� All : m1..L:,-- : 1'.llh: 9°00 All(l:,- : cf,1 : �-l{l : fri'a.U : -OC: rol\f..': 1'.1t: 111h : nqoo:,.: 0001'·' llm�: 11C, n:t-r"ln , hhi�l\tJ• • J.1,IJ1't-?"' JflL�; : 9° C -h 1C 1 : 0, Aht , roo'lro• : 4'1 : itt\.mfck'19° : flf-o : o,,e.c,� : 1'1 1 : .rf :9°: UJJ!..L;,-.: tllll'J°uot\_{l(l:,, : <1>1: fOJ/..lDAf.•,,O�: O(]DlJ')·: �(IJ• • 1't P

UDtpt.

= =

ODs

= = n�xu = = =

n,,,�,..._ =

= =

-- 342 -

e,:1J(j : ht1 .._u : 01\,,e : 01!'P {: : !Q.�ftt : ftr ',m-•' I tic /;\ -OP'l OJ : . } r ? : : f '1110' 1 ,f·'tlfl'1?Cf9° · 00 :J-- &..t r : 1', Qtlro• : }, "} t.,:,�'Jf ,, /' · : ,tOJ?..�.. � : 4' • o· = _e,1 ico·?° : ft1n-�t<o• 11,-1,0 = ti..ehl.A = ,i,c: = nllc;J--m• : i\f, = . · , fi = ,�� " f.:,: }t{l {1 .. d 71 (11 = fii',OP,tm · : llfu;J.. m•�t : "iwlP : : �flD : h � no 11 : t\.h&.i\:rm· : f,;J! ilA'' : ••• f UTf..A : ',OJ• i f,U"}"} : m•/;\ : ltfiP, ◄ {l;r/;\ :: o & ur : {:o (I, q> i . (j • > tllr l ,f•O�tll P · fl t : • : ro ', O h' JP, O' o•: outihA: 'tlchc: n..-J•'l•"t: i't � � n1 ·1.lJ : {11\,e: � . • m m = ftJ1.. : m·m.·J· fl (l�aJ• m •l\:1: ';t l {l· : • IJ : oow1..:,. : ',m• :: 0� -,... . f'P , 1-,, : ,. C : : : cr'Pi\•;f, : (191:f· : ji7l:ir.@!i : 000,1.:,. : m•/;\ : ,n,1 1.C ,11'1 ,J> 'r oolihA : ,'h"l : '1 a>·:: q>(l,: htl.U : {11\,e : ()i\ (IJ•: fro·A: :J'A : 9•>1 : '1�:r : 1.-0··f''PA? cp(l,: r10·,1· : "lfo:J -- : f0'J.e "},f,ltcl> it : "}•fll.;J--:1:aJ•"} : ,f· {1P,tro• : noJ.'"lf : t,.�C"l ' m•: fq> ar: 1'1,tfl.l'.."rfi")•l,": t},V,W•: '11,h,{.l,\: n .. _e:f;m•: ODJ.'"lf: f(J', (l•: f{ll/f,'}tf>t)cf > it : 1·flt..,1· : {TIJl{IDt,,r : fl,I,�� : 11.1',tn'P i f(l• : if.J.'611- : 6�(1)•'} : (\OD'f1t.l,\ : (]f,0.�' ¾ f..-J•{lP,t(D• : {:it,), : cl'tpt\ }, "},c;_'if,p : ',{l}• ::

n:,- :

n..

= ...

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f(l}•t\·: :J> /,\.: "ll,\?i,: ',llJ• i :,-C't-9°: rOl/.,,rit&.IA"l<D•: '11C: i'tf,J?.t\ 'J° :: q>(t« : hl\f, : i\{lh;J·:f : fj\(IJ•"} : rm-/;\ : :'A: qf,,f.. : itm•ci : f&./.OD: itt\ : lf�: "],,�;t·m· : f"7.<D (l', (D•: ro ,,e 'J° : (D•i\•: fOJJ.,J .. t..1°<ID(D•: n�:,.,11 : .-0"1.C= = '14>-°''rc = ?;7i'.%r.«Ei l,1J?....,,. 00f\.h,f'(& rro•l\◄1 h� A 1.rtt-1-9° n{TIJ Ol1t!\h"r : ',ar :: m·lt· 'J° : {TIJ ,,r"l f : fU'',ro•: f'Pfl·: 1,n1.:1,. : h1·n-�tro◄ : 1.-n lT : hflcf, Y:'l° : }, "},t if'P : ',(D :: (Tl) f'l f: f U'', : 1--nl:,·-"} : h" ' l\ro ◄ : 1--nl:,,: hilcf> f..''111 : OD 'P it: m :,, t\ i\ w ◄ : J?,. "} •{1 : i',f,J?. I\ 'J°'} ? fl Ir Ir 'I° : (D• /t•: OD y ')r : Vlf�{D« : '}•fl/.T : h'PCilD• : ()t\6P,: 1---n1..:,, : i',itcJ, Y:'l° : ODfl'P : ,.rl\n:,,. : oo LJ'�- 1 : (l"]t\g' : f,(j"}�/;\ ::

,n"l

n·

n•

= n

'P = a0 r 11· CJJ?...l--,,.:t- = 1-.-n t.. ;J--:1�w• : i, 1-f.. c;m· CJt\ 6Pi l1',,ro• oi 1��-n,1• = ro·A h(lm• i i', OPitro· = 'PCiro•, = ,1·nPit = tif,&.A°l 1 tif,hit = <.ID .r 1 r = f,t·tf,n t\m•1 = 1--n1. ,1•: ouif,p = f,:f-1\A 1\1J?...1tu = ..rl\ ro·A = (l.':'c = n lf:,r,11 ,11.c = ,..,,°1 ,,,... rrc ..-tiii"«,...iJ,....rm.,._,...::c = (Tl)wt..:,,. cp it it >; tm· = ...,.. P, tm·, : 1,1�.h(l : '1°1 it1 f...{': : 00,n ,1: : f,c/, t,/;\ :: l,iltiu,1- r ,,.:1!'1co• = n1tnPitCi = n ,,,.n�t = tJD\-thA = CJt\m• = ro◄ A 2 ODIP t.:r : �w- :: ,,

= •n

,l,1,.it: 1,1fo ,1· : ', m· ?

r�:,..,1,:

' : .-0,lhC: ,)1 '1: ,,,.,,'PC: {irt:nf@E '' (�) 'P(l•: n.'JY:'1:,. fllJ', 'Pil,rfi r :Jtr = CJt\ = 6P, = rof,'J° = = ff DI/(j:1:ro ◄ 9 ° = ,f•ODti tif,'1:,. = ll'J° OouU' '} : h'P'iro· : 'll\: 6P,: ;JC: f°2.. 1J?..� : l,1J?...lf '1 : CJl\: 11ti O·: l\'PCiro•: "'1:,,t..--fl(j: n1'i. : ,,rl\ID·"} : OD 'l": ()P, : hau(j1?-: n&..:,. : O 'Pfl« : i\f, : fir : {\au{1",p : �1'1\ /;\ :: (c?) : hJ-1.U'J° : {lcpC: ntLU : 9°6/r't- : r ,, .. OD{\h,f: : f:1,:,t?Ji--: lt1f:'1:,- -: ntA: q>(l :,--(j: i\f,: ,f' &.?.Ul/.?11-- -: Ci:f�ro•'': f,I\A ::

n"'I\

nrt :

..eu : ,,,...'PC:

hll.U : (11\�: h,,,,,11.m· : llJ•/;\ : ;Jlr : f<P/.itGIJIP/ : ',(D• :: 'P {l« : h'P'i (De : CJ/\ 6>; : ;.,t- : roiz.1 J?.f..' : 1, 1 J?.U'', : CJ I\ : 11ll n·: l\q>(j(D• : 'lt\ 6P, : hau'i1?-: ( cpc, ·m•"}) : ()f l6P,: h{TIJ fJ-1• -:: hooh (l (l, : flfuT : O ' P(l•: i\f, hil: '"l:Pl,O (j: flh�: : f{\l D•"} : OD f'lf I {\ODO 'P : f,:.fl\/;\ : ·fl�.. A:: O 'JO·it:

- 343 -

◄

-- = � .. : l11f.. = 'Pt;m•: 'l/\oP,: her(}•. :, : ,t-ftttCD" q_e, '},.'}f_: ,,,...,re: Ii: . �p(l q ° , ,n -:,. = fa2.1��"n,1-- : m-t\ = o'r f-- = , ,9 -: 1 >;tro,1 : oon(lfl : i't /\n:, .. =· Ott .... 0 h -- · n• = 0 = , = .. fl:,-- = ta�tr1 • n1o•il 're � r , h 1 i n,-1.u-- = 9"°ot.� = iltt,f• hur, g 0 1·8.. U• : 010·0 : <l' "''P _m:_h fl,flo-:f-: f:1;J7'9l:f, : �01, = C '' htLLJ: nc1�c'': fOl/.l\OJ•: :l' /:\'i": O'l'"''l'C: �TI:uf@Q: hll..U: 01\,e: h:,.g: r•'l"\ m ": (b'itfJruit): ,,."', i'�"�� an :J'A : .rh-.. , rc: " 'lOIJ.n. "C 01·611': O< · C: ·- ., .... ..-,. ,,11 f D : ..,, . �,1,ur (l) r. . c 4,•.,rc: {i: 1ll'il : ,P---'1"\C: i : r,,•oD(lh..-f·lD· : fOl/./.,ftllU(D : "1....J..(l)« : m«61!' : l\lf�: �"IC : Ofi(f �-1' : ,,e 1A?..A. :: rc,:,J",11 : -0,11.C: ., 1 • T ''}' ll'I" · crJl -f..... i. "i w, . = ·1!!... o�t ,1 · ,r'iro e. ,,_, cp(l. ,. mf = A c = b'il:.ur h i, rn . i10P, ... ... ... .,.... .... ,.� ti�hil : q>(l-1 : tl1PtJ(til : ,,e.;,.I\A: A: 'PO·: n,f�v.mc, t : cpt;�"}: J � > I h = J!,·l·I\A fl.A= li'iLH!©t = cpc;m-1 = ,,.. n�t ,, A l, .., = P -l = (l /{\1-- : anh6'hC : j,y, ·:;.t\ (l,P---'l'C : lifi.. ttf©t : 'P'i'lD·1 =. ,, o,V.t : rai,n cf,OIJ(JJ•: (}�,,...,,, : •fl,-lhC: ,11'11 : 'P "•'PC: �a:ur 'I°:: ,,.,...'l'C: l!'n.. i]j{i: "}O"<ll : ,ye..: (l?) : 1',f,..-f•ODl\.hrl•OJ• : ,ell : lD•/,\ : fl\ ,/\ : fl.. V'1: �m:·;; ncnc � t,n.v.tro· t1 ..-,.. ro(l�cn4 ir1 n--i·nP. u•l\.1.. ,'1ro· = tm· : cf''}: O'r..-f•cpA: 001/ l\:,• : ',m• == i"f1,�t£o• = m?.,'J° : 'PO·: (l·J·w(1�m•: 1 0 = 4'c+ro· = t1 1.t1�An:,.. 1.,�-,. o...<>A� = ;-,n.,;1, t,l\'Pfl· = &. c1>1 = :J>1.·: founttY: 1..1·1.: ,,t..11qo: n·r;l:A: i',.eo��9°:;: cp(l:1-.q0r9"°: Jrif,mcf: 'I° :: cp(l:t-'ilD· : ftPJ..roc.e.. ro-: cp(l. : '1,,f<»·:� = ,t•fl?itcv• = 11.n�tm·1: t't9"'i f 'PO· : ltJ!,llff'/01/ : i',O�t,1>• : 4'1: iit-•1-J'l° : fOm: }\1.e..t1'�: �m·:: OH..U: fl nlJ •',. : 'l"lC: f,U"}: f UD(t(\ : 'l1C : f(\'J° :: OJ•t\:1:ro, : •n.e.-�.'} : ni,.. : 'iUDT: hn.11.': lDC: i\.,ODl\{l: ',(D•: f,A'i: °11: n,1·•m(l.,,n,: cJ>'}: 'lAODt\{l: mf. A,T : hllh'J°OD/;\{l(l;f.. : cl:,'}: ..�l.{l : f,fl/;\ ! ill\tf..U : "(l�•{-. : f01/.{JIJt\{l0•1• : +1: f+ro(l',t; : f/;\,f'"lD(t','J° : 'le&;: 1\'}f,. ..-f•O.P,t'i: h.,.}f,.tp(l,: :,.;1:1. : h'}f. DDlrn• : fOIJ...C'f..C1�n:,... : (D•l,\ : ',OJ• I nflP.tm· : t,l\'P(l« : &.j,,,r_..: t\- t O�t ro•: 4'1: nt-11'1°: nm: f°t'lAfl,}•: ,,1..V:9°: 9°h,J',)": ff\'1°:: tLU u -tr = 9°h1y,r.. :)4.. • f11•rP '11 p..-J:: = m:1,1\,e = c,-:cY..� (b:l· = J!,(11 'l�1: ro-1,.-- :,,: 1tf.'C1;rA:: &,;rOJct-.t: "llPlP: O'Po•'i": fi'P ',OJ• =tit= i't:P COUJc = itu-, = nt1� ..., ..�ro- = �c1.-- 0.,1.. = n(l'111e l\f, = ,, el\m, �1c:7f·' t.;r 1.'PA I

= ,,,...

n1::,•:

,,..n�t :

_eu'J�-�,

n,�-il : r,�1.. n:,.. = o.. (/Dnnil n�fl :

= ti_e,,n =

nr.©t

ta_enlj:l\�

n�

r'Pn· =

-344 -

fi:j.-;;��

= =

(1) • ""'

'Po•=

= nl\,e,: =

•

'°(11:

"·fr.. !

= .. rolll h-•1" = OD 1a,"fc = n"•tr,: = l\f, htt 'l,.l: = h�;tf11 "71" = 00 :r , ri(fl: 1'.1-'th&.. A: i'l .t\..: ,f•fi�ta,.: 4>'i"1f"7,,l·: ,f•hfl: 01/Cf'I°: uo:J"t..tf: t• ()t\CD•: •n�c : hi! : •OC: lDt\Y:: ;,c: OJi"}f..•: qoo:,-: hit .. '1'1Jfr f· f, :: rl.? r il'l' -:- U'/ i\.:,... : h,l1 '1°l\ : ii : c1>; = Ifi!21 : hllh: �mfb : '?!'i = a (IJ£ : , : : "'': J.v.r.=tli' = f"'l..ht.. A �nc == n,-,..tLbOl/t'I° • n,,..roi'l'!w• = 1.,·L = •fi..("''r: !A ,,1..nt.t\ : 1,"}�.lf"}: ,f·O�tro• : llm�: (100,y..: Wt\f..•: �htj;t\A : ,f'•Ot\1- : ,,,-i· "' Jt...f.. : •OP'tr:i• = Wt\J!.'IC.'I°: llllh·l\:fro«: < J>ll: }t" }f.OD : : , '1 = f,°l'l � � A: � . ° : ,.I-tit\ : Ol/c:f'I°: OD:J... t..tf : ,(1Y:'r1 : ll'lt\U"llT�T: 11'�1:ro.. : 117.'11 '1 .. f ;. c ' : : • 1 rcll:t- : 9'1ilti C : rot. >,1 4>1 -'l'C I7L?;!i( ?; : f<J>ll,l·'i' : ODfrif : }t"})lroll r 00 : : OT/Cf'J° ,f•tit\ : : t.tf : "fi..e-'r1 : uonttA : f A:J!f\c : '"� : «11t1110l/l7'.'}ilf ., : tJP/,\ll : {16/}'UJ« : &,:,•JiOJ4/r6 : 1lPIP : ODho"}"} : OD/oirf:"} : }tftf. : l\,e, : lli\m· : "}.fit.,)-.. : ;,c : t\.7f,11· : �:l-..1\f\c : fl.t\• : ,f•{1"'19°T'PA :: 4>�1f tfl/1•: ,f'tJt\"'1Cf9'1 : 00 :J"& .tf : (li·'lt\W• : , ,,, : -0..e-?-1 : lt�htj;f\c : 4>'r ! 1,oi'11 'lf..9'1 • 00 Afl (l�ro- = nr,::,-,,. = ..n,1.. c ,l,"1 <l'--Tc = li7t.ii!©t = .. · : W· fl 'r : h'lt\ o Pr CD• : h ,,, '111 "'1:-,:i : ,,-hl\: "'IC {ID lJ'l "1• : flfl f..' fl:,. : '19°"} ·f• f .. : fau"fi : r, r:1:ro t,f: ..}: t,t.. ?tK9°: �m�cf:: 1111..·: till: }t"}Jt ft,, f'J°: UD:J--&. ,,<'"' Cn· : °'I{I ,n"} ti>4!,.f: (l n,1.:f 0>" :: OD t\. ll : (l 6[.bUJc : n {lf..•il•'I: : It'/°"} :r,..,.. : (lJc {l<p: M'J°: 11.<'J?.C:1·: cf,{-. :; hr·f..tJ : n�.I\ : �"I()�: ()f.. 1 (1,f•(){\CIJc: ilY:ilT: lt'J°1 ;r:t· : Oril'I' : fi·(lJ?.?-:,•1 : 11-0lf: h,��.tJDt\(l.. : 'll\oP.CIJc: ill\Tmfcf:: 0 (TDA (l : (161. Or ·J 'Pil :. (1OD lfc;TlD" : (1 �"I()�� : () f. : I\f� : f., nlCIJc"}: {JlJ ,,C'fTJ� I \'ro()J;.•l-1'1°: f'll\U,,fl,),',,)•: fell:,... : 'l°ilnc:: rot.,1>:,• : (tic:r): h1 >;.ouA(l.. : �:J··t111A'1 = fl"'Jf\,)• nhtj;,,,-;;:ro.. = c;:c1..· nll:,. = nil = it4>l0" ==

,: 1

"°:,�:

0h(i;Ti1Ur : �CY: : {1:,- : (1.rl•(l,nro• : 'i:c:1..·: W•il'r : 1'_"});.U : f°t/A: 1,1"?/A =-rv•l\"l: = ro1'i"f = mn�:1-.. = htii"? = (�"1'1�= 'lf.) = n-Of.."?- CIJclA = (/DLJ'l:,... 1 nau1o1: = f01J,,e,1c1 ti+il = , ..nl:,... = {JlJ.r1r = fi•t\f = (t\l\) = ""nY:?-= i'thti•&.t\ : tr(l• : 'Pil: lfS:A : {I. ./\- : ,f•'r"ll'PA:: htj;rf";;:ro.. : tj;Cf:: '1 T9°: h'1nc: (�"1'1�: 'lV..) : 1rti:1:m. : 'Pil: hlf�.: (ltj;:,•d,: ·O,li.C: �"I : it,cl>i": !iit.v.x@t : ODlPl..:,.. : +h'1i\:. : (o0 A{l. : (l6L0 m·) : hirf'OP.tar : h<l>�1f°'ll- : +h/\."'ICf'l° = fun•n;J...:fro..1 = i'1&..1t?t'l° = �m�<I! = n11: =nil = h1�.,,1>cn· = /lonmr:,, : on..n:,, : itf\:(-w•: "fl!l.A:: (lau.e.'J°f.01/.f(JJc'J° : htj;rf,�ro·: tj;Cf..': n,:,.: (L&.Cf..': 1·0.V.ttJJ•"} : +'11·IO'Ji•: .rf"'nl\.OI/Cf'J°"} : OD/Ail: (liif,blD- : fOD .-n;t-:,:m,1 = it&.. ?t?t'l°: f\ODmf:,,: lj;c..c;...: h,f•(lmfl:,.. = +; : i'l°r: = nilY:ilirr= lt9°,;J.. ,),: lD"il'I': hil: l-tt\•l>l.0": ,e,"J{)�j: ()f.: f/rti:froc : <p(lr1,'i": h"'l.1 llh:t-1\.ro•: �I\&,',:, .. : 'l'l : fylf'i'f\c J lf'i'l° : 1'_"}f.f·LtJ : .rt\co« : : {){\OD�l n·: ,,..hti71:.: fl°t?t'i": l\."'l�"}cf1 l}c1'il: , ..nt.,)·: ODf'!f: ODIP{.:,..: 0�"1'11: fir- : an1o:,.. : I\� : roi'ilrTCD": OI/"}�(Dc 'J° : oo..n:,- : Ji�',t}():fCD"9° :: Y,°1'1�: 'lV-: hrf•'ll\m• : fhc;:,1,,;:ro.: �CY:: '1irr : �Cf.": �"1'11 : f /\ : 'l°h'Jf,r : htj;rf.. i1ro" : c,:c..e_, : 11:,• : nri::,•,11 : "fldbC : ;,1"1 : 4>--TC : i!O.fif@t: firf•,ncJ,(lCD•"} : filY,;il:,• : 1}9°"};J•:,, : "LIL : fl°'l /rff {JD" : f,'h"l: il,'h .rf"at"'lt'l° ! �"1'11: ()f.: {\OD/Ail: (l6LhOr= 11 ,,..:,.: &.? .OJ.A: ',CD•:: '11\:1,: (l 0 ,.. fUl/f,'} ,t,l}c:J,(l. : "}.fil.;f' : on.f'Jf: Jtt\(lm•'l° I 00/o:,... : {\OD/Ail: (16l!>W-. : f,f" (lmm..: }\"}": 'Pil:,, c,·: ua.frif· : ..(1:J: : ',CD• : ..-f••Ot\�: hChC: cl>C!]..A:: fooA {l : (ltif!'m• : hcnc : f..°ll/° : (1"(1��- : {l'Jf..• : ODIPlT : OD/Ail : (l6l!>UJ• : Oh 1�..,,..-,.• : 'Pil lf5:_t\ : flPLA: ',a>·::

nil

n,r

·=

-345 -

< ..'} ° ° ,f•f\ f : ll9 .. 9 '1'1" oaz.� ;8 : llt\: ,,fi �''r-: 1l,,1·: ( : ff..= .e,°1'1�, {/1J0 rl:: {lh'}llllO ', 11 7

��nr:1:: l,Ci,.rtt, 1 .enm.

n,�,x•�,,6" = 'Pil:

l}) "n'i

11�. I "

'JD·l\ / f,lf'} I "s•)

t\) {l{l'J°'J° ',rJ:: (11JtJJ/..:r : _e."]q:�: fli: j\OD4!\{l : f86/l'UJc: {1ft : } P,m"•. tJ.cl>{l: ,,,flt..,,· ......_lf"} f ',m, :: ' "

""'

.,,,..

ot�:i-r·A·r = f<j:,)•, 11 = .-n,1i.c = ,l1'?

"'11

,)1 1-:,:.. l\�tin, . .. Ji1 e:.11,e\ 1 h-'ti'I·: Vl't."lfl.f' }: ('tj::,•,h : •fl Ji.C: ;,1"1 : W J.':?" : V&..l1ti,e: ,lb C: ,l1"1 : ti.e.lf, ¾ hffi\l,�ro-: ;JC : Oi',1°(')'1" : �t\&,: '"1Alf�: 04>C: � (le: {lODO'li: ·= ;}l\&,'l,f: : h()l\oP,lD·: .rf:1'rt\0 �(D.. : ('lltlJPi m« : h'P(}«: Ol « =.'J r P, m : h()l\o 11./\0: } 'PO· :: ) , : oomf:t>: .. C� �IS.'',,),: ?t\&..: OD( f). : no 'J°'J°'l,,),: ro·il'r: { lf..."}.-fi: Ul!1ll�: itnn,,:t-:: 1'il,,.l"'i'W•: ,f·t..: 'Po:rc;: filf}: 1.tt, i OIJfl,l-- = _f'Po· ;}l\�'1:t- = h()flo�w· = c!''r�: = O.lf'} i 'Po•: v,;11r '1ft c : fOI/�,,ft\I D•"} : l}•(\,,)• : 'Pil''l° ..1" : h0'1°1·}",1: '1TaJ lLY P, 1 : 01,c: :�t\l l, : '1--l:: h;,t.: ()f\ oP,: ;}I\&,',,)•: ;JC: , f--ontitt_e: ',a}•:; 1,'lf'LU9°: 'r:P'I°�}"..: h cpc;ar: (}(\�P,: ,f..ht--hC: f0"Jf\,)•: 00 -n:,. ¾ f t1..:,"r·A·.r: �:,,,11: ·O,l1�C: ,),Cf/: 'i�- = o?,roc."} = f(Jl)h'i--tt.t\: llD,{1:,:. 'r'I'C • {ifi,!tf(fl� : �,c; = -0,-,. = tp(l.1"..c fh.:r--r·A·.r : <,::,--d1 : ,fi,l'hC: ,)1°1: ,f>•·'rC: l! fi..j! f1 l! : r;:1�m-:: cp (l,),firo•: Oh .. 7,'1J·f.lJ"}: U·i\"1..: ,pq,qo7t.:: 'PO·: ll.,,e 17,::fm· : t tt 1f:'11··: flf',: i, e.lf'l: 1'A 'J° ; c1J1: n /l,l\lD"': l1f..': :}I\&, 'J,f; : h--l•t, : 'P fl : ;JC: i't 1 f:: �aJ• :: rt,. :r--r-kf = c,:.:,-..,h = ,flt11>C = ,11 °1 = ,,,.... 'Pc = l!lLUf.illE = ro•m:J· ,e,u : �ro· :: tu: 'i> ""'I'C {, it1f..': 'l t\1111•0 : l\'P'iUJ•: lll\�P,: hc10 'i1?-: n&.:,.: O'PO·: f\f,: nil: oa7;pl..fi'i" : {1},�: fl\.W·19°: on.e�r: t\{llJ7'i'P: �:f'lA: ill\ : {l;\f\ : 1tc1Jfl•O: .fl\rm·•: {ltf,U: 'J°Ot--lf:.: f,f•ODf\hrf:,1·: •l>"-'I'C:··... l : t,1.�'�:,-: {l(f�: 'PilT'i': l\f,: rf•t.iOIJ..?1:f.. : c;:fm·: J!,I\IA:: llf\11.. IJ : 4,._'I'C: {i7f.uY.©t 2 tt1 f:'1T: Olf', : cp(l:,,c;: I\J!,: ,f--&..7'0I/..: ',(D ·•:: -!

1 f

•

{'<j:�.;;�,'

= o..

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fltf.lJ : nitu--)-: 1,P,�: J!,11] (}��: 'li: 0�: i',fl,f•..ff,r: ,f•t -: q>{l: 1'.'}t: {11t1f..'',:,•: cp(l : -h�f...1\9'1:: J, C0J'P: ',ro•: {\cp(l :,..r;: ODf'lf: t\h(lJ;tlD·: (ODAil = ofiJ.bm-) = r--ron1ro· -z fi'lt\u ..n:,-.,,:,.. = fcll:r-- 9°llnc mlcf>,1' = (tic :J·): \1,f--l;J1mUJ•: '}.-{ll--1:: {\J,P,aJ•: 1,1 �.h&..A: ��Jff't;: llf-: ,t·ll0119°:1:�!( '11C: 11]7: J!,U : ll..f..l°l : rurL:l...l\ro« : ,J·(},P,t(D•: 1,-'�<D•1 : t\(JlJtJ/... A : l}f,·l : > A •n;: = ., (l)c :: ri'l1 �-,, :,. (D• = 1\f 1 Pi'}� = o ll ro·c = f <PJ...c OD" = : �I\&.: \1lf',: (lro«· : .f'}).: i',"}�: °lf,.;1"': uo&.?.'J°: 1,"}P,t\0,,1·: �(D• : (lltU, Ottv-� - : 1--P,f ,: f,c1Jfl� : qi : },P,ro·"}: {\011n &.A : f,"}P,':-}"·9°: "l,eu:J ·: �.�� '19° c1J�:J--: f1flro•: ()f\: l,P,(JJc: 0P,a1•"}: t i.eh'i:A : �.cl'(:: (ID/o• l•.. 1 ' 1 = l,P,roc: 1'.1J;.h&.A: ',(D•· :: O�tl.lJ: 'J°n 1 .. r,f:,}"·: _ea1q�\: '1�: ·I·�·' q�-: illllf'l = nc,:.:,..,,, .-n,1i.c: = ,11°1 ,re 1>1t u,i.n:f: = 00011..,,1· {JV/;\ll • o6fJ' 1 fl ilf;{l:,- : 1)9'°7 ;r :,- : (D•ll r: h()(\l,P,(D: f uo ..{1,f•:f--· }: t,&.��_r =. �� } t t\ ll = : 1 '} } : 1,1\ == lJ: f,U· � :,.:1.: \ ,c;•.fcJ> C·O: i\Ol/il1f..f..--: _e:f•I\A : J!,:i: l -: ti l}';tj. '1�. Oi',1��,,..,,.: 'Pll: �nc:: fi..'lA.9°: hi\�: (1--l"ln<l'(l-,f•.. 9°)1'},(' i'lu,19° n.rr1 = n'l>...'PC: ia.ur•n:f: i\oo,n<f>9°: _e:f•/\A .... -·· .. .. h�,f,�m• : �c�- : (1,� t O Df,\{l : (l�lD·: lli\o,P,<D·1 : flfl/.hlln,1·1. : i ot111 ·fL: 'i:c.�-- : h1.. nmo:,- : cl>'}: it'}{l f- },ll : ,1 } · '190' .�'ll"1 ;1---� l� �,l· : : ll : , : h &-tl9'°: ,.,..tifl;t:A: {l(\O?.f\m«: f.eo1q:�: 'J°h"} f:," � f llf.."il1" : tt9°1:l

= ;) "&..,:,.

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- 346 -

•

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'111 = (l,.lf1 1.1·1. : 1'tJ9° : ou,Jmc : r 1 -0 = , t,1Ai = r,,.. .. e,. ,i : o,'h"l = n.. e,. 1. '" l. €.'J°l. OJ• : '1t\{)P,w·1 : ti(l{l : '111\•• : 'P(l• : i',OP,tw•1 : hmf,1>n:,- : '1>1 : ; �Or ; h�-1'� OJ• : ct:C�' : 0:.:,.. : f,1i1 : 1 ..1·1. : 0°7t-1100• : ,f.. "1ll;t A ::

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ht\f, : n,1•1fl.ll?. T : 9°ti1 ODIP/.1" : f,"1'11:1 : (loo�,,,�... 1 fh� +�m· �c� 11:,..1 : (i:C..�-- = CD-_�..:,, nor, i:t..'1 i ODt\.ll {161]»ro• nll�il:,-C= {)�'} ;--:,. : ro•il'r t "1 t\;I' : h1�.f'i'C-0 : Of..'?'1 ';1; : '1f,. : nil : h,l'm«f>f n:1, : "L tL : i',1{l,f-c : h'1t\6P,m• : l\f, : fUD-fi,:f,;f:'}: n&.?.�9'1= OODmf:,,: nil : "1f4> C•fi : ilt\cf>l I f,'?'1� : ()f,. : h'?�:1"'91:l: : OODt\ : .,, : lf'f : ""°""?,... : fq>{l:,-« 'i = 00,r--ir = f (lm,0•1 = f'1nu•n:,.. .,:,.. rclt,1.. = 9°ilt1c = w1.4,:,... = ,,,....'PC °'/t\;t. : mil..'ii'tt\tr :: 0 t\:,• = 0Dt\.il .. · •itlr ,,_ ... : DDt\.il : n611»ro : h1� - - ... Tt:

- 347 -

I f

SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. IA

BISRAT WOLDEHANNA v. FITAWRARI GESSESSE MAKONNEN Civil Appeal No. 718/55 E.C.

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tee-St1n1111011s to proceed-Mortgage ca,itractzial obli gc1tio11s-G11ara11 tce-Joi,zt gr.i1arc111 ts. 1731, 1736, 1933,

A1ortgage to sec11re t/1e debt of a11otl1er-A 3106 Civ. C.

1934, 1951, 3090 and

Appellant g:lve to respondent, as securit)' for a loa11 giver1 by respondent to a third person, possession of �1e title . deed to if!1n1ov�ble. property bel? nging to l1im and agreed that "in case tl1e debtor fails to d1scl1arge, ,111s obl1gat.Ions,. the cred1 tor n1ay appropriate the pro ceeds from tl1.e sale of the (propert,,). The debtor failed to re.pay the loan on the due date and appellant invoked Art. 1938. Civ. C., and asked res.ponder1t to initiate proceedings against tl1e debtor within six weeks. Res1,ondent failed to act ,vithin six ,:veeks and appellant brought tL1is action in the I-Iigl1 Cot1rt to require .respondent to retur11 tl1e title deed. On appeal from a I-Iigl1 Court judgr11ent ordering respondent ,to bring proceedi11gs against the debtor within six months and declaring tl1at if he did 11ot clo so, tl1e guarantor ,vould be released.

•

Held: Contention of appellant denied, but Higl1 Cot1rt judgn1ent reversed on the ground that the Court could not .release .tl1e respondent. 1.

Where a person agrees tl1at if the debt is not paid bi.s property given as security may be sold, he is a joint nnd not a simple guarantor. 2. The right t o require tl1e creditor to proceed ag·ainst the debtor ,vithin six wee.ks \.Vl1en the obligation is dt1e is available only to simple guarantors and not to joint guarantors.

Hedar 19, 1956 E.C. (Noven1ber 27, 1964 G.C.); Justices: Afenegus Kita\v . Yitateku, Dr. W. Bul1agiar, Ato Tadesse Tekle Giorgis: - On Ha111le 22, 19�2 E C.: pursuant to a contract registered with the Addis Ababa Mt1nicipality, F1tawrar1 Gessesse Makonnen loaned Kegnazmatch Teklemariam Metaferia $16,000 on_ lhe slrerlgth of a personal guarantee and immovable property pro,1ided by Ato Bisrat \'volde Hann.a, to be given in pledge. 1-he loan was to be repai? o� Nehasse 26, 1953 E.C. and sl1ot1ld tJ1e debto r fa (� to do �o �n the date of maturity, interest at the rate 9 % per annt1111 would accru e the pr1nc1pal. . On. Nehasse 2,_ 1954. E.C., Ato Woldel1a1111a, present a pe�lant, ?riu�:: � 111 . u1t against the creditor, i e11t, F1t awr resp ar1 o11d h Ges pre sess sen t e, � �� His for1:1er _alleged that he had been released pursua to Art. 1938 of t11e Civ. · gua· nt e COllLention was that Fitawrari Gessesse t lie, ,vli en h deb tor failed to sue l1is t ee ran 11a rantor ' asked him· to, g . . consequently, (l1e argued) he \Vas released from b' · 15 ge · aud requested the return of the pled as ess e title deed, kept by Fitawrari Gess C ruled as . . · its · TIle Hi· gh Court,. in . dec1s1on delivered on . Tal1sas 30, 1955 E . , •roe as ,, 11 f011ows: Should the creditor nth5 n1o fail to exercise his right withi11 six - 348 -

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BISRAT WOLDE1-IANNA V. FITAWRARI MAKONNEN GESSESSE 0 , 195? E.C., the guar �tor shall be 1·eleased." �owever the appeal 3 sas h Ta. . _ of co11ten appellant s 10 The 1s t�at the six months' extension g. rul1 that � � nges � alle ch respondent, ,v1tl11n wluch to sue the debtor is con present creditor, the to ted gran . . C iv 8 3 C 9 1 . t r A to trary In bis defense, the respo11dent argued t11at the guarantor should be considered as the debtor because he g11aranteed the loa11 with his land. To beg:in wit:h, let 11s take the contract piecemeal a11d study its contents because the respective rights of the guarantor and creditor sl1ould be determined by refe rence to the conte11ts ofi the contract. It reads, ''I Kegnazmatch Teklemariam Metaferia have borro\\'ed $16,000 from Fitawrari Gessesse Makonnen, Ato Bisrat Woldehanna has agreed to guarantee 111y debt and l1as allowed me to give his title deed, certified to be 11nattached and 1111e11cu1nberecl by other obligatio11s and bearing serial No. 1 0568 and procured from tl1e \Voreda Gizat as pledge. My debt may be discharged by selli11g at auctio11 tl1e plot adjacent to those of Ri'se Debre Woldeyes' heirs and Ato Wolde Tsadik's heirs a11d bounded by \Voizero Yeshim.e bet Street, and the bu.ildings standing thereo11. Should the proceeds from this be insufficient to meet the debt, tl1e la11d situate at E11toto bequeathed to me by my father Deja.zmatch Metaferia, may also be sold at auction. Upon the maturity of the debt 13 months hence, i.e, frorn Hamle 26, 1952 E.C. to Nehasse 26, 1953 E.C., I ,vill pay back the said $16,000 with $600 interest. The $16,000 was I1anded over to me in my office. Should I fail to repay the money on the said date a 9% per annum rate of interest will run on the principal until I pay it back. I will not raise the defense of limitation of action jf I am not asked to pay it back on the date specified because it will continue to bear interest until such time as I do pay it back.

·'On my part, I, Bisrat Woldehanna have allowed Kegnazmatch Metaferia to give my title deed, bearing serial No. 1 0568 as pledge for 11is loan. In case the debtor fails to discharge his obligation, the creditor Fitawrari Gessesse, may appro priate the proceeds from the sale by at1ction of the land and buildings depicted on the deed (maps)." The creditor, the gt1arantor and tl1e debtor affixed their signat11res to the document. As we said earlier, in tl1c event of a dispute between the guara11tor and ll1e creditor, the consequences of the guarantee are to determi11ed by reference to tl1e contract. According to Art. 1731 the provisions of a contract are binding on the parties as thougl1 they were law. What obligations did tl1e guara11tor asst1i11e t1pon the conclusion of the con tract? He agreed to let the debtor give his immovable property as pledge and in case the debt was not paid off to have tl1e said pledge sold at auction and should that not suffice, then to have the debtor's land sold. The contract is clearly worded and calls for no fttrther comment. Considering that the guarantor was aware of every provision in tl1e contract and signed jt willingly, his obljgations must be determined by the whole agreement, or to put it another way, the contract must b� interpreted by relating one prov.ision to the other as provided by Art. 1736, Civ. C. The contract provides that the guarantor's property given as pledge, wot11d be sold prior to t11e debtor's. Moreover, is it not a general principle of law that property given ,ts pledge be sold before any ot11er property is sold? Be that as it 111ay, the contract specifically provides that the

- 349 �

J·ouRNAL oF ETHIOPIAN LAvV --

VoL.

III - No.

al 1cip or's pri1 debt tl1e to e prop r prio rty. sold be Since the gu ld u sho· ge . l. -ec . p1 a a n_tor, ge, e e ass�1n d I p h . as d . t e given � . obl1?a y ropert tion J1is of s of the· 1 � by virtue _ e pleclge w �thot1t prefe�r 1n� charges �� nc1pa1 tl1 l sel y 1na r dito cre the debtor, a . inst lhe antor r g11a. tl�e loses e, s ca. 111s that In rigl 1 debtor. t tinder\rt. rinc;pal e debtor. e or t tl1 .1 st1 ed cr 1938 e th at tl1 g in 1d a1 1u de of c. v. ti So far we have limited ourselves to a co11sideratio 11 of the contract b e . ween the creditor and debtor. But wha t doe s t11� law say on this point? Art. 1; l Civ. c. reads: ''Where tl1e person 1111�ertal<:1.11� tl1e �arantee_ descri bed him set i( ) as . nt s, va1e ter111 eq111 tl1e used or ito r, cred ebto co-d r may sue lJim joint g11arantor, out previou�Iy demanding payment fron1 tl1e debtor ?r. realizing his securiJ��h,� Subsectio� . (2) of the sa��e �dds: .· "Tb_e re1��ant . �rov1s1ons of t�is chapter sha·ll apply to 1 �1nt guar �! 1tee. �his Article 1s perL111_e1 1t to the contract 1n q�estion: Tbe ntee described ltini,se1,r above Article says where the perso 1 1 underta,k1ng tl1e guara. . . 11_o�it pr�v1011 sly_ demand . vv1t _ i as co-�eb_tor, tl1� ered._1tor may st1e 1111n ng payment . (or br1ng1ng suit against the debtor) or real1z111g 111s secur1t1es." Eve11 if, in ac cordance witl1_ s11bsection_ (1), the guara_ntor assu�11es .an obligation whereby_ he is to be sued w1tl1out previously de111and1ng a11ytl1111g from the debtor, it does not n· 1eant tl1at he must sue the debtor. Rather subsection (2) speaks of tl1er applica ble provisions in the san1e chapter. Tl1:s coulcl be inferred from tl1e word 'besides' (not fot1nd in Englisl1 versio11) in Art. 1933 s11bsectio11 (2) and the phrase "apart from the case me11tioned in Art. 1934'' \.vhich in1ply that the provisions of Art. 1933 subsectio11 (2) are only applicable to tl1ose cases vvl1ich do not come within the purview of subsection (1) of the same article. Since Art. 1933 provides tl1at tl1e creditor 111ay sue tl1e guarantor where the latter described himself as a co-debtor, witl1out previo11sly s11 ing the debt or, the guarantor cannot invoke Art. 1938 a11d de111a11d that the creditor st1e the debtor. Art. 1938 is applicable 011]y i 1 1 tl1e absence of a co11tract that falls under Art. 1933(1). Th.e other argument put forth by the gt1arantor is that the creditor has unila· terally exte11ded tl1e date of pay1n.e11t in favour of tl1e debtor. vVhere both the debtor and guarantor fail to discharge tl1e debt on t11e day of maturity and tl1e date of pay· inent thereby lapses it cannot a. t all be 111ai11tai1 1ed tl1at tl1e creditor l1as extende d the date of payment withot1t the conse11t of tl1 e guara11tor. Nor will the guar antol be released as a result. The ot1 ara11tor is released only \Vhere the creditor allowe the debtor time for _payment �itho11t tl1e crt1 ara11tor's knowledge . Tl1ere is no sueh., thing i n this particular case. The co11trac� says explicitly tl1at this deb t ,vo uldf31�1: '· disch. arged 13 011ths_ la ler a11d goes on to say vvl1at ,vill !1appe11 ·r the debtor :i � xtend· �.e _ . d a n to 11v� u� to .his fixed obl1gat1on. Th11s, the time :for pay111er1t 1s both . There . . 11to ble. ara � It 15 left to the diligence and choice of the debtor a11d gti .f i t 1 . . r pay nen o is· n0 va1 1· ct grour1d for the allegatio11 that ne 11 t . d allowe credi tor the ·e to the de b. or w it1· 1out th guarantor's consent. For z \l the above reasons, the Higl1 Court decision is reversed. Dr. W. Buhagiar, dissentin g: C · . 1 . E,. 952 26, 1 · This case arises out of loan · 1e. 011 Han a art 111to y ente p agre red eme nt t · o between the respon . (n _ dent a1 1d one Keg11az111atcl1 Teklemar1am Metafer1. a :Meta.fe r1a ·n the case) by virtue of 1 r1an en1a Tekl itb �ook which the said Kegnaz111atcl1 w -'ven g1 on loan from the was n responde nt the s11m of E$16,000; t11is loa 1

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- 350 -

BIS.RAT WOLDEI-JANNA V. FITAWRARI MAKONNEN 0ESSESSE

guarantee of tl1e _appellant, Ato B�srat Woldehanna, who deposited rity secu the fo loin the w 1th security the as respondent. In this instru 10568 No. � Deed _ Title Metafer1a Teklemar1am decl�res !hat, in case he fails to Kegn. er, borrow the ent m property mder the said Title Deed, may be sold the loan, the of amount the pay eventual balance may be settled witl1 the proceed.s of sale any that and on aucti in in auction of the property which he inherited from his father Dej. Metaferia in Entoto. The said loan \Vas to be repaid in one year and one month, that is from Hamle 26, 1952 E.C. to Nel1assie 26, 1�53 E.C., together with interest in the amount of E$600. Furtl1emore, it is declared, it' the loan is not repaid in time then the borrowe� was to pay i11terest at tl1e rate of 9 %- On his part, the appellant, Ato Bisrat Woldehanna, as guarantor, agreed that Kegn. Teklemariam Metaferia takes the sajd loan with the security of Title Deed No. 10568 and that the respondent, Fit. Gessesse Makonnen, may �ell the land a11d the premises thereon if and \vben Kegn. Teklemariam Metaferia fails to pay back the loan. Kegn. 1'eklemariam Metaferia failed to repay tl1e loa11 in ti1ne and the appellant gave notice to tl1e respondent t111der Art. 1938 Civ. C. demanding that he sue tl1e principal clebtor, Kegn. Teklemariam Metaferia, within six weeks for the enforcem ent of bis rights. Tl1e respondent failed to take any action within the six weeks and tl1e appellant instituted proceedings in the High Court against the . High Court against the respondent claimi11g that as 110 action was taken against the principal debtor for the recover)' of the loan within the said period of six weeks, the respondent should be held to have forfeited his rigl1t against the appellant, as guarantor. and that the respondent should be ordered to return the Title Deed to him. In the judgment of the Higl1 Court it is stated that the advocates of both parties declared that tl1e plaintiff (appellant: l1ad under the contract of loan, apart from the mortgage of the land, also undertaken to stand as personal guarantor for the repayment of the loan a11d the High Cot1rt held that on the basis of such a personal guarantee the plaintiff (appellant) was entitled under Art. 1938 of the Civ. C. to demand tl1at the defendant (respcndent) sue the borrower, Kegn. Tekle mariam, for the enforcement of his tights. In conclt1sion the High Court tl1en ruled that if the respondent did not s11e the borrower, Kegn. Teklema.riam, within six weeks from the date of that r11ling, for tl� enforcerne11t of his rights, then the appellant would be released of bis liability as personal gt1arantor; provided that any right the defendant may have under a validly created mortgage to him of the appellant's land shall not be -affected fo� failure to bring such action. The appellant is nov1 appeali11g from tl1e said judgment of the High Court on the ground that the High Court was wrorg in law in extending the period of six weeks laid down in Art. 1938 of the Civ. C. Furthem1ore it is argued that the appellant d!d not create a mortgage in favour of the respondent but that the land was given only as security to the responcent. The argument on the part of the respondent is that by virtue of the instrument of loan the appellant became a joint guarantor. Now there are the following matters to be considered in connection with the agreement of loan, that is: (a) Wl1ether under the agreement tl1e appellant became a joint guarantor, and (b) Whether 11nder t]1e agree111ent the appella11t created. a 1nortagage in favour of the respondent as security of the debt. - 351 -

JoUilNAL OF ETlIIOPIA.N LAW -

VoL. III - No. 2

According to tl1e Etl1iopian Civil Code, 1111like s0111e otl1er Codes e _ th e �ew , Civil Code tl1e ch Fren . gu a tl1e like a11d ra11t , Code Civil or is: if· r c Italian kes to be liable jointly with tlJP t n iple, liable only subsidiarily, unless l1e underta e debto . . · �ust be �I e? �ly establ. �l 1ed 11! the ;greerr:1�11t. vVI1ere the gu Tliis u11dertak1ng � ara; 1�n · t 1ary, e t · s1 b b stt 1ty 1 1 1 pos1t1on 1a the 1s tl1at of tl1 e guarant ·· tee is simple, or . s i e11Joys he two that except ad co-debtor a of va11tag that similar to es which are not · · _n (be11ef1ce de disc · �o · · o:f d1sct_1�s . e b e11ef 1t · t:h by a �o-?ebtor� that 1s · enJoyable ussion) Art. 1933 Etl11op:1an C1v. C. and tl1e benefit of d1v1s1on (be11efice de div'1 . io s n ) there wJ1ere are 1nor e gu�1rantors. w - Art. 1951 Etl1iopian Civ. C. • h ere t:h en. tJ1e gua.ra11tor c,1_nnot ��erc1_se these two privil · · · Joint 1s. tl!e g�arantee · eges . : v1s-a-,,1s tl1e creditor but 1n all other respects 11 s pos1t1on 1s d i entical to that of simp]e guarantor. This i s the effect of Art. 1033 of the Ethiopi an Civ. c. ,vhic 'l h after la_ying down that a creditor may _s�1e a. guara �t?r without previous}; demanding paymen_t _from tl1e �ebt?r or reaI1s111g l11s sec11r1_t1�s, goes 011 to say that ''the relevant prov1s1ons of this Cl1 apter shall apply to Joint guarantee. " Thus A.rt. 1938 applies to a joint gt1arantee. Now in. the present case, the appella11t is not, i11 my opi11ioJ1, a joint guarantor but only a sin1ple gi.1 arantor. It is tr11e that in tl1e agree1 nent of loaJ1 he agreed that his property evide11ced by the title de.ed give11 as sect1rity to the lender (respondent) could b · e sold in satisf actio11 of the debt, but tl1is cot1lcl be do11e only "if and ,vlien" the borrower failed to satisfy tl1e debt...\ joint liability implies that each and every person. liable is bou11d to tl1e san1e obligatio11, fLnd u1 tl1e present case the appellant never undertook any obligation to satisfy tl1e debt when the la11d given as security could be sold in satisfactioi1 of ll1e debt. For these reasons I would hold tl1at the appellant was a simple gua.rat1tor and that l1e could under Art. 1938 Civ. C. de1nand the respo11dent to ,t!e to principal debtor \Vithin six weeks for t11e enforce ment of his rigl1ts. But even assuming that the appellant was a joint guarantor, then, for tl1e reasons set 011t above, he could still avail l1imself of tl1e provisions of Art. 1 938. . Now witl1 regard to the ground of appeal tl1 at the I-Iig11 Court was \Vrong in extending the time to six weeks from tl1e elate of tl1e judgme11t witl1in \Vl1ich t�e respondent could sue the principal debtor, I wot1ld l1o]d that tl1e period of six weeks is specifically laid. down by law and st1cl1 period is to ru 11 !ro!11 tJ1 e dal� that the guarantor h .as notified the creditor that I1e sho11ld sue the pr1nc1pa l debto r, the f· -Iigh Cot1rt was wrong in extending such periocl. 11 t th e n1 gr e ee tl1e r ith tinder s regard to the second poi11t ' that i wl1etl1e W . a1 · i v c1 ea r . 111 appellant created a m.ortgage i11 favot1r of tl1e respondent, it JS, n y ve, , 1 t) 1 r 11 oa from the context of the agree1ne11t (whic}1 incide11tall_y is enti�led L �! �� ;,e that n � �ortgag� was cr_ea ted; wl1at the appe!l�nt d1cl �,1s s11�1ply to g!vc e tJiat d ur 1115 _ deed deed of his land 1n security for the loan; tl1e giving up of tl1e title · a 1 ,vith de tse tlie appellant wot1ld not be i11 a position to tr,111sfer, burden or otl1er\v ,ord '' e 1 tJ · . tl1e Ia�d ' t hc gree111ent do�s not mention tl1 e word ''n1ortgage '' ·but only . , g llad been ,,se<.:...t1r1 ,, � ty . Bt_i:i _eve11 assun11ng for tJ1e sa ke of argu111e11t !l1_at t-l 11� ortg a i e d ali d ng e _ C cr�ated, then 1t 1s necessary to 111,1ke refere11cc to tl1e prov1s1011s of the d Art. w1th mortga ges and particularly to Arts. 3090 and 3106 �i,,. _c to ::ble �� .. 3106, a person \¥110 b.as become a guara11tor by n1ortgag1ng lus JO 0 cquires a secure the �e�t of another person is to be assi1 niJated to the person wh� jn1n10a mortgaged immovable. Under Art. 3090, he who acquires a mortgag d

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II \

• BISRAT WOLDEl·IANN A V· F.ITA WRARI MAK ONNEN GESSESSE

vnbl e may, in his rela,tion� �o tl1e n1 ortg <l:g es, a va i l hi?Jself of the rights vested in T f o 1t 1 1 h t f _1e o t · prov1s1ons �. _e C 1v. C. relating to ''C ontracts the by . rantor gua the these prov1s1ons various rights are vested in the guarantor, 11nder No,v ' eral.' Gen . been which l1ave referred to above, that is the benefit of rig�1ts the ularly �rtic �jscussion a nd the right_ of summo�s. to proc�ed u.nder A�t. 19_38. Therefo re accord prov1�1ons the appellan!, 10 this case, being by law mentioned above the to ing acqt11res a who m-:>rtgaged 1mn1.ovable, could avail him person a to ilated assim . r i g l1ts said the self of for the above reasons, I \.Vould allow the appea l and quasl1 the jt1dgment of the High Court and hold tl1at as the respc,ndent failed to take action to sue the principal debtor for the enforcen1ent of his rights withi11 six v1eeks from the date 00 which he was d.emanded to do so by tl1� appellant, tl1e appellant was released from all his obligations a11d the .responder.t should return to him the title deed No. 10568 given as security for the loan.

- 353 -

f11lt.T I il1°1-ff,Jl;:J· : aom(lJ.: : mf,'J° : ao:J, ml1-or,.::1-·,l1 : ·0 ,1..cc; : Om1it\ I hfl I Pflt}h/.\ I fl\ : /.\r.'l:i•-f'i!:t-,l1 : •OdbC : ,n°l : ,,,.. , o.,r.�f). : "h<; : f ro; J':l\�;: : OU�>"}. : ,'h°I : 'I>.., if!l � fmt.�m-c;: ('}tlD-6,"f¾"lD-: �CJ�: : {l.rf-if•: Om1ll\';: : 00 :1,lil,i: t"l1°l : 4,--.. ix:l : UDl)Jl:1-: (lm '}}!/.\ : fllhflti/.\ : ,fl{\(l}- : fJ.t.�--r 1 : n(IIJ•1Afl'1' : 11'i!,f·�m- : 'i!C.e..· : ,1.,1, : f(lma>·'} : �C�; 1 ()OD:J>tD'l° ! }tao/,\t}�: }tfi.,f::J··: l\ff•1,."} : :f•{\u:J•: ill\h'l't.0·: mcl•l\f,: f'}•J•LJ-1: 'l1P1,)·: �Cf.·: Cl. ·1·: ),1Jt.('flD-: flf•.;,; : 1:/\. ·1·: 1'111' : fq,t.{l : ·1-�f, : ',a,.. :: 0

arti� ;:, Jtfi.,f::J�ro-: ,f•hAh/\. 1'/.\ :: 0

ii! nao1a:,.: '11C f ()t;::1·n1 : •Om.(.:: fOIJ.4,cOm- : hil : l),{\:,. : 0,f,',:,. : ',lD• :: J:t'}J.'.�m• f ft 11;1•1 I OIJ,{1:,� : 1\ (11'/flmtl:,, : (l.t.r1: (f<j!,)• - ,11 :;•tl,fhC : dt°l :;,,,.., n:r.�u) : U•l\•l·�: (D•: !!.°IP': fl/I 11:'f·�-l·i : (lc�c.e..· : l\Ot/tltD(lj : fOJJ.,J•C•O : faota,f: : 'll\0.:I·',•)· : (Jll'lflJmt.(' : f�•)•Jt : •0,h,C: 1111 , 'Im- :: (r�:,-,,, = •nt1...c ,n°l = ,fi tf.lfi)

� ! r.e,•: r : onm,,�·: mf ,9°: {ITJ:J•mh : l),/.\1.11.: fCD'})!A s hil : }tf,f../\'l° ::

r ! n.e1 ;t· :

aom(l�� : mf!,9 ° : 011:J·ml1 1 flcl! : ft.r'I : fm1J!A : hfl : l\.•l'C•() : r0i·:;,t,,a,. =1 h1�- : (la>· : OD1}•r : ,)f,':' t.m- : h1 ..(': : :,-er,: 2 m.ecr : hi�- : '1':J•'J° : (\C1'/ l·} ·:,. : n.t.\ : \11\,i\: (Jar: ft.r'ICD-1: f°l/.\: m_e..9°: f,h'll•O aot:.:i•: mf,9° = ,)1 1�: fmt.t.: mf,'1°: fllt: h'}f.lf'� 1 1

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J 7Ip:.1·-- : h&.• '}•rF : �flJllJ" : j!,: -{n'� � 'J°. t}. : ,: °tf11f : i....· : ,,,,. : 1Hrii ,...,._.,.._..,... · h·Y. : :J•f_(l : +ht\ : 1..r--c1.•ll ·I h"f-: ,1·ht\ : hl;'JJ!., : lDf.\f...rt-tJ/t, ::

f.U : ff.1'1:J- : OI/Wh : fW'JlA : hil : ',(D"'" ¾ • • r 1 0Dlf ( '} : DDC'J°l.'i/A ; ho• : ffi:r)•,l 1 : ""fidi. C : ODU')· : 4,c:•f : fOJ'}i!; flf',O,}- : 9°h'J.frf: : ht\1'119° i '11?-1' : t\ 01/•0t-t.:,. : ·11c11c : ct:C� : � ffiT : i'tllt.i\'t : OD flt\� : ;r1,·Y..c; · I:\. ::

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'lw•

Oun&, :,.. : '11C : 0�:'f--, h : ,fl,lt.C: : f "?,,J>C(llD' : t1il : U·/l•) · : '},-., ::

h1S'..li'm• ' hit • ftLU : oot, • , llt\11.•1' : h1 : �� t f,fHtD· ' :, } (1 :'f•',- : f/\UJ-9D ! /\i\}; : ODt\cJ>:,, : 1'1'l'P/:\. : ,{lf\o : l]t\{1:, ',-l•'J : (l{i:C : C , /\"'lllrofl1 = f"t+c11 = foofu--f: : '11\ll»:'f,.'I:,.. : ov',llJmt.e = f (i::,• h = -Oth hll : 'lar ::

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·- 354 -

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0 f> • : l\OJ : "} lfll\c:il,),� ·)· : J!,J-t : 1',? fl},�: '. 1 'l:J_:crc,· : ,, · · � 'l ll • nil f : lD J · l ,. ,J�OJ": f�OlOJ• : (IIJ/o,f' �.ron Y::flT ·•-.e.(JlJAilA� : .roy,cr ho,"} = flfll\f1 · : : OD t.. h h:i• : 1. : nil:i·;,6 : (l.,�via:,- : hf,f: .f.• "! O• lll\lD' : h� : :i6:. O �-� o : f01J.J�1,c�.lD" : r<;::,... ,1 J : f) f,m1 f::I,\"\ f\ -l � : : l 1 : "'1d L C : hil : h• 0 : · lil :,... ,h ,fldLC ,11°1 = "'"· nii.f�iJ. = f··f ,fftJt\h.,1 · : .,(De== n<;: m·9"° i .e,1 OJ', � • M>C : ,l1°1 : 4>� . Q.f�ji : },"},'tU : f,1\1,\ : ) ( /i) (f,:;l..th : fl ''.e,t•;J-- OJ': f,f --ro (lf..flT: lDf,9°: n_e1 ;J--m•: u ,h:,..: f1,�v10:,,: (Im•: f,1, m(lf..n,l· �1c = 1,1-'tODl\ilt\:1, ml!,'J° = f,,, ..,.,.,m, u•hT : J,1-<tm1.r;;l\:,... : 'h1-�,o-9° : ill\.e.. lnfl:i• : ,,...,P,_:,... : Ila"'/t .. : 1,1,'t(l,nro• : {\OD(nf:1,: _e 1":...1t A:: . > f):,... : OJf,']° : Of, 1• / ''i,n•: f hir : ',"I(: : �) · :J· •oJ• : l\f, : U•hir)• : h..-,... flllD' f ( �.,,n,l· : �111 : t,"}il·f-- : 1,ilh : U•l\·)· : '}tTD,), : Y...·t.il : n�cY:: : tit\,nf4' : i:e: = .e,t1roct\� = ft11Jl\:1, = nil , 00, n,1: = t<1,cn:rA 1>/fi• : fI-"' t..(D•"} : hf.t. .l°I : f°1./..q' Y...· : l\C(l• : f"?. Ci1Cl\:,.. : , l1 · E) · 1 ( oo,n:,,: {/Dt;>t;."} : O'i:'i'.,:,•c,· : nw1,e,;.J--OA: °if,',•)· : tiltillP, : 04'C: P,�:,:: ft, -CD(lf.OJ•: '11C : 1,"})t£1D(\{l : aJf,']°: f,f,'11>/m•: U· h1": 1,1J;.m1Y.: : ,.f>•ll\•'' ,el\.A :: 07'� : ,,f l\OJ• : OD/o:,• : n.mn Y::n:,, : mf,'J° , fi(lft"?'C : f,1-1;1,m• : fu, h"1· : ftJJJil:1:1c: .,1C : n.f..Cl°ln:1 .. : cil,f• : f,1•;J.. f .,(De : fOl/..t..OJ• : (lro· : trh t - .: 'h1-'tm1.e.....t\. :,.. : rofi.'1° : f,,...ro (If,.n,1... : fuulo j, : : _e, ,., ;J--OJc : 1, "}.';,ODl\ ilfl1-- n�:,...,,, •n,1L c ,11<1 = n«1>�. n:x@�Il ODv.•1.:,.. f'h;e,.: nil n<;: :,-,h : 11,ILC: OIJq,f.,fl : foil:l:A : o0lf )• : f ;J""tocf' : .,,n, h1f..tLU : fl\lD· : fl,� : nil : ni,:(: f(\(Dc : OD/o•)' : n:,,cn« : ·I·m(l i,n:� : f<P/..IA : (lroc : nil : o_,�,,c,fl: nilc : f)ODt,rf: : i,1f..h(l(l : ,,..<f,'l'C: : UD/orf: : J!,10D,.,... : f)OJ9"rf: : f-��.,.,..,,. : f,n.{t\. ¾ f)OJ9"°,j: : ODlP/.r"J': /-"'t\fl}'J. : flC1I/..&. :,,f..m, : �C�, : fl,·)·: J!, t, ,flil <;:: {/lJ 11 � : fl\fl:,.'J° ::

f,U : hil : filC : fUD/orf: : nil : i',f,..�il'J° : fl,� : hil : .,(D• ¾ ill\11· .v : .,,.. ° UDlo-I: : OD'J ODT : ft\fl:1,9 : °19"°f, : : It IA..-f •OJ(l', ¾ t\.lD(l"} : 0t11/ f, ·I·A : 'i1 C : f"ih&.llm<1 = Pi�'i:,-- h<;:t\g = ni',-'tn • = F., PC'¼1-- ,"/1'1 n,,,...rrc = It ODlPl:,...: Ohmct..jfm�: <;:CY..' : n,:,.. : h(l•1: i't:1,cn : {l?,"} : ltf,lJ'"} : 'hn.1 : 11;1: OD'ifllmc fi.1'1\A fl,� = n fl n1't ·11•n foii100:,-- hJ!,f,.l\9"° • 1,1 i,-L u = ft..(I}« it ii :1:�1, 'i1 c nt, ro·t.. j}' ro· <;:cY...' = n,:,. = ou rr.,. n,"/1"l = flf, m(l"} : '.C: : n:,,cn· : lll\OJ' : fJOJl-�OJ· : �CY..' : n,:,.. : O.;rf, : r•t-71' l\ : nrr� .,nc == f1'� : "}'J''P C : 1'�"} : i'tilODA('l : hr>t7i : n, '.C :_ .,. ... hv17i : t\UD(f"} : hfltr'i = 111,:� : nft : f A4''im• = nilc = nii--oo = cil, 1: = ODn(lil = (n_e c;, = r:rif.. : h(f., : n C : ) : }',J!,h{\ h A 9"° :: rJ!,tl;r : "1 {loo(\ 7i : nfl : n<;::l',h : , fltlL C : ODn(lil : f"1_e,;1:A : ODfl!l fro. = u,l\1..ti = f°1.fL1>cn·:1- = fm1Y:A = nil ',w· 1 ffi.t•; J-- = f1'� = nil = h'P1 ,r : f«f>f : ilc.'¼;1--·:;:.1 : 'ilD' :: i', V."} 'J° : n<;: :,.. ,h : ,flth� C : ,11°I : f;J1 lD�I' : ilt\lf 'i : 11 lf• : 1.. It : fm"} lA hil h:,,cn = nro1iA = f,f·h(ln ro· = (l(D«: m1lA = t\001,.,t--:i, = i',iln=

£,,

= =

- 355 -

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ye.t..•JlJJ•: l,ef...,1\9�''...: J-,f,+a19,, : •l'•lltt�: ll...&...l.,�": Ji;J:I\A:: f1·1 u : a f,

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• · , ,"/;\ 1' 'i f, : · : i' 'l :: (lro· : •flfi•: "l,IL: (lh1··1:: "l,lf,OJ""' a c r : f foot.,:,- : f!,Jl; OJ•'} : f,f-'1,11�t : (t(f) 1 ?/,\ : hV!f.ii'l:1.. : nm11.A : ODh ° e (lfl : tt!!,1•t\9°: tl'/1\·1· = ll. �/\9 ::

�uy..

:: 'J ( :f/\°;' : la> :€.h� : uu:1,ti1,1, : d1°1: 0£D1lA : {IDh(lil : f-t{ll>/\hrf•OJ•: U·i;:J• = (l.. 'l� : 11:J· = .,(JJ.r:::

n+··. ir'": ...r.Y

:,,61i), : ,l1'?: 'P"". ix=t : ((lll/'}9t, : (laJ•: 001),}•: l }f, ° ° 'i l.. ,o� : h1 f.." : :,-.Cc,:: : lD!!,9 : >, 1 r: : T:,,9 : n'ff/a,..,,.,),: (l_"' 1

(li) fro1:e:n.;: :

(u) ft\,I\ nm· flf'lro•1 : fdJA = mf,<r = f,l1·11,o = aa1o,)•: mt�:

:t,1�: flDl..l: lD!!,9 : f. <'tl: 'h'J.f!.(f', : °

(/\) 0°,r,:fm-9° = fl,f\ : i',x.�t--1:,.. = flt\,I\ = ow-- : cil:1. : (l}ftf1,}•): 00'1 01'(! f!,1·•:J... : l\.e : o-h:,• : .rf,l'l : 'h1Y..lf'I : fhil : llfL ,J::J' : ft'PC•(]O:,. : : 0·1111-0 = oD4' 1iJ, = rof,<JD = llltP't-;1. = .e+ 111A = f,l\f.\ ==>> 6

OJ'LU: n,J>...1'C: i.r2: 'h'Jf..,f--Ol'l\h.-J,aJ•: IJD/o•l·: (lfll: (lw•: l\f.,: . fro1-;fA : /\,4'C•fl0:,- : f07..fJ:/lm•: 0°1}•)· : taf,'illD'-:- ll(lmc: U·ll1·: nooOA�'? : hi'l(l ift\,t\a}•'} : (la,,: oo t.:'f-- : f<D�l: <Df,'I° : f..flf: 1'1f..lf}:

nil :

.., {I}• ::

e11:J .. "" : f1ta,,: oo..n:,.. : fl\(JJ•: UDlf.,."} : f'P.lf ltf, : {JD1.0JJt.f: "'/{It.:{: fOIJ..lf'} : lihw·�: "11 : h�: : ff.t..•1ro, : ft\,I\ : (lro« : o0 t,•l· : oolf�"} 1,Y (Dcp : lf', : "fifr> : Ot\,t\ : (llD·•: {J•O+: flODmc/'')n : ltilfl : ff.l..1l1r: '1Alf} : lD1lt\ � : IL'lA : i',f,fl!/;\9° ::

nm1;C1:n�

= {JDq,filiJ» = ;11"1 : 4--Tc = 'i:i: = 'h.1f.,1•ool\h•�m· = m1}:A = f°t'lt\O)•: lD'}]!A : (\OOJPt.,,l•: llilfl : tr�-; .(l. fto: fm11.A: P't•: (\,.IP&-: c �U) 1 (l'f>•·�C: ix.2 : flD1j!t\;;: : (10:,,liliJ» : 'h,'}f.... l--OOl\t1,1•· (D' : ft\.ft : (lOJ' : 0011:,-- = nutr"'1 : Jt(l. = "l' J : oo,o:,- : ft\,l\W«· : ovtf)·1 = l,fm4' = 11"11\ (t{J}c : oo,o:,. : i\.oom+ 9° : Ofhl\ : j}(IJc : 'hl!.: : fllm·"} : ODt,•)· : ftDll ' fCD : 01"} 1 : J!,1 O'J{l(]P{\{l � � :J" ()f. : O.lf1 : 1'4-1--� : �(D• : h1 �fLU f : · : Alf : hil = f'I?.�l'cnro� = O'i::t-,h = rrfl,h..c: ao111 : i',t\tl·1· : 1t1]!- : 11ro,,:A = ti� �/t'J° ::

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;a �lD.. :: l\ t\ :f : ,,,� , r�:f. : (Jllilt."P,' : tit\{JIJ;t,l0·9" : Ot\,,e : f,"J'l.'1 : O,A9° : l , ( ll 'J,•J (}(D• : '},P fi. : '?" ," . '1:� OI/ ft:, f : ] : ��c: f,_°}(}�: i't f\t\9° ¾• �.,�.. : fOTJ, f 1 : 0 A: h 0 r f · r : • (l) : 17i tJ{l }',{1•'1:; : ( 1 ,fl:J· ) " : o-; f iL'l;J1 C: 11°'1.1·t\m• : fltf>•· : f J ; :: : ',lD 11 : r;.va; '°C _;: ,, ' : -. .. .... ,-�� --l·hVJ.li -: - ..f1:J··.e.:-'? i't1"�·u• = 00•n:,. = tif,'f&-·1·· = O,\,t\ = (la>, 1 •0 1.:,.. : 0

r C; =w t\�1! n-m+9°=hil'1=ro1lA

° l.l1;J''l°":f.. : c,·:frn• : Om(), : ,e·1t;<'ft\• i l· 1 J"li'i : hti"li V : · h ml}:1:ro,: mfl1 = itf.\t..m· = flh� = (1�-· : t\f, = c1,:,. = 1J.1C,f"'PA = nOl/t\:1-: �{I}• 1 l}•llT : OJJ.:1-c : fUA : ',aJ• : ,,.,,n!l,t:\ ::

f�A h1"l"1i : OJ()'} : h.f.\&.'l'A : ll�·A.: --l·h•>t"li : mo1 : i',l\/lC,:U•9° : -- : l\f, : ',CD• : :,-4(\"rf..:: fl(l;J : .. O'&,.lJ•:, {'-u ,}• (l , : f t10• = n'rt,1' ft�Cti = 'la>• = n,:t· f1J. &-1--a1• = f°'l.A = 'Ille; ,f---hl>f"li = tt'rc: : t\lP/�l.fJ. = Ot/llt.1, = nJ-tA'l't.119'� = 111-tu nroo, i',rrc = i't'r&./lv1t;r'rt9°: O"'lt\:1-: ,,, Y:'1°9°1: f,ht.h?-: 'Ille! f�A: hr>/7i: Ame: ilTA: +t1Vf7i: --1-- h�h&-: 'lflC I f, iro• = '1Iit!2r: '}. <JO. 'IOC i i'trrc: llf,;J--mc: ,f,f,,f,: ',Of: 1 '1Ii1!.2%: q. '/°. f''l/;\: hv1·0 : i',mCU• i lD,�...rOJ«: i',t.l0 ·""�: n,:,-9° : IP� : :,.. /\t\:f, : h'rC : t\0'1�1.!I..: Ol/ilt.�· : JtA,t-11'9° : f'?/;\ : hvt "ii� : nsru1 : 9°h'J.f:,, : OhC:h� : (l;J--: l\f, : t,'J'C : 1,1�ml7t-... : i',A;J--m ,,, � I .e u = i',u,'J = ri:,, = f ,f·1Pt ..11,1, = P;J-- = ll(JIJ1 1,� 1\1,V.t\ = n,}nnA lll\t\;J'mcf, : h1"l"li<r : f,U : flm(J1 : i't 'l&, : f°'l.h&..h",,.n:,.. : (l;J-- : 0"7"} : 'h,: h'}Pit\ = n,1 -- hhlA = lll\l\lll.q:f = f,f'hl>f"li = ouhf\h,,f = riln�:.--;,r = Th "f1ii : .e.-1,.w- : llt\oo(lh?- i il/\1,LIJ : ,-1,hl>f"li : ou,o:,. : i'tf,'f&..:,,. = O(lm•: 111 l..-,,. : t\no m,,, 9° : 1t ll '1 : f(l ro• : f,ff;J-- : m il� /\ -:,-... , ,-,..4' llJ fl :l-... : /\OT/fl..),. : 1iA:/!ft9° :: {lft1L,u : fmt.v.a,-,.c; = fi'tm·t--1,m·1 = r,:c�.. = n,,7,. = r,:c.r.- noof\mrr = t1ri:,1-,;:ro• : <;:(:..�.. = ,1:, .. = f6-.l.e.m• = fU?.ancn:,-- = ,11;,'f! = s-nn1y:,.. = f/\9° = 1lft"} : it(],rf:;J--ro""} : w•�..:,, : t,�'C1'1'1'� ::

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- 357 -

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SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. 1 BELETE ABERASH'S PETITION Criminal Appeal 216 / 57

•

PropOCity Law - Disturbance of Possession - Distinction Between Civil and Penal Actions - Art. 1149 Civ. C. and Art. 650 P.C.

On o�der from the Imperial C_h�lort refer,ri11g a petition �rom th� judgment of the High Court whrch had reversed tl1e dec1s1011s of the Woreda and AwradJa Courts deciding that there was a proper crinli-9-al action under Art. 650 P.C.

Held: Petitio,1 Dis111issed \ t

(1) There are two types of civil actions inv,olvi11g la.nd, possessory and petitory.

Arts. 1149 and 1206 Civ. C.

(2) Deprivation of possession is not a necessarily a.Iwa1·s a criminal action. (3) Criminal procee,dings n1ay be successflllly insiitu1ed for deprivation of possession wh.en wi,th the intention to procure a profit or benefit the actor encroacl1es on or occupies privai1e la.nds or buildings which ,is the property ,of another or, i11 any other manner inter• .feres wiith the property ·or qt1iet possession of another.

Miazia, 20, 1958 E.C. (April 28, 1966 G.C.); Judges: Afenegus Kitaw Yitateku, Ato Tadesse Tekle Giorgis, Ato Tekle Aregay Walde Tekle: The Supreme Im perial Court was ordered to consider tl1is case pursuant to the petition submitted to the Imperial Chilot by Imet Aberasl1 challengi11g the Higl1 Court's r11ling.

••

This case involves interference with possessio11. We have studied tl1e file and we fail to see why a criminal action rather than a. civil action was institut ed. We have deemed it necessary to give a detailed decisio11 i11 order to elucidate the matter. ·'

Two types of civil actions involving land can be instituted. In one, the plaintiff contends that he rather tl1an the person in possession is the owner. He institutes an action to have his ownersl1ip declared by the court and to have the person i n possessio11 evicted. u vir! by ion In the other, the land either ·was 011ce in the plai11tiff's possess � sio s e s_ pos his of ownership . . . .but was .taken from him ' or is still in his possession, but . or ion ssess 18 be� ng interfered with. He seeks to h ave the land restored to h1 s P? 9 4 1 1 to_ bring an end to the interference. This is tl1e situation prov'ided for in Art. C1v. C. which reads: pas· e hos (l) The_ pos�e�sor or holder who is deprived of l1is possessi on or � 0r the ng thi sessio ?- is interfered with may require the restorati on of the s. age dam cessation of the interference and claim compensation for

- 358 --

1 I

\ i '

BELETE ABERASH' S PETITION

(Z) Tl1e action sl1all b� barre� if it is not brought within one year from the day of the usurpation or interference. (3) The court shall order the restoration of the thing or the cessation of the interference unl�ss t �e d �fendant c �n i;,r �ve fo rthwith and conclusively the _ existence of a right 1n his favo11r JUSt1fy1ng his conduct. It is an accepted principle that a person who claims the ownership of a piece n hi� possession or whose peaceful posses n d Ia e of t ve ri e d is d ! � ? an � nd la of sion is interfered �1th may bring a c1v1l a �t1on ba�ed on Art. 1149 Civ. C. to obtain a cessation of the interference or restorat1011 of l11s land. Where a person institutes tl1is type of possessory action and alleges that he ,vas deprived of l1is possession, it is wrong to order that the value of the land be estim ated, and that court fees be ordered according to this estimate� The case then, ca11not be transferred to any otl1er court on the basis of material jurisdicfion·.Since this case was a possessory action and not a petitory action, the value of the la,nd can 11ot be esti111ated; b11t since the plaintiff becomes responsible for the payment of cot1rt fees, the court fee assessed must represent a reasonable figure, set at a particular dollar level by the court. Then in accordance with Art. 18* of the Civ. Pro. C. of 1965, an action may be brought in the Awradja Court to liti·· · gate the question of possession, but not ownership. If the law l1ad not determined that such urgent actions be brought in the Awradja Court, it would have been mucl1 more efficient to institute these types of action in the nearest Woreda Court. Since the purpose of a possessory action is to restore possession to the rightful possessor, the unsuccessful party in a possessory action may still make a claim on the basis of ownership, unless, of course, l1e is barred by prescription. Peo_ple always bring criminal actions to have something restored because they mistakenly believe that a civil action may not be brought for this purpose. Yet possessory actions have always been traditional in our system and since this is now incroporated in our Civ. C. an action brought 11nder the Penal Code may, often be disn1issed on the ground that the accused has no intention to commit a criminal offence. In fact such decisions are made so often that anyone who brings a criminal actio11 regarding possession of land will have merely wasted his time. '

That is not to say that a person wl10 is deprived of possession of his land may not, upon making a complaint have a criminal action instituted; but it may be instituted only if the requirements of Art. 650 Pen. C. are met. The said article provides as follows : 1. "Whosoever unlawfully, with intent to procure a profit or a benefit, (a) encroaches on or occupies public or private land or buildings, the property of another, or " Ar:t. 18 - C/ai,ri wl1icl1 ca1111ot be expressed in mo11ey. W1thout prejudice to the provisions of A·rt. 15_ (2) and (3), :w here the subJect _matter of _ a suit cannot be expressed in money, such suit shall pe tned by the AwradJa Guezat Court having local jurisdiction.

- 359 �

JouRNAL oF ETI-IJOPIAN LAW - VoL.

III - No. 2

the_ y wi�l1. pr�pert o_ r quie_t pos sess es interfer , i�anner otl1er (b) in any ion tl1 e w1 fin or s1mple imprison another is pt1n 1shable, up o11 con1pla1nt, nient�� l action ma y be brou 11a n1i cri a C. . n. Pe 650 t. Ar i n d te t h o· As indica c against . , e 1e �r w y un l I 1 1 n1 d o , I awfully and With an of ce e p1 e m �o g 'in p) cu oc a person inte nt t c roa y, per e11c pro l 1es s son 011 or occ tipies to enrich hinJself with anoth er per tlie latter's land. son1e prima facie evidenc e But i f the perso11 i11 possession ca11 pro d. uce . 1 o establish his right, he cannot be considered cr1n11naI 11nIess h_e took possessio n of person a11otl1er to an d onge l be d it with the i ntent to help tlie land well aware that himself to another person's property.

)

( I I

I•'

As provided i n Pen. C. Art. 58, a person com111its an offence when he conl mits an unlawful act with full knowledge and i11tent. And as pro\ ided in Pen. C. Art. 650, a person co1nmits an offence \Vhen he e11croaches on another's land knowing that he has no right ove it, but tl1at it belo11�s to another, and intending � to benefit from the ot her person s property. If s11ch 1s not the case only a civil action and not a crin1ina l action can be brought for the restoration o� a thing. 1

Where it is a civil action Art. 1149(3) provi des tl1at ''the court shall order the restoration of the thing or tl1e cessation of the interfere11ce 11nless tl1e defendant can prove forthwith and conclusively tl:e ex iste11ce of a rigl1t i11 his favo11r justifying his conduct," in which case the pl aintiff does not l1ave 111uch of a burden of proof. Where plaintiff proves that h.e paid tle land tax for a year or a number of years before the institution of the suit and t hc.t he exploite d it in his capacity as an owner, the law directs the judge to order the defend ant to restore the land to tl1e plaintiff unless the former can prove fortl1with and conclt1sively the rigl1t on which he based his occupation. As these are urgent 111atters judges mt1st dispose of them wi thout delay.

Arts. 650, 651 and 656 Pen. C. \.\ere cited as tl 1e provisio11s pertinent to the case. Asi de from the fact that no proof was proffered i 11 st1pport of Arts. 651 and 656, it was the public prosecutor w ho ot1ght to have appealed, but as be failed to do so, the case must be co11sidered in ]ight of Art. 650 tinder which a private pro secutor may conduct his own case. Did the defendant, Bitadeg Agegnel111, unlawfully a11d with intent to obtain a profit (benefit) from anotl1er person's property, co111mit an offence? The plaintiff and defendant are neighbours arid the boundari es of their plots of land are continuous. It is a]Ieged that tl1e defend a11t e11croacl1ed on about t�v o metres of the plaintiff's land and const:t1cted a bt1ildi11g. Tl1is allegatio n is denied by the former. No evid ence has been brought forth to prove 1l1at tl1e defendant trespassed int� the pl aintiff's enclosure and constructed buil ing thereo1t. The plaiittiff \Vant� a d 0•1�� d to put a fence along the boundary of ose her lan d bt1t tl1e defenda11t ,vas opp \ w �hat was i n 1953 E.C. and no t a E. C. 7 195 fence was co11s· tructe d until . the defe11dant allegedly shortl. y afterwaurcds· time · the PIain · ti· r�1• put up tl1e fence which ' t hin ll d h� fan:o;n. Moreover, the plaintiff alleged tl1e defe11clru1t built a hou�e0 : the f:� ·· 0 �vid ence was proffere d to sho w that the defendant pulled : uted p ce nor has it been explai ne d di th g e why the pla intiff pu t a fence alon - 360 _;..

(

•

BELETE ADERASI-TS PETITION

known os vh in not is possession i Besides, the _plot wbereo� the � � d. lan of . . e ·ec P�ldin g was cont�ructed 1s at present. The pla1nt 1ff has not establ1sh�d � onclus i�ely . ? ·. hose possession the plot that was alle Bedly encroached upon 1s, 1n addition, 10 fied testi i11 tl1e defendant's favour. have esses witn w nce · tJ1e defe Tlierefore one ca11not penalize the defendant on the ground that she, unlaw it fro1n anotl1er's property, usurped the latter's to benef intent n th i _ w d fully a holding. T herefore the Woreda a11d Awradja C·)urts' decisions are reversed, and. the petition is dismissed becat1se the High Court's rt1ling was not in con.for1nity with the law. This criminal actio11 does not bar any 5ubsequent civil action.

- 361 -

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A�: l)f,CDl\f..· = i1�l\:1.: 1t1,v,:1:1- = fl'l°T : {l"}flf, = ,n:,,t\l\: f"}1lt.,f:: rot.7i: ODlf"} = f 0'l..1 '11 : f 4, L �a r = h"}P,:l·•"}: '11 :.................. ''f,t\/;\::

l I

1-t.f- : JiC0'l 'i'h :. 'l .°lf...vtC.f } : A;f: = ltJ!,mA .,�-- = h0 'J..{l,J: : hrof,ttC' : 'tt /,\ IP/.1'1 : 4>y_--qo : qo :1 J

tt,,Y. = 1=icant;h = n i1..01c,r1 hlJD,·1-- = r1:Xt\ = rllll/,flrf: = nm_e11L!' JtA 0 111: i't9°'1�'i': OCD"}f.."OD•: (lt,,f.. : ,:,,,e/).•: f1°1,.-�Cf"}: (JlJ}1ht\: nh�rf• .. �W": tj::f.f..": 11-r: OD•OJ:'f--: ,,,,:e:00/.:: o

h"f-: ;}f,/r : (}"Jf,._i>/Cf"} : {10D"}°7p,'T: (}(\,P'/,\11}"} ; 6,")•: f,f•�/.'J(lr'}:

Ji..y. = JiC00 'i"h = 'l°lJ!..vtCf'J = hOl/.il+. : hmf,Hc? = i'tA"'11f = ;,c f1·'P'Pft ro--1- ro,A = l\0 7w1c11 = 'l.e.1.,,..:,.• = hcnc = Of,°l'l� = J!,IJ = �c� = lL-1· n4'11'C = 119.r/21 : 0011"1"0 = lD•lt� : f(lmOr} : i'llllf., = f'11/.}{ID{\{tf1'1· �(D• ;:

= n,r�c = 1x:tr/2i = 001-11-n = O{llJ1�ffl' = ro"tt); = aow.t.•1:- = '11� = mf. : h� f•�fD" : �c� : 11:1,: +oofA(a : h:J ... f: O�I\ , t1�,,..�:ro.:, �c� = fl,• r : r

.etJ: f,"1'1�: fcl'/. 'lA'i": °tll+.: f,f,'P'f'/\-;f,"}: llrt\: uo wt.,)·: i'i f."C'l nn:'f --"}: ij:Cf..-: O' P:t,9'°,)· : iii = 4 '1 : i .. u¥91..: '}. 9°. t..C�..,A:: m�'l\f:, f'} 1•1.P: 'l"IF:r•: �Cf.· : 111· =--�CJ;."} =---f�iimaJc : flAc.· : 0'1.ll •-f: : f,J-. 'f''P/\· T1 : OJ•A : ouw1c:,- : h..�·c10 : {l(Dc(l◄ : l\.e : f•J·«,•>fOJ•"}: f,"l,dJ : t,CtJC: (lououcaoc: �lD":� f t-t1',: �f,n•: 'l0lf..."1Cf"}: m(l:J>: ,,.f4'G0<D•: f ih "l: hCtiC: fij::l.,h : 1 n(ll1 , _ l c = m°l = -r-'Pc = tfuio , u\i6ii i iv9 i· 1-V'iE I xv.;;;-: .z �11:§r.ti ·f ,lb ,, 0

� h • ._ TII • 1lD•

:�

,.... ...

� ,,... ....... ...

...., _..• ....,,,.

" ....... ,.. .. -...

. .. -- ,... • . ..

{llJt\h'l· nr1 .-.. � .. ..... � .... • «l>._'PC : f f, : : -,. � .... ..,."..�£'!I!! •1 'i"fl11 f'l°•l· : (lro•: tD·Cil : 'l•Pi� , :J.,,....'PC ... 11£'?.J'k: farc{l: nll}t'}: 1-��: flPJ...UDI\ 111· : llftlf', 1 /\H.IJ ,• f\l} ' hchc , tt01q,n�:,..: fl\:f.m•9°::

- 364-

•

,,,...'l'c = ir2i = ''•or·,. = (l?>:f = t,1 ..e..,.

'·'"'"li : .,,D·'' : f

r: If tLO ) : ', 7'"},,l'.lf -

.,,-.'I'c : In.§f7.i• �t

<P/.IA

= •n:1� = ntr., = i..

: .,OJ« ::

,.,l.�

= f,,1-c;,,,,. .

: fl'I°·l· = 9'• n1,.f ...-,.. : f"7..f..t.1, : fl {11;J·91-:f... :

f,Ac;

: ''(l6f.btl)« : (t.'I°:,.. : f,t..?."'11\• : •l·•fll\lD• : fl,, l... m(l �..:,.. : {l(ll:J"'?'·:;... : I\� : llt\ � •ltt: f•f-.,1�:,- : �-"} ,;J1,?1:f. : ,,.l·&.�OIJ.?J:1... : f-,U'';I\"''' : f<PJ..A: .,a,. . l : : f,"111:,; : lf, h.,tl.tJ"} •fv '11£!1:f, : f,11"1(lm· : fi".f : i',CUDC,"n : fl."1f.,v-1 Cf"J'i : "'I.hi: : OJf,HC: : t,IA°111 : .fU1•:,.. : m«fA : fl'l°,f• : 1..IL : f<P/..&.'1..9° : �ll)« I tl>--'l'C : liL§f ?i't : f<;.:rl",11 : r fl,11-C : ;,,"1 : flh "} f.J·LtJ : ,,P (\OJ« : OJ«t\ : ftf, : ilI\ 'I-fftL : f,f• ',1�:,.. : f:"};,1, ?'°f· : f, &.'I.(Ill ft:- : ilI\OIJ.Ac,· : fr,:,,.)..,I, : -0 ,h. Y C: ih"J : ' •'l'C : tf2i : ''r{lf·f• : (l?J1"• : J',"}J.'.• : r(l:J! : (l(f', : 'l."J\•'j.: : f,f•c;' lfH• : h11-l1''1: �-•11·1,ar: &.l"'7i: ',m« '': ill\CPJ.A: fi,.Cout;n: fl."1Y..u-1c,.r;ci': fOJf,ll�: hA"'/11 : Orf,\ : /..Ir7i: ',ro « : l\"'/1\,,.)• : .,m. ::

O'IILU : 'l"·'PC::f.. : 11:F : fatm(l"} : t,f,,,f.l\'J° � hfl.A'i" : hatJ.flrl· : ii."});... : " « • ,t'l'1:, : Oi·;,Q.91:t: : �'1hA : .fl\W } : f"l1Jlrfl : i,11")':'J;l. '1•-�J!, : fll\ : ""'PC "7111�:,. = f°2.l\m•1 = n�:,-,,, = "fldhc = ,-i, 01 hcf>••'PC = ivirr 1'llh •l' ......... -- ,.. ifitfi = fl\m- 1 n,,�f\,er /\1·1.u l\v•�- = ncnc = ,·,...fl"'IOJJ. flf'I m-; ·=

ifitii : ODOD/,\h;'J.. : f(t&_f,\,;J/;\ ::

= =

·=

f�T"1 flth.C = ,"h°l fl•f>"''PC: ...ivi -� -·ro...< = f"1A y..n,Ji'} r {lt\o0 (Dc(l� fl.,,..1'C : if"Jrl; .... .- .... : f,;Jt- : Yifli:"} : flf �'C.7r' OJ : ill\UDOJ•(l�" : fl f•'i"'I G : (1:,\1\ ; hQA'i: h°trti: : i,."});.. : (l_qo:,.. : l\11tf•fi : °11"1--'i;:r:1:ro c : 1··P,� : n,f>...'PC ifitfi : fl.'i'1C : 1'"} f..H..tJ : f,l\l,\ ; ''ht·l.tJ : fll\f., : fl.I\4.:,. : 'l'"•'r�·-1.. : f,f..[111 l\hrf:r} : ,_..,;,1,9'"f•c; : n,:, . n;::,.:(Dc : (De/A : CDJ!,9° : ,f•;, n.. 9J:{: : 001/.'l.'i' : At\:\'} : frf·&.�"{ID•,1· : .f:-1 ,;11,?J�f- : 1,; f...•·l•mn�I: : lf'la r : f,f•;, n.91� = r;,� = Y-n:i• = h�.<' = flP/.t..?.DDlD" = i, h·f.\ = nhh•f.\ = � m·'' f.,l\.A 11

�

fl/\tLU: f,U: f 'l>... 'PC: iv11•iJ : ,71 �: 'lAc;: OIJ.il:1-= f;Jtr= Y·fl:J .. :fro< }" : h t1•l,\: Ohh-A: outi&..A: hl\'1:f;jj:-; h0t/\ar: f."},fl : f,f·l\f : ,1, ,:,a.91:f. : O;J•O:F UJcftf(l)« = mf,'J° = �I\ : nit""".. :, .. ?t",h.lj: = lL'P'P i\• = f0'l&.. :,,�·l\:fo1• r,ro ,( 'lA'i" = tJ?.(t,f: : hlf.tJ : fll\f, : fOD/\h:1•r,W1; : mcf,\ : ,.,.qJ cD ../\'l> f;\ ::

.,eu : W•l\;l:OJ. : fc/?9'' :

iltn;J·· : CD«(,\ : '1lD' :: (lf'f.tJ : f;J-(1:J: : lD'/,\ : WJ!, 'I° : h;J•O;F : (1�\I\ : lli'f.'4"1 : lD"1,\ : i',,,.y, : t,covr,n : ll''l.e... v1c ,..<'"t : h°7A : ·t111.,r-1: = >, l1·tl•"} I\OIJ.it,f: = /\aJ ,e11� hA11'111 = fl(1 1 ;J· i',Y..•c;il.\ :=

- 365 -

{l<j:Tch :

Y,IJ : f {l(ll ;t- : (D•t\ : 1,�,..- (D• ...,-•• l'a6Cb II,,,,pi 7 t,,.� ,,- : ao t\h,�lD·: {la-,o �

f;,,n;-=

tn.2r�x :

11 : C 11,11, lll'i> ·TC : >\1Y,•l--oo . h. ., , . , a 11J ; U'lJ ,OO u l'a q1,;f "\ l.,,CJ.cl\T u •• •'II, 11(1l ;J .... : �m--·}) O

= _oJ•t\ :�f,9:: {l(ll;t-: n...t-f..t.•1n:'i· = 9°,a'Jf,,.l" = 1lD-: lD·A : lD"il'l' : {l(ll;J"lD" : "' iP . J : f ftPJ.&.'1..9° = it(ll: roY,9": o61bm• /4.A =

n�:,..,11:

= o.qo:,- =

nqo;f. :

•

h.:>,n;1: O:\f\ : 01.._e.., '4 f ...l"" f-l1 : (l (ll;J, . ,,_ .. . ,m ,,c J>A = rnn:1 .9"1 == ¥

:,--c�� :

� •

•fldh{:: ,7,'11: {lcl'�'PC: ii1:2ri·i : ilitil(Il;J--: (L(lrp. ''{l(ll;J"': tJTJll:,•: '11�: lD11: .,,.t-'P'Pf,: tTl/fl;l": fl6LbOJ·: ·l· --<#1 '1!!, --1-- o: : •0ft :J" = �wl ...�'l°I : i','i•{l: h11lt.-f, :f:: t1 'J,c ' ; t\Ol/.mt .OJ -: flf\,l\ro•: OW" = ;.} <!A: �aJ,'' .el\ A ftPJ.t\:,,n:,·- = rof,9° = °IJ!v:J' = r01J.1'ln,1· ro

:..r--�

h.-f,: hC{JD'i'TI : fl°lf.."ICf"} : il,n;:l· : 'lf..l'ifi7•: 1.f·t: fomm": m•/,\: < f/\ : : 1'4,n:,.. : OJ•A : ',ro• : l,1�:: hmttle : /\il(ll;J . . i"cl'flf, .. :f. .f : h1 0l 1-0l:,-. l\f, = il.'l°:,• = f'lll&.?t'J° = 'iOJ": •fll\fl: ,,r.e.1..1m.: hA"'/11 : fl�/\:•: OJ'il.'l': h1S:: :J>A: f/\'J°::

J,OJ.. .,:,.: '!Or i (ltf.lJ : ll;>•O;J!: (D•/A: lDf,9°: h;>•{l:J!: fl�.I\: n--,--�1..1: CD"/A : t1 --r-- : hCOD'i'ti: {\OJf,1·1� : f,AOIJ1I : f(lllJrOJ< : ' },fll,)--: fmt11e: h/AOl/1i : lf 'i 1 }i,·f-. : l,Coot;n : fl°lf.... 0/C ,.<'1: ffl<#>llD": fJi,f·: nC out;tJ : ODlf)-1 : /\f,1.·lD"'i' : 1A?.ro• : h'lA 'i" : htPJ.il.,f: : '11,<;.: (l,qo:,. : (D<C(l• : /\'171 : 'h1F..OI/.lf'J : Oli.. tJ• : {l( l(ll;J--ro• : (D•A : m•{\'}' : f.e..1..1-:,.: CD·A: (lqo:1. : 9°ti1,.<',l· : flt!\ : /\<PJ .. il..,,.f: : tJ1J.. il.:'f .. : /\fl1.. : f�l1•:l..: L'l{ll;f·: {l/\lf'l = Y,tJ = nqo:,.. = n:\f\ = /\.&.?.9 ° = ,1 --J?....1.1a>· ,n:J! nct::1·t1, = ,nm.c = ,71'?: 04'--'rC: 'l,'i': j:\ii};r.: ODU-•l.:'i·: ou;J--r:,--: f,'l'l'Pl:\ ::

nnmro• :

t\�n· :

en.orj;·j::

.,...

C _... ,,.,. .,_ .,....

.,.-, " _... ,-.

0;>-0;r: OJ•/;\: OJf,'J°: h;>-O;J!: {1:.\f\: 01.--F..l.1: m·A: it·f·: liC{JlJ'in= 'l'?f.."-/Cf'} : h1·0l-:f:t:: },ll· t\,;J""CDc'J: (D•(;\ : 01 '}: ffllJ.&.(:{l(l•)·: S'°ti'}f,)-- : f/\9°: :

fn,no:,. :

f{l(ll;J·•(l)<: OJ •/;\: 11'11)•)-- : O:.\f\ : f 0"1.. &.. 'h9°: /tf,lf1: 061° = f(lmlD•, : 1-nl:, .. ro.'l,f� = f\,t--+flf, f/\'f>tf>f l:'i·· oulf�-1: fl'?Ai· f 07.Y•>t,e = m•A:

- 366 -

" n-1-01- = m/!,9° = h,:1 11:F = n�" = n+r.t.1ID' = n ,-,.u = ro•A = f°7.&.c()roc =

tftf.01': :t'IA : flf 'ICD• : 11;: : '/CD• : h 1:� : Otl.U• : CD•A : !t\CD•: f'i•'1 ,.,. : f} IA, fAlf'l :J11A = f�,r,h "nm.c ;,11 = r'Pc n:ixir 1,1J.1..oi,,-,ro• A.Cil9°: fO'f.&.COID': f�·•ltl. : :J>A : frf''lt\ro•: h�A: ,,{l:]!: ',ro•:: ttf.,

tt�f : ;}/!,Ir : 'l'?,,e...v-,cf'J : hit'li: : fOI/.J!..Cti:fro• : r1,c;',f;'J° : htLU· : ti•f"': ttC{/IJ'i'h: CD•/A = h1'ln:,.. : 'J·Ol.:,..: ro•il'r : i'1 t\ : Qt\-- : ;-1.�.il : ti ii : ,:,,co·: ·flfr>: h�+;;=ID': li:CY.": n.,:,..: J11111W•: ht\h°l'l1l: ',m•: 1)(\0r: mf, HC: : J't/A"'/11 : .e°l'l1 : !ll·:'f•"}: ,f-,J>,flt\'l'l '/.\ :: 9°ti'J,,frf:9° : i't·f· : itCOD'i'tJ : hi',{}, j:9° : f1iro- : hh'i',f: : ffl· : ftr'l lD-1 : t\O'/.il1:: (lfl'I' : fOl/.ht\ht\CD• : fA'J° :: i't·f : hCOD'i''n'i' : i',..y.. : ;}J!, tr'J°: (Y,'11'1� : '11!,) : Oit' l;t-9° : 01,'i':°f"f" : i'tJ!,t\fV.'1° : ilt\l'LU : i',·Y.. : i'tC ou'ill : {l(lmw- : 11ll.:°f" : i't·f, : ;}f,l\• : 'l°lJ!..'"ICf"} : f},c;',f; : 'I m· : ,fl(\ 1 f "7�11JmC: i'tf,1'1: ro'9°:;: fh�,f·' ro•: �CY." : r1 :,.. : 'I':,,?°: fllbt\CD": !Hli : ilt\tr�: tPCll'l'l'IA :: V•fl"l'" � t t\lD•Cil : i'til+��t?J··f : ftIJfl)W4"}: 1'Jtl•fl : J-t,f.. : :}!!,tr : 'l'? tl>/Cf"}: t\.h'i:{\--: J!,1'lT'P/.\: 1)(\0J•: mf,1-1e: i',IA"'/11: J!,'?'11: ,(1(\q>f.\:: fH.tJ : tj:CY." : (L:,.. : U-t\,,.l:"}'J° : ro1c;>:f : l:f'I° : i"l.T.'I° : ill\f.. l.;J:rro· : t\"} 1ll"t : tt(l,t-�f.. C : f+J!..l.1lD-'J : lD6ib : IJ•(\,f:'I° : m1'i:}: : oo'n&.f.\ : J!,1fl :f'P/A :: 0

i-ir-. .-.

a.:'i:rrf ................ == m•t\:J''J = r1h&../.\ = lit\ = OIJ �l.l'l =

(D•(r, : OODLJJl.,f:: fOI/ J!,l.,:J : 'lW--: fOIJ.f(l'?i, : ti/.\tr'l : (1,J>(:: (D•(r,: r,,,.titi+ro· = fli't'JJ;'JY.· = n�t\ :11 1\"1" ire: fl.11 f'-'1J.flt.1r:1, 1''111.u = f+titi,1:,)· = :J>f\,)• ,n:1: = c;i:froc

'11- J'tCOD'i''n = 'l°lf."tCf'J'i' roJ?,1re i't/.\01/11 = fl,f ,.'P'Ptr:i• arA h ..y.. : hCoo'i''n : () °1 J!.."ICf"} : t\lDJ!,,., �: i't/.\01/11: i', 'I° 'l �: f(l fl) :f(D•: fl(D•tr: ar ll'r : r,,..� m�T : "},{l l...y..:.16;. : 1, h· lb;J-- {O• : froJ!,He : itIA{TII11 : i't'I° fl v.... : � ID• : 11 t\ "}: &.CJ!..'i'/.\ : :

i\·Y.. : hCOD'i''n : 'l'?f...0/Cf") : ft-fl· : �C7f : . i',�C1° : ()i),J>t.ro·: l\f, : °11: CJA'i': °7.i),f:: ()"}�',:'f·: 0")�: �·,Jt..�: f,,<!.l"l--;f-: 'l·•ltl.: 'Im•: fOIJ.'l llm-: :J1 &.t-"li : l'l/\lf-,:;: fi', ".f·: J-tc,w'i'h: 'l'?f."IC!1 : hh·lb;l"lD•: t\OIJ. flrf:: fl'r..Y..: t\(,,.(l • : 1\h•l\,:J"(D<: fllfOD,,{7: J!,lDlil i t\lDt-7t·: t\.e°l'l:1 : 'lJ!, = fOl/..1'1\ t\tj: : .,(D• :: t\lDJ!,tle : i',t\01/11 : �1'1°'1f ODrf•I\/\� : i',f,•1()m•9" : "fit\·1 : &.C J!..c; f.\ :: /.\:

- 367 -

. (l}cCtr1 : i\111/ llTJ;S!C ; f CDlff CD•"} : 1'} lf ,,(I :

fl h·A : ,,;Ffl� ::

u,tt "l:9'1

m 1 'ff

: .. t,h•A :

r�:��i:1 = u•fl,,1:9° = ro1'r:f, = '1h·A = n\1,•A: ,,eh&../\;<;! t\i\a>-1 : h.l>/ t- : fft-ti:fa1•1 : f,;r h· ::

.�

- 368 -

SUPREME lMPERlAI., COURT Div. IA l�AILU BAGDASARIAN v. ALMAZ AMBAYE Civil Appeal 251 /57 ALMAZ AMBAYE v. HAILU BAGDASARIAN Civjl Appeal 268/57

Successions - Forrn of Will - Joi11t Wills - Art. 858 Civ. C. Coatractt1al Obligations - Special Contracts - Donations - Donation Mortis Causa - Art. 2428 Civ. C. On appe,a.I fron1 a judgment of the High Court granting to the surviving spouse the pro perty of the deceased on tl1e basis of a provision in their contract of marriage. He/cl: Appeal allo,:ved. (1) If several persons make tl1eir �vill by one and the san1e instrument such instrument

shall be ,of no effect.

(2) A clause of a contract made on the occasion of of marriage without any reference to its application a.t death shall be valid. (3) A donation of a contract \Vbereby the dGnor gives some of his property or assumes an obligation with the intention of gratifying the donee. (4) A donation causa mortis is a donation to be carried into effect on the death of

the donor and is subject to provisions regarding �i11s.

Megabit 17, 1958 E.C. (Marcl1 26, l966 G.C.); Judges: Afenegus Kitaw Yitateku, Ato Tadesse Tekle Giorgis, Ato T�kle Aregay Wolde TekJe: The High Court gave a judgment to Teke1npt 30, 1957 E.C. (October 9, 1964 G.C.) in the case of Ato Hailu Bagdasarian v. Woiz. Al11az Ambaye file No. 132/57. Both parties have appealed against that judgment and filed petitions as appeal Nos. 251/57 and. 268/57. The judgment has been re11dered after both appeals have been jointly heard. Woiz. Almaz a11d Ato Hailu have both contended that each is entitled to the property of A11nanak Bagdasarian, the dece:1.sed. Woiz. Almaz claims that her husband, tre deceased, had given her his property by virtue of a contract which they made wliile he was alive, in consideration for the help she had extended him throughout tl.e period of l1is illness; that the dona tjon in the form of a contract of marriage had been signed i11 the presence of the a_uthority of the Munjcipality of Addis AbaJa and witnesses, and had been con fi°1:1ed by the state authority; and that on tl1e basis of this contract, she was entitled to the property of the deceased. . -- 369 -

JOURNAL oF ET11roPIAN LAW - VoL.

III -

No.

d g1·oun the that on ds oonte Armenak the dec n asaria Bagd � Hailu Ato _ _ e e�. h acq that , d dren 11re the e no ch1I had he e � that prop her. \V as 11is brot � _ __ rty from h _ _. �1 r s state C. C1v. that if tl1e of a 844 Art. a that dece er, moth sed llas father and ill W sed tl1 decea that n? h �� d rty� e prop� his it � i1:11er n ves bis close relati will a d t t _ _ he, In property. l11s 1nher1t add1t1on to entitled , 1t is a violation his brother, is . _ of · a11d legator a a for legate C. C1v. the of to 858 sign the same Arts · 2428 and docume11t. Woiz. Almaz Ambaye a11d Ato Armanak Bagdasarian were husband wife. They entered into the contract of � arri� ge on Gt1� 11bot 18, 1954 E.C. in�� presence of the census-taker of the M11n1c1pal1ty of Addis Ababa. They expresse� in tl1�s contract _of marriage tl1at _they had lived as nlan and wife for the previous n1ne years 1n accorda11ce with a customary contract of marriage. The contract made at tl1is time with regard to property reads:

''Though Woiz. Aln1az and I married nine years ago, and thougl1 we lived together for a long _ time, s ince l1er character and the assista11ce she offer ed me testify that she is reliable and praisewortl1y, tl1is contract which includes the the details of my property has bee11 made in order to legalize the contract of marriage and register it with the Municipality. I will give tl1e details of my pro perty within Addis Ababa and other towns : (1) the land and two large buildings and four apart1nents under lease, situated 011 the Haile Sellassie I Ave11ue, (2) the land and a large one-story building and a large house under lease, situated on tl1e Atse Tewodiros Street, (3) tl1e land and two large houses under lease on the Woiz. Wolete-Yohannes Street. (4) the six tl1ousand square metres of land in Gulele, with income, (5) my privately-owned brick factory a11d tannery,

(6) a large villa situated on the above mentioned land, (4),

(7) 1300 sq11are metres of land in Adan1a, upon which is found a grist mill and seven consecutive shops, in addition, 6,000 square meters of unde-veloped land, (8) my two pieces of land within the town of Woliso (Gluon) whicl1 amount to 3, 000 square metres of land and four shops u11der lease, a11d anytl1ing els� that may be acquired through suits and anything u11written in this docun1ent �wing t� forgetfulness-all my property whe ther building or land. witl1out reserving any thing for myself shall be equaily s·h,ared with her; this l1;s bee11 done of1 my own accord.

(9)· all the property which I have listed above is my own private propehrty t a . _ t d . . an o� s1st1 · n� of � hat which was d1v1ded between n1yself and my brothers � . hrch I IDher1ted from Monsie ur Y.aiqob, m y rather. ,vill g ·11·n Thou�h Woiz. Wl 1 · God Almaz she, has if me, not borne a child for . · de �ased bear a c�ild 1� the future, when tbe of rty pro pe the one hal of die us f s, r. e lat shall be inherited n bor by the child already born or by him who may be - 370 -

HAILU BAGDASARIAN V. ALMAZ AMBAYE

_ be the u�iversal legatee. When both of �s �ie, tl1e san1e child shall born, one of us dies, tl1e survivor shall be the universal 1s child a re befo If, ,, Jegate e. Ato Armanak, pre deceased his wife, W)iz. Almaz, withot1t a child having been conceived. After the death of Ato Armanak a suit was instituted in the High Court Ambaye, his wife, a11d A.to Hailu Bagdasarian, his brother. Almaz Wojz. een betw Since this court has already given a ruling under file No. 653 / 56 on appeal, Hc.ilu Ato by made ion co11ten Bagdasarian for the invalidation the to � regard with Ato manak r A: by into enetered �agdasari�n a11d his wife, Woiz. contract the . of we off1c1al, state will not hesitate to consider it. the of presence the in az Aim After the case was rem-anded and heard b! tl1e High Court in accordance with Lhe r11ling given 11nder .file No. 653 / 56, on Tekemt 30, 1957 E.C., the High Court gave a d�cision, ?11 tl1e basis of the cont�act entered int ? by the husband and the wife, against wl11ch tl1e present appeal 1s mooe. Tl1e Judgment of the Supreme Imperial Court is based on close exami11ation of the legal issue raised witl1 respect to the contract made between the ht1sband arrl the wife. The legal argument of the advocate cf Ato Hailu Bagdasarian is based on Arts. 844, 947, 650, 651, 850 and 2428 of the Civ. C. Art. 844 referi11g to ''intestate succession," and Art. 947 to ''liquidator of succession," are not relevant to tl1is case. Also, as Art. 650 states that ''It may be agreed in the contract of 1narriage that one of lhe spouses shall administer the pro perty"' and as Art. 651 provides tl1at ''One of the spouses may freely entrust to his spouse the administration of l1is property or some of his personnal propperty," they are not relevant to the legal arguments pr=sented. Art. 858 Civ. C. states that ''Where several persons make their will ·by one and the same instrument, such instrun1ent shall be of no effect.'' Art. 2428 Civ. C., ''donation mortis causa," states that ''A donation be carried into effect on the death of the donor shall be subject to the provisions regarding wills.'' The appellant has referred to these provis:ons on the ground that the contract made by Ato Armanak Bagdasarian and his wife was to be effective on death. He contends that the contract was void since Art. 2428 provides that the provisions relating to wills apply to such a contract, and Art. 858 states that ''Where several persons make their will by one and the same mstrument, such instrument shall be of no effect.'' The case is not confined within these provisions only. It is necessary to refer to Arts. 683-689, which relate to the Iiq11idation of pecuniary relations between spouses in case of death of one or the spouses. Art. 689, in particular, which is most relevant to the present case. . After discussing the retaking of personal property under Art. 684, and the withdr awal before-hand of common property under Art. 686, the Civil Code under Art. 689 states, with regard to pecuniary relations, in case of the death of one of the spous es, that ''Without prejudice to the provisions of the preceding articles

- 371 -

JouRNAL OF ET1-t101)IAN LA w - Vor.,. III - No. 2 a.1lc.i unless otl1erwise provid�d. in tl1e contract of 1na.rr i. age or in con tr ct va , . concltided between the spot1ses, co111rrto11 property shall be clivided e quai !Y b l1dly etw een ,, spouses.

(

T11erefore, according to Art. 689 spouses may, i11 their contract of m a later n1a·ke provisions contra rriage or j 11 another written. co11tract concluded y ct1ston1 tl1at spo11ses n1arried under a valicl n1arriage must divide thei r coto the m r . mon. property equally. The spouses have conclucled such a contract. . 1"his co11tract is a cont act of r h 1s c�ntract �t t _e n e trn1e h ·1 1· 1· h" 1 t a 1ve. f w o _n1ade donation ma_rriage , Ato Ann . anak Bagdasartan has donated to Wo1z. A.maz, l11s wife, half o:f his private property.

Is the contract of donation disc�11ssed under Ar. t. 2428 Civ. C. a donat ion concluded on account of death?

the ti1ne of the marriage words appear In the contract of don�tion 1nade at no . wh1cb state tl1at the donation. was mad.e on account of death or that it was to be effective after death. Art. 2427 Civ. C., defini11g donation, states that ''A do11ation is a contract whereby a person, the donor, gives some of his property or assun1es an obligation with the inteotio11 of gratifyi.r1g a11otier perso11, the donee." Tl1e co11tract of donation 111ade by Ato Arn1anak Bagdasarian was a contract by whi.�h he gave to tl1e donee some of his property. There are no words which suggest that the donation of tl1e property to Woiz. Aln1az would be effective upon his deatl1. It is trt1e that the contract of donation n1ade on account of death by the spouses to each other, was part of tJe conrtact of donation made at the time of L11e marriage. Ato Armanak ga,,e property to Woiz. Almaz to be exclusively hers, reserved. property for himself and deter111ined to wl1om the property should be bequeathed if one of the spouses dies. Only the part which was intended to be effective after deatl1 should be considered i11 the light of Arts. 2428 and 358 of the Civ. C. since it was only this pa�t of the donation tl1at was n1ade on account of death.

·'

But there is no reason to i r1-validate tl1e contract in which Ato A.nnanak roarthe of ti1ne Bagd. a sarian tJ1e donated half of his property in the co11tract at . rtage. o t; s w which Tl1e contract clearly indicates that i t was a co11tract of donation : h 15 e uish q be effective not after deatl1, but in '\Vhich the donor immediately relin property to the donee. .

of . perty . ro . . . p Even if we say th.at_ the �pouses have a11 equal claim t_ o the t otal lf o f bis

Ato Armanak Bagdasarian, since Ato Arrnanak Bagdasarian donate� ha f heir prop�rty to Woiz. Almaz, his wife, by the contract enacted a! the am� ; ot is }l t dona marr half . . iage, . . . . of the property, ,vhic1·. Ato Arn1anak Bagdas. arian c·v C 1 689 . WIfe, is Just1f1ed as t he sha · Art of bas is of .re of Woiz. Almaz on the b is s a It would not be considered under the provisions regarding wills on the Art. 2428. - 372 -

' ,

HAILU BAGDASAitlAN V. ALMAZ AMBAYE

property ?elongs to Ato Arma11_ak Bagdasa_rian a�d the tl1e of alf 1 1 if s, �r·tiu _ states which that the survivor would inherit 1f one Almaz, tl1e part oiz. W to h �� :e sp ouses d_iec � would be gov�r11 �d by the_ provision of Art. 858 concerning 111 the form of a will according to Art. 2428. 1s this since \VI.11 S, states whicl1 858 Art. that means _ This _tl1at ''Where several persons n1 ake their st1ch instrument shall be of no effect." would instrument, same the and one viill by it. l!overn .., It is or1ly the part of the 1narriage which is of no effect; the part of the arriage whicl1 is of no effect; the part of the cori_tract which is not construed : a will js valid on tl1e basis of Art. 1813 Civ. C. :i: vVe l1a'v·e allowed the a.ppeal of Woiz. Almaz stating the imporpriety of the HigJ1 Cot1rt's decisio11, whicl1 ordered Ato HaillI Bagdasarian to file a new suit vvh�n he alleged tl1at the sl1are of his mother was i11c�uded in the property on wliich Alo Arn1anak contracted. The ground of this decision ,vas that nothing prevents �to Ar111anak from givir1g his property to his w�fe 1t-vhether he received it from his father or motl1er. Ato Armanak and Ato Ha1lu, the appellant, have tlie same father a11d mother; tl1erefore Ato Hailu sl1ould not have co11tended that property donated by Ato A.rtnanak is his 111other's. We have reversed the order of the High Cot1rt since it was based on no grou11d. Secondly, Woiz. Almaz has appealed on tl1e gro1111d that Ato Hailu Bagdasa rian mt1st bear the expenses n1ade �or tl1e administration of the estate. Since both are winning and losing parties according to the jl1dgment of tl1is court, both parties must bear the expenses equally. For all these reasons, we have decided that Woiz .. Aln1az Ambaye is owner of l1alf the property mentiont?d in th� contract agreed upon by Ato Armanak Bagdasaria11 and \Voiz. Almaz Ambaye. But a.s for the property whish Ato Arma11ak Bagdasarian reserved for himself, ,,e ha\'e decided that tl1e proper relatives s.hould inherit·that half of the property. 1·he agreen1ent made by the spouses was a will, and therefore of no· effect; the 1) ropert)1 is transferable to the heir, tl1e appellant; and it sho11ld not be transferred to \Vo:z. Al1naz AI11baye. Both parties s]1al1 bear eqL1alJy the expenses of the ad1ninistration of the estate an.d both parties shall equally bear tl1e court fees. This judgment has been render ed on Megabit l 3, 1958 E.C. in the presence of both parties.

•

Art. 1813 - Partial Invalida,tion. �ere part of the contract is vitiated only that part shall be invalidated unless such invalicf ation affects the essence of the contract. •

- 373 -

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1 -'Plll-: t,1% : P'ltf\ : &,;J-- m•t.t = l\tP/ � ro/9,.1,.-:,,

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- 376.-

}

SU.PREME IMPERlAL. COURT Di11. IA

. .

TEWABECH INQUOSELAS$IE ET AL. v WADAJO YIMER •

Civil Appeal No. 964 / 57 E.C. .

. .

. .,

.. ,tractual obligat io11s-Special ter111s-Ear11es1--Ef feet of no11performance of co,rtract-

inzn1ovable-Art. 18f5 Civ. C., Art. 33 Fetha Negast. ale of ,nar1ce-S perfor Specij�� On appeal fro.m a High Cot1rt judgment granti1g specific performance of sale of an im\\'as paid tipon the c-0nclus.on of the contract. earnest ,vhere vable , , o r,n . • Held: Judgme.nt reveJsed. l. A person ,vho receives earnesit t1pon e11ter :ng i�to a contraot· has a right to cancel receive�. Art. 1885(2) Civ. C. the contract upon repayment of double ,the amount . . . ,. . 2. \Vliere earnest is p�icl upon entering into a. contrae:t . .for the sale of an immovable, specific perfom1ance cannot be granted ,vhere ore ?f ,the parties refuses to perform his obligations; the court n1ay only order the defaulting pa.rty to repay double the earnest received.* 3. A person ,vl10 sells an i.n1movable over which I1e does not have a right of disposition does not have a rjght to cancel the contract of sale on that.grot1nd.

Han1le 10, 1957 E.C. (July 17, 1965 G.C.); Justices-: Afenegus Kitaw Yitateku, Balambaras Tessemma Wondeme11el1, Ato Taddesse · Tekle diorgis: In his state ment of claim Ato Wodajo alleged that Woz. Tewabech had agreed ·fo sell· him· a plot of land coveri11g 800 square meters for $16,000. Accordingly, she received $3,000 earnest and agreed to transfer the ownership, of the land to him when he paid l1er tl:ie bala11ce. Some time later .she sent him a note to the effect that she ·had cl 1anged lier min� and would not sell him the land. 011 the basis of those facts, he requested the High Court to order Woz. Tew

abecl1 to carry 0L1t her obligation under the contract, or, if that proved impossible for some reason ot other; ·to orcler her to repay him double the amount he had _given her as earnest. Later on he amended his claim and asked for the transfer of the land. \Voz. Tewabech adn1itted that sl1e had ei:tered the contract but requested the court to cancel it si11ce her husband \Vas opposed to it and had even threatened to divorce her if the land was sold. Her l1usband, Fita\vrari Lemma, argued that his wife could not enter any contract concerning the laq_d without consulting him tecat1se tl1ey had acquired it after their marriage and owned it jointly. And in the event that it was ofrered for sale, he contended that be had the right of recovery. . For the purposes of this case we 11eed not determine whether this particular piece of Ia11d is the appellants' co1nmon property, .nor need we go into the question o f a wife's right to enter a co11tract concer'l1i11g con1mon property or the spouses' _ right to recovery.

• �ee also Arts. 1776 and 2892 Civ. C., whicl1 ordinarily al.lo,v specific performance of a ontract for tl1e sale of a11 immovable .

- 377 -

•

JotrRNAL oF ETI·IIOPIAN

LA·w - Vor.,. III - No. 2

The sole issue is whether the fi1st appellant received earnest from th re p ave ''I words, the from clear paid is It nt. Woz. responde � Tewabec� sent earnest... _,, in the contract concluded on Yelcc1t1t 29, 1956 E.C. that she d'd $],�OO I receive earnest. The respondent's amende� plea1iin.g, wl1e1:e�11 �e den1anded specific perf o rm C1v1l he t · of Code prov1s1ons tl1e on affect earnes ot n can. t and its c e ance, qu.ences. Article 33 of the Fetha Negast ru11s as follows: ''The fact that th o1f e s er tl1e to lead; const1mn1ation buyer the from of earnest the sale. Th; 11 received shall k eep the earnest .if.the b�yer rescinds tl1e contract, b11t if the seller rescin: ;rt, he must pay the buyer do·uble tl1e amount he received." Thi� article v.:'as _th� source o� our customary la�. and has been in use for a long time, a �d 1s s1m1Iar to Article 1885 �f the C1v1l Code. It provides that, ''Unless otherwise agreed, the party who has given earnest may cancel the contract sttbject to forfeiture of the earnest given by him." ( 1885(1) ). ''Unless otherwise agreed the party who has received earnest may cancel the contract subject to repayment of double the an1ot1nt received by him." ( 1885(2) ).

· In the present case there was nei special agreement regarding the cancellation

of the contract by any one of the parties.

Woz. Tewabech contends that the payment of earnest was nothing more than one of the ter111s of tl1e contract and that cancelling the contract should n.ot entail the repayment of double the amounc sl1e received. Tl1ough she may call it that, she has failed to bring forth any legal argument why the provisio11s on earnest should not be observed.

Ato Wodajo's reqttest for specific perfonnance is disnussed because it conflicts with the pro\1isions on earnest. Si111ilarly, Woz. Tewabech's request for the can cellation of the contract on the repayment of the amount she received is dismissed as grou.ndless. Therefore, the High Court decision is hereby reversed and we order Woz. Tewabech to repay Ato Wodajo dou·Jle the amount sl1e received, i.e., $6,000. The parties shall share the court costs and registration fees, otherwise th ey shall bear their own costs. r

(

•

- 378 -

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n:t

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- 380 -

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n,,...

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'i: ,Y,CO'PA: -f• ..On° : f··J•(t,11ro, : V•vt� : f,tl·c.A:� : iln : ,1 1'1· : P',:J : f-�;. ,t-•l'- 0/1.'I'A• f ,f•'I /1.?1·1 ' r,:�� ' 0. -,, ' h·I·_,,11/1.(D<9" : 11 r,::f : 11 IrA: 0 :q.,1l•: (Lf_./,.OJ: }tf,"Jll9 '1 : ',"}t,.. .-f•"} t llJ,$?.l'JD"}&.,.•>f'f: ,,l'(}Ji,: t\,rf•'\(\lj:: hJ!,'lllOJ•9° : ,,Ot\'PA:: ..: r llh� f•'J ll}« : ii:(CL:1-.. : frf·,),nco• : :1-J\•111 : ;,1;1'e : (Jl1/;\{l : (ltif?lD"-'l° .: A 'P l ti : • t.. m •h :: fl : rf n .. /,\ "?,: /,\ c; i _,7 {lt\lf�: y : 'lA'i' : OIJ.{l ..-f: : rf-,:J•ll··f-(D• : .. 1',?,:'J° : OD")l1'1:1=m•"} : J\,.}�ODlUDC',CD• t ��: (l:-\1\ : P':J : (Df,.OO• : t\OD,1,nt\ : �:,,f.a)• : tl"}P',11 : l1'1:J--r<D•: htTI/ t:_e,�:,- : I\UD<l?l'l:�a>• : nr.--·1: : cJ,•"IW•il:1 .. : OUDOD{lh?-9° : flt\,,P, : frl•h a,1·n 1 : r>iltil!':f- =:PA= fnri.,,�.c:il = 00hl\h.r = 9°llnc = flf,"1'1'5 = q_e. = nh•A: 0 : 'lA'i' '1.1), f: : llP'..� : lDY..{JG• : f-1--ro(t�. : ,;:1�m• : ,., ..,,Ot\ llh� lll\Atf'lll : ,J·'1 : �/0,:r• = f-f--(lmo>•"} : m•vt>, : fMt\ro•tp(l:,-- : 9°h1f:l' : (}f\UD'f?- : OH.LJ : (1 }l •A: frf"(l{OllJ'"} : (D••>f). : �;J,";,f"}9° : �T1� : rf •{lfP/9°,f•"} : 'Jt�"} ,f-�'P/;\ :: c l : flt\ : 't.Oro• ?, 1q:� : f U·�··t : i"ht-tit?11: : ..fl:J! : '1,P, ' 0,1,7· : fl h·A lf'} •Ott , --ht-tit?'l·1 i'lll/.<JDflh,}• = ilfllf �'; = n,-,.u = q_e,-i:t· = flT'/..4'c 0· ·1· : tiCh�i• : llf1.f·tm· : fOIJ.00 m• : ilfllf'l : ,11"1"1 : ll(l&..co• : "l/,\7't; : H(: 1lc.> : �C: : ODCD(l"} : },ilt...'\1. : (loolf� : flH.U : �1C : T"lfi,.,T : f'\:t-=w•"} : ° 1 : : : OD/.UDC"} f 1\ �" r:1- :.,--19 : .v,7r-:,: : hi... .,,;J"JC"} n:,.. :. ih ni� : ,,'} -� 'l"} ll:\i\ : fi,),"l• : ,,,f·l.�1°9° : P,i1'7t: : il'\A,f-ilt11/0i/"}fi,r : lJ"f\--J--�m-c; : y,(l,f• �(l}c : p.,7r:f. : J!,lf .,'J : f<j::f : nchc : (lJcP/� : fOIJ.(lmro• : fOD1 &.."#'£ : ,,l''llb: �m· flft- = 1\� 'it1f.;;:lo◄ = Pi�: = r{l..., ... : ti oo "' = ·1-111t» .,ro• = nOJJfl:,.. = +t\ f.:rflrJ• :: (lfih•t\. : ,,l'/lm• : ,l1,;J'f! : t,il·f·fr:,-9'° : «f''PllD : r--1·-�&.lIJc : .,(De

•

= ..

hml\T = mt.t.. : n&..--1· n.,nlro• : fl&\.D?Pr'f(Dc = ,11°1 : n+ht\.f.\ = m,,e9°= flF;1 = ro.�tJDc = •n:F :.n,1--;10· = mJ!,9° =h1--;11r = ll:\I\ = P';J = rof..oo◄ = n--1· = f(i::I: = hchc = (l •.,.,, = nctJ�. = f°t:J"f ,n,,; = +nt\- = 'lA,; oiil:,-- = OD�hA . fOJJ.&.t.1'm•: nt1..-1-- = nu.,:,. = �c�· : '1:1, : a0lf}. : f+t..?1 m = .,m. t,u•'J '?") : '1.l;�(l, : IfOD'J : 'Jtfl .-i--�F..C : fODP·'t,,r : (}.,j.:.f : P'f.\"}"} : (Lh4ct!..A: fL--1· : hu., .. ),9°: f9°,)"rf-P,.�cn:,- : cl1°1 : (l.,,:1t:1, : ;Jtf."1 : lD'r;l;A:: n,f>•· 'l'C: 1/Iu@� : '}. 9°. ilfl{1rf-c : hCilrI:,,r1 : t,il,,.t-PiY..C : Y..111 : (llDll}lD- : �-1 :ii: 'lI�m•: 1,14>1'" : ,J,'r/\ f ..l·•ft&.ro·: J!,'lllllA:: '

0 :

n,,,.,.: hcil.-1:f'J : 9°l\u0t:;"}"} : l11F,11 : f9°:t--wt-n:I" : ��:,•4'.�'ll.01-- : f'?A: P-,�.,:,... : h'\:1, :: P,0JOD�9'1 : flD'it'I' : {1,, .. : (l(l� : flf)· : t}tJCj,}-"} : 'I! : Pi�.,:,... : °11 : nOD")"·"t'e : ..., ..oi01 ?t" : J,,,rilIP/IP/1· : · ;J--{lrf-Pif:t-t\T :: {l flOD")OJp-1..-), : fOl/.(l •oo◄ : P,?f1• : },fffi(l<f!: f{l,f--.P,f:t.. fl� :: fl'}t\OlJ'f! : P,,S.,:,-- : i'Ol/.,fl<J? : (l9l:f : fOD"}&_•>f'f! : 'J•(}l'b : t\ 11�:,,,l,(1 : _e,:.1�'\/,\ :: fD'f.....oo◄:'t-9° : (l'J rlP : .,"lP'rl: : .,(De ::

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Otl.U9'1 : ODO'.l:'t- : (Lrf• : hCilrf:11 : 9°l,oot;'}"} : (1"'9° ·f ll?tt\o,}- • (14' 'ic,· : fi?D6'P1-- : J!,"ti'J19° : (100'1()/l : (lonJt.°l'I! : �'flJ•l· : 1\f4>11J1"" : flOD - 385 -

1- .."'l'l! : 1,oot-..c � l\fODt--1� : h'}�,, . (l :1"..r.. : �00 J . 1&.•>/'l! : 1'°1"1� : 1t.f1 o JJ.l':C , 7.1>( : fl'¼t\"'/'P. ' P.1�-l' ' <;:C f.• ' fi.,)· : t,!':<h"'/ , i'llA.'i" , "7� �+ ° a TJ • lt �:f'i : f,IJ1' 1- 9° : fou (lt\OJ 1- : nCn(: = lt�il 1:1 "1 g t\OD<;!lY.' : f�(l��:lf'j:hf,��9° :: .a : ,11°1 : 0 " -(l ll\f, f 1 , � ro 'l' •'rC : ft� : hma,w, : f1ur9e : a : n , r.-;::,.,1, : 11,h.C • ,'h"I ' ,'.JC ' l't.�{1,{1 ' J.1,,1.1 ' hili•ff'T : -}htiA-,-w ,... :·:.; fA == n��''' = ..n,,...c = ;,!oi = n,,..�. = 4....' PC = 'hl;f�t .� ..h{th= l;tif >,1�,,.. • ,,.1·• m· == 1, a, 1 = = li'i- = .. c1 = 1;; .. c; r--1:: .. 014 q� :1 , ..t..t .,11,. = f . n �& : = � « ,., 0 --lit{:fi 'r «i'·l ro � .. :, ,:,-n; fA = n;: · 1.e... = !:ii• I c = .. ., • 'i r'IY,01/ � ' = ' = h'} 1 /\ 1: >;,IJ : f, A h11:: lD1Y:'i: it.'},<;.,. :,•: (L:,,: 01,v-119':fi, � m?,'J°: P'CO,f--1 --1: h 1i -- :1 014: rof,9°:h�C(l•: 'l1��ro .. :'/f,°7'::,-- = f,OCJ'i :J (L&..i--oo•: q>;,: film•: : '/ fOl/.'l.'i : ,:1,n;� : 1,1J;!f:!f:ou• : J?,�tn&-cA :: f ;;,n;J! � it&�. ?.?° : q,e,� 7. : -> ! :J = : .. 1 : {tt\;J-0:] i',,n:J /\� u->, ?'l-- ¾ ;,..o:,: : ilt\oY.J'{th,,-)--t\m•: W•m.-}-: olf ilt\;J•fl:F : OD�lil : r+-'I° : '¼J?, �:,-. : ;,,(l;J!?l:.f, : A��:,.. : ft\,i\ l' ;Fro• :ODlf t C1f� : lDil£A :: �-1: "11-- : ll'?A� : l

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+--. i,,.. r5:'f! .......... :Ar,. :Ar,. : f ;,11:F :P'C'},f--1"... : :'I·tJ nA : ilt\ ODlf 'i;F,n• 1 �

(/i) f;1-0;: : P'cq:,.. : f,t-&.'/.{IIJ{l :,, : P'C'¼T : °71'1m·9° : q,e�:,.. n,lf1: f on fi:lil'i' :f.tJ : f01J.. ilt1:, ..t\(D• : OJ•mT: it"} f: : °if,�T = f

.,,n;=ro• :

= = = =

-- '/.OD(D•: Oh"}J.>:: r,l11l"fi: h.1/.\'?ir>T:ODJ>'/,f : {l,r)• (�) ;1,(1:J!: f,f&.. l' t\P'AITJ1 : &,:,-. : lDf.'J° : {l'/J?,D?'i:,-.. : P'C'¼T : (Df,'J° : 1' 1C : AD'/.f: ODo'lT= 11...lf"} = 11;1,n;: = oor,:lil = t...1J.>: = D'/t;:,!ro9 , ° = A� = itll"l'.t1f1• i',f,f.l"l'J°: f,/\A t ht·LtJ'J°: 0:\1\ : ;,..n;: : flll/..&.Cil'1:flD·1: 9°tl1,,frf•fc; : r�:fr o· = 'I'f�t: = h.4>C-O = roi1qro, : nn,,,. : 1·100J.>: = f•fi'J°"lA'i = ��1· - = h'l(l•'J°= 09 °1= '¼f.�:,... = 1'1F.°t•P?- =h+"-'rC = iftf: = 1'llh = ifj?; ODlf�1 HCll� : i--j:A :1 ° "' f . : h�fi': �1 '\1•tU·9 : ff1,t : ll{IIJf._•: f7i9°'?/.\� : ,,v.;;u:--{-: ill\oiz.l a,.:, : : C ?-"} : 0 °7.. 1'1 : "l.lt : (Dcq>, : ,,C'Aflm• : l\'JF.ll'� : �1 �1 - : flP/.ffm« � .(,n ,1 .. = i\ODlf).= h'l>'-I''c = ir�F \ h= �:rm:z. ......... ,..... ... = 1il ..... .... ,.... ..... = ,1•i''i-A i> ' } 0'/f.D'/'f;t. : f·I--f-l1 : ;,-O,- :�l : •D : h.:J"� : fD?1' : l .. llD" : (1(111 &. /'f! � 1'1· i'h : �o r e : flOC/1\:, .. : t\rf"(lmro• : ro•lt>, : f,f--m4>(l•:, .. : � n :,--d1 : ,(1,-lhC . ii,'? : j;fii•r(�) i\c; : 'kl�� : f·f--K'i· : :}>I\:,, : c:;:(!oJ<a :: -- 1" : f, 'i f.D j;f�r(�) fl'/ '/ :,-- : 'lt\P'AffJ'f:l: : frf•'11l : f'/ OIJ'f ou?fc ' t\<;:=):UJ< ' 'P'i" '9"h1,f-'I· • f.rf'iA :: �!��(I:) V'/J!."'14'-'I· 'p1C'¼!� f .�11:F : f"?&.. : ,f•&.� :J'¼ il C P'C .. : �0• 1'. ?'i:, T ll : lJ-c�;r O f,D : 9° 1 : '/ . . � ;J•fl:J: : fl'/ f.Ol/'i:, .. : llltP'AffJLil-. : f°'?f,?.'i : {IIJ(f '/- : f ,f•l;J1tn : 'h't1-ll' .

;i-0:. :

- 386 -

n:1=

= f lJILi'til� ..l··A : h'lX-- = 'J°h1,.<1:,. = i',t\ : t\"'lt\:,• = ovri:lil = .. ;1 , .,. . 0 r'l' f�.!ti 00 .,,nt\. : laf.lf1 : h41f...°7. : : 1 lJ C':1· : 0 · f,lt ' 1''ltl. : A i't:,·:a1•c; : A: f,� :J'f:fOJ• , ;JC : (1. 011 fth1:it:fro• , \?trD1&.."l'l! : 1·�h. : 1?°74-;:J•:,. : P'/;\ b • -- ?° : t\OD4'(lt\_ : i't,f ..f• 0 : . ,.c:1 l\(D' . 0}•1. f 7..i'tfl . il A'J°:: �, : h : f ° ; : i',&. ii9 : /Llllfl11? : roi1'1:1-=ro•1 : f6S:Ol/.1 : f11'J° ih'l·: lit\: ,;J•(l r -- = -= :1·1 1 FC'¼·f f0Dlaflll· = 1·1c11� = flt\oumn:11:fw•'J° : ,:c;n, 1i'ItLU19° : f,;J•(l:J :m·1 : &.i-"li'I:,-: h'l>"' TC: �f% : hilh: jft;': • : llJ . :t-t\tD' c; il ;,, . ) ot h f f hlfllll: (]�I\ : n,�·--TC : �ftr : (/i) q'lt,111/'i.r)•: aJf,'J°: flAOI/S: : flll/.i'til t.A'l·:,. : �1.,;t-9'1· = wf,'J° = r:cq,y..-:;.. 'lt\DD&.?tVJ:fm• : 9°h1.<1,.-,.. : ,;1.- fl;F OJ•1 : ��':-1· : t\..f&.Cfl··)· : hf.Tt\•'J° ::

(i) O'/J!,tfl/'i:,. = 'lt\P'AllJ'i:f = r,,.. �1l = r'/f., 07'i,)· = ,;1 ..n:F = UDifc s fttj:":f•0r = 'P'i = ?'>n1,.r:,- J!.,l.ft:;A

(r) (]AOl/.e-: ,;Jir(l:J:: 'lt\P'AllJ'i:1·• : f.rl•',1l: fAOI/Y...·: ,;Jir(l,r: ODtl'c: -.r r h : •1 : . 1°19'° .-flt\ 1. ;;:t\:: f,U11'1°: °7t\:,. : fl,7,1,: 0,11'?: k:i, : 1-4''lf.,', ) ,.,,: ft;J-Of9':f. : l}•/r : r"·rf...'111•1" : ��;1--91:y.. : 1-'1'0(1)" : ,;J•(l ;r : frrJ!..t.1: 1'11'lf'I = ;i.-n;= m· h0l101l,, ·� = �ell = nr.r1 = f'/f.UJJ'f ..1· : P'C'l:,• : 11.t\OD /J.'A{10c : f1,.e.1.1 : ,;J•fl:-1: : °11 : hoowl,f: : <t:Cil : laf.lf1 : 1'.1 f... : ,7 1,;J'f! : ;111:/! ,1-- fT� = �9f1 = "11:r = roiz.,,rilh1·A our.r-,..1 = fout\h;l•A (i:1'lD" 'J9": fl.(}'"}: f'/f,D"l'iT: flt\P't\llJ'j:f-.: f°7.lD{l'1-:,•: i\f.,lf"} : t\{l,rf•: HUDY,.• -c ' 4>--'f 1,q1i, f°7..4'Cir(l t\UDl.f�. nivxi +1. = �A == _,,..,,_... 0

= =

(\{l,rl' : HUDY: : f7i9°"1Ac;' : ��:f : flll/.t:l'cnm· : fUDti..;J--:,.. : 'I',r,1: : nh'l� ?°ti'J,.r,f,'f = wf.'J° = flt\,�1� = i't�il,f·� ?°h1f,f--1· = 'llD• hl1S: = 9"h1Y·Y..1--: f.rf--fl/r1•9°: h<r'l'C : ivxiJ : 7,ilh: 1.rc:i: 111-t..: rr?i"&..'PA:: --/i) h'lA'i: O?.,il-)• = f1.f...9?/m·: T'i--1�;·;:,�:,.: wi� =---hout;t...,,r : 11,:,.: ou\1o 1lftA I g) Ol'th'J°� : 0Dc;'(D7' : h�·flS: : (JIJmflcl!f : il<t:t.. : ,,.,.. t1oi�r--n:,.: OD<f, {/D'I' : CDf,9° = hi't1C : OD'5't(..:,... :: r) ;J"flrm· : fl'/ f,D?'i:1- : 'lt\FA."1'f1� : f°1f,?i'i: ODl.f.,. : f.rf'l.,;J1mf1T : (l)•i\). : h'll'l.lJ : hr : 'Ji"});. : h'lf.." : 'J°h1 Y·Y.l- = f4'ln1t:,!w.. = 1'.1f..l.f 'I = fl'l>--TC = ivxx = .ODwl:,. rn. ..r = tf ous.., = f7i9'1'?A'i : ��:f : 1'.ilh : E = we = S:l{l·;·f;;ut;..;1--:,-1 = w·i\). = DDilm1· : i'tfll}f(Dc : f,/tA :: 7,1,�.us,u°-: (l.lf1 : ri:lm· : roi+cflro· : t\{l,rf• : ffODf..• : r7isro'?A'i = �cr9f = 1'.1}{ = t\11, ..,.. = hu.,:,.. = flt\FA"1'fl· = ttfloor.r-,..1 = n1- �u : Ylll�A ::

ll'lf,D?'i,r : 'lt\P'AllJ'i:f : ,;J•fl:rm·: flP/f,?.t:; : ',m• : ..l--ir(lt\ ilt\OIJ..(t mar= m"lt).: 'J°i\t'\, : floo{lm:,-: h flt,.C..f: D?tir:,- = i'til�il'L = lf'i: 1'°11:t: 'Pt\U• :: 9

O<i::,"d1 : '11P''r : ilt\ : ,;Jir(l;J! : fi°t'-1l(J)c : 'J°�t..� : i,1-'t lJ : f,1'/A 1 lD'h(JD•"}, f: : .rf-,h'lf,f1 : lD•t\•f.. : ttAi'ttlfoo• : flT'J°'l',1· : hC{l:,,c; :: ,,..,.chn,e91 : lDlf'l : .rf'd1 flf : h .f,1--'P(l•fl : �.� : 1,9°tlfoo•: 9°ilt\ : hAO-- I mhem ilX',t lJ• ¾ lD h.i't,h'l! V• : lDh.,lD'{\•);. : lDh.lD• /t-f... : (1)• fr);.: mJ-, .lD't\•p.: 11hft.1: : mtt.m•{\--Jl. = iJ --· :.: 1,9°�troo• : t\W•/rf.. : ttAl» :: - 387 -

n, \

m>t.:J·•{l..-1-. q>(l,(l : ..-,11,,).·1· : (1)(\,f•: t\•!11,n.: 11,1·,1,nr,.: qu;J··: ticfi--l•a;·: aJhtI'JU·: ..n,,o.t: i',.f(l,J•q>fl ..(I: Wftirl• = l\•(11,n..: ,,,,-un�'�rf•_: ., · 01, /\:i: :: lDl\hh· : t1-t\�OD" : ti� : '11/1,ht\,l/'(JO• : ..-1•119'� f... : OD"}&."i'f :· H') 1· , ,e. h·1- : it9" tu\ : 009" t\h, : "Ip:,. : moo ?.•0th 'P. , hilll- , ��11·0t. ' & . D• ,9 a>.��{l;,,: 1 °'1 : :Jm..h,,·l: = ro,,AP(J : P'Cf:1 = ftff,t:: :)m.t,:, : 00.l\'J': 1&.,,, 'P."i--: H},10/l: 1"6.l.\(O: OJiF,11:: t;':/o: :1-c1-on-9°: 'P'l't\••: l,;!.,.,,-�t.oJ,

= � a»• ·=

ft1cl1:,.. t; = i',fl:,� = m?,r = 1\'i:,... = fU1 = 0?11·· hhco:,.r; = .. •• 1 if. .. 1,1-J;. u,9° : j·�?iro• : hh,·ii,n-: <Bf:'!: hrol\;ll::11 hm;.�-,10:,: : h�A�:; t1A�: AL�1·: <Df.,9°: h'.,7. llrf! : !:i.Ji. •l": w,f!,l}°: .r;;c;,: A:e.: : htt.t\ A"f: : : · : : C i',.f,;,O·: ;J

aio:,.

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° · : : : 1!\:�:cp, : h{}!t.: ncll1 'i" A�: 1,1,�,U,.9 : 'lA: A>ii: {\07. :� {1',Jf.U: U•fl·• : autih/;\: OD" }&..V/'£: ..,..,19°?-; {l rf:: ti(:{l:,.Wc;: /;\�: J-,,,r {11\t\ : ,f!,U',1 : f�l.1 : u1f\:l.. : ,etJ',1- : ,1,"1 : 'l'(t : f,f•;J'l : (tm•: 1,iJ!.. : flJ?J ;t..: '1'1°'1 h..'i': ,-,1'1: OJT : _e.,¥,r11C: h1�..U: .,rtl : ().(11,: ;,•O;J� m •1: tit\ /,.l1,c;: 1P',l, : ti A 1 'l: P'Cf:,.: ft\lD·9°: _f!,l\f,\::

;,n·

'J°ooo; : _etJ�"} : rhal: 'l'(t: rhco:1.. q: 1i9°..(';t,: iil\1--: fl.:1, : .�c = ;.,•n:t= = 1.e..t.,1 = J\"}Y..tf'I<; = rn,---1-- = nu'l:1- = 'll\P'At1J'r1· = _eu1�- = i','} _e_..:

= =

itffJC,,l'ro" = OOD1t..•>t'P. = nh.,A = iu = ;,,n;,-: ,-,11 = '"1' = na0 lf�. hti 'i'I°: ·OliW": OJ «»fi: f(lti1•: }\1.�LP'I: m•'-"l�h:1:m, = 0'1':i• t1,: "Od1>C il1"1: J/.:1 .. = ftO:. .., .. = 110°y_, = f"li?°'?A'i' Pi7f'l· ,11c:n = nt.. 6'DO q,s.,rc = iVe1' .,.,.,.. ..... ,,... '1'(:: 1:vx;r: .... ..-- .-. : ODOJl:1,: fovti..;J·:'f·: OJ•"i�: _en,rfi;J"A

i,u-..;: O�l(lf.\"}:

nc:t,c: (Di\1':

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- 389 -

SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. I SHEWAN GIZAW INGIDA WORQ. v.

NIGATU YilvlER

Civil Appeal No. 1359 /57 E.C. Law of Perso11s - "Teklil" 11a.rriage - "Kttrbn.11" Marriage - Dissolution of M arriage - Arts. 623(2), 571 Civ. C. E cclesistical Law - Dissolutio11 of Religious Mar.riage - Jurisdiction of Ecclesiastical Council - Dec. No. 2 of 1943. On _appeal from a judg��nt of tl1e. I-Iigl1 Court deciding_ by majority that a petition for . 1n the case of a religious marriage sl1ould be subn11tted to tl1e religious authorities divorce (Ecclesisatical Council). FI elcl: Decision affirn1ed (1) A valid "teklil" marriage ca11no,t be dissolvecl by tl1e _provisions of the Civil Code.

(2) Petitions for divorce by a person wl10 l1as entered i11to a religiot1s marriage musi

be referred to the religious at1tl1ori.ties.

(3) Religious autl1orities 11:::ive juris-cliction over their congregations for tl1e dissolution of marriage, ir1ter alia.

Megabit 12, 1958 E.C. (March 21, 1966 G.C.); Judges: Vice Afenegus Tibebu Beyene, Ato Walde Hanna Gebre Kidan, Blatta Demissie Work Age�eh?: Waizaro Shewan Gizaw Ingida Worq, the appella.11t, filed as tl1e original pla1ntift, a suit the High Court, on the ground that she and the responde11t l1a.d children and accumulated great \Vealtl1 dl1ri11g the twenty-six years i11 \Vl1ich tl1ey lived as rrtan and v.1ife, but that divorce should be gra11ted her since tl1ey could 11ot live togelb� r peaceably; that tl1eir property should be partioned bet\veen then1� a11d. tliat 10 particular she should be delivered l1er ow11 private properly brougl1t into th e marr1age. Ato Nigatu Yimer, tl1e respo11dent, and origi11al defendant argt1ed tliat ��o;c; should not be gra.nted to tl1em since their relatio11ship as spouses \Va s conso 1 � �o through H_oly Communion, that the question if tl1e divorce sl1ot1ld be :ef;r�: or e . f raise the Eccles.1ast1cal Council as the partitio11 of property could 11ot be the issue of divorce was resolved. e th . . to , g The pla1nt1ff alleged that tl1eir n1arriage was perforn1ed acco rdin tlieir custom of. the country. The defendant ' however, stated that he couId prove r • Lo d's 1e t1 . . . k of . marriage was performe� . .._ thro·ugh_ Holy Comm l1111on as tl1ey partoo ily fam tlle Suppe! through t�e family _ council. As a result. t�e case was r�ferred to s e of su i the t iba council. The family council returned it to tl1e High Court stati ng s thus llle Holy Communion should be resolved by the court; the arguroen� w: d the n res�m�d- The defendant called three priests wl10 witnessed tbat the o f r s: f o e con plaintiff partook of the Lord's Sup tlJe per. One of the three was 390. .

.--:7

Sl·IEWAN GIZAW lNGIDA \1/0TIQ V. NIGATU YIMER 1ey confirmed the date a11d place; Tekemt, 1939 E.C. in St. George's TJ t. dan reo �po uses. v.-:ere blessed by Memhre Yirgi.1, their con The sha. Menage of cli J�ur e or· that t11ey · the spouses, 1.e. pla1nt1ff and defendant, partook of the Lord's · fess ' t. at t, t11e d en an 1. y 1nv h em 1te re t • d the clergyman officiating • ag 111 Jo r ei tJi by per of tl1e Lord's Supper to lunch with them. In addition, one of the ment sacra Su;he t arc: 1deaco n at tl1at ,time, testified that, alleged ,t}1at he .was ;tl1e who aWI_ tn<>sses . . d th e1r des1re to i:artake of t�e Lord's Supper, he told expresse l�usb�nd the Wilen and present exp:ess be l1er sh?t�ld wife his tJ1at hinl . desire; that she was present orclered 11e tl1at tl1e w1ll1ng11ess; priests to hold a mass and that her essed expr nd . er 's pp rd e Su th Lo of ok rto pa n the y �e Since the plai11tiff did not raise a defence on tl1e issue of tl1e Lord's Supper, ordered by 1najority that the 111e High Court, as the cot1rt of origi11al jurisj:ction, ch11rch autl1orities should resolve tl1e issue of di,1 orce. The mi11ority, l1owever, 11ot basi11g its opit1io11 on tl1e law but on the testimony of the \-Vitnesses concerning tl1e Holy Co1nmunion and the taking of the Lord's Supper, suggested tl1at the 111atter be referred to the family council. No\v tl1at \Ve have briefly explained the circumstances surrounding the dispute, before disc11ssing the law we ,viii consider tl1e testimony of both parties witnesses' "·itJ1 reference to the holy con1munion. As t11e <lefenda11t's witnesses testified botl1 contesti11g parties partook of the Lord's Supper. Since tl1e witnesses are relig.ous fatl1ers who officiated over the n1ass and the giving of the sacrament of tl1e Lord's Supper, there exists no valid reason for non a cceptance of the testin1ony. 011 the· contrary, since tl1e plaintiff did not reb11t it, we have accepted the \rord.s of the witnesses as to tl1e fulfillme11t of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. At tl1is jw1cture we would like to a11alyz� the relationship between a ''teklil'' n1arriage (church marriage) and the partaking of tl1e Lord's S11pper. Tl1ough ''teklil'' marriage is tl1e cornest), ne for the covenant of a religious 1narriage, the perfection of the covenant is tl1e partaking of tl1e Lord's Supper. However, since ''teklil'' marriage applies only to virgins, and not to persons who have had sexual relationship. When all wl10 b.ave been m-arried under customary 1::iw \vhich is not within the scope of hol) communion, partake of the Lord's Supper after repe11tance and the remission of sin, there can be no doubt tllat they have fulfilled spiritual marriage and compliecl with religious practices and laws. Title XIII. of ti1e Fetha Negast reads: . . . '' mJl· f..OA� : t9°P';J : t'? tl.'h: OJJf: Y,h,f:: }t'}°f_.(JDc : h111: 't,!!,f..Af1: ODit,,nil: m·t,,f: : t\ht\: P' ;J : h°llt'h� : WY-.C1D• : hn·c:: ni,1rf"11 : _eODhC: ,fl}t(l, : ��il : :,,�OD : m'iil1'i : nil:,.. : w_earf--_e: l,'J°1·J"}rf•: /J'l'�: f,'lA ::'':� m},9°1f: _f,.-flAt: 1,'1°111+: The translation is ''He who, without being prepared or without having an understanding, partakes of tl1e Lord's Supper has sinned against His flesh and blood. Therefore, any person must examine and prepare himself. Then let him partake of the flesh and blood of the Lord.': Thus, we observe that there is no difference between the ''tek]il'' marriage ard the religious marriage performed through holy communion. \,r,

,n..

The_ original G'ez Js contained in this versi-on o: the judgment as it is a translation from a Judgment originally written in Amharic which also contained these Ge'ez portions.

- 391 -

Jou1tNAL

ETI-IIOPIAN

LAW - VoL.

Ill -

No. 2

If it has been confir111ed t11at the sacra1nent of the Lord's Supper h d b�en the Between differe11ce "teldil'' no is there if and marriag fulfilled e and th: fu _ roent of the sacram�nt of t�e L� rd's �11pper, ,vluch t_he_ spo11se s did, havin ]fill on rega to tl?s �1th 1nt o p_ 1s at l . rcl issue, explanation � th � we � cluded � il w _ now . t r t� ew C .:v�l Code was issued, it the legal 1ss�e. Up_ to _the time ill wl1icl1 the 11 is well known that 1n Eth1op1a, whetl1er 011 secular or religious matters, it was the 1 aw applied been l1ad whicl1 Negast for known the Feth.a many book centuries as the . ma1or source of 1aw.

t )

The Fetha. Negast is also a source and foundation ofi the Civil Code. In th Proclamation. promulgat�ng th_e �ivil Code, His In1pe�_·i�l Majesty has confinne� the fact th �t even _today 1t retains its p�st glory and pos1t1 �n._ In the introduction to the Nega1·1 � Gaze,a, �?- 2 of 1960 wh1 �� approved tl1e _ C1_ v1l Code, He stated that , 'In preparing the C1v1l _Code, the Cod 1£1ca.t1on Com°:1ss1�11 convened by Us and whose work We ha�e directed has constantly b_or11e 1n m111d the special require ments of Our Empire and of Our beloved st1b3ects and l1as beei1 inspired in its labour's by the genit1s of Ethiopian legal traditio11s and institutions as revealed by the ancient and venerable Fetlza Negast." It is know11 tl1at the Fetha Negast is the one in which are dogmatized, i11 particu'lar, the practices and meditations ( qenona) of the Ethiopian Ortl1odox faith, which is the state religion, and whicli is, and will be, the ecclesiastical la,v. Since it is fundamental law compiled by 318 scholars from the Old a11d the New Testaments and scholarly writi11gs, there can be no dot1bt as to it.s being a permanent and sacred Ia,v in the past, for the present and in the future.

(

The reasoning bel1ind our discussion of the J?etl1a Negast is because we b elieve that to go to the original source n1ay help clear up the matter in order to explain the jurisdiction of the Ethiopian Cht1rch over spouses \vho are united by an ecclesisatical marriage or who have tinder gone the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. As can be seen fron1 the practice observed up to the invasion by the enemy, it is known that the Church had a share in exercising jurisdiction not only over spiritual but also over temporal spheres; that scholars were present in courts and pinpointed the references of the Fetha Negast; that they read and interpreted the principles of the Fethc1 Negast according to the types of causes; tl1at ll1ey were the engineers and executors of judgn1er1ts; that in addition. they heard temporal :ases including purely criminal cases co1nmitted withi11 tl1e confi11ement of parishe-nts where the Christian faith was propagated. Eve11 today, tl1011gh not to the exte as in the past, monasteries still retain jurisdictior1.

This is not based on custom but on the law of the ve11erable Fet/7a eg_�� cited above. For more explanation, concer11ing the power of judges the fo1 owi passage appears in title XLIII, chapter I.:

h,::

: ID t.;J-,h. ii : m-h1: : ll..,. : ti u ,;:,. ' lDlD• h•I: ' ll..,. ' AA ti:i• ' h (IJ• '. T/\W-9' : h00-1 : aJlflJ!,9' : vr1,1:ll' ni1+ : �:,-.'" h·� : Ill\ . �,,. : h9°1troo- : (lw-{l,,- : OD'}(}� : h9°iltJ'i'"'1� : hllf:A9'1 : /\111,1- : {D�-tl t: � �:J-di.il : i·AtJJc : (Dch,f: : O��"Z : "1°1 : m�'l'l,1· : · · · · poJ,;, lit-lb1 : H1'10lt : ltU1 12'' (ID• :

- 392 -

)

►

SI-IEWAN GIZAW lNGIDA WORQ V. NIGATU YIMER

)

den (ze�ibe) mean.i?g is: ''It is the high priest who hi a11d � (netela) al liter _ Its Justice;_ he 1s the �rchb1shop or the bishop; or he is the der re1 to right ? bas the author1zed and tra1ned by prtests who have the right to be judges tive senta p everyone to justice in render ''chilot.'' The office of the to able be may re ;;at be ent�l one originat�ng from ancient times. He who becomes a fundam a is �idge (priestly) class, educated not the from other classes." fron1 be must e }udg \Ve have made the citation brief in order not to lengthen the matter; but in t!Je title i;ited is contained a ha.sic and clear explanation at Jegnth. Thus, it is not difficult to ascertain and understand the fact that the church bas jtirisdiction over ecclesiast�cal marri�ges. Based o� � he t �aditional law, Art. 10 of Decree No. 2 of 1943, which establishes the adm1rustrat1ve regulations of the Church, it stated as follows: The Church has-a private jurisdiction over the congre gation under w �ich is can deal witl1 the member by way of confession and inflict penalties. Also 1 � �as powe� _over the c !ergy who are m ��bers of its h �us�h�ld: to keep peace by sp1r1tual n1on1t1ons. But 1n the matter of c1v1l (temporal) 1unsd1ct1on, the judges appointed by tl1e government s h. :tll guard and maintain order. The Ecclesiastical Co11ncil may propose men whc are capable of (temporal) civil juris diction, but they shall be appointed b.y tbe Emperor." H we give an extensive interpretation to the general wording that, ''The Church has a private jurisdiction over the congregation under which it can deal with the members by way of con fession and ihflict penalties,'' is there any reason to exclude ecclesiastical marriages from this? If we regard it as secular matte;, what interpretation can we give to the statement that ''The Ecclesiastical Council may propose men who are capable of (temporal) civil jurisdiction, but they slnll be appointed by the Emperor?'' And for what office does it propose them? If we examine it closely, we are aware of the fact that it is not only priests and deacons who serve the Cl1urch, but also administrators and members of the Ecclesiastical Council appointed by the Emperor. Similarly, there are persons who exercise temporal jurisdiction as administrators and judges in monasteries and great churches.

Since this fact has been established through the right procedure based on the law, it can help us to realize tl1at the Ch11rcJJ still retains its spiritual jurisdiction. Even if we examine other views, there can be no doubt that it is a paradox to state that the family arbitrators sho11ld di5solve the eternal, religious marriage performed by religious authorities, who are the followers of the Apostles to whom the divine power was granted that ''All tl1at you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven." If we take another example and look a: it from a different angle, we have a decree by which His Imperial Majesty, Haile Sellassie I, whose fundamental _ prmcip le jt is to confer honor and freedom upon different religions, empowering the Qadi Council to hear when disputes arise concerning marriage and divorce, succession and all the like among his subjects who adhere to the Muslim faith. We have no other view except to say that the same rights given in this decree are gran ted to tl1e Ethiopian Ch11rch.

We have gone into the matter to this �xtent in order to clear up any mis uoderst-andings, for similar cases which will more than likely arise in the future. We will now consider Art. 623 (2) ofi the inev Civil Code which states that ''The annulment of a religious marriage ordered b? the religious authorities shall only - 393 -

JouRNAT., oF ET1-1101) JAN LAW - Vor_.

III - No. 2

Art. I divorce. ' ,, 671(3) it for n grot1nd ' is i; stat serious t ed a tute th a There . consw. . .· e h a r1ag en w 1nar rce ' . 1s divo tr con of se cat1 d acte tis serio acc a o 1 d to the 11ull declare,<l by bee11 tl�e has religion reljgiou a s of ies atitllorfti��, f0��alit . not be referred to rel1g1ous at1thorities · !hus, •r it is felt that the case should wh 1 c ;he effect of the forceful ,vords, ''\\ hen a n1arriage contracte l ac�orct·at Will be formilities of a religion has been declared 11t1ll by _ the religiotis authoriti�;?�,0 the contention submitted 011 tl1e part o� tl1e oppos,�e pa rty, Art. 662(1) and ?T�e 1� ffere11 marr of d �orrectnes iage tl1e � t �-) � n ce_ r en1o� VI, stat_ e s ies a d tlle i chapter 0s P regarcl to w1tl1 tl1e view d1fferen. t d1solut1011 of marr·1 sibility of forming a ages. of tl1e d.issolution of marriage. In rea . This indicates tl1e consequences . . 1ty 1 h. as 110 e:ff'·ect on tl1e partition of pro marriage ceremon1es since a difference. in pertv . . . 1y d'1ssolved , the contentio� or on other c�nd1tio_ns aft�r marnage 11a_s .bee11 c.1e r··1�1te that a case 1nvolv1ng divorce of a rel1g1ot1s marr1a.ge sl1ot1ld not be referre d t religious authorities !s not a satisfactory one. -�therwise, the condition for tli� dissolution of a marr1age perfonned under a rel1g1ous cere111ony would not have been provided for in the cited chapter, u11de.r Art. 671. Besides, as has already been stated, if tl1ere were no differences between the marriages, a11d if the new Civil Code laid down a general prit 1ciple, persons w:ho adl1ere to tl1e 1'Iuslin1 faith ,vould not go to, and a.rgue before, tl1e Shar .ia Court. For all these reasons, whetl1er according to the law or according to the judg rnent of conscience. since it is proper and legal for divorce of religious marriages to be resolved by religious authorities, having affirmed the order give11 by the majority-opinio11 of the High Court, \Ve l1ave dismissed the appeal. Each shall bea.r their respective expenses. Let a copy of the decision be sent to the High Cot1rt so tl1at it may know tl1at its decision l1as been affirmed and. execute it in accordance with tl1e decision. This d.ecisio11 has been delivered by majority . One of! the judges has disse11ted. Vice Afenegus Tibebt1 Beye11e, dissenting: I, the presiding justice, have dissented fu-om the majority opi11ion given by the second and third justices in this case; my opinion is as follows:

The appellant instituted suit in the Higl1 Court under file No. 207 / 56 on the ground that she and the respondent lived as spouses for t\venty-six )'ears; ll1at children had been born of the 11nion; that they accun1ulated great \Vealth; btit tha� si11ce he wronged lier, they shot1ld be divorced and tha.t tl1eir property should b partitioned between them. The responden t, in his statement of defe11se contended tl1at, since tJJe�� marriage was performed under the sacrame11t it cduld 11ot be dissoJ,,ed tinless 1 tl1 e tliat \Vas so. decided by religious C. Civ. 671 Art. authorities of tl1� basis on . rce· and . . ·1ssue _of the J?a·rt1t1on of property did not arise 11nless tl1ere was a .divo that, if she wished, she could st1e him before the Ecclesiastical Cotincil. . or acc d med . . The PIaint1'ff, however, alleged that their marriage l1ad been pe�· for · e denied ng to the custom s � Sin e of ent . the sac cou ra11 ntr 1 y, and 11o t under the � h , s o : w sse hat they_ partook of the Lord witn e called tlire 's Supper defendant the gave teSlimony that the co t1ple h a d act�ally partaken. tWO e e oth r One. of the Wt· tnesses was th d an dant, l the cor1fessor of the defen d .\Vere priests . he y e th t in St. George's Church of Menagesh Tl1ey testified tha a. 394 -

SJ:fBWAN GIZAW lNGIDA. WOJ.Q V. NIGATU YIMER

the sacrament of the Lord's Supper for . the appellant and r1ned perfo · the and mass , a res_po.ndent. The plain tiff alleged that, although the defendant called witnesses who gave t lhe sacr ament !he case s�ould be heard by the � amily arbi abot1_ mony testi � _ _ their _ prov1s o� of_ the to Art. 662 C1v. C. wh ich discusses the 1ng accor � since, � tors . tra _ d' oltition of marr.1a ges, there Is no d1st111ct1or1 between the di ssolution of different t)�;:s of ma :riag�s; th at she tl1e plaintiff, l1ad no otl1er defense and �hat a decision should_ be give� In her · fa v. or. Th� d.efendant, h?wever, conteD:de� that the Eccle siastical Council should hear tl1e case on tl1e basis of the law be .cited. Jn its 1najority opinion tl1e court ordered that they s11ot1ld refer the matter to cliurch at1thoriti es and argue 011 the dissolutio1 or validity of their marria.ge on the crround that, a.ccordi11g to Art. 662 Civ. C., the dissolution of marriages and its �onsequences are uniforn1; tha t local elders 111 ay not order the dissolution of mar riages concluded llnder the sacrament; tl1at, on the basis of i ts examination Art. 671 Civ. C. , says a religiot1s m a rriage ma.y be dissolved only if it is declared invalid by reJjgious at1tl1orities, and that the circumstances su.rrounding the dissoluti on of n1nrri ages .may be reviewed only by religious authorities. The minority opinion, however, was delivered on the ground. that the testimony itself gi,r en concerning the sacra111ent was inadequate, not on the ground that the parties shot1ld not refer the case to chl1rch authorities. The appellan t l1as lodged this appeal on factual and legal grounds. She has pleaded that, in point of fa ct, the dee.is.ion of the High Court confirming their partaking of the Lord's Supper sl1ould be rever,ed on the ground that the testimony given to prove tl1e perfom1ance of the sacrament was inadequate; that, in point of law, if the court accepted that tl1ey partook of the Lord's St1pper, there should be no difference witl1 refere11ce to divorce, and that their case should not, there fore, be remitted to the Ecclesiastical Council The respo.nde11t, · on tl1e otl1er hand, has contended that _the decision of the High Court sl1ot1ld be affir1ned.. on. the grot1nd that it was legal. We have examined the files. The three priests gave tl1eir testimonies that they (the spouses) expressed tl1eir _wish to partake of the Lord's Supper sorpetimes after their marriage a.nd tha t they did so after being i11troduced by their confessor. Bt1t tl1e appellant did not call defense witnessts to rebut the testimonies given by the witnesses of the defendant. Therefore, all three of us have concurred and affir n1ed the decision of tl1e High Court, that tl1e husband and wife were t1nited lhrough I1oly co1U1nunion on the grot1nd that tl1ere is no reason to reverse i t. · The legal grou11d for tl1e prese11 t appeal concern� not only the. present parties but ma ny otl1ers as well; co11te11tions based on this ground will arise from time to time. Therefo re, it was necessary to reach a decision after clarifying and analyzing the law an d writing on· tt in deta il. All tl1ree . of us consulted among ourselves ?Y _examining every provision of the law relevant to this case. But since we J �sti ces disagreed on the interpretation of tl-c law I, the presiding justice, have · diss�n ted on the grot1nd tl1at the j11risdiction to give decision was vested in the f� mil y arbitrators. The second a nd third justices, however, held that the conten tJon of divorce sho11ld be resolved by tl1e Ecclesiastical· Council. My opinion is the following: - 395 -

J ouRNAL oF Er1110P1AN L.A'N - VoL. Ill - No. 2 Whenever questions of divorce arose between spouses who n1 arried a . ccor d�n sio11 by tl1e inva 1 e1 tl1e re befo emy ting exis law ry y oma (Ital cust ), or accord m g to · · 1ng the sacr · ge ceremony, or on1Y bY rece1v g to the eccles1· ast·1caI m_arr1a ame · spou ses between wl1 arose q�est1ons 0 ft, r partook whenever such � of of the �rd s _ _ Supper af!er _marriage, there can be no dot1bt �hat th.�y yre�e _heard and de I e d ercise e of the whe11 �ourts. But x tl 1ur1sd1ct1o i� eccles1ast1c�l n was distr by ed u_ � government u11der branches of tl1e tl 1 e various the among modern actmin·1 t system, tl1e administrative law of the Cl1urcl1 was pt1blished in the �:�tiv� Gazeta Art 10 of Decree No. 2 of 1943, the clecree establishing regulatio .srl( ns or the administration of the Church, reads as follo,vs : Legal Ji,risdictio1·z

''The <?hurch l1 a.s a private jurisdiction o_\'er the �on�regation under "'hich it can deal with the members by way of confession. and. 111fl1ct penalties. Also it has the power �f . order ov�� the cler�y who are men1 �e�s of its household, to keep peace by sp1r1tual mon1t1ons. But 1n thei matter of c1v1l (temporal) jurisdiction the judges appointed by the gover11n1ent shall guard and n1ai11tain order. The E�cle siastical Council may propose n1en wl10 are capable of (temporal) civil jurisdiction, but they shall be appointed by the Emperor." On this basis, tl1e Church adn1 .inisters over its congregation b y imposi n g upon them spiritual penalties such as prayers, fasts, meditations, the giving of aln1s and other sin1ilar spiritual penalties and by providi11 g the1n with spiritual monitions and guidance. In my view the law does not empower it to hear and decide cases involving divorce and the like by establishing courts with temporal jurisdiction. Reading t11e law cited above i11 connection with Civil Code of 1960, which appeared under Proclamation No. 165 of 1960, confirms the correctness of tl1is view. There are tl1ree types of marriages as stated in Arts. 577-580 of the Civ. C. These are: (1) civil marriage, (2) religious marriage, and (3) customary marriage. Art. 579 reads as follo\vs: ''A religious marriage shall take place when a n1an a�d a woman have performed such acts or rites as a.re deemed to constitute a ,,aI,d marriage by their religion or the religion of one of them." 10 states law t11e iage, marr Though there are three ways of performing a detail that the general conditions of marriages applying to the co11se quences ailcl dissolution of the three types of marriages are not cliffere11t. Art. 662-Various Form.s of Marriage Equivalent.

ch whi e 111 sa the be (1) The causes and effects of dissolutio11 of 1narriage sl1all ever form of celebration of marriage. r a the r (2) In this respect, 110 distinctio11 shall be made as_ to wl1etl1e : !� ;r!� 1 1 Vias celebrated before an officer of civil status or according to _tlie forma �or the uses a c the detail sc.ribed by religion or custom.'' ,.fhen Arts. 663-695 give in ed to t n rese p dissolution of marriages, the fact tl1at petitions for divorce shoul d be family arbitrators and the procedure they apply. as d au s . ator _ · r it ar b · fa1n1ly Arts 723-737 provide as to the persons w110 n1 ay be as lie c e t e d deci to_ t�e fact that courts hea.r the case if fan1ily arbitrators do not within a reasonable period of time. 396 -

a (

SHEWAN GIZAW lNGIDA

Wol.Q V. NIGATU YIMER

The provisions cited in s�pport of the decision, that the contention of divorce marriage� shoulcl be heard by the Ecclesiastical Council, religio us to rd rega ,vith 1 of th e C1v. C. 67 d an 2) 3( 62 s. rt A are Art. 623(2). ''The ann11In1ent of a religious marriage ordered b)' the religious authorities shall only constitute a serious ground for divorce." A.rt. 671(3). ''Ann11ln1ent of Reljgious m1rriage. There is also a serious cause of divorce when a 1narriage �o�tracted ac�or�ng to the formalit!e � of a religion has _ been declared null by the rel1g1ous authority. When these prov1s1ons are examined not separately b·ut in conjl1nction �ith tl1e p�ecedi11g and s11bsequent provisions, it does not enable one to accept the 1nterpretat1on that the Ecclesiastical Council has jurisdiction on questions of divorce. The law lays dow.n the req11irments necessary for the performance of marriage with regard to age, blood relatio11ship and o:her similar factors, and discusses the penalties and the dissolution of n1arriage \\1hicl1 arise out of noncompliance with them under Arts. 607-620; then 1111der Art. 623 it is stated that: (1) ''The a11nulment of a marriage may 11ot be ordered by tl1e court on the ground that some conditions or forn1alities req11ired by religion or by c11stom have not been observed." (2) ''The annulment of a religious marriage ordered by reljgious authorities shall only constitute a serious ground for divorce. (3) "The annulment of a marriage according to custon1 ordered by the customary authorities shall be of no legal effect." This indicates that, though a marriage is void if performed by violating the conditions provided for all marriages by the la,v, a marriage performed without ob5erving a religious procedure does not become void and is regarded as a legal ma1riage; it may only lead to divorce. Even with regard to divorce i t is written un•ier Art. 666 ·that it is referred to the family arbitrators; it js not resolved by reljgious authorities. There are serious and minor grou11ds on which a request for divorce may be submitted to family arbitrators. Those which are regarded as serious grounds are listed under Arts. 669-671; they are: .

1. the commission of ad11lter)' by one of the spouses or desertion of the conjugaI residence, 2. the confi11ement in l1111atic assylum due to insanity or absence from the country, 3. a declaration by religious at1thorities annuling the marriage. If one of these serious ca11ses i s submitted to family arbitrators, they must make an order for divorce within three months according to Art. 668. Thus, this clearly indicates that case of divorce are referred to famjJy arbitrators, not to church authorities. For more clarification I have fou11d it 11ecessary lo give an example on the decision of religiotts authorities declaring religious 1narriages invalid. - 397 -

◄ JOURNAL OF E1'l·IIOPIAN LAW -

VOL. III -. No. 2

In the cl1apter ofi tl1e Fethc.1 Negasit 011 ma.rriage it read.s:

n<,�f,\

: �'?'1'/1! : },£D•il.{l : i'1'lf OI/ 1:

l,o v-;, 1 l\ : ;1,°1 1 t»c , . 0 0 m'h{ID•1..-f: : ,f•,f1 '1J!,f1 : tit\t,tlf _ , : �,rg 1 :, � hCfl1•c; :: 11,1",lif,?J : _ OJll'l : ,f•J,nf : 1,f,:'f·4'il.·{l : i',1,.<;... 1,9'°ilfUJl• . /\OJ c /\•Y-. : �A�,� :: mt J� 1 ·; fl ..-1•'Pil"fl=•fl1,o.. :'f•:wt\,f--=t\•07,o.: 1J,f•UOf,f.. = 0},fl.•l: :: ° h 9 011\'h h· : h-t\&l OU• : p� : 01/1, t\,lf OD• : ,, ....18 ,,f· : OD'} &..'l'f! : 11' },f· =t � I} , I\ : oo9'°t\ ,h : trJJ' ;J-- : roooY-.•fl,l1'1! = ll.li."" : J!,,l·t.lt'r :01J!, = tfl 1)1 : �,9'1} : � 01.! ·t� : lD t, t\. (1 OD• : /-'-' C : f:, "t\ 1 I rrf: : ;.} lll.,,r :,,. : on'} &• It' P.:,. : t1t,'} O t\ : .. ,. 6• A,n : ro1ild1 :: The conte n t when translated is as follows: ''M �rriage shall not take pl�ce between a godparen t a�d a �odcl1ild, betwee11 _ a godchild and g�d.parent o!- h1� pare11ts, his brotl1er. ?, his cluldren, }1is gra.nd : children or the ch1ldre11 of his wife, or betwee11 the child of the one and tl1e child of tl1e other. ''A wife shall n ot 111arry l ier cllild to tl1e godcllild of l1er hL1sba.11d, and the l1usban d. l1is cl1ild to tl1e godchild of l1is wife. Let a11y person wl10 commits this, i.e. any person who violates th.is law and gets married, be regarded as an idolater a11d a lawbreaker, for there is spirit11al relation. slup a1nong a.II these. Unless such a person dissolves tl1e marriage a11d confesses l1is sin, l1is sin shall n ot be remitted." It a believer, l1aving violated tl1is law, marries a \Von1an witl1 \Vhom he bas ties as a godparent a nd a godchild, and if the cl111rch at1thorities, l1aving discovered tl1is, declare the invalidity of tl1e marriage for bei11g illegal i11 accorda11ce with tl1e spiritual law, the declaration \Vill be submitted to fa111ily arbitrators on the basis of Art. 671, a11d a11 order for divorce will be given on the basis of Art. 668. In the case at bar there is no allegation tl1at st1cl1 a marriage violati11g spiritual law has bee n performed. Si11ce their marriage is legal their contention is based only on divorce. Thus, in the present case there is 11othing which co11cerns the Ecclesiastical Council. As I ha,,e already stated above, a case i11volving divorce arisi11g under the 11e\v Civil Code sl1ould be l1eard by family arbitrators, and 11ot by cl1urcl1 atithorities. I t1 nderstand. that this view may offend persons wl10 think tl1at customary law ought to be observed. Wl1at I wo11ld like sucl1 perso11s to realize is tl1at courts l1ave 110 power to alter or modify tl1e law except to observe and apply it. It �'as upon the ad\ ice of the Ecclesiastical Council itself that the ad.Jni111stra· tive re�u�ation of tl1e CI1urc.h referred to previo11sly was iss11ed. And be_fore the ne"Y C1v1l Code was jssued, it was the Parliainent, whose 1nen1bers included believers and archbisl1ops, that decided 11pon it after deliberatio11. be . niar }a\1/S .Finally. the t\VO laws were approved by the En1peror. These mod 1f ied or altered only when tl1e Parlia111e11t deliberates a11d reaches a d ec1s1on and when the Emperor approves of it. il, � a th e t a�t·:C . Theref ore, if there are persons who are offended by tl1e fact tliat 1101 ��bitrators bear cases involvi11g divorce 1 aY n s cotirt s, marri age re1igi ous of it except to submit a proposal ·115 to tl1e Parliament. 1 · 1 t t11a · · · • . . d Theref ore, this m1nor1 ty op1n oi1 has bee11 delivered 011 tl1e in gro . _ � E ccl esias· _ . of. div c·ase tile o rce by sho uld 11ot be and l1ea rd rs by t.he family arbitrato t1_ c a l Co11nc 1_ 1.

- 398 -

I !

'11''1 : "A"'l° • _e,"1• 1�� = q_e, :;: Jt()t;. = mAf.

= ,z.r·c1.r. ; ODt\fl = t'l6!b ==

f<D-A 1 -ilo;J·?'":f . ll/l I m·A : J'tKKta:-ll/lm-A: ooij'ifA : f01/.fllJ..A1m· : c.:c9•·- r�A : 00•1•0A- r..::r·,h = •n,,•.c = ;,.-, = ,,,..'J.c: = n:x.r.Iu = (c) 7,'i = n:ixti•g== (lm-) ._ = il/\t,/\ �ilhc}·1·1 f ( rh��t-�m- • �C-�· : O.·l· 1. (l�·,,•...: : f..l•F.t.1'} : [D•f.\ : rl:J•A. : {\ovif'il" I\· ; f(l<D• : 9"ilhc.: · {l"•f-4'0ll: non:J>m?°: f«,,t.O: .(',''1'1:� :: m-.-.>. I- ..l•h•I t'I· : ..,.·ii�"1A :: � ! 'l'','(JJ4.} s m·A • fOD/llD'J': 'J•Prf, : llH.V•: aJ•IA : O•l·Y.�11m · : "1K�ta: : (,.:c9") : oav,&,.:1-= Jii\O-l· :: r�:,.,h = ,n,,"'c 1 ,n-i = ,,...'l'c if.%fZ-!i :: t ! q,,;m- , m·A n�·,h-ta: = 7,1F.�nc , .eu·} = m-&\ : /lDT/il"7iA = f"'i.:J!/lro•: c1�·r11-r,:: }m-== *

1J;C : 1.li : 4'1 : !U£2t : '}. 'r. P.7/':f :- 'l°/t,&.11,.P' : 'l100· s Of', t,·f· roAf.th'i = 1 /n.>1.1 -:- 4,c;:/hnf. = 1.1-u

li�) OD/;\.{l : (l(J;l. : hf,°l'l� : q_e, : ;JC : ilt\'1;1. : P'Ir : ()., 'P'P it- :;: = {llJ/;\_fl = (l(J;)_?J':l: = tp(t°:l·· = rr'l'P"' �-;:I ODf;\{l = n6v· = P' 1r i�'i = :fe&1 = h1:DD?- = n�I\ 1 hl\*t.m· = f,°1'11 : 'lf.. = ht\ = P'trm· = DD!li't.'P = nil 1t:,,cnm- = Ftr-ro• = nOD,.,,,..<;,il = 1'.1J;..:J--_e, = ilt\:r11tt'i· frf--lP/r<D· ?'° P'/,. : 0}1'),:,--tr:J--:flD• : ODIP/.:,• : l)_e,lf'}, : {lt\rf"•1•f' ; n...f,'}, : J'tCO'J.(JJ• : f4' t.ar'i = P'lrro• = frf·*t.mro• : nh.lt.li'i : flDD,l11'�.lt:f-m· : :1--'h1111 = ',aJ•'i : .eu1�-?° : O'J°ilhC''f : l\ill.Pi : .-flt\(I)« : 1,1tlt·li : m_e,,f>'PA :: h'17i9° : cD·i\ ° -1 : : : 1' n,rJi.� : llt\tr� : f � dt,.�i : lD"A : n(l(J}« 9°llti(: it!&.Cil•n�9 : -0/ttD• : h+ht.h?- : n�I\ : ri:c..(· : {1rf: t /t,/\. 'J°ilhr«»:f : t\,.UD(lh,;, : Jt.e, 1 'l9° : h'17i'i : ODdt1J;,.lt:fw• : ''I"} : ,,e.DD()ti Ir (\c : -0t\ n ..("'}°� : ,nA ob], : ft.mil'} : f+t\ : �;;: : hlt7i : t,lt;f!ro- : tDDilh-t,. : },;�: : £ID,J,1J;.(l• : fLUD f'lh?a 1t�1'1:fm-9'1 n°7t\:,• = Ult'l:fro-1 = ?.'"�'PIA �'?fl� : 11_e, : t-.lt:i!w, : ODOD{lht.;f!(Llc,. : lt�:J'(DOD• : {llJ,f11'•'t()c : fl.OD t,�"J(}(J)c'J° : nOl/t\:,- : _e,u;"} : .e, 1,1� : ili\ctt.O:· : OD(;\.fl : (lQJ.?J'f : nhc: Ir/tr�?°: f\.OD(lt}?, : f.1'1A : •nt\(D• : ODt\rt : (ltr,,1·ro·: "l"hlrnl.'Pt\ :: h'i:'J°: �1t-fm•1 = ,,,.�oot..ODC�ro· nri::,..,,, : •ntlhc a,"l = ,,,... l!7t:%tiiJ. :

r-;:

�"r

:,:

• flftI l. U ' m•IJ t : fl ,1,P,"'/'l! : ::,f,fl : ,_,.,I\(I. : f.�-ftc:11...,: : t.,c; :1• : ·1·l!°t,. r) C : '1J!,t1A: t1 .'> .f�•t..<': : f+fl mm-1 : >,ii·l·ff:,. : (l7i"A f.?" : ..r, : ,,,.. . .,;. . : ,f•r1nAt1:,. :s 0

- 399 -

rl\:i:a,.1 : OK· ,1..,fi: = h C1'PA. {llJlP/. '?&+i� : a : f..." ! O�, h.� : fl r. T: (r) ft ' --'1'1�.:,.. : �1C : f/\9° : 04•.... !{if..i : oowG:,. , J!...l"lm-9° : ID'/:\ : f,f : +«rrp� 1 . f\tJI/{J.O'/IA : f°t:J!l\OJ" : {J.ft?i,h-4• : :J'A : hC�C : {l,f-')l} : 1.u : flftlf ; h · lntt.u = ro1'i : = u-f\,J c == f f = /\m �:,= r +1n. �1 �1c tttJ = : : CJ?.. �h�� ·= /\ (ICD• A : l\f. : 1•?.'b. : f�(lt::OJ< : f(l.-f•'} 1 hC"'l,OJ< : il9"9"�·} : ·l·(l.w,'!l �. . . nA1-/\lDtn9° : {l(ID{lflA = �(I}- : n�:,..,,, : ,(Jdu.,C � ,l1'1 : ,,,.. TC : Eitiv3·e: 'P'i'lD·'} : lD"A : fUD/\lD'I' : 1•�f, : AH.U• : (D•/,\ : flrf•Y..�11w, : &.T: J-,/\.0-1· : f,/tA:: f,1J'}'}9°: ""Ill:,•: 'P'i<D4: (D"t\: 0:J>A.: f,f•f:al 1: llrt!\,: 1 lD : : 0:J>A;: h'lf..lf� '1 'i · W'IA : flK..,h-<t: : +F-C1 : h'l�lf� : OK-m-��: flf� : oP I\ OJT : tt l\ :,-. tJI/ l\:,. : � m· ::

Jti��;��

n :

1, 1J;. u•'l° = i'l.. lf'l = ,i,cpcpf,:f: m•l\:t=m·r = If� = ff1,f: = hrPt.C : 11c 1 fC : OK"fh.(j': : f,f-f..l.1 : ill\lf� : h'P'i"llr� : lD"'/;\9° : If� : h11C1f� : t1>; . } l\tDT : (Lfil&..A'? : O�th-(j': : (/Dlf1 : hl\O, : 1,1� = ff1,f: : itrPt.C : n� l wc f n = A 9° 1t11ro•"1 = "'·� = lf'i = hu•l\'1: = h� = "h fl = :J> :J!i\u-c; = 9°i hc = l\-1· : ·rhhl\� : If'i : h'\"li� m-9'° :: fa{J.oo(lnC : lDf,'l° : °'/\•A..,.,,, :

°'

{Jf\H.lJ : f-'?'1� : ()f, : nt.ti:(--clP : ll·A : l\;J•tf H•:,- : 9'1iltic�:,.. : t"I (}� : flttt-n:i- : il/\lf� : fq:,:ro•'} : '11�'1 : ODdt'}�fl· : f.or>(ltiC : ..,..1lfto: f,t-flm<D' : :,-"n.tf'tl : 0"'1f,1 () : {J.f\lf � : fh<t:,f... �ro• : 'i!C� : '1:'f· : OX'9'1t) : •flt\61% : f(lmro•'} : T'hlf1f : l\ro·m1 : oo m·}>ti'l· : hf,oo(lnC9° : 0111/lt•r : h ll'iA:: [!·7// ODt\il: (lt.tl. : l\f,'?():,; : q_e, : '/'1°'1 : 11C : h."tt. .:- ff-'1'11- 1 : P.1�:,.. : n..e..t.(l� : f,nt.lt- :: 'h'}..e..-1--h•I H· : f,t..K'I° : 1·1·} ,.. : llh�rf-�a,.. : �c � : 11:,.. : f,-t/tl\'i! ::

rI I

-400-

Ir I

SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT

Div. 5 BAYESSA JAMMO v. ASSEFA WOLDE GIORGIS Cortlrac tual obligatio11s - Forn1ation - Variatio11 - Form req1-1ired - Oral evidencir,adrnissible - Arts. 1719(3) a11d 1722 Civ. C. , ony to establish that a On appe�l from an order of the High Court allowing oral testim \vritten contract had been orally modified. Hele/: Order quashed. 1. A contract made in a required farm shall be modified according to the sa,me form (Article 1722, av. C.).

2. If a principal con tract is in writing, it must be m·odified in writing.•

Hedar 11, 1958 E.C. (November 20, 1965 G.C.); Justices: - Vice Afenegus Tibebu Beyene, Ato Wolde Hanna Gebre Kidan, Kegnazmatch Kebede Rede: When respondent No. 1 contracted with the appellant to construct a house, res pondents No. 2 and No. 3 were guara.ntors. Respondent No. 1 stopped the suit for the discontinuation of the work and it was ordered that tl1e work undertaken be examined by an engineer. It was discovered that the construction done was not performed according to the specification in the contract. But the defendant (pre se.nt respondent) argued that the concrete works and other construction were done differently on the direction of the appellant's consultant engineer and asked the court to verify that fault by witnesses. The plaintiff's (present appellant) reply to this was that, since he had a written agreement, the written contract could not be invalidated by external evidence of witnesses. The court decided on this issue by majority opinion. The ruling of the majority was that no witnesses other than the plaintiff and his consulting engineer should be introduced. The minority differed by saying that only the plaintiff shot1ld be allowed to testify. The plaintiff brought this appeal against the ruling of the majority. and claimed that the minority ruling should have been sustained. The respondents claimed that both should testify. As we have examined their case, both parties have put their agreements in writing as required by Art. 1719(3) Civ. C. None of the parties have denied any of the contents of the written agreement. An oath can be administered in accordance with Art. 2006 Civ. C. only if the statements contained in the written instruments are challenged. Therefore, Art. 2006 Civ. C. has no bearing on this issue. The issue of the argument is whether the concrete construction was done as specified by the contract or not. Art 1722 • See comment by Michael Kindred, Assi,stant Professoc, H,aile Sellassie I University, Faculty of Law, on this judgment to be published in Vol. IV No. 1.

- 401 -

JouRNAIJ oF ET1�110PIAN LAw - Vor_. III - No. 2 i11 a spec� l forn1 a to de 11a 1 ct ra nt co a at th s ct re di c. v. Ci be alter ed � ? � e _ of tll t� at . 1f the pr1nc1 p� contr by s follo\ving �he saine forn1�l steps. _This � 11ean ac _ t w as l tl1e c1pa 1f pr1n a11d ly, l rac ora. cont d varie t be 1s d coul 10 oral' that 1t wn·ting · that •• . . · . it sl1ould be varied lll wr1t111g house any varat1o · t11ere is a written contract for tl1e constn1ctio11 of the Since .· . . n · · · mg r1t e 1 e d n1a e Th p o b · .• als uld t1t1on ? _:w � ,vith res�ct to 1t. sl1o � _asking for the 1s. a wr_�tten contract presentation of witnesses on the oral var1at1on while tl1ere _ is not accepta.ble. Thus we have found tl1e order of the High Cot1rt permittin g the Engin r to testi�y jnapprop:iate ru1d reversed it. We l1av� not �hanged th� or.d�r requirf; the plaintiff to testify as he has not appealed against this order. Respondent No. f n1ust pay to the appellant $ �O damag�s and t_�e a�pea1 fe� acco_rding to the receipt _ a copy must be sent to the High voucher. To help the execution of this Judgment Cou.rt.

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- 405 •

SUPREME IMPERift,.L COUR1 Div. 1

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TIGIST -FISSEHA v..BERHANU ABBA GOSSA Civil Appeal No. 329 / 58 Oivil Procedure - Prescription - Barring of Clain1s - Proc. No. 97 of 1948, Arts 3347, 3350 Civ. C. _ On order fron1 . the Imperial Cl1ilo,t, �eferri11g a11 app�al fron1 a ju_d�ment of the Hjgh which reversed the Judg111ent of tl1e �dd1s Ab�ba_ A�radJ_a . Court, dec1d1ng that Art. 3347 Civ. C. did not !fepeal The Law Regardmg Prescr1pt1on 1n C1v1l I\'latters, Proc. No. 97 of 1948_ . . ]! eld: R _em�nded_ to tl1e Aw.radja_ �ourt for consi?er atio cn of A�t. _ 3350 �i:'· C . ,vhich specifically covers -the effect of the CiVIl Code on peri ods OL prescnpt1on existing prior to its enactment. (1) If the period of pre�c.ription had ru11 on cla-im prior to tl1e enactn1ent of the Civil Code, t[1e claim is not i:evived by tl1e Code. (2) If , tl1e period of -prescriptio-n had not ru11 on a clain1 a11d the Civil Code provides for a shorter period o.f prescription ;than was pr,ovided before, tl1e former, longer, period of precription applies. (3) If the period of prescription had 11ot :ru11 0-11 a claim and the Civil Code provides for a longer period of prescription tha.n was provided before, tl1e new longer period, of prescrip tion ap-plies. .

Ter 19, 1958 E.C. (January 27, 1966 G.C.); Justices: - Afe11eg11s Kitaw Yitateku, Ato Tadesse Tekle Giorgis, Ato Tekle Aregay \Volde Tekle: - Initially, this action for th·e repayment of a loan was brought before the Addis Ababa Awradja Cou·rt on Ter 6, 1957 E.C. (January 14, 1965 G.C.) The loan was made on Guenbot 30, 1946 E.C. In the Awradja Court, the debtor, Ato Berhanu invoked Arts. 17 and 19 of the Law Regarding Prescription in Civ.f� Matters of 1948,* to fix the law and arg11ed that the tin1e lin1it had operated to his benefit. To that, the plaintiff countered that the Law R.egarding Prescription of 1948 was inapplicable to the case in that it was repealed by Art. 3347 Civ. �- Th _e Court was qf the same opinion and ruled that tl1e 1948 Law wa.s indeed, 1napplt· cable to the case. The defendant appealed from the above ruli11g at1d th _e I-Iigh �ourt �ever �:� _ ren not the lower court , s ruling did C. Ctv. on the gro11nd that Art. 3347 *

l?.

19 ·

P.roclamat�on No. 97, Neg. Gaz., year 7, No. 6. The cited Arts, read: .tl can . good A person who acquires in1n1ovable property in good faith and virtue o �- a ti i_ the set up a plea of prescription against tl1e real o"vner at tl1e end of l.. 1ve years �per y t vable real owner inuno lives within the limits of tl1e Taklay GI1izat wl1ere tl1e · • P: the · de 1 . outs · ·1 property 1s . situated a.nd at the end of Te11 years if such ow11er 1s don11c1 ed Taklay Gh1zat. .nter es t · · 1 Cl aims for a.limony and maintenance, arrea operty pr ble in1m ova rs in rent on ; periods, e t on SUms 1?aned, and generally, every shor at tl1i 11g that is payable a11nually or are p,tescr1bed at the end [of] fi v e years.

406 -

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TIGIST FISSEflA V. BEJ{fIANU ABBA GossA

· latter the rom F .�uling, as .petition was filed _in the .. Law 1948 the ve · 1.11�t·recti . red to ew orde revi was the rt .Cou case this . t o· Chi·1 . . . � ., . llll.P�fI•al . . by both the High Court a1d the Awradja Court:t� ��y that the cited , 3347 Art. . . bearing no has the on .·... present . repealed . case. was 1948 . f ]a\V 0 o lays e>;pl tht icitl rule � regarding �Civ. � pe�i�ds. of tif!1e and 33�9 � y A rt. _ · n1us� p� con�td�red 1n light �f that· Art!cle. For the p�rposes of case ent _ pr�s the : necessary -to g,ive c!- de�a1Ie9-_1nterpreta�ion of .t_he t �OD:nd haye �e • . ut . ! disp � . this: . . ds C. . rea as 0 ;:. C1v 335 o,vs . foll Art · . 1on. . . ..: . . ... above prov1s • ig a periocl of ti1ne : Law 1noclifyi1 . . . force ..· of .this . 1 � Wl1ere periods of _ tf1ne h�ve expired prior to the coming int� .. · ll ive e n1. sha rev · Cod the this . in · . · i11g noth . · Code, . .. · 2.. Where periods of tin1e have .bee11 exte11ded . b y. tl1is Code. the provisions of this Code sp.all apply �nd tl1e period \.vhich· ·hc.s · run prior· tq the coming into: fo_rce of this Code shall be deducted. .. . . . . of periods time have been shortened by this Code the periods pro3. Where vided by tl1e law repealed by this Code shall apply and the period which has run prior to the coming into force of this Code shall be deducted. \Vhat is the effect of tl1e new Civil Cod� on the periods of prescription set by The Law Regarding prescription of 1948? l. It should be noted that a defence of prescription may be raised only where a former. period of prescription continues runaing after tl1e Civil Code came into force on Maskaren 1, 1953 E.C. (September 11, 1960 G.C.), but not where tl1e period of prescriptio11 had already expired prior to the above date. Even if a longer period is provided for in the new law, Art. 3350(1) prohibits the revival of expired periods on the ground that they were too short compared to the new periods. l l.'rL,tration: -

•

If, tinder the old la\V, the period of prescription was 3 years and began runn;ng on Maskaran1 1, 1949 E.C. and that very period was extended to 5 years, the · ut would end former period would not be extended until Maskaram 1, 1954 E.C., b Mask�ram I, 1952 E.C. and not be revived by the coming into force of the Civil Code. 2. Parties must avail themselves of the lcnger period where tl1e duration of a period of prescription has been extended by the new law. It means that the new period replaces the former, but nothing affects the date on which the period of prescription began to run. One should begin computing the new period of pre scription as from the period left over from the former period of prescription and not as of Maskaram 1, 1953 E.C. Ill1,stratf011: _

Suppose a 3 year period of prescription 11nder the old law began ru. nning on Maskaram 1, 1952 E.C. The Civil Code exterds that period to 5 years; in which case the period of prescription would expire not on Maskaram 1, 1955 E.C., but ralber on Maskaram 1, 1957 E.C.

- 407.--:--

JouRNAL oF ETI-lIOPIAN LA\V - Vo1..

III - No. 2

3. Where a period provided for by the old law has bee11 shortened b Civil C? de the fon11:er shall apply and s�all not be shorte11ed on the ground t�� the Civil. Code provides for a shorter period. J Ilz,stratio11:

Suppose that under the old law, as 5 year period of prescription begins ning on Maskaram 1, 1_95� E.C.;. but has now bee1:i reduced to 3 years by�\ Civil Code. The prescr1pt1on period would not expire on Maskaram 1, 1955 EC · ·· 1957 1, E.C. ram Maska on rather but The Civil Code came into force on Ma.skaram 1, 1953 E.C. We do not see tlie point in the borrower's argument that tl1e period of prescription under the law of 1948 was 5 years. However, as the action o�iginally brought before the Addis Ababa Awradja Court, it is in that Court's discretion to dispose of the matter as it sees fit. We have limited ourselves to inferpreti11g Art. 3350 Civ. C. \\'hich explain the relationship between the old and new laws on periods of prescription. Remanded to the Addis Ababa Awradja Co11rt.

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Con1m. Div. No.· 2 (Appeal Div.)

.- .. . . .. . .

HIGH COURT . .

•

TEMELSO v. SHEBIRU .GEGNIE � KIDANE •

. .

· Civil Appeal No. 492 / 55 E.C.

•

.. .

. 1 Ior 1111justified Contractu al ob/iga(ior1s-Co1ztract ·of e111ploy111e/'1t-Co111pe11satio1 . · · Ci , 8 4, 2573 v. C. 258 9, 257 a11d 256 . 6, 253 s. Art disinissal_·.. . .. . . On appeal from a11 A,v�adja Court ju�grnent award�ng _CO!Jlpensation -to respondent fur •·. :. · .. for disn1issal fron1 appellant's en1ploy \\•ithout good . ca11se.· ·· . . . .: .. · .. · ·He ld: Judgment affirmed. •,

1. A contract of cmployme11t:·exists · irrespecti'1e of the duration of the employment, and in •particula.r, &t1cl1 a contract exists eve� though �e e1:11ployee is hired as a "day worker" · on a per da)' basis. Art. 2J36 C1v. C. or bis wages .calculated . 2. Compensation is required both .for· unjustified termination of a contract of employ ment of indefinite du-ration and fo-r 11p.j11stified failure to renew a contract of employment of defini,te duration. Art 2573 Civ. C. .· . 3. Where an action is· brough-t .by arr employee to recover c.ompensatiou for unjustified the burden of dismissal and the employer· alleges ·that the dismissal was with good cause, · · · establishing sucl1 good cause is on . t he latter. · .

. ..

4. The absence of good cause. for· dismiss:1.l is n ,ot proved by a certificate of work given by the ernplo) er ,vitl1out any mention of deuciency in the employee's work, since the employee is entitled under Article 2588. Civ. C. to such a certificate wiithout mention of tho quaLitv• of the work done. 1

•

Miazia 28, 1955 E.C. (May 6, 1963 G.C.); J11stices: Dr. W. Buhagiar, Ato Deneke Shinafe, Ato Ajibaw Wolde Meske!: In this case the respondent sued the appellant in the A,vradja Court claiming compensation under Arts. 2573 and 2574 of the Civil Code on the ground that after having worked with the appellant for 14 months at a salary of E$55 per month he was dismissed without good cause. The appellant's defence was that the respondent was employed by him as a d,aily "'orker at a salary of E$1.71 per day and therefore there was no obligation on his � art to pay compensation on disn1issal of the respondent. The Awradja Court gave Judgment for the respondent for E$105 and Court fees and costs. The appellant is now appealing against that judgment on the ground that as there was no contract between hi1n and the respondent, the Awradja Court was \'lrong in deciding as it did. the appellant is wrong in sa ,yi11g that as the respondent was a daily .wor Now �er there was no co·ntract between the.in. A contract for the performance of f:ryice exists ind.ependently of the time for wllich tl1e employee is employed; there Ln _ law a contract manner the wages to the as of independently employment are fixed, that is by the hour, day, week, fortnight, month or a year (see Art. - 411· -

JouRNAL oF ET1-110PIAN LAW -

VoJ... III - No. 2

ied specif period a for or for an itidete fixed be n1ay ct contra a also 2536); period; u 11d.er Art. 2569 a contr�ct �� mploy_n1e11t n1�de f�r a fixed period::.��! deemed to be renewed for an 1nd�f1111te �er1od. whe�e, a�te: tl1e elapsing of the agreed term, the ei:11pioyee continues l11s work w1thot1t tl1e employer obje ctin thereto; so that even If the respondent was engaged b)' tl1e clay, the fact that he con! tinu.ed to work aftyr .the end. of each day, meant that the co11tract became reneWed . s regards the paymen t In akes n� a·1st!.11�t1011., � for an ind�finite period. The I aw . of . _ d er1o a�d t!1e renewal of compensatton, be�een a . contract for an 1nd�f1n1te � _ a contract for a def1n1te period. If the en1ployee 1s d1sm1ssed, or if his contra ct is n t renewed, without good c.ause, �hen the employer is li �ble to pay compensatio�. ln this case the appell�nt submitted tl1at he bad a_ good reason �or disznis sing the respondent, but no evidence 11as been produced 1n tbe AwradJa Court. At the �earing of Yekatit 19, 1955 E.C. the advocate for the appellant stated to the . court that he wished to call defe11ce witnesses, but on. the hearing of Yeka tit 30 he submitted to the Awradja Court that as be l1ad submitted. a proper defence , h� would not call witnesses and asked for judgment. There being no evidence on the part of the appellant that there was a good ca11se for dismissal , the Court can 110 t consider such an allegation. The respondent also subn1itted that the appellant has given him a certificate of work whicl1 does not n1entio11 that he had misbehaved in- his employment; the fact that nothing was said about tl1e nature of the work does not mean that the respondent was necessarily of good conduct in his work, for, under Art. 2588 of the Civ. C., it is laid down that the certificate shall not include a testin1onial concerning the quality of the work done or the conduct of the employee, u.nless the employee expressly requires his employer to give this testimonial. Un der Art. 2574 the amount of con1pensation is not to exceed the wages for three months (according to the Amharic version)� the amount of com pen sation is to be fixed by tl1e court after taking into consideration the matters specified in the first part of that Article. In this case there is no appeal against the amou nt of compensation whicl1 has been awarded by the Awradja Court and - urt; the appellant therefore the Court confinns the jt1dgment of the Awradja C0 shall also pay to the respo11dent E.$25 cost for this appeal.

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(lODlPlrt: : fi'tP'OD/,... : P'4il:,·•tb:1- : tac:,- : f,'? 11:,;: 'lr,.: tJChC: hA (l'ffD: fl"'lt\:,, = f(lmar : •fl.e-1: •f-10. : ',tD•:: 9°h,.f,f-:9'° = (1•1.1im· f� O?i;I,.: f<t:C.�-: O,,f---:f-: f'lf,: i,.il,J·P,7-t: f',(1�.:,..: 1·1o1L�"}1• 1-P,f. : fil�"J: 'lh'1•1': ,,fH/\: ODlf�'} : ilfl : ,,..,.,,,11- : h(:ti�- : (li1<;,(l,),th1· : PC:1· : PA - ] ")"} : CD·lt�: ,, 1�.,,� : nff (1}• : .e-°lfl��: '1�: h(:ht : hA cl''fA�,: IP/ f\: T(Dc ,.,.. , n.. 'l/\ODlf't• = '10r ==

lf'i9° = .eu : �CY.- = 1,01-: tD_c/)�: .e,(l"},!\::

n, .. ),= f'l1?i1 = u•t;J· = ,1a1a0 •111, i (l'i�t., = � 7c = -

fH.U ' fiche : ODlP /.:,• : till : {l")ODl'\h•l•OJ< ; foo�i'j(D• ' (j: � '. �1 h�°l: f"1.Yftll1: 1- P,_e : �tl)c :: (10D1JJl,l· : : flff· ••<'"} : 1.1·1,: f'i'l0 -1 2:: Cf\tP/: hGLcSJl':f : (l"li"'/'?t\,: t..:i• = ,,f!.1..1,:,.: (D•/;\ I i-l1 'l: OJ1''i: 11,1·t1t;�; : hh9'°�: °19'1T: (D.i 6J;b : flf�: hf:b" -1°:, . : hODlf�·9° : �A�': f9"C , P'�: P'CO,:,·'i: m°l1: f01J..f4...Ail: ,.l·°l'lC: ',lD•:: 0 ,._ _ f ..ll '.'.'I Ji,,? :: I ':11 r11 : i\.'}F,.t-..(b : lf'i : fl9°C tiliJ. : (l)•il 1) : OD'?'l,.,• : O"-"� I,,_,.�• : "1'?11 r OD ,(1 • �,:J'f! , 'j: tJDcft«: �,.,�..: (l. lf'} t OD,fl�..: tDJ!,9°: ','J',1.. • }lf,fl ·- 4l4 -

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: } f, ·'J° J"}: fou�(l(l : fm1fil: },"}f..&..rt: i','l : ,-ltfl(i:9° 111 '11, .. 1t• J; .. V I : 11 0'1 : mf,9° : flouf..fl.f: t\.1� : f"'/f,;f./A: ou-0:,..: ',w•:: fl11H-0 , (llfl11f1 : A ' : : } l°t../A: f01/.ffllt7i'a' : ,n1W'I': f(IW•" : i'tf: t,. 1n:, .. i\(lt\ : foP J1,IJ1 h TIA � r�:1·,/,\ : llD'l't;: : m 'lf,: ',m•:: f : t\ : lD1j!IA1 �ll):, .. •• � oo f � : lf o 0J: fln «/A9° : fl.If"} : f,°]{1�: {1� ¾ OD/A{t : (llJJ lD•: h'i: {\,flo:f•IJD: ift . fl w '? J : f (D fl•T ,f •tJOt. '611-:f• : f'J •� : Yo; : '1.cJ:'J° : &.&,.fl : ',(De :: i't"}f..-. : aJ•/A: -ro11 · : f f10 = 'l.'i "'l•tt\�. •l:'P9' = :i: -� : .6'.&..?.9°: foY.:f-lA'i: . � '!Jf�;J IL : f . 00 11'). I! :m'lf, fl. : ir� ·fl t..ro• t\ = 'f : :F · fl'?A�· : frtt..PiA f ' c11;, . m· 1 : t\• (lro• = n;, 1 '? = f·l.. (lmm·1 = 001 1:,- -i = = 'lt\�'l 1'1f .. v .. · f..' i't ll.e-: h "'II\:,.. : lt;rCl\"'I : OD oPl..' I' : fov'J°t..'1'1 = 'l'l'I:,• : 0111111 : t\.l\ro•mm- : t,1,l A'J°:: fl1'1f..l·f.lJ: foo(l(l : '11C : W•/,\ : fl. 1'19', : /lOD/,\\i?°: m'lf,'r": '/°&- A :· +�6- 1: noulf ). : -;,.1ro'1' : W•A : ',m· : t\.'l/,\: f,:f.l\A :. fll·LU9° : �1C: o-fl··f:: ·f•tt&--tit?':fc;: flr·f.lJ: tiil: f/,\ <l'l..0•:,..: ib�i" : .,-roP,P,t?'1-..: r . ff.l1--:,. : OJ•A: f; cl\OJJ: 9',C61il: P''I : P'C'¼:,.: ,)1 '?"}:· .r t\_,,..hrf..{\ : ;,.,: Jz..,: = f,"1'1:� = -�1,c;_· = OD/,\{) = (l{Jj�ro· =· {\,ft.a � m..i.". 1:'?"1o;r ff�lr : · = · _ · n �•J · = . . . . · •I� = ;,-roP,P,t?'�.. = ff..l..1'•),·: W"IA: fl,)1 '? = t.,:,.. : cp · ;, : fl.(lmro· : l? : o-ll ilftOJJf,;rt\: &.&--7i: ',ro•: ·(lt\1 : ro{l','i/,\ : rtll : ,)1 1: W'P: m·l\ -:f: Oi',.•r <f,�--: " } = •flrh.C: "•"l fi..1:£!1: :i : ,, tk .-·r : f<t:-l·,h l,t;: ...,.. ODAh-l.. :: = . . · . .: 01.Jt· ro·: f'lflLm•:· h.m·t--�·: ·-.·� -filf.lJ:·:·. v•ftc: 'J°ti1f-l•:· 'J°"}'J° ='lt · "}i,l."} �C�: 11·:,. : i"l'l:� : '1� : tiCtiC : i't.lA<f' 'PA'J° : -Ot\q>A: O"'/l\,l•: OJ«i\�: (lrp�f·: t,(l�"}: fl.f{l'i-O+m-9° : :,,ft- : f,IJ : �cf..• : n�:,- : (lODw✓.•I: : �'1�-: : .. '11,'i.: liPf.\.fl :. (llJJ..(1)4 :·{lt\ .: 9°CiwJ.W• : .f1(1•:j-- : .. "Jf.o:J� :· 11\,f• : .... .e,' ?ct'S . . . "11: llTT_: .. flODlf�: _OD/Art: (l{J;l(D•: fltLIJ: (D�/,\: 'J°h"}y:,.. : t\.h(l(l.. : i'tf, 0111,;.1 : wC Jf"}: f, -,q.r:. 1ll\1: '1.(l'i-fl·l--'iA: h•.,.I&--: Of.&--"l:fm·: f,;f.:f.t\•: . ,flft'i'A :: .

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--l· 'P'Pf., ·• r1n·0•1·; "'lfv;J·:. il1°li:. mf.,'J°: OO/,\l1'J° : : &. = }m• �tJ.e; •l·:Pt:-% , rv·� • · = m·I\• = t .. 7i == ·1'1>!. rr � : · . . . . ... . . . . ' .. (�) · h1�V.·9° : ·1t,,\q>• : m11 : f\•J(){l•1· : °IYu:J· : (l.f.\ ;, 1,;,c;.: m11 1 f1'10:,. : "'1Yv·1· : tt;,1°1 s m.er = i\oPf.\'1'1° : m'lf., : ·l·:J•t.� : oPill\" ·= O;J•f : 1.11. : m-1\• : t. t:li : �m- ,1 .. . .,..._ itif1i :: 9°h1f•1· :: (ji) UD1P/.•l: :: .. : fm•f.\ : °IYo:}• : , •1110:,. ·: 9°h'}J'·1· : m·I\· I ,...,..., : OJT : OJJ!, h·f-'P'Pr·:r: : 11'}�-..:m- : m ,, 'r I fl00/.\1l?°: tl1'1f., : •l·:J•&.� : UolJ').'} , f\tfl/0011111 :· h°19°·•1· : m•ilLJ' : 1,J!,1'19'1 :: � (ji) ·l·'P'Pr•:r: ·· f.,'/°·=· 1i·1.�: =aJ .

lD1'} :

· 415 -

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•

HIGH co·uR f Asma.ra

TEKLE GEBRE SELLASSIE v. SEBHATU WOLDEMARIAM Civil File 1\o. 292/ 57 E.C. Contractual Obligations - Unlawful or imn1oral _object - Arts. 1716, 1717 Civ. c. Electoral La,v - Candidacy Held: Appeal q.ismissed

. The right to stand for election to par, liamen,t cannot be sold or made an object of tran saction. A contract impeding tl1e right of any of t, he contractors to s1tand for election to par• liament is unla\.vft1I and immoral, and therefore o.r no effect.

Hedar 30, 1958 E.C. (December 9, 1965 G.C.); Judges:- Capt. Eyassu Gebre Hawariat, Dejazmatch Idris Lejam, Ato Asfaha Kahsai: This case arose out of an agreement reacl1ed by the appellant, respondent, and t\VO other persons, all of �rhom were candidates in the central district of Asmara for election into the then existing Eritrean Assembly of 1961. According to the agreement signed by all four candidates, a.nly one of -them \V�s to stand for election, the determination was to be ma.de by a cast of lots among the fou.r candidates overseen by a group of arbit rators. If any of the parties 1o the agreement disregarded the agreement and stood in the election, he wa, s obliga te<l to pay the person declared eligible the sum of E$5,0000. The present respondent refused to observe his obligation; instead, he stood for and won tl1e election, wherea.s the appellant who had succeeded in b eing de c1 ared eligible had not received the parlimentary office. The present appellant instituted t�is case to recover the E$5,000 that the respondent obligated himself to pay for failt1re to ,tbide by the terms of the agree ment.

judge wa3 judgme11t custom, to According locat c?urt a by rendered the of . � ; 1n the central market place, ordering respondent to pay the E$5,000 since he h breached the agreement. The the11 President of the Supreme Court in the meantime, had �iven an ord�� e pp the that the case was -to be heard by tl1e District Court of Asmara. But, since a on . , rt . Cou t rte t Iant refused to have the case heard on its 1s merits before the sat'd o· I 1 e tl a by i the ed ground that render oc_t. there was already a judgment in his favour . . . JUdge 1n t he central market, the District Court passed an order d1sm1.ssing the su1 The case has come on appeal from the order dismissing the suit. e l t · · i tha . ct a f Th e e resp h t ond ent, den y 10 his _not , stat eme di� nt defe of nce, . signed the agreement that only one person declared eligible by the arbi_ trators ,vas

- 416-

( I f )

)

------------TEKLE GEBRE SELLASSIB -V. SEBHATU WOLDEMARIAM

t�ry se a!. �ut, he argued i� his defence, that since the m . en parlia the for to run k 1ng hcuse, and s1nce he was actjng under the a r.1n d 1n d ete l comp was greement he made the agreem�nt, and further, since the contract when _ alc�ho l of ce uen �-fil _ the u�der law, b asis he d1sregarded the agreement and stood witho ut · and al illeg . the respondent, argued ·he - is not ljable �o pay the E$5,000. efore, Ther e. offic ;�r that, since contended the respondent has violated the appellant the ever, How for the liable b� E$5,000 that he o�l�gated himself to pay. �hould he nt, eme agre of agreement and the decision of the arbitrators.) instrument the ned exami have (We Because this case involved . a n issue of law, tl1e then presiding judge of the Supreme Court gave an order that the case be �etermined before the District Court. But, since the appellant _.ref�s:d to comply with the order, tl1e District Court of Asmara gave an order d1sm1ss1ng the suit. The order dismissing the suit is proper since the appellant ,refused to have the case determined before the jurisdiction of the District Court. However, in the circu�stanc�s surrounding this case, this court has the power to determine the case on 1-ts merits. We ,are sad to lea.rn of the facts giving rise to this suit. Not only is this form of contract unlawful a.nd immoral, but it is also an agreement directly violating the rules and procedures of the Elector-al Jaw. Every citizen has both the right and full freedom conferred upon him by Jaw to stand for election as a representative of his people. This right or freedom cannot be sold: nor can it be made an item of a transaction. Further, one cannot acquire the right to become a representative of the people through money or deceit. Since this kind of conduct is immoral and unlawful, penal liability might attach to it.* Under the law, the obligation of the appellant, respondent, and the other two candidates, are void. It is expressly stated that, under the law, a con tract can have effect only when the obligations of the parties are possible according to the law. As mentioned herein before, no perso:1 can sell his right to be elected to parliament. If he enters into such kind of immoral contract, the contract itself is unlawful and void. Since the contract entered into by the appellant, respondent; and the other two candidates, not made parties to the suit, is contrary to the rules

• Penal Code Art. 462 - Corrupt Electoral Practices. (1) Whosoever,, directly or .through •an intenrediary, promises, grants or entrusts a sum

of money, a gift o r any other advantage whatsoever to an individual or to group of i � p�rticul� citizens, in order to persuade them ,to exercise their right of election _ way, to abstain from exercising it, or. to persuaQe others to exercise their nghts m like manner or to abstain from so doing, is punishable \Vith simple imprisonment or fine.

('2) Whosoever possessing the righ t of election solicits the promise or grant of such gift or advantage, or accepts it, in1 consideration of casting his. vote, it in a particular way, or of abstaining from casting it, is li�ble to the same punishments.

- 417-

JOUilNAL Ol� ETI-llOPJAN LA\V

VOIJ. III - No. 2

11t prese act the co11lr law, ral l1as no. effect. u d electo the of res du proce and the er n n pia vil 1io Co Ci E1l tl1e of d e.** . law. See Arts. 1716 and 1717 . .. .. · Even if the District �ourt disr?issei, th� pres��t st1it -_on . �h� ground:· that appe1lant. refused to have the case _l1eard �11 its merits; we q11asl1 this appeal.as !�e e · l. fu w la n u. 1s ct contra

(

Each party shall bear its own expenses. •

'•

•

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** Arts. 1716 and 1717 of the Civ. C. are as follows: Art. 1716 - Unlawful or immoral object. . . . f one of . . . . . (1) A c9ntract shall be of no effect where the obligations..of the par �e.s or ? then1 are u.nlawful or· im moral. . • -• . . . . · . a . . ·· · . l2) ·_ A coqt!�t �h all be r �a�;� of n� �ffeci �l1ere it appea.rs ·10 ·b�_ --�� - la_ 'Yf�l <-?theun:ii�� . · th e oblig.at1.ons assumed by one party be related to the obl1gat1ons of . . Art. 1.717 - Motiye - 1. Principle. . . · ·. . o int .• en ·tak -··. ..... Ti.-. · b . .. . . e · . no�· b lJ;e . sl1all_. mo!iy� for "'wich the parties entered .. . - :into a . contract . account lll determining the unlawful or immoral nature of. their obligations. -

- 418 -

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r&\.r..t.(t :f·ro •"} = 1 •" 'i = mc:P = r•·l·!lt\:l-..lIJc "} : ,_: '1t\ . = (ll'tn1 : : A 1i t\ . m n1· = •/,\ = .,,. = �= t\"7t.Y:'1 ,, x :r. · F-.1.·1 ,o = ·��.&.:1 1tf, f,oi'l� 'lr A : = a u r /,\ 11'/'l°: ,:}J!,ft;: : "'lil•t-C: ·'f � 9 : Pil. : {l'Lilil : l.t : d11 : .Ph 12

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fl-it:,.. = IZ. = f'J Ii!f2t = '¼. r. Pi"lf":f'.. =

h"1': hnn : i',(JJ«'?:fco, i. ·t.,,f- : ou{lr,:"} nci : :: . . . . .. . .

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tu = f,"l'l� : f4:si.nm, = ;J--•�i>tF = i-� LI'"} = Iflf2t = '¼. 9°. ffCl'i =· hli = '1.m,��- = 't:c�t = lL-r = n1tf, = rrf•aiLtn--l· = f,ai'l� = = ,��n· T'} : "7ouAh:J: : l)f,�fl/,\ : f(t,nm•"}: :,-h•"111: noo:J>m9°: "',w•·:: f1''1t\1• �1 A,:·= 01..�.t..:J: = lllP/�F..°1 : ti'1) f,or'l� : flf,: 111�-- : Oh·&\. : l'i�'i : .-: .: '1�C1'PA ·== f."1()�:. · tif(!J '/°9°',:, il ()f,?11•: lD"/,\'i: : lf',m, Oh•/,\: �: } fl' -. . .. . . . . f,1)9° : (t.lf'} J r 1"'1/lro• : 't:C.(!; : {17 : "100/,\h:]!:flD"'} : '1A �(1/,\9° : (LA: n(lm(J)c: :'f·},ff1., : �,'pl:,-: i't�C1 : ,,f�l.OlD• : 'f°ti'},,f:'f· t ,,..c; : me:,»: f+'ltt:fm,"} : A;{: : (1-,...>;.&..�: : ,root\h•l:-l--: ("'lil·l�C (lilt; : '1t\f1;J':f�·) = flfl\"}�: i·m1t,=-: },"} f..aolf'i:fOJ•: �m"} = /,\�;J.: h'IC(t• =;JC= -0;J'�'1 = 9'11r> : fOl/.filf..il:'f· : m-m:,.. : ttf,1�'1° :_ f°'LA : 'Im· :: �c� : {1rf: : DI/ODt!\ti:J=01•"} : h&\. �{1/,\9° : (1./,\ : fltLlJc : of,'1-l--: f(t mm-: itili'ff:'f·'i :- OJ•·IJt : t\ l·LV· : 1•Pif,:. l,'1' ;JO. : t\.lf"} : ttf,�A'J° :: fi't... �r-�!·= 11-IP 'l1F:1-·= 001"JF•l· = rr,:�•,1, =. 11;,,c = ,l,'? ilt\HC'i ·= lit\ IL°l�i• : O,·f•flf,: fm (t',OJ• : ff·IC : ./,\. �',;I..,- : f0?..m1:.fl : ;,,'? : lDf,'J° : �"t

11r-:r-

- 419 -

,::, 1, : fl\9°:: "h'l�.o-9° : fhtf!,J•.;:ro• = ri:c..e..· = fb:t- : >,�lb : ftt.u• = O f.. ,, 1 .,.� t::,.: .,, c 11 (JI< : 11 h/t· f•g",fOJ•,f1,; 11 m:61." ' 1, '1 c It1 :.r• , au tihA , h1�� '. ,.. f..u · f : � h.,:l A�� : ·l· -- mllf: : flf� : A ffl(Ir: i19°9°'11· : (t t.'1 : 1t1f..• ,:: 0 : "' JtJ.:r: "h1,.",.ff.''? = (tt..i\ 1 itil'17f�•qu: fA:�.1': '1 :,'?°li: iiil•·t-�"�: n,-. ,. ° �°'t?t': fh.:,•r-A·f: flj::,..,h: ,ntft.C: ,)1 1: nt •IJ"C: tY.?;: m�{t:J,/.\:: >,'}

ili\tLU : �CJ.'.." : {1-f: l 11:,,,,.,,�:a,, : �c�- : o,:,-. : fomOJ«1} : :,..'h. 7i C' t f4'L 11 (JI<"} • "'I ouAh:J! : fl"'If:,.,; ' 11 H.fOJ•9" ' h ll-1·ff,t:'} , fl (nT: ..,-t1;,:e:;:f.\::

ft'!

l j I I

,��c = li't = 4'1 = Iilf2i = '}. '/°. ("h. �b.. tt ..�.. (brnc = i =ID!;-�= q. 9'1.)

fl'}�: On·A : f;,1�S: : f"l''i'tDCq, : tt 11 ..:,,. : ntr�•1" : Oh·f- : 0?cp>: ;}f.,fb: f...01'1°9°: '11J.'..•: fl h«A: noiz.il+C .= 'l!i\.f9°: {l(t,;': OAjf1l..(!•'7 7'TOJ4: ch'}: -- lD : ll i\ O? 1'f+llll:·: n.m?-: 0'1 -.-l : () [b:J :r " ootihA:. A;�::1;•}: (11-�.&.:F: ftUJJ t\�01: f+Y..l:1lD<1' : lD'/A'i: il9°9°'1:t-: �Cf..': (L1:: rf-a0 Ahf·;f- A I Ott.u: . ao,.,_ , l::I : IPJ.il..l'C : flil'i': 'li\O,;J··:fm,: 1-'imc�: f,,-.q lr/:\'i' : ll9°9°'11· : l i\�lD'1: ,"hK'l : i\"71\Y..°1: hm l\� : h 'l ;t : ht,.Y.. : IP/'l°: :}f,fb: ;ic: +fl Of/'J°..-f-'P IA: : �C�: O,.-f:: il9°9°'J.-f:1'i: OJ·/\--'}: ft../..oP•,)·: f U·i\.-f:'}: lD1'f'f: :J>A: tt il+�Y-°I: f.-f-U1ll¥1: il9°9u'l:,..: -i·•ilUJ/'l°·f"n:,..: .,.f•�il1'·0:J,A::

ti,,Y.. = 0'1'1°: ::,Y,ib = n{IDth/i = fnm•:,--1 = :J�A = nn-c = �c..e- = 11,J: = o9° ,f-; rA:: t,�Y..: "7'1°: ;!Jf,ib: {l(Jm.:,..: :J>f.\: OJf,Jf�: &� i\: 1,;J'lJ•'}'}: 0th'?: '1.°l·O+ro,: ,,c;mc:t> : f-i'fli\':-f,m,: A:e:: (t �: J.f1£2?.: : rf'iIJA� : 'lt\(1:FTlD": lD/i�: h'iT'P: ;1,,�v1p-1: Iv.t2i : '}.9°. htl..lJ: '¼i\9°: nqu:,.. : f,f..t\�: {llJl]' 'ir(I}«1 : aoilnl..'PA :: J,1�,lf-9° : ,111\:t-- : t1....-l·f-A·f1 : Oml.l.: 'Lit: f A l:¥J : '1,f:,-: (f"h'i ':t: h'iT) : m�-i•tD•: t,U·'l: f /\-n:,- : {l;r: itf,;rlD:P'l° I °11: thl.C: c;:,!m,: f,'11\A:: '11C: OJ'}: Othl:C: fi\--(1:,,1: fl:f': t\11'/lD:P' f�l."10-T: ?°COD&--: �lo: lDf,9°: 1»4111;1•: itl\179° : (Lit' : ,f,'i0Jl'Pt\::

n+ �'l°m• = tTIJooAh:f- = 1-c;mc:t> = frf•flt\l«OJc = ,n�'l = f-rlDt\.e.:f-n,1� = '?1fl:,..: i� = +'l: Iit'f2?; : '¼. 'J°. ("h. h>• it. ,h?°t\,: li = 4'1 = Iilftr: t

cf>'l:· '¼. 9°. ) lt.f,tr1 : itf,cf>C9° : (h4,f,/\- : ,:JC : f,f..f.,f tliIJ' : fA�;t : f- OJllf.. :.1-n:,.., : /Jfl1· : f°7..1/A&lD'1 : f9°iltiC : lDl:cf',)-· : 1•au/,\h-r) : cf''l'fr'f': fi�t& = Y,'?ll� = qy, = 11..Y· = ,:,y,n, = "7'1° f+lli\:f,ro,: rot\� = tt'l :t = (IPl/''i ! : l '} ro t OJ : : :(! « c; I\� h'i":l:: h LU: '¼i\9°: nqu:,.: f,l·i\�: 1'.1f..DP f''i:J (D• {IP/fl '}: fi't..,,.,..f-A·,.r: f�:,..,,.: ..-n,n.c : ,l1'?: h1f..OJJ.fHtD•: nirr : h14'1'..: (ID; • f : I I.T tl,I\: m1i,:-:f: 'h1f..ibl\:,.. : ht\.1\9°: J..:J'f:: 'h1f..67 .,filt.. A°l l,f "'l�'J° = fitC'l: (�) qoo:,.. : "h.f..•OIJ.: fllTW": }t_..y..: :}f,l\, : 07'1": flllJ'}.�; il\\C 4--�ntti : ,,,..'l''f'l:OJ<- : f OIJ.rP?- : f,:,t.-1i· : oititn : tJ(i:t\ : V'&e�� : Ol>lf'i:ffD< • +L,.'J"ln.i,.A " h1�v•9" , OIJ.ll+c , <ell.f9", P(t• 11¥'�-l• !th , 0"?..;f'f.(JlD': lD'A.: ro1i�: il\\C: ci,11&'1: rf•+'PGlD': ft1'J.IP{- " f�. c: OO,h"}�{I: llt\lf)• 1 fT(JJ<t\�: ll"'ITOJ• I ,h'}: hlf�OJ< 1 h"'l.ll'II 1 &,��ii ) = U 1 :f' ·l>fP' = i = +1 = Iiif2t = '¼. r. ("h. h,. tt. n;1·•uvtP' = Ii = "' !V. · ...

- 420 -

;

° r « = : t\ : (}f,\'i.: '1.ilT: f If 1\1Y:: i"lDl\�T: (I.If).. i u f:9 l�: .1 f1-? O·: 'i: m :: 1 ih'1.n0 J.f:o'tf:flD' : � : (wl\'1) : qoo:,-. : ',ro-:: 1, �

LI'

�·

1 1

: ( l)•l\ ..,. 7 OJf,lf� : �>;t\ : ·1,:J"ll"1 : htl. U : '¼t\9° : O'l°:1' : hirf•I\ i : O�I\ : 7-'iOJ .:,, = f"f•'lt\:f- ,v· = ,1,K1 = 0 1119° = ill\;rDPoul-'i = nQ"rfnm-9° = l\"?il :J--009° = ro1 : il C: : : n ,'hK!i: :e_: �...Otti: (l01/..1·t·to-: lfil"C;rA: 9, "�lt:flD' il : 1 "·1.01• : ,'hh9°'i : 1\1.';.f-l.'?l\'1• : mf,if»m, : nil1·0"f•q>:,.. : hlf. itllt . : 0� : ''111 •: f:1q>;J--A.:: 1l\fL 1:flD" : 1K : , , " • • ' :J flf"'}.(- : DD1'?P':l· : '1>9°'1(1. : O(lmm• : DD'?l\6liJ, t flfl\11: : oo'}"J > (11 = l\ ,. = : 01·� :,: :f1 ourn:,,.. : /ltf-°1 .. ,,,1.: '? ,),?t ' i 1 (} f,{lt1JA : : .A. : f(lm , , 1 Cf)'' : :J'A: r,:c�· : (l,irf: : .-1• 00 Ah,f;rA. :: ill\tL U : °7..il"l"C : (l(l'j : '11\ 0. ;J•:{-OJ- : ;,,�1 : 01·�.,.;J: : h1�...<''1�·1• : fOIJ.f"l�:fm• : f1\9° :: OJL· IJ · : ODlPl.;I. : lj:Cf: : (l.i: : ,1,KS: : (11-�.,.;1: : il;J•f:'? : f9°;ri·C LlD' 1: 'l':,,9°'i : fOJJ!-&,:,,« : hf:"l:I: : 0001111,n : 01--�&.;J! : f9°;r1:1ro'1 : A� : 'l':,, 9° : ,f•ODA.h·f· : f7·�.,.:Fro•"} : m•A.'i : il9°9°'1'1· : n?; f:,f,;rA. :: ilt\H.tJ : r,:c�· : 111: : hn·f : �Y,fl, = 0?'l°'i: ho:,,:f,1: : 'lt\11:r:fm•: hm f,ll� : R.';t\ : 'L;J"U•1 : fi"lDl\f..i-lD·'} : 7•'ilDC� : f,f,{}t\1-(Dc'} : tltK1 : OOIJ.il·f·C : Pil'i : llt\11:J·:f!m« : 01,.�.&.:J: : 1\1�":l"f:"1 : 1�C : 7i•t : +1 : iitf2t. : q. '/°. (i. h,. h.,f,t1J,nC : �.iL9°0C : i : ,1,1 : Iv.ft� : (}. 9°.) : firf• Lt.loo-n1--1 = CD4A.'i = il9°9°'1:,· = fL.. <'1a1:�= nh.:tr·A-f = fr,:,r,h = rOdhc = Ji'?: Oxfo �-- : 1t1,11x-: h1f..:J'lllltD-: O?.il·l"C: 'P.IL ('9°: (l(t: h 'i: fTlD'Af:= il"'lfm· : th1 : fi·'llt-T = 'lt\'1;r:fm- : °'lil11 : lt : P(t I f+'lt\-:fm -"} : ;,,�1 = n1--4.L:F l\°1ltf-"1 = f+ln..,1.., "?ODAh:F nai1.. ODIP l.T = 11a �if>· : OD If 'i-1 : .<'il;J-- m«:I' A:: .e"fi w• = m·ti�'i = •rilf11 = fti,1::i• = I?! = "'' = 1ui2i = q. r. (i. · 1.,. "· �,01,. ii!:= +1 = Iii!t� = 1. '/°.)+(Im:: 4

9" :,,

•

- 421 -

HIGH COURT Addis Ababa, Comm. Div. No. 1 1N THE MATTER OF THE ADOP1ION OF A M1NOR CHILD. GUNA WORK APPELLANTS ATO MAMMO HAILE MR. WILLIAM BOS MRS. RINlE HAAN BOS Civil Appeal No. 270 / 58 E.C. Law of Persons - Adoption - Conditio ·ns for Ado1ptio11 - Art. 805 Civ. C. On appeal from a judgment of the Awradja Count dismis·sing an application for the approval of a contra.ct of adoption on the grounds that no satisfactory results would be obtained by allowing foreigners to adopt Eth.iop·ian cl1ildren. Held: Appeal allowed (1) The advantages offe.rred the adopted child should be a major consideration for the

tl!pproval of a contract of adoption.

(2) The foreign nationaliity of the adq>ting paren,t is not a sufficient ground by itself to prevent the completion of the contract of adoption.

Yekatit 16, 1958 E.C. (February 23, 1966 G.C.); Justices: Dr. W. Buhagiar, Ato Abebe Awgichew, Ato Mesfin Berl1e: This is an appeal given on Tahsas 21, 1958 E.C., by the Yerer and Kereyu .!\.wradja Court, dismissing the application of the present appellants praying for the approval of a co.ntract of ad.option entered into between the first appellant of the one part and the second and third appella�ts of the other pa.rt. The grot1nd for the rejectio11 of the application is tha_t no _satis factory results would be obtained by handing over Ethiopians (the nationality of the child, Gunawork) to foreigners •(the adopting parents Mr. and Mrs. Bos, who are of Dutch nationality) for adoption. In tlie opinion of t�s. Court the gro�nd for rejection of_ t�e a_pplicatio n i !;�: .1 a �ood _ground. The C1v1l Code of E . tl11op a 1nakes 110 l11n1tauons . as . ree i nationality of the adopting parents and there have been ma.ny cases 1n .theilI Court where the Court approved a contract of adoption made between f?re gn_ • and Ethiop1�ns · for the adoption of an Ethiopia11 chiJd; the maJor considerat 1on to _be taken 1�to a�count is whether the adoption offers advantages for the adopted child as provided 1n Art. 805 of the Civil Cod of Ethiopia. e t s o ceed pro· e C Tb · d ourt, th a e . refore, Court n quashes the Order of the lower . consider the application.

- 422-

,,\

TI-IE ADO.PTION OF A MINOR CI-IILD GUNAWOR K OF ER MATI {N TflE

the co11tract of ado,?tion dated December 7, 196S G.C; seen lias ourt he C between Ato Ma.tJIID:O Haile, the f�ther of the minoi .C.) E 1957 _ .ti-I_ed� 28, rk, of the one part and �- W1ll1a n: Bos and his wife Mrs. Rinie ounawo d chi� other party by v1rt11e_ of which Mr. and Mrs. Bos agree to· t11e of n) Haa (nee B o:,pt the child G11nawork. Ato Man1mo Haile consents to such adoption. ad o to parties the contract and tl1e Court is satisfied the heard also I1as rt . Cou The understancl fully the consequences of such contract and ate appreci all hey 111at t of adop tion. The Court l1as also heard on oath Ato Manm10 I-laile; he stated that he was Ge ta.111 w�o Tsedale gav� birth to the child Guna Woizaro �� to d marrie _ ly legal tl1_at 111s wife _died d11r1ng Tal1sas 1956 E.C.; tI1at 1955; e Se? of 1nonth the in work f the Ital1a11 occupat1011 a11cl tl1at the \Vhereabouts of her d11r1ng died father ·s e wi his otb.er are not kno\vn; l1e stated tJ1at he had l1eard that -the wife's mother was i11 I-Ia:ar did not give any results as to I1er by him n1ade inquiries al] but Harar, : whereabo uts.

}

It appears from the record that the child Gunawork was born on June I, 1963 G.C. (Guenbot 22, 1955 E.C.) - see Birth Ce1tificate attached to the file; that he1 father is the �irst appellant Ato Mamn10 Haile; that l1er mother died and there are no parents of hers whose conse11t can be obtained under Art. 803 Civ. C. that Ato Mammo Haile has six other children; that he is at present employed as a garage mechanic at Wonji Sugar Estate a11d he is 40 years of age. Mr. William Bos is a tech.nical engineer and is on a contract with the Wonji Sugar Estate for 1 period of three years and the contract is 1enewable ; he was married to Mrs Rinie nee Haan on December 17i. 1959 they are both of Dutch nationality and are both 30 years old. After the death of Woizaro Tsedale Getarrun the child Gunawork was taken to th.e hospital at the \Vonji Sugar Estate as �he was very ill and the father then requested that the child be left in hospial as he had no means to support, and look after, the child. Thereafter tl1e child was looked after and brought up by Mr. and Jvfrs. Bos, who have no children of their O\.VD. The Court has also seen a declaration by the Royal Netherlands Embassy at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, from which it appears that Dutch Law makes provision for the adoption of minor children; under this law the adopting parents, Mr. and Mrs. Bos are not precluded from adopting a child. The Court is satisfied that Mr. and Mrs. Bos are persons who can look a.fter the moral and material i 11terests of the child, Gunawork. f\ r In the circumstances the Court considers that the adoption offers advantages o the �dopted child and that there are good reasons for approving the contract f 0 adoption. The Court, therefore, approves the contrcct of adoption dated December 7, 1966 G.C. (Hedar 28, 1958 E.C.) by which the female child Gunawork, daughter - 423 -

JouRNAL oF ETlIIOPIA?l LAw -

VoL. III -

No. 2

:of Ato Mammo Haile and tl1e Waizaro Tseda]e Getahun was adopted b Y e os (nee Haan);

s�1cl1 approval is given Mr. William Bos and h�s _wife Mrs. Rini_ � n d er the a11d adoption Etl11op1a. of Code C1v1l shall of the have � 804* Art. effect f r all purposes of law. I'

•

' )

l * Art. 804 - Approval of A.doption. (l) The contract of adoption shall be of no effect u nless it is approved by ilbe court 15 he if · d h'Jimself�otr11sted, (2) Before making its decision, the courit shall hear the adopted chll is d i c _ _ ed h . ?Ver ten years of age, and the person to whose c ustody the adop� if suc.h person has not given beforehand his consent to the adoption.

-424-

{II\ : it:,l·V-kf: fl/D.f1f : m°l : 1'11:: 1'11:: ,,..';r,,'f 1 0"1/m'i+C : (hfll0'1· : 0"71&11J11J'1·) : ,-,..,, = r"'lfl'i.';'1· = 1110

h il:1"1 It. : tLY: : "'- C :

n4>J;"7'P. : :}f,ll : P'"(I. : �tiicfl.,f: : r ih°l : 4-b«A.,f: ::

{IP°l tl.f ::

f1ilf2§ = q = ?° = rro11:ll ;;-: = ':°:,,61iJ, = il,°l = ,,.,,, = rcf¼,l• = n:,,c11

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r111111 : ODcl165J.'i I ·l•ODt)l}f,: :,,iJJ•f·if·; rm1J!t\�:: oP:,,65/. I ,"11°1: Jt1<1'&· I §.fii ! fIJifl]j?; '¼. r. r:rafl = Ji'Pi!:- 1 Ji1<1'1.· = It(t) = 1,,; = ?i•fi, Ji'P�, .,...Tc,%= 'l;,&•1· • ;,11.11J • �-.;: • quo:,. 1 +--TC: 6 :: 52 "(.�'J' 1 ',(De: h1J':: 1.tf.: {l{ID'J'6f : fcJ>/.{lOJ-: •f•hft7i I IPJ/."1 I 0.T I ft\t◄ :PI;. I h1'Jl ,f,J!. 1 h·l·Y..t.1 � Oou'l'&.,e = r{ID:,,t.lr , p-1co,:,. = roY.. = 1t$j:.CS°: = n.•1· : :,-1t•11'1 = on111 = FC '¼1· 1 f,/\WlfJi!\. ; {ID'f'&.em•'J° : f•l·(amm• : 01"t1<l'?i" : ?l'?i : o0iPt.•1· , ''/\tPJtlD'J : 04! • 'J°t1 ,,,,,:,.,,. '11,'iC: hlf} -11,11': ,"11:.>'f!: flAlf'I : {10111: ODrJl.lllC: 1',t\fl�• Si Otl.tJ I 1.tL 1 •f•l1 lair·: Ill• ih°l: {10Df11: ;,,1•: f07..<111t\•1·1: t1 'l: IPJ°l')"•1· I .e1'l'PIA 11 (711\f,: fl°lC1. I IPJ{t t.1, I +--. !li: f,OD/lh:J;t.$ :: ?'t\.il: nJO.f: {10D'J'6f: fc1,1.n: ·l· ·hll"li : U·t\•: 1t1.e..�1-: ''mF-'' • cJ,t.{1 : t\.fli!\. • .e� ft&\ 1 ·1•11flo, f,mf:,, : f,IJ"'iA :1 {tt\fLtJ : 1-J;f, : 1,1\f, : O°lC'l. : OI/ilt.']f : «11"". ©h : .e00 t\h n.� 11 '11C: "'1'} : {lOD'J'&f : fiou:},t.,fl'i" : {looJ1·t1 : oul]hA : ft\m•1 : 'P'i: IAf..'l:I· : t\lPJ'G 'i1· 1 fl..'lA: ''wF-'' : (lou:,,t.·O'i: ''.<11\m•X,·'' : noo:,,1.,n : outallt.\ : ft\ar1 : IAf..'1•1· I IP/•O t.t-:,. 1 ,f·1n. 1 f,UDili\A :: OhOJ-',rf: : 1t'li-LtJ J ft.:J>f..�'1·1· : (mf,'J° : &.:.1'1.-.;: : 11\0Dlf"'t) • 1.t.�·91:r-- ,,1J;fl ·'l:1:m-: r:rm+ 'Im- °11: fl°lC1. • 7flt.7f : .,. ... @I= r•l·m•l1(lar'} • �., IA ii."'t: '17'.. : �� v. ! }t: 'l!t\.,<1'J°{t: '';rll.{t: -�:l:17i1: 1h1,('_·: ht:.fl�· 1 �·&u.ll.;e:il: h.11 h. 1•f•C',"(i 'it\ I ( 'J°?"O.f'J'-''' � ''J'1. 1°li\1X,•'' : '}1.C'i" IA ; 1''i: : h607J.'i"t\ I t\ 0J- ·I h6°'1.'i floj{: 1..1..e-: ?'"t\.il: ti.e1il s c•·IA: :IA: (!P.f�) 1&·: §fI§-I%:: 53 �IJ 1 "t-fl.w •: flP/f,il07"'/0;f. s fli'11l : Ji�t-Y..C I f,"111": 1',C:J'cl!?'if· = fcf',V.°'l. 1 'J°C00� 1 ' 'i'!Ct.· 1 o.:,, : a>1J:IA: Jill{IDJ-"'t •"l: : O'?IA?i": f;J,m<f>t\."f·1: -l·hti7i 1 ·foolA<I':,..' P't\lfJ1 h1P.J!.'ilw• : l\ODa>(a1 1 'J°h1-f."f• 1 flJ''i·:,=ro· : ,eooill\lA :1 �l\f, = O°lC"J, = 07/ilt.1, : .,..._ I 1 frl•mcf>(la>•"} °l�ii1 : ''" : }•ii:f.\ : 'f(!'(t�·c •• : ............'' : .e..ODl\hj:IA ti fif,°l: Ji{thfl&mFA"J1 , tt•l·htin: , �"}f. = 'Pil:1-r. = t\.O"'t = .e..:fl\A = fl.A = Y..t-fl.(Dc = 1•1•1.nm-1 , �ti•n • (t. �·�) = tt00 l,;:,. = t,il:f,:,& = �m• ,, (1i-0•1�m-1 = 1.t1. = ;rll.il = fl1"�•1·) = ,-,..,, = Jiilh'l & P'·l· : 'h1Y..P,'T:f: V•h.·: fl\:J!m•: f,"1 1 °1: 1,ar.,.:,.: 7,9',•fltJ'J° I t1oulf).'J°: 01\f, � f,f'1·r m-1 trot.�· 1 (t.ont.��- 1 'h1f.: -�i7":f.: 111',Y.:IA?' • �'I : 1,lf'i"h.•: t\"'lt\•1·: fP,"l:J•IA 11 1

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rr., = �ll-F'l° :

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>iiltt = hrr 1 = 1:1..il = f 1" 00/\tt:,·-r,ro• = n�/ n:,:,. = :,,1',111 = iltt{ID111'i = ill\ : :rlLil : OO'J'tf =. n'IA"lf\o:,.. : (Ll.f'} : t,u..·} = f,"1'1° : nw1:e:ttA: ,,., IJC: f,f-mt..m.... : (19':f1 : fioo1f..�" : OJJ'.."7.fl·rn,1• : Wf.. : Y'il+�m-c;: fan tn,t..ifm-: tffo 1 01/ft:,- f mf.: .r t\ : lj: C�: o.:,.. : ,..,,.h1111 = 0Df1f: 'h1l•�t\1:: ilftH.IJ : ,,..�,, : fOIJ.C,1..,.:, - : f..1(11" : O,"h1 : OD"}O]p-',f:9°: OP'�: P'Cl¼'i:9°: ih "I = m-il'I' = ,,,,-;:;tt- == "11 - OD1"JP',J: I hftf.�: h1f..,f•ODt\h:,•',m• 55 : f,)11: OD'} 0J P'rf:: h'}4'?i: iib: fh"'IC'fW•: ?ich-<j:: h'1f:: (lar : ft\ : <j:C�-- : 11:,-: :,..h.'111: 'h1-'tf1f: fCll/.&.:,,f.014: ''X 1·f- : f�oom-1 : ch"1 : 'f'(t : 11C..-f: : T't-:,.. : (l,fJ.!C"I'' : f,f•11' : °h1f.lf� : •fl� : ',ro- I ill\ 'I lf. lJ9°: f,f•/\f..: "l--�f-:f,: ,flff•: f P''I : P'C'i,f:: th"l 56 : '114' i-.Y.. : 111&--t'rlt- :: fOIJ.f '11l'lm- = 'hl\f, : 01--m+(lm• : tltt1+7i = 2� = fltt"'IC ;;:m-� : O'h1"1lL11;;:ro- : �--,:h.<;:: ool]t1A : --flC,f: : Af,.',,"f• : OD'i'r: �Or :: rh '1"1il.11�a,. : ?ich-<i:: h1f..'1th,1--f\w« : f,'IO'lA -� ''01/"}:,:a,.9": oro·: �•},f: f�oom-1 : ih"1 : ftTil : h� : 1"'<;:1 � : iJA..-J"f tl : Wf,9° : ,n"�1 : O{]IJIIJ{l: ,oc.-1: = 'l'�T : '11\f..l'l i J'/\ : <;:C�": 11 :,.. : :,-'h•f1·1: J-tf,:J"(lC9"'':: ''h�: rf• fi:1,:'': fOI/.I\OJ-1: chl."1: ''(l.f1..C "l: (L.1':lj'' 57: 111\1: f.l;.f"�(I}«: °ll.1f:.lf�:

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OF ETHIOPIAN ARREST LAW: THE ECLECTIC soME ASPECTS : · APPROACH TO CODIFICATION* . by Stanley Z. Fisher*� .

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The Crin1inal Procedure Code of 1961 is one of Ethiopia's .most recent codes�1 in terms pub_ ''developed'' of I ished commentary2 an<;! reported least the of one and ''introduced'' am ''explained'' Penal4 and Civils Codes, the to contrast In .3 cases l1as apparently been disowned by its drafters, none Code Procedure nal Crimi the '

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Unless othe.n-visc indicat ed all references in tl.1is article arc to the Ethiopian Criminal Procedure Code of 1961. •• Faculty of Law, Haile Sellassie I University. 1. The only code promulgated since 1961 ha; been the �ode of Civil Proced.ure (1965). A final code, on evidence, is expected ,to ai:pear shortly. 2. The only published comments on the Code known to the writer are the following, most - of \vhich are very b.rief (average lengtl1 -9 pp.) and more descriptive than critical: P. Gra ven, "La legislation ethiopienne en matiere de circulation routiere," .Rev. Int'/ de cri n1i11ologie et de police teclzniqi,e, vol. 16, 1.0• . 4 (1962), - p p. 289-91; P. Graven, "La nouvelle procedure penale ethiopienne," Re,,,. pe11ale si,isse - (1963), p. 70; �-- Graven, "Joinder of Criminal and Civil ·Proceedings/' J. Etlz. L, vol. 1 (1964), p. 135;- Current Issue, "Criminal Appeals," J._ Etlz. L., vol. 1 (1964), ·p. 349; P. Graven, "P;rosecuting Cri minal. Offences Punishable Only Upon _Private Complaint," J. Et/1. L., vol. .2 (1965), p. 121; Current Issue, "Condi,tional Release;' J. Et/1. L., vol ..2 (1965), p. 539; S. Fisher, �'Involunta.ry ·Confessions a.nd Article .35, ·Crinlinal Procedure Code," l_. Et/1. >L., vol. 3 (1966), p. 330. 3. Out of fifty-llive cases published in the Joumal of Ethiopian Law since the inauguration of case reporting in the Empire in ·1963, roly five have even touched upon .questions of criminal procedure. I n the wri t er's experience .very few -criminal appeals (which soem Dlln1erous in. proportion· to . the total volu.me of appellate business) raise significant issues of· procedure, \Vith· two exceptions: involuntary confessions and .lateness in filing me n1oranda of appeal. Rarely if ever-do·appellants raise ·points ·st1ch as denial of counsel, - refusal to allow bail, failure to grant discovery, delay in police presentation of .the accused · · · before -the court, . illegal . search and seizure, impropriety in the charge, etc. P-resumably the absence of cases . discussing such questic-ns is due to a combination of two factors: lack •of counsel in most criminal cases and, where counsel does serve, his unfamiliarity with or relucta.nce to raise these "technical" isst1es-. Surely this situation will .change with the increase in t.r<;1ined lawyers in the Empire, and with increased understanding of the procedµral protections gr-anted by the Code a.nd Consti,tution. · 4· - The Penal Code has been m11ch commented_ upon: see J. Vanderlinden, "Outline of a Bibliography on Ethiopian Law," J. Et/1 .. L., vol. 3 (1966),. pp. 279-80. The writings of · ·pr. Jean Graven, the principal drafter ·of tre Code, ·are in ·themselves ·.voluminous. They · 1 nclude: '.'Vers u11 n·ouveau droit p , enal ethiopien,". Rev. . i,11'l ·de criminologie et police techniqz ,e (1954), p. 250;. "De }'-antique au no1veau droit·pell'al ethiopien," ·La vie ji,diciaire, nos. 445/4A6, 18-30 octobre .1954· "La jubi[e du couronnement imperial et la nouvelle legislat ion .ethiopienne," dans La �ie j11diciaire, Paris, 30 _avril-5 mai 1956, et 7-12 mai . 1956, _No. 525,� pp. 1-5, et. ·�No. 526, p. 6 . (a,rticle paru ·en traduction espagnole dans Astrea, Ma?nd, .1956, Nos. 47-48, pp. 24 a 27);. (�otice on ,the new Ethiopian Pen-al Code at�tled· �,- Rev. i11t'l de politiqtte cri111i11elle, Unit ed Nations, N.Y,, July, 1957, -no. 12, r - egislati,on,;pp. 210, 214·and 218; Projet d e Code pe11al etl1iopie11,.Expose des M_otifs et Co,n�11 e11ta1re (unpt1blished, cited in P. Gra'V!n, A,z Introdt1ctio1z to Etlziopia,1 Penal Law (Addis Ababa, Faculty of La\, v, Haile Sellassie I University, 1965), p. 275; "Introduction, " Le Code Penal de I' e111pire et/1iopie11 (Paris , Centre f.ran9-ais de droit compare, 1959), ·•

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JOURNAL OF ETI-llOPIAN �AW

VOL. ill

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6 Its it. on tary comrne ori of_ d r _ w ins � re_main obscur � __ of whom have writ!e 1:1 a _ "? ,, _ · . e, and at first glance It IS d1ff1cult to see · ,vh1 ch, · 1f any, system was its i nsp1rat1on 1 i ng s e syste1n, nor even in any no 1r. s ot r has Code the ? _ In fact, it seems, sin

''fa.mily'' of systems.7 Rather, 1t 1s the product pa,· e.,tcelle,zce o f an e 1 g!e ap_proach_ to codi�i� ation, .more th�n an� otl1er �thio�ia� code. The importa�c�� this fact 1s mag111f1ed by the cons1derat1on that 1n adJect1ve law even more th . · substantive law, it is e�treme�y ��-z_�rclous to. constn1�t a code eclectically, bo�� jng across the _boundar1_es wh�ch d1y1de �11e legal family fro1n .a�other. The dan er .i s . tha_t confusion _ and 1ncons1stenc1es will result f ro1�1 tl1e_ m�x1n _g in one codegof conc ep ts and _procedures strange to each other. In tl11s writer s view, precisely thi ·8 has happened in some parts of the Criminal Procedure Cod.e. translated in J. Erl,. L., v-ol. 1 (1964), p. 267; 'The New Penal Code of Ethiopia" ·Intl Rev. of Crirn. Policy, vol. 12 (1957), p. 110; ''Le ethiopie moderne et la codification du nouveau droit;" Rev. pe11ale si,isse, vol. 72 (1957), p. 397; "La classification des infrac tions du code penal et ses effets," Rev. pt11ale si,isse, vol. 73 (19.58), pp. 34-41; "L'apport Europeen en matiere de Droit penal aJx ,pays A - f'fioain en v-oie de developpement," Rev. de droit penal et de criminologie, j�illet, 1964, p. 1. 5 . · Numerous articles have been written -on il1e Civil Code. See Vanderlinden, cited above at note 4, pp. 279-80. Those by the principal drafter, Prof. Rene David, include: "Civil Code for Ethiopia," Tula,ze L. Rev., vol. :1963), p. 187; "Les sources du Code civil ethio pien," Rev. J11t' I de Droit co,npare (1962:, p. 497; ''Structure et originalite du Code civil ethiopien," Zeitscl1rif t fr'.ir ausla11disclzes 1,nd iriter11atio11alisclzes privatrecht (1961), p. 668; ''La refonte du code civil dans le, etats africains," Reci,eil pe11arzt (1962), p. 352; "Les contrals ,administratifs cl.ans le code civil ethiopien," to appear in Melanges Saya• gz,es-Laso and, in translation by M.. Kindred, in the Jour11al of Etlziopiar� La,v. _ 6_ - The history . of th.e Crin1inal Procedure Code is not yet a matter of public record. From · · · informal sources, guess-work, and i11te.rnal ·ana: lysis it appears that the initial draft was . done by Professor Jean Graver1, tl1e (Swiss) drafter of the Penal Code, as part of a ·projeoted comptehensive ''code ji,diciaire" covering evidence, civil procedure and cri• mina.l 'procedure. This first draf.t was alc-ng continental lines, although it reflected some English-Comm·onwealth influences (see ncte 7, belO\\'). When it was later decided by the Codification Commission that Ethiopia's adjective law ought to follow not con-tinent-:-I but English-Commonweal.th lines, the criginal draft was substantially revised by _Sir Charles Mathew, a- distinguished Rr1tisher with judicial experience in Malaya, Tanga��ka and Ethiopia. Sir Charles' draft was -the one eventually a_pproved by the Commission and, after some changes, enacted by Parlament. ·. This background would aceol..U]Jt for t, he other\vi se odd fact :that the Code contains '�pockets" of ru.les clearly patterned on contine11tal models, within a general scheme s problem local which is. of suit the -to course, English-Commonwealth tl/pe (adapted . , of , . . mo"'' t-o and 1:a d1-tions). Articles 19 -21, dealing with arrest in flagrant cases, are s.l1own b-' constitute o . ne such "pocket." · 7. .In this a.rticle we shall be referring to va1ious "fan1ilies" of crimjnal proced ure systems: · · · ·1a· r to that Slffil 1 T-he "cont·1nental'' group include s countries whose systems are strong Y any Germ m; syste of Fra. n ce, which is taken in these discussions as a ''typical" inq· uisitorial · p grou · 1 Itl wea. " , �.s ·a Iso sometimes treated :below with that group. ·rhe "English-Comn:ion. 00nunon l?e . r ece1y�d includes .E�gland and_ its · prt:Sent a�d forner �ep�nden , cies, _which r ethe g t p� ocedural Jaw of · England either d1rectlr or, VJ.a l!'S adal?'ta�on and codification , 1 t898 . �1 elem�nts from other Code , legal. systems 1n the Ir1d1an Cr1nunal Procedure � ', · indirectly. (Th� . Indian C?de, in· turn, a-ter became the "model" for th� c� of ·. _ t-:0 of many· _other _Asian and ·A.f.ncan dependencies.) See A. AJI, ott ,. ''Towards the Uru fi�� iormer ll , · La."":s �n Aftica," l11t'l a,zd Comparative L. Q., vol. 14 (1965)� p.·372; H. Marsha Fondon · · Bn,tis? Com!11onwealth Dependencies,'' sed Accu pa,sirn, in J. Coutts (ed.), Th� , 8) 192 . 1966), J. _ • Wigmore, Panorama of tlze World's Legal Systen1s (Washingt�n, D the as n 1 ta 119 e �P·t .. ,, ff. Lastly,_ although English-Con:monwealth criminal priocedure is �or branch . y; pical accusatorial system, reference is occasionally made •to the other maJ wh ole of tbe common law family . th e to e is made refe the renc Unii Whe ted n Stat es. con1mon law gr· oup, the term· , "AngIo-Amer1can ·· " JS 11sed•

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ETHIOPIAN ARR3ST LAW

to exami�e . �ne troubleso�e area of the Code, is c1e i art_ this of ose . The purporder to· explain and_ evaluate 1t. At the same time, we will examine in arres� 1aw�blem resulted from the drafters' eclecticism. have which s cer tain Pr ,

· The Law -of Arrest: l111port{1nce ••

and utility of any syst�m of criminal procedure ency i effic_ ediate imm The g two als, _ o t_ each equally important to society: the according red � measu e b must· the enfcrcement of the penal law. by bringing fac1l1tates system the which to nt Lt to . which inn exte the and justic�, ocent c�tizens are left speedy _ to ers �:::nd chief task of tl1e s_ystem 1s to provide effective procedures the fact: In ed. sturb undi of the comm?n1ty those who ha�e offended against the out mg t selec_ ateJr accur for penal Jaw, and seeing that they are subJected to the prescribed sanctions. At the same time, the methods employed �y the stat� to enforce the p�nal law must be of 1IDportant, equally values of other, society, chief among which safeguard to sort a people in engender attitudes of trust in the government. to and dignity, n huma is But, given these aims, it is clear that i� no system will the selection process be completely accurate - some offenders will ht left undisturbed, and some innocent persons will be. mistakenly se�e�ted and_ �ubjected. to the unpleasa1?,t ordeal of criminal proceedings. In recognition of this latter fact, m9s_t procedural. systems provide various post-arrest ''screening device�''8 - the most rigoro11:� of which is the trial hearing itself - in order to ''de-sele,::t'' or sift out of the criminal process those who, because they are innocent, ought not originally to have been brought into it. Thus, for example, Anglo-American systems of c�iminal procedure ordinarily provide two post-arrest, pre-trial ''screens'' for the arrested accused in serious9 cases. First, an arrested person will immediately be brought before a court, which after a ''preliminary hearing''10 may order his discharge if upon the evidence the court finds that there is no sufficient ground to _believe him guilty of any crime. If at this stage the accused is not ''de-selected'' out of the criminal process he will either remain in custody or be· released on b,il until the public prosecutor decides whether or not to institute proceedings agairnt him by framing a charge. This is the second opportunity, now . at the prosecutor's discretion, to secure the discharge of ·a.n innocent accused before trial. Since the latter screen is administrative rather

8- I am indebted for this conce t to Profess::>r Abraham Goldstein of the Yale Law p : · School. See also T. Towe, "Crinunal Pretrial Procedure in France," T11Ja11e L. Rev., · · ·. • . vol. 38 (1963-64), pp . 468-69. · 9· I� England offences are broadly divisible i nto min-or ("summary") and serious ("indictable") offences; for the: most part the 'right to preliminary inquiry attaches only to .the latter category. See R. Jackson, The Mad1i11ery of Ji,stice i,1 Engla11d (London 19�J, pp. 96 ff. Likewise, in the United Stares, grand jury indictment is generally re quired only for "felonies" (serious crimes), not "misdemeanors" (minor crimes). Sec note l 0, below. . IO . 1!1 pie Umted States indictment ins-tead of a pre jury many grand permit jurisdictions . �m•!}ary hearing. e grand jury theoretically a:ts as a "screen" t_o e�u!e that no charges � ffdic�ents) are 1ssu d against innocent persons� In fact the 1-!lst1, tu�o� has n-0t .been : . e ective as a rotectio . n and pantially for ,that reason has declined 1n 1mportanco. In p .. _ ��gkand it_ has b� n abolished entirely. See L. Watts, "Grand Jury: Sleeping Watchdog pens1ve Antique?," Nortli Caro/i11a L. R(;v., vol. 37 (1959), p. 290; H. G. Hanbur y, � Eng/is/1 Coz,rt · s of Law (3d ed., London, 1960), p. 121. :· :

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o AW V t,. Ill - No. 2 L N JA OP -JI TI E F O ... Af RN U JO

o jnt es com it • e operatio11 rel�tively lat cas y a11 !11 ce sin 11 d a al, lici juc tliari e i n the ur occ y een 1 r ma_ belv y dela le rab tl1e side · con e tim crimiiial process (a of a rres · · t an h arge c · a t ) · ra111e f · h to � f · · · ' . d ec1s1011 1r · s s tor t prosecu scre . the en· · is, frorn •.d that of .he n · 1· ate l1 gre of 1t1c d, ue. use val acc nt oce inn an of view o.f nt poi In continental systems, too, post-arrest jt1dicial s9reens play a vital a_rt in serious criminal cases. In Fra11ce, for example, there is not only a preli�I ary judicial hearing, to ·determine whetl1er or not the accused s4oµld .be com �t for trial and on what charge,11 ·but a . second scree11i11g by the '.'Chan. ibre d'ami ed ccusaCourt of Appea1s, w1.11ch mt1st rat1·r·y the exan1ining magistra tl1e of tion'' t.es, • • 1,, • dec1s1on to co111m1t. B�t, !u_rni11g to Ethi_opian law, we find_ th�t it is do11btft1l V:hether any post arrest 1ud1c1al screen ex1sts _short of 1he tr�al itself. �he Co_de 1s not very clear �hether the court before which an a.ccused 1s brought 1mmed1ately after bis arres t l1as· the power to pass on the grounds for the arrest and to order the ·discharge of the accused should it find them inadequate; 13 and it is fairly clear that the 11. This is known as l'i1istr1tctior1 cri111ine'le. See A. Anton. "L'instruction Crim.inelle" ' Americarz J. Con1parative L., vol. 9 (1560), passim. '

12. Id. at pp. 455-56.

13. A.rt. 29.. - Proced11re after arrest. (1) Where. the acc11sed has been arrested by the police or a private ·person and handed over to the police (,;\,rt. 58), .the police sl1a.ll bring him before the nearest court ,vithin forty eight hours of his arrest or so soon thereafter as local circumstances and comn1unications permit. (2) The Cou.rt before ,vhich the accused is brought n1ay make any order it thin.ks fit in accorda11ce vlith tl1e provisions of l\rt. 59. Art. 59. - Dere11rio11. (I) Tl1e court bef.ore which the arreste4 person is brought (Art. 2 9) sl1all decide \vhether sucl1 person shall be kept in cus:tod/ or be released on bail. (2) Where the police investiga.tion is not completed the investigating police officer may apply for a ren1and for a sufficient time to enable the investigation to be completed. (3) A remand may be granted in writing. No remand shall be granted for more than fourteen days on each occasion. . un�er Although the above articles on the surJace seem to restr ict the court's discretio n Article 59 to -the two alternatives stated, 'it is to be hoped that by judicial con struc 1,0� the third alternative, uncondi;tion·al release, will be established. Thus, a recent. Eng 15 �ase found that �he police had po\ver to discl1a rge a.n a.pparently innocent accused follo;vS 1ng an arrest without warrant even thc11gh the Magistrates' Courts ,A.ct, 19 52, Sec v s (Halsb11r:r's S�atutes of_Eng/a11d_ (2� ed.\ v-oJ. 32, p. 453)_ 1nen:tioned only th e _alter r;,ati e the of releasing hJm on bail and br1ng1ng l11m before a magistrate. One re�?n given Y wer Cou.rt �f Appe�l (per Lord De?ning, _M.R.) why tl1e statl1te fail ? exphc1tly to e�: .. . � no the poli�e to d1scharg� an obviously 1nnocent accused was tl1at [_t]he�e \Vas to mention that contingency. It is too obvio11s for words." _W1ltsl11re v. Barr ett (Ct. s i ded t fe � pp., Eng:, 1965), Weekly L. Rep., 196,, vol. 2, p. 1203. The Court also d� !ests of interpretation on the ground that -it wo·uld be pointless, and against tl1�.beS t int · lice to th� accused (for whose benefit the provi sion existed), to read it as requiri ng tb e po bring an adn1itteclly innocenJt m a11 befo1e th e cour,t. , power . · · s court . Th is reasoning might equally apply ,to .the question opia. n · thi B an of le estlonab . u to release aJ?, arrested a�cused brought refor e it. A� ��tteclly ilt 1s sonle\.Vh�t �ations that whether �rticle 59 was m1tended to all in� some are . The rt . r: e poss ib1J1t ow .that y. 1 . ferior-cou !-he. <?ode s d�afiter:s deliberately withheld such kind s of d iscretion �rom .tbe �ee • Graven, � tici ary, which , 1n most cases (a.s the • ''nearest court' '), will be involved. h' the present . · � nouvelle procedure .. .," cited above at note 2, p. 77 and n. 22. A_Iilioug assu me s the .writer e he would � elcome a liberal constru l artic this in ction of Article 59, narrower version w.i!]. prevail.

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4 Thus, . �ower that lacks : court whethe r legal cause exists -c>r ry inqui ary ·n · 1 . . I · · E . thi Pre 1ro in custody the 1nno�ent a�_cuse d IL op_1· a possibly has no opportunity . once t o . a disch aTge15 at any time pnor to the trial itself, should the public prosen 'win to d · · te procee d'1ngs. I1 su el1 a case� · the months or d ur1ng 16 dec i e to 1nstitu . cutor . 17 t b t_ s �rre_ ween e apse 1 an d. tr1a h'1ch e '1:n . 1nno?ent 1 accused yea�s w_ ly ossib P d·narily might l1ave no access to any_ 1ud1c1 a l forum before which he might or th_e P!osecut1_�� be c�mpelled to justify his selection innocence, his strate �:�on exh1b1t1ng suff1c1ent evidence of guilt to overcome the by process a� criroin the into . e c n e : o n f 1n o n . . o . . ti . presump Noting the possible lack 1n Eth1op1an cr1m1nal procedure of any post-arrest the itself, trial student is led to focus hi s attention on the of short d screen al ici •u 1B does How process: one become . liable sel�ction to arrest and detenl !he initia

1 4.

15.

16.

l7.

18·

As in England, tile preliminary inquiry is me::mt only for serious offences, but in Ethio pia it is never an absolute rigl1t ,of ithe accused. See Arts. 38(b), 80-93. Article 89 requires committal for trial "at1tomatically" at the close of the hearing, without any prior exercise of judicial discretion. For -these and other reasons, tl1e preliminary inquiry device is almost never used in the Empire. For an explana,lnon of the origin and rationale of this institution in Ethiopia see Graven, "La nouvelle procedure ...," cited above at note 2, pp. 78-79. · "Discharge" is used in ithis article to mean absolute, unconditional release. It is true that in some instances the accused may gain co11ditio11al release in the interim between arrest and trial, by entering into a bail bond llnder police (Art. 28) ·- or court (Arts.'63 ff.) authorization. But, from ;t he ·point of view c,f the innocent accused, this system is not an adequate substitute for ,the right ,t o an e,rly judicial hearing and the consequent possibility of abs,olute discharge, for the following reasons: a) for the most �rious offences bail is not allowed (Art 63); b) evea if bail is authorized under the Code for the particular offence in 'question, the authc•rities may refuse bail or set the amount higher than the accused can afford or proviie guarantors for; c) release on bail may carry conditions ,vhich are oner,ous or inconvenient for the .accused, such as restrictions on travel or associations (Art. 68); and d) the ,ccused, whether in custody or condi,tionally released, might suffer mental and emotional strain, as well as social embarrassment, from the fact of his continuing penal jeopardy and the need to defend a.gainst the charge at a public hearing. Whether the police may discharge an accused in custody is discused at text accom panying notes 38 and 50-54, below. In cases dependent upon th·e complaint· of the injured party ("complaint ·offences") even if the public ·prosecutor refuses to institute proceedings on the ground · that the there is no reliable evidence to counter the accused's claim of innocence the latter may ·be forced cto stand trial, for in such cases the i1jured party is automatically permitted to conduct a private prosecution (Art. 44(1) ). When tlte injured party exercises ,that option 'the accused is dep.rived even of tl1e single (administrative) screen between arrest ,and trial which -the Code assures b.im, and might be :orced to undergo the unpleasantness and expense of a public trial despite the lack of any evidence against him. See generally, Pen. C., Arts. 216 ff., 721; Crim. Pro. C., Arts. 44-48, 150 ff.; Graven, "Prosecuting Criminal Offences ... , " cited above at note 2, p. 121. No .reliable statistics exist on the extent of delays in criminal justice in the Empire, although a student pilot study of this problem was conducted at the Law Faculty, Haile Sellassie . I University on a very small sample.. See Aberra Jembere, Tlze Riglzt to a Sp�edy Trial in Erl,iopia (1965, unpublished, Archives, Faculty of Law, Haile Sellas�ie I _ passi111. From that study and other, informal sources -the author has gamed Uruvers1ty), th� tentative impression th-at ext�nsive delays are quite common. Adequate treatment of this problem must await . comprehensive statistical data which future research will hope fully develop. The tenn "arrest" as used in this article refers only_ ito -the process of taking someone into cu 5lody. t ? e� sure. his submissio � to j�dicial .tf!rutment; it does not- deal with the penalty 0f modified 1mpr1sonment descnbed 1n Articles 703-06 of the Code of Petty Offences, nfortunately also called "arrest," nor with the correctio11al n1easure fo.r juvenile offen� ers under Penal Code, Ar.ticle 165, similarly termed.

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VoL. III

JOURNAL OF ETHIOJ..>IAN LAW

-No. 2

f en ble roba a1·e _ caught up i n de1p . y 011l that ure s n. � . e 9 _ we do � _ How ? . the r tion "P OCes s? vide to n11n11n1ze the r isk· that throu pro law the s doe ds r a. fegu sa What g h tnadvert1 9 nt, · rn1a info police or judges,. the ''w of t par the n o l zea of ess exc or ence . rong ma · n· . v · no o i y rtu 'bl n ppo pos ty I wit d s1 1_ . o_ y, to cust · i i?to . pro n take . l1 i e h s n no wi . be cen e table som mfor 111g unco hear tnal the � months hence? � to a court · until We Will 1 l . . g . . s: w111 ead follo arrest by court w discuss these questions under the arra nt, Use · nt. rra ut va tho _ _wi .of the summqns, a n d arrest }I

A.1·rest by Court Wa1·rant

•

The· ·constitutio� guarantees in ·Articie 51 · (Amharic versiori)2o that "n · wa ran (or er) issue a witho by a court, · except if ut arresf t e� may··� � � : _ comm1tt1ng a serious offence 1n v1olat:on or the law 1n force. ''21 This guarante implemented in the Crin1inal Pr�ce �ure Co�; by Articles 19-21 and 49� 5�� _ Article 4·9 lays do�n t �� gene·r�l _pr1.Q.c1ple . that no persqn �ay �e arrest ed unless . a war:an� �s 1ss_ u�d. .. . . ��e: as 1s .<?therw�se. expre�sly provided." The exception al _ · 1� per1n1tted . _without prior -�ourt autl1orization will be �rrest h1c�· w · �1t��tions 1n · · · , · · · · discussed further· below.

�oirid

The ordinary procedure fo� issuiug warrants is prescribed by Articles 53 and 54.�2 Recog�i�ing ·the · extr�me · gravity of the decision to order the · arrest· of an _limite� t_ hat powe_r . Although any court may issue .indjvig11:al, t�e C�de has stri<;tly . a :warrant,23 its power may be exercised only upon. the .application of an. investigat•

•

. ..

. .. . .. ."

. ..

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�

19. . Sp_ac-e · does not permit .full considerati)n of the initial steps in Ethiopian criminal: pro . . cedure py which justice is orqinarily \Set in motion: . the . filing of accusations ;ind com plaints with the authorities. To the ex;• ent that such informatio� may implicate a g iven . . individual ·and induce the police to ,take him into cus.t9dy, the informant plays an import· ·.:a.nt role in the initial s�lection process. In order ,t o gua,rd against the. \v.rongful implica-ti_on ·.. of..i.tinoc.ent _persons in -,thi� 1n�ner the law does provide sanctions against Jh.e false 1 · formant. See Crim. P:ro. C., Art. '18; Pen. C., Arts. 441, 580; av. C.. Arts, 2044 ; · For th:e same reason the Code treats anonymous acct1sations, which in some· cases arc . likely ,to be untrue or maliciously motivated, with cau�on'. · (Art. l2). · 20;· · Con�erning tne· important Amharic - English cliscrepa11cy. in th.is article see rtext accom· ,panyin:g notes 55 ff., below. . 2�. This translation is a composite of varioos submissions by ·students ait the Faculty of Law� . Sellassie I University. Literally ti;i e .Amharic word aytasere,n ( >,t,:J•flC?'") mean1l ajle . : - � •�11?prison'� .rather "than ''arrest," which 'is usually rendered by n1ayaz ( ou.Mf � (s�,. e.�, · Crim. Pro. C., Ar:t. 49). See Nebiyelul Kifle, Iss11a11ce of Warra11ts 'Of_ Ar�est zn Et (1?65,_ u1;1J?ubli�h�d, A;c�i:V�• Faculty of ·Law, Haile Sel!assie I Un1v�ruty), PP• . ·. · 1:'he s1gn1_f1can:e of this _ discrepancy ! .s deb� ·table .an .d men ts furthe� resea�h and war· t -s1-0n.· This article assumes that the 1nstan1t provision was· 111ea,1t to refer to ar.r�s . the 10 ploye 1 en I r��ts, �nd T JeJU th�t th� courts will so in.te:rpret it despi1te it.he discrepant . · · ·Ambar1c· vers1on. · 22:_ ·.Art. 53:-Issue of Warrant. . · . . a . police t · . a r t l of i?n '?f any iny e s�g ::raklaY · arrest �_ : .. (1� A. wai: b app the ica may e .issued _ on _ . · , officer by any court and shall be addressed -to the chief of the ·police m '. Gu,e�a� in which it i s issued. · · • . . . (2) � wa�ant may be issued at any .titne d on any day of :�li e Y�· 01omber . � an by y (J) A warra .nt of ar.rest may be executed 1n -ar1y part of the Empire · . . . of the police. . : · .', ·· Art. 54. � U:'he,:, �arra11r· oj · tir:r��t to �i ·issued. . . : ·· • on b�fore the : ,. _A_ warrant ,o� arr�st shall ·qiily be 1ssu� where ·the aitten_dance 0� a pers , . .... •,cou,_rt is absolutc.:ly necessa,ry . obt ain ed be oth . an erwi can d not se . . · . .. · · · · · ... , 23. Art"' 53•. , . · · . , .. . ,,

tPJ

Jscus:

f·

'··

,,,

� ,. , ...

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warrant may the issue only if the police officer is then And er.2-t . g 1.1 e offic in P� �emonstrate two facts to the court: (1) that it is absolutely necessary that able appear before the court and (2) that his attendesired is arrest whose e�son !�fe be fore the court cannot_ be_ obtained in an y other way.2s nd the cnter1a method of these proving their satisfaction of ng � meani The explained. Nor has the author knowledge of any not are case ular partic . ny language the of �ti�le 54 is apparently si,i generis for point, . on ces sour �gri _ ��r 2 6 In the absence o� �rther legislat1v guidance, then, it is for the. � in the �ode. t� a?m1n1ster tl1ese requirements in. keeping with .the best how decide to s court e and Const1tut1on . d o C e th f o spirit ..

1 tJ si es e ec i1t N ol bs A of 1 o, ri te T-he Cri' How can the court decide whether or not the attendance of a person before it is ''absolutely necessary''? We must note at the outse� that these words imply a very rigorous test, and in combi11at1 ion with the preceding word ·''only'' clearly suggest that the court is ·to exercize a screening function; it is not supposed- ''auto matically'' to issue warrants ,to arrest whomever the police suspect of an offence. It is a fair inference that, as a 111i11i111i111z standard, the court must be satisfied that there is sufficient evidence to believe that the suspected person has probably com mitted the offence. By requiring the applicant to produce some credible evidence to support that belief, the Code has established an impartial judicial check on the weighty power of arrest. After the court is satis.fied that ·the suspect · is a proper target for criminal prosecution, then it becomes necessary for the court to obtain physical jurisdiction and control over him. Once the suspect is before it, the court can take steps to ensure the continued availability of· his person to ·the judicial process: this is· accomplished either by keeping him in custody or by granting him conditional liberty on bail.27 Therefore, in a sense it is ''absolutely necessary'' that every 24. Ibid. "Bench war.rants" (Arts. ·73, 76, 125, 160(2) ), which the court may issue with�t any su.ch application ,to force the accused or previously summoned witnesses ,to appear for further proceedings, comprise a different category. is. Art. 54. 26. In American law tl1e criterion for issuance of a: warrant ,is "probable cause" or "reason able ground" to believe the accused is guilty of a criminal offence. Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, Rule 4, U11ited States Code (1958 ed.), Ti1tle 18, Crimes and Criminal Procedure. In English-Commonweal.th codes (see note 7, above) there is usua!ly no such articulated standard, although it has been held that the issuing magistrate must exercise ·�- "judicial discretion" in deciding ,t o grant or refuse an application for an arrest warrant Ha/sbuty's Laws of E11gland (3d ed., London, 1955), vof. 10, Criminal Law, para. 629; see also Sohoni's · Code of [l11dian]. Cri111i11al Procedure .(16th ed., Allahabad, 1.965), vol. 1, sec. 75, para. 6. ' · · Nor,. it seems, does any continental courit, ry have a ,test ·similar to Ethiopia's. In France, no criterion is stated. See The Fre11c/1 Code of Cri1ni11al Pr.oced11re, Arts. 122 ff. (tr:1nsla.tion G. Kock, London, 1964), hereinafter cited as _Fre11c/1 Code. In Germany, tho . . chief �t i-s "strong suspicion" .that the suspect has co11?1111tted the offence. See Tlze Ger1?1a11 Code of Crin1i11al Procedi,re, Arts. 112-14 (translation H. Niebler, London, 1965), , her · , . e1nafter cited a,s Ger1na11 Code, an:ct note 34, belo\V. · . i;-he only simila-r provision - known to the writer is the Japanese· one, which uses the . cn!e�on of "necessity" in addition t. o that of "reasonable cause ,to suspect'' Code of Cr,nz.zn al Procedt.1re, Ar.t. 199(2), in Tlze Co11stit11tio1i p11d Criminal Stat11tes of Japan (J apa n, 1960), p. 86. 27- Art. 59.

JOURNAL OF ETI-IIOPIAN LAW -,-

Vo.L. I.II - No. 2

11gs edi oce r p, nal crilJ)i are on) wh contemplate d t ins aga er end off e abl · · prob · · appe · _ar 1 ff' g po rGe t1n 1ga o·-·1ce1· est 1n v an lie app ere wh s t Bu rt. for cou . a the warrant to be.fore · · t . su · b �o · n_ s · 'l 1a 1?,W � a11t 1s I ere_ h t m who e to . ev1d as son per �ce . _ a of er· inaI arrest activity it follows that no prosecutto:1 1s JUSt1f1ed a11d� therefore,. tliat the pr� senc e . ) tely t Il.Ot solu 1s (ab e rt ess cou c . . J the a ore . bef y r of that individual Concededly, this interpretation requires tl1at a s01nywhat special �ean..i.ng be · · '' It · . �ary. h 1s, 11eces Y I ute '' b I owe so v a er, se; phra . upp s the. to given o��ed b ·11 . limitation placed on the power of the police· to s un111_1011 a suspect to appearyth le · �t there. be ''re�so� to belie.ve." _that l1e has commit�ed a11 offe11ce. 28 J]nless ''abs oiute necessary'' 1_s 1n_terpreted 1n the n1anner suggest .ed here, �ye would have· th� anomalous s1t�at1on _that a �USJ?ect _ cou!� not ?e requested to appear unless there \Ve�e subs�ant1al evidence 1nd1cat.�ng h1s gt1�lt, b_ut h� co11ld: be JJrougI1_t_ to the p�_l1ce_ _ statlo_n . by force on t�e ba.s1s of tl1e slightest ev1dence, or on the basis of · . no evidence at all. Jf ien1ains toco· os. ider by what . means tl1e applicant J1?,ight. demqnstrate the reasonableness of suspecting � particular perso11 to tlJe court. Although on this point too the. Code. is silent it seen;is tltat the application. for. a warrant could be support�d by the submission of various sorts o� proofs. Some of these might be: (a) a copy of the accusation or COfi?.plalnt (as reco.rded under Article 14); (b) the pres�nce in court of the party who si 611ed the acc11sation or complaint, and. his availabilty for questionin_g by. _ the judge; (c) copies of any other statements obtained from witnesses during the police investigation ( Arts. 2�, 30(3) ); (d) writte.n statements of the results of a.ny otl1er investigatory activities conducted-by police such a.s searches (Arts. 32, 33) an.d physical examinations (Art. 34). .

''Carz.not Othe1 1 ise be Obtained'' - Tl.e Secon(i Requireme11t of Article 54 We have mentio11ed a second criterion which must be satisfied before the cou.rt may issue an arrest warrant: that the presence o.f the accused before the court cannot be obtained in any other way. The apparent basis of this reluctance to authorize arrest 29 when tl1ere is some alternative way to get the acct1sed before the court is that arrest, in volving as it does the possible use of force, is a drastic procedure, to be avoided if possible. ·Among the i11here11t disadvantages of arrest physically go are (a) the use of time and energy on the part of the police who must . 1

I I

· · 28. Art. 25. 29... It h�s been repor!ed that �any judg. ts int�rpret "cant1�t o.tl1erwise be o�ta}n e;{' ;: _al lowing t� em to Issue war. ran_ts only _if the suspect ca nnot. legally and practi caJbile arrested 1-v1thout a warrant. Neb1yelul .K1fle' cited above at note 21, pp. 8 aod 9 · 1 b)' arres O t g er re f · •It 1•s Jogically • r as . ·ng pos sible to interpret "otherwise" in Article · io 54 1nc1 . . . conv lva, rant ra-ther than to arres.t generally, sucl1 a r eading .i.s supp·ort·ed bY .no by reasons. Further, it is inconsistent wit1 the constitutional policy favonog a rrftsticles waurant save _for "ex:eption�l'' cases, sin,:e· it ttirns the per1niss iveness of <?0d J �Ie-lY 19-21 and 50 1n!o an �mporative. Refusal of a cour,t to grant· a wru·ra�t ap�lica 00 accept becau . se. �?ne IS, strJctlr . speaking, "n ded': to effect an .arrest, JS ref u�a�to� police � a f responsibility f?r the dec1s1011 to arrest. Since r t be y Jt1dges are man1fes� . � � i�r- not, such officers to decide whether on the available evidence an arrest 1s JU&tified the hift s . to r,ef usal _ wo_ ?ld seem unwarra nted.. Furtb e.'"Dl.ore, the police oi,glzt- to be free _ h rebY e respo_ns1h1!1ty· f�r such "legal'' determin,tions from themselves to. �he c_o��,tot arrest , sion s�uring Insulation from the deci ng o ''wr a atten d without warran t. See note 51, liability wliich may below.

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hin1 to court under supervision; (b) possible embarrassbring and used acc . .. . d t 1te fj11 . e1ng I bl 1c pu b 1n · d _arrested �nd escorted by the police; y acct1se cent inno an . tance to arrest with atten e t to resis dant injuries to the accused � ; (c) the possibility of an reasons the Code ?refe rs that these the accused's presence in for rs. . he · t o d an means, e eser '' 1·t ,, ng 1 h e t P� use b of Y arrest ed _ for those cases : obtain � be t ou.r c alternative. 1he preferred method 1s for the police practica · ble only the is t 1 1 wh ere ,·3 ·1 I '' · t n r1 to appear at the police station, a method u a o y d v se u cc a e th 30 n o 1u n1 10 su ·ages o f arrest. n t va d · d. 1sa d e cit e th of ne no whic h bas As a general rule, then, tl1e cou.rt �ay 11ot issue a warrant of arrest unless the accused has a_Iready _been st1mmo11ed wrt �oul success. 32 • For, un t il a summons has been tried it 1s possible that the accused_s atte�da11ce 1n court can ''otherwise be obtained" and tl1erefore resort to arrest 1s forbidden_ by Article 54. Of course if the accused has already bee11 sun1moned anc has deliberately failed to appear the inves t igating police officer has tl1e dt1ty to arrest him by applying for an arrest, 33 a11d tl1e court shoold isst1e it, assuming that ''absolute necessary, ,varrant if · . n w 1o n sl ee b necessity" has There are, however, cases imaginable in which tl1e court would be justified in issuing an arrest warrant even though the summons method had not been tried. II, for example, the applicant could by reliable evidence convince the court ·that summoning the accused would be completely futile because the latter had already planned or begun to flee the Empire, or because receipt of a summons would likely induce him to flee, the court would be ju�.tified in ordering arrest because the accused's attendance could not ''otherwise be obtained." But unless such excep tional circumstances are sl1own the police should always first proceed by sum mons.34 30. Art. 25. - Su111111011i11g of acc11sed or s11spectel perso11. \Vhe,re the investigating police officer has reason to believe that a pe.rson has com n1itted an offence, he may by written summon.! require such person to appear before him. For additional reasons why arrest should never be used when a summons would see H. Silving, Essays on Cri1ni11al Proced1,re (Buffalo, N.Y., 1964), well, serve •as • •• pp. xx.111-xxix. 31. Con1pliance is "voluntary" in the sense that the summoned person either responds to it or does not ,vitl1ot1t pl1ysical coercio11 on the part of the police. (But see note 52, below.) Yet compliance is also in a sense con1pulsory, because failure to appear "without lawful excuse'' is a criminal offence (Pen. C., Ar'.. 442). Disobedience to an oral summons (commonly used in some Ethiopian courts) is probably not punishable under Penal Codo Article 442 since a summons, to be "lawful," must be in the form prescribed by Article 25. For that reason oral summonses ougl1t nc,t as a regular matter to be used. 32. This is in accord with the English rule. See Halsb11ry's Laws of England, cited aQovc at note 26, vol. 10, Criminal Law, paras. 625, 342.; Sir P. D�vlin, The Criminal Prosecution in .England (London, 1960), p. 70. 33. Ar t. 26 - Arrest. (1) Where the accused or the suspect has net been arrested and the offence is such as � o jus_ tify arrest or where the person summoned under Art. 25 fails 10 appear, the investigating police officer shall take such steps as are necessary to effect his arrest. (2) Where the arrest cannot be made without warrant, the investigating police officer shall apply to the court for a warrant cf. arrest in accordance with the provisions of Art. 53. 34 · I other c untries, different but similar crite�a operate in conjunction with a "r:3-5on � ?, _ a le bebef standard. In Japanese law, for nstance, an arrest warrant may be issued o�Iy when "there exists reasonable cause en�ugh to suspect that the suspect has com <?ffense" and that there. is "nec�sity" to arrest -the suspect. Further, appaan tted �ntly, arrestees must quickly be brougl1t beJore a court, and then. released unless the

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ctio distin he en ''[t betwe , Devlin the proc ess be ) �ord to ding �� Accor " ·_ n . e h s ns aves th a�c1:1sed com� t"' br arrest and th �t be�u11 by �um�? 1 1 at the la..tter l� e ely 35 In Engla d, p rbaps, but . v1cted co not -1s he � 1n Ethiopia: F � � at liberty untJ.l , 1s d free n1etho ns summo the from saJd, ?r, have many we as of h, althoug the c , · oe Ye rc1 · · d I t · 1 · s aspects_ of arrest, und �r:E. t hi. op1a�1 Iaw Lt ea JUSw �s sure y to immediate cu tod 36 bef re tr1al. 37 • s rge d1s _ of b1l1ty ve poss n n � as with perhaps ? <? 1?', � � � �uming the su;:. mone4 -a�cuse_ d s read1�ess and ab1l1ty t� convince the po lice of his absolute inno_ was he wh1cl1 to respect with offence su1nmoned. . the .of , cence the Code doe pe1rn!�38 the police to d�s�ha·r �e �1. Rather, they have tl1e �ption to releases: �ondi!tonally <;>.n bond39 or bring him before a cot1rt.40 In this respect.. and in a·11 ,.

.coULt !ssues a "wacrai1t of detention." That warrant _can _only be issued if one of tho follow1n .g are true of the sus pect: (1) h•� has n? established residence; (2) there are reason• .· . able grouncls to suspect tl1at he may d�troy evidence; or (3) he has esca.ped, or there a re reasonable grounds t o suspect that he may escape. See S. Dando and H. Tamiya . ' •·1 apan: Conditional Release," U. of Pizr111sylva1zi,1 L. Rev., vol. 108 (1960), pp. 323-24'. Tlie [Japanese] Code of Cri111inal. Proced11re, cited above at 11ote 25, Arts. 60 199 fE Those criteria are very similar, in ·pra ;, tice, to tl1e Ethiopian requirement that the· ac cused's presence ''canno:t be obtained" othe_r\vise than by arrest. See also Gern-1an Code, Arts. 112-14; T}1e T11rkisli Code of Cri111inal Procedi,re, Arts. 104 ff. (translation Le gal Resea:rch Institute, Faculty. •of Law, A1kara Univ. and. others, London, 1962); United Nations, Study of the Right of Eve1y011e to be Free froni Arbitrar)' .4.rrest, Detention an.d Exile (E/CN.4/826/Rev.l, 1964), Ar t. 5 of ''Draft Principles," p. 206. 3·5·. Devlin, cited above at note 32, p. 71. In • the context, Lord Devlin makes clear that "· "oomipletely at liberty" 111eans unoonditi)nal, not condi,tional, discharge. ;_ 36. Of cour, se, under Arts. 28 and 64, co11diti'J11al release may be available. See note 15, above. 37. See text accompanying notes 13-17, above. 38. Since Article 28 (quoted below at note 39) specifically addresses itself •to the case \vhere ''it is d,oubtful that an offenc� has been committed· or tl1at the summoned ... person has -:- ·com:tnit, ted· [it]" ther, e· seems to be litit.Ie or no room for interpretation. The same is true .:· ·: 'in the. case ·of arres,tees. See notes 13, above and .$0, below, Presumably th� ,word ' "doubtful'�· was intended to include ca.ses where i1111oce11ce_ is appareo. t or even Vlrtually · . .. C.�ain. . 39. Art 28. - Release on bond. . (1) Where ... ·it is doubtful that ... tl1e sitr11rn.011ed. or arrested person has committed the • : " . .· , :offeoc.e ,com,plained of, the inves1tiga.ting police officer n1ay in bis discreti?n release . · such person on his executing a bo1d with or without sureties that l1e wi�l appe.ar -. · at such place,. on such day and at such time as n1ay be fixed by tl1e polic e. t h (2) Whe!'e the_ accused is not !el_eased on bond �oder tl1i, s �r�cle, he rnay apply "· · -:-· . - • .. court to be released on bail in accorda11ce with the prov1s1ons of Art. 64. (Emp,t�asi� addedJ . d a Although ire �O.r _su,nrn�ner � Article 49 ("Procedi,re after arrest") does not explicitly reqti · ...·.ac.cused to be hrO?ght bef�re· "the nearest court within forty-eight �ours of h i� 8(:�\e� so soon ·thereafter as local ciTcumstances and con1n1unJcatio ns per1111t'' a .reasona b e :n • g n ns n r ll pretation of th·e Cod(? mt1st regard this requiren1ent as· applying to a pe so (_e �n in.to custody, whether by means of summons or an·est ' unless ,they are released e.g.,nds grou t,,,o . are ,. , . bon d :i,in_der. _ Art1...cl�. 28) prior to the expiration of that · peri There od. . y ap eariog , .. p ted, !100r this ,1nterpreta.t1on. In strict legal theory, an accused who, after ,,olu ntaril r s a een s an h swer to will : . a . summons a ·? : sor me ent' is detained by the police ·against bis , ' • n · ;· bec_ause_ Phys1ca · 1 restraint in these circunstailces · •undoubtedl y consti-tutes, 101pr1 ReV. 51 c le Arti which zs arrest. The -·"forty-eight hour rule'' of Article 29 (and of _ a y:s con· d � rt �on.) must therefore apply unless ,the p::>lice can show that the su�mone · tmu� pr en was truly . voluntary (see notes· 52 and 54, eI�,v)._ of ? _ � �. iccused ; 0' n policy g r o1;1nds 1t. would be indefensible_ to depnve � sum�onei on, fi iti de n y a uable p o ti r 1s, t almost wl10 o while , arrestee qt g � ec allowin � the to bis wn . of , · : boun _to b� more dangerous, l • e comp � .. • who one than etc: ess coope rative . . ·accord w:t.th a ' . , . summons. - . . . . r_

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. consequences for the accu ep.ta the ils iden ns tica l st1m mo a to nse sed .. as . · s . respo · ther e cour�· bef ore_ v1h1ch th� police take him ha� no _e X:pli�it . oo . �bj ectio�. to arrest=: th , d es s even 1f convinced of mnocence, and the prelinunar;y lu-m rge · d ischa to rity i utho has . none. _ In other wor?s, summo_ ns. _differs . from arrest clearly 1 t cour �n uiry4 only 1n that 1t . dra�s one into cu�tody ':voluntarily'' rather �aw opia� Ethi ��er s ed ac�u_ arr1\le; t�e at the police station a�d. is detained once 1s, 1t ; force by thrut 4 to st. ed In re rm ar fo ns tra , · · ily ar t un ol nv · . . · th.ere 1 .· TlJis conclusion, that summons under th e_ . Code holds practically identical the accused. �s _doys arrest, P.ro�okes : the quest_ ion __-whether the for uences nseq cb Code adequately co.Qltol� and. l1m1ts the pc,wer· to Issue �ummonses. We find that _. contrast to the practice of other procwural ·systems, both Anglo-American43 :d continental,44 ·w11ere a_ su�mons, like a'll �rrest warrant, is issued by the courts, •n Ethiopia the power 1s·g1ve11 to the police themselves. 4�, Th� only limitation 46 _is 111at tl1e· investi�ating police officer 25 Article sh�uld have ''reason by .i m posed . 47 has :comm1:ted an offence. accused the " While that standarµ tl1{it · ve, to. belie is not precise it can at least be said that A1ticle 25 prohibits the summoning of an accused where: t�e evidence is of very questionable reliability _:_ such as . a.nony mous- or ambigtIO US information, l1earsay U]SUStained by factual investigation, e� . . · · Of course the · existence of a criterion and its proper application are two diffe� e·ot· th ings, and it• may be asked whether it is wise to delegate this power to the police rather than to the cot1rts. The deci;ion whether or not ther� is sufficien_t "reason to believe'' to-justify the issuance oi a summons calls for a weighing of the evidence· of criminal guilt against the presumption of innocence and the right to 48 In the ha�ds of the polic _ e this delicate discretion, which entails the freedom. • •

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·41. If ·on� is l1eld. See note 14; above. 42. In practice it may · not i even diff e r · in that :espect. App·arent· ly many Ethiopian polic·e office rs use the summons in plac e of an arre:t war.rant, by coming to the suspect's home or work place ·armed with a summons fille d out to "reque!Yt" his irnmediate presence at the police station. T he police ,officer then e.scorts tl1e "summon ed" susp ect. See Nebi yelul Kifle, cited above at note 21, pp. 20 ff. Of course this procedur e , which distorts the spirit of th e summons, . is· tantamount to. arrest without warrant and should be so .. · t reat ed. · · 43. For exarnp,le, England (Magistrates' Cour:ts f\ct, 1952, Sec. 1, cited above at nqtc 13, · vol . . 32, P: 441); the United States. (Rule 4, Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure ,. cited abq�e at not� 26); India. (Cocfe of <;ri111i11al.Procedure, 1898, Art. 68 (Lucknow, 1962), . hereinafter •cited as, l11diai1 Code); Ghana. (Crimi11al Procedz,re Code, 1960, Sec. 62 . . (Accra), hereinafter cfted as G/1a11a Code), ,the SucJan (Code of Criminal. �.rocedurc, • Sec. 44, La,vs of tl1e S11da11 (1955), vol. 9, 1itle 25, hereinaft er cited as Suda,i Code). 44. F or �xample, Franc e , \1/l)ere the 111a11dat ie co1npar11tion (equivalent .. to the AngloCode, Arts. 122-24; Arnencan "summons") is issued by the exami1ing magistrate. French · Tow�. cited ·above at n , ote s; p: 483. . . · . . . 45· Art. 25:. The only exc.eption 10 .this rule is fcund, ironically, in the procedure goycming pe t ty off eqces, where th e issuance · of summon5es is judicially control led in the manner of · arrest war.r ts (Art. . 167). It is not clear why th e drafters distinguished ½ 1 this way � �et ween ordinary and petty offences; one's ordinary expectatioi;i would be entLrely oppo. _ te 46 · SI - .,.e. to al low police issuance of summons only in petty offences. · Qll?l�d..above a t no · . te 30. Polic e sum _n;ions of witnesse s, governed by Article 30, _is a differen !; matter . In t�e United States the same "probable cause" r e quired for the issuance of warrants . · · ust b� found before a summons may issue. Rule 4, Federal Rul�s · of Cri minal Proce � . _ ur e, cited above at not,e 26. In England, although a summons may· be issued on an . . � ns �orn and unsign ed information, the san� "judicial discr etion" appropriate to the :· -: · s� a�ce of warrants � applies. /fa/sb1,1ry's Laws of Engla11d, cited above at note- 26, vol. 10, · · . ,· , . nnunaI Law, para. 629_ ·

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same serious conseq�ences for � acc_nsed as does t�e. d�cisi_o n to issue a w . d1spass1onately !l1�n less exercised 1f left be with the judici arran tj is likely to a apprel1end cr11n111a]s is to job it difficult are understandably ry. For, those •whose prone to resolve doubts in favour of the governme11t, not tl1e i11dividua]. It is submitted, therefore, tl1a.t bolh for the sake of internal consistenc aD m d tl1e Code of citizens rights the should be amended :o order to safeguard to transfer the sum.moos power from tl1e police to the courts. It that Wer jud�es . woul� issue either warrants, of �rr�st or sun1mo11ses _upon applicatio�, �:· revi:�i�g evtdenc� �f the accused s �.1m1�al conduct and 1n accordance with th; feas1b1l1ty of obta1n1ng custody of him without the u_se of force. They not th police, would decide before issuing a ;ummons whether or not there wer; "rea e so an offence, just as of guilty they accused e the believe'' now to decide b f ne issuing warrants wh�ll?-er or not -�s presence before the court ''is absolut�; necessary.''49 The dec1s1on as to wh1c:1 £orm of process to use in a particular ca � would never even arise until after a judicial determination had been made thats the a.ccused was probably guilty of a criminal offence. Assuming, though, that tl1e ab;)Ve recomme11dation is rejected, and it is decided to leave the summons power in police hands, there might be anoth er acceptable way to alleviate tl1e present law's harshness. That is, to amend th e Code to allow the police to discharge SL1mmoned suspects ,vl1ose innocence becomes apparent to them. There are two fqreseeable objecticns to granting the police this power. It might be argued, first, that by allowing police discharge the process would thereby become obscured from judicial revtew and supervision. The police w o uld be free upon the flimsiest suspicion to summon suspects ''arbitrarily'' for questioning, and then discharge them when the :nterroga.tion _proves fruitless. This fear of police abuse underlies the common requirement50 that persons arrested without warrant must, despite their apparent innocence or the illegality of their arrest, be

49. For consistency's s-ake, the same Interi:retive criteria and methods of proof should apply to both standards. See text accompanying notes 26-29, above. 50. Co�e provisions o_a this poir�t. in EnBlish-Commonwe�lth systems seem to . be ?f �:: _ basic types. The first, exempl1f1ed by the codes of India and Sudan, mak�.s .1t q��te see ( n os res t �I� p t�� oake that police discharge is unlawful; the Ethiopian Code (Art. 28) sl1� r note 38, above ). T11e codes of Ma]aya. and Si11gapore also .take tl11s P·051�1 ? 0• rives e a 1 plicit e an exc.eption in the case of senior polic� officials. The next type gives x t �:fore to the police either to discharge the ari ; estee conditionally or to brio� him at 0cf are a co�rt, but doe s not say anything al:ot1t ouright release; Tai:igany1ka and . ·�endis an of this group (but. s�e note 13, abovel. The last type, of which �e _G�an� nc is ap. · e example, does expl1c1tly authorize police discl1arge of tl1e arrestee tf his .1 °?. eProc dure e 1 1 parent to them. See Indian Code, Sec. 63; S11da11 Code, Secs. 42 , 121; Cr " !'' � cited as Code of the Federated Malcly States, Sec. 29 Kuala J.,t1n1pur, 1951), herein /terSingapore ( 'fvlalaya11 Code; Crimi�al Pro�edure C?de, Sec. 34, LaH:s �f tire Colony Jade, Sec.. 34 , ( 19 55), chap. 132, hereinafter cited as !.111gur1ore Cocle,· Onrrunal Proc�dur� e· [En glish] od L-aJv � of T nganyika, (1947), chap. 20 1 h_ereioafter cited as Ta11ga, 1yika Cod 1 5 ec. ' 1 , ). s ( � e G Magistrates <?ourts Act, 1952, Sec. 38. cited above a note 12. �ia,za ten � ugh alt of ho _ _ l �n Amencan law police d1scharage of arrestees 1s ge;n�a!IY illega (vol. 28 (1942), practiced). See S. Warner, "The Uniforrn Arrest Act," V1rg1111a �- Re v 67•68• . ) pp · pp. 336-38. E. Puttkammer, Ad,ninistritio,i of Crin·1inal La1v (Chicago, 195 3th ·ty of a a by e ted r f a course, the accused ub i�fore th es O police an , may never r discharge · . court warra . , nt, since a \Varrant conta1n1 an order .that ,the arrestee be brou g t court. See, for example, Crim. Pro. C., Th ird Schedule, Form VI.

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facts j�dicially_ �he a�� established. to :�u!t. W�ere the arrest has a � re befo : keri t: illegal ; ·a JU?1c1a� . f !n�1n_g to that e�ct m ight lay the basis for a successf�I en . er.· �ut these .arguments a·re not so strong off�nd_ th� against action l pena .�c111.-- 1.1 or which, st1mmons up ·until · t/1e ·time it ripens into wrongful the to d pplie . a en h w t i(· ·nvolu nta.ry custody), is• far less an invasion. of the citizen's righ 1s.s2 arres . , . Ofillts Code tl1e that to authorize police discharge of a argued be also t migh It very sound reason:. that the .rank and file police officer a for ed accus oned . . ·surom · d 1r · 1aw to exercise this .discretion comd tra1ne . an educated · iently suffic . not· ''trus t'' h'1m to dec'de whic 15 h accused to discharge and 1 t ntly· that we cannot 53 The i;11vestigatio11. further_ for obvious reply is to point ond or bold � �hl�h t� suff1c1e�tly compe�ent to decide that a summoned _ n�t are police tl1e if that out accused is innocent a�d ougl1t ther�fore to be discharged, then they are equally incompet�nt in tl1e f�rst . place . �o 1s�ue a . �u_mmons on �he ground that there is :"reason to believe'' the accused guilty _of a crime, an.d the power to issue summonses ·ough t· to· be vysted _i�1 _th� jt1dici�ry instead . of tl1e P?lice. This s?luti�n has •been ·· proposed above. But, 1t 1s s11bnntted, unle.,s and until the <;ode _i s so amen.de� the police ought _at least to l1a,,e tl1e power :o undo the consequences of their own erroneous actions. . In summary, it has been suggested tl1at since from the accused's point of view the same serious consequences whicl1 follow from the execution of an arrest .

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51 , There is a variety of sanctions, legal and non-legal , which the victim of an unlawful arrest might invoke, separately or concurren.tly, against the perpetrator. Briefly, they arc: . �- civil action for da111age�: against tl1e arrester, whether he be an ordinary citizen (Civ. C., Arts. 2035, ·20- 40-42) or police ,officer (Civ. C., Arts. 2031, 2033, 2035, ·2040-42). If the latter, the ·state may be jointly liable •with ·a right of recovery against the police man (Rev. -Con., Art. 62; Civ. C., Arts. 2116-27). b.. crin1inal prosec1ttio11: of a private arrester (Pen. C., Art. 557)· or of a police officer (Pen. C., Arts. 412, 414, · 416; 751-52:,. · · · c. self-7,elp: pl1ysical resista 11ce to an u11lawful arrest (assault) is lawful. See Civ. C., 64(c), :4. BtLt 1See also Pen. C., Arts. 433 and 762, Arts. 10, 11; 2039(b); Pen. C., A rts: ,:vhich are subject to conflicting interpretatio1s. . d. i11ternal (polic_ e) cfiscip/i,.,e: in t'be form of departmental dem-otions, fines, etc. See Pen. C., Art. 411; Police Proclamation, 1942, Arts. 18(2) and 21 ff., · Proc. No. 6, · · 1Veg. Gaz., year 1, no. 1.' · 52. Of course, once tl1e strm.moned accused is detained by the poJjce against his will, the summons process has ·been transformed intc• •one of arrest without warrant, and should be treated as an illegal arrest if the sumnons was issued without proper "reason to believe" under Art. ·25. In sucl1 a case tl:e accused's remedies for illegal arrest (see note . 51, above) sl1ould apply. It might be questioned whether a s11mmoneC: accused is ever i::eally present at the police s�at�on _''voluntarily," see .no.te 31, above. But it does seem reasonable to insist upon the d1st1n� t1on between "voluntary'' and "involuntary" presence in order to preserve the essen tial dfstinction between summons and arrest. Admittedly, these involve· degrees of voluntariness (or involuntariness). But see Devlin, cited above at- note 32, pp. 68·69, aad G. Willian1s, "Police Detention and Arre;t Privileges: An International -Symposium," "England," J. Cri,n. L., Cri112. and Police Sci., vol. 51 (1960), pp. 414-16. · ·· 53· This reasoning, ,vith which tl1e present ,vriter disagrees, was apparently instx:umental in the _Code drafters' decisio11 to deny the p:relininary inquiry court power to discharge an obv1ously innocent accused. See Graven, "La nouvelle procedure . .. ," cited above at 1ote 2, n. 21. .It 'is dif_ficult to unders�and,. in �his connection! t�at writer's sugg� tion �d., n. 22) t_J1a.t tl1e pubhc pr-osecutors' d1scr�t:on m sue� cases \.Vtll m some ,va_y subs� tute a protection to �he accused. Not orily are �rosect1tors ('Yho are usually police officer�) ely . to have as lit t le legal education as the Judges before whom they appear, but their appraisal of t he evidence is hardly likely to b:! as impartial as a judge's.

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·warrant-. against him also follow response . to a surn1n_o11s, both form s of r -<;>c�ss tl1 rity autho co11rts same ;. e by issued on be � si to. � milar ter .ought a. i I · to ght be least given the at e polic oo the autho 111, refor this •Failing rity to ctucu . h g e ave cl. h. o11e they sum m who seds accu t cen inno tly apparen If the latter ��ange. �ere made, the police would h�ve !hree optio ns at th . ei ac used, summoned a 01�e with e�I11:1g of forwh1ch would have to -d1-spesal � ? _ b; 54 of his volunta1y appeara l1ours ht 1 forty1th1n nce at the police act�d upon_ � �� _ bond, on release and cond1t1onal presentat discharge, ion before the _station: -nearest court. Arrest Without· War,·arit

. . Having thus far considere� arrest 11nder court warra:it and �he use of police summo.1_1ses let us tu :11, to t �e third and last _method by which physical custody over suspected offenders 1s obtained - arrest without \Varrant. The governing rules are · found in - both the Constitution and the Code.

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. AB noted above 55 the Amharic version of Article 51 of the Constitution per mits ar·rest without warrant only where the offender ''is found commmittin g a serious offence in violation of the law in force," and various articles of the Code56 elaborate on these exceptional cases. Unfortunately there is a serious· discrepancy between the above-quoted language ·anc that of the· English version of Article 51 which reads: ''No one may arrested [sic] without a warrant except in case of flagrant. or serious violation of the liw in force." If we take ''flagrant'' to be . roughly equivalent to ''found committittg''57 the crucial discrepancy is seen to be that the English version would allow arrests without warrant where the offence is either flagrant or serious, whereas the Amharic restricts the power to cases where both conditions are satisfied. The distinction is vital in cases where, for example, a person commits a petty offence in plain view of a police officer. �ere, an arrest without warrant would be permitted by the English version but forbidden by the Amharic since the latter demands tl1at the offence be a ''serious''58 one. Toe importa.nce of the discrepancy is also sten in cases where a police officer an:ests without warrant a person reasonably suspected of having committed a senous -offence some years p·reviously. The English version permits such arrests on

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= 54. Theoretic ally, th.e .tirst op·uon c ould be e.xercised a.t tlle expiration of a pe riod �,}':1� . (but onJy as lon.g) as the a ccused's pres:nce at the , police stati� n was "volun,t�, sum· t an 5 n fo n . _no e �, above. Th.a.t ·is_ because it is 'O? ly after ,the use ?f coercio _f:r � tn i! desirable n1ons int? a rres � that discharge woul�, 1n ,th'=°ry, be f� rb1dden. But it mi.� · fortr· ' f ,t<;> establish an rr,rebuttable presumption of 1nvolt1ntwnness -af ter the expiratio n o eight hours, for purposes of Article 29. S5. See -te:xit accompanying note 21, above. 56.'_ Arts·.. 19-21 an� 50-51. bopod, is . 57. Although some students of Amba.ric find ambiguity ,in tl1e phrase, most, i.t tes cfitect o · "":0uld -agree that siya_diirg kaltiigne biika· ( il.fJ!C-, , taA1·:,"1 .• fl«f>C ) �� cfiscovefY · pisopYery of ,the act 1n process of comrrission, rather than 1nd1rect , po.st �hat �e . act ha& been c ommitted. . loW'· be 6' 78-8 58· The precise IJ1eaning of "serious'' is discussed at text acc ompanying notes

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but the _Amharic forb id s them beca use lone, a ness' ' rious · th� element ''se . unels. of " gro . . k 1ng. . . . . . lac s i cy ran .. . of f]ag · where t.h_e English_ �nd Amhari� y�rsions are· 1;Ws, as _ s ue� t.ion a t _u si In a obv1 9usly . �ecessary to de_c1de which version 1s 1tpant,, d iscre shou ld · I · · · · ear Y cl · 1 a y s .fa11 back' . OJ1 th� �r1nciple � ca� · one ,.that_ i�. case of ough Al� � .. ail . . rev _ ar1c, as the o. ff1c1�l lan�age ?f the E!'1p1re,.59 w�ll �revail i_t i� more Amh the �onf lict o! !he phr� se 1 n question to see which ·version more soc,rc: the trace to ry �t· ,facto s· it._. �n ?01 ?.g �o w� s�e .�at !he_ i�tnediate :source is apparently e t � xim _ ro app �e;ly. . 60 and Et �1op1 a 1n _ 19�2.-p�agraph ·1(i) ?f. t�e Er1tre� urut1ng Ac� ederal The .F ,No one s,bal� : b� s_ubJect � o arr ...s t, 9,r _detention w1 thout an order of a , Act st�ites :. - fl agran_ t a:-1cl _serio�s v�bl ation of the law _in ? f 1n ca_ s � except _ t �, _ authori . cortipetent. asis ad�ed.) That language, which was 1n tum taken f�om a J950 (Emph '' ... for' ce 61 , s�p�or ts the Amharic v�rsion of its successor, t 1 u Reso_ I <?D . N ations d e Unit . . ·. n. t1o 1tu st ed i on ev C s R e th of 51 Article. . .. Tbe ._conclusion th.at the constitutional framers· intended· to permit arrest �ith : out warrant only where an offence is both flagrant and· serioJJs, is fur ther buttressed by two con.siderations. First�· .. th�t interp,et ation ·,is more in· ke�ping with_· t-he general principle of modem cr1m1na! proc_edure that arrests without prior court authorizati_on �re properly the exception, net the rule.62 This principle , argues for the strict_const.ruction of provisions allowin� arrest wi_thout warr�nt, d�rogating. as they do �01;11 vital liberties of the cit�zen. The generally accepted rule of strict construction for all penal legislation .is based .on the same considerations.... . � . . · � . . .. . Secondly, the· conclusi, on finds supp Ort at the Lllti,nate source of 'the concept = "flagrant offence'' in continenta:1 63 · arrest ·-Jaw - both constitu�ional and. · statutory. As early as 1849 the Swiss Cons titu tion provided ''where there is a flagrant offence, any person may arrest the offender."64 Simil,rly, many present-day c ontinental and +

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60. Quoted in N. Marein, The Etl1iopia1z E111pirt Federatio,r a11d Laws (Rotterdam, 1954), pp. 431 ff., and adopted by "Federal Incarpo�ation and Inclusion of the Territory of ·' E�itrea Within the Em,pire of ·Ethiopia Order." Order No. 6, 1952, Neg. Gaz., year 12, · · , n.o. 1. . 61. Res. 309 (V), Gen. Assembly; 5th Sess., Dec. 1, 1950. " 6i. See, for example, United N�tions, cited above-at:, n:o· te 34, Arts. 6-7 of "Draft Principles, · · · ·. and �ommentary, �t • pp, 206-07. •. · 63 , While· the · concept · of i,,. flagra,,te del."cto is known . to modern Anglo-American arrest law, where it is� expressed 'by 1the formulae ":ound committing'' by, and "committed in the presence"· of, the· arres·ting party, its role is quite modes,t and undeveloped compared t� th�t of .i!s · c9nti.p.�ntal analogue, flagra,it dilit. F.or a_ . discussion of thei_r _common histoncal background ·see M. Ploscowe, "The Development of Present-Day Criaunal Pro cedures in--Europe and -America" Harvard L. Rev., vol. 48 · (1935), pp. 441,- 443-45. Contemporary· Ang}o-An1erican · ta'w on arrest .vithout warrant is· discussed in this article, ·below, - and summarized-in Harris's Cri111ii1al Law (20th ed. by H. A. Palmer and H._ Palmer, London; 1960), pp. 382- ,ff.; E. ,Barnett, · R . Taylor ·and R. Tresolin.i, "Arr �t . Sc,., Without Warrant: ··Extent and Social· Implications," J. Cri,n L:, Cri,n. and Police �ol. 46 (1955), pp. 191-92:. As . will be demcnstrated below, the, Etl1iopian concept- · of flagrant o - ffence" found in Code Arts. 19-21 is of the continent.a-I breed. • 64· Const itu�on-al Jaw of April 23, 1849, qu-oted iu Expose des motifs, [Swiss] Project de loi . conSlttut,onnel/e sur la liberte (Gen,eve, 1957), •i11div:d ' 11 elle et sw l'i11 violabilite di, domicile ,, · p, 280. , -

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66 allow es cod and arrest without wa rr "ontinentaJ..inspired constit t n a w, ly belo mon n com sho be ·N define the conee .f?r �lagrant offence·s and, as will p . t m C io an e r · l ..;oc Eth. A e h . p1 d · t n . in d '_1t . n �o th�t must l1k� very . be lang�age � note d, t h ,, are . ally �ces 11.st1 offe lied app rant flag ng � erni gov only s67 to special rule seri . . ou .,, '' s ra n o � In F f . r e e x , e · a m o or 1n I m e t? , t no , es a nc n fe of arrest without fla.grant � } � \\'ar �ant may be_ ma�e 1n tl1e �ase o� a �lagrant_ fel�11y or a flagrant.misdemea no 68 1-.ifinor flagra1Jt offences, such as mis deme · r punishable by 1n1pr1sonment. (de/its) not. punishable by imprison1:11� nt, _and all �etty offences (co,ztravenr%� )s s are not subJect �o s��l: arre�t. Leav1ng aside fof t�e mo�e?t the question_ of ho; 60 t t1on, the Con� 51 o� Art1cl� 1!t1 1t 1� .clear fron i the cdn ''serious 1n interpret to ti _nental sources that the Amhar1� version, permitting arrest without warrant only • case of an offence which is both flagrant and serious, is correct rather tha·n t�� English version. If it is true, the11, that the more permissive, English ]anguage version of ��icle 51 is not aut�oritative, one n1ust imme�iat�ly ask whether the Code pro ·they, following the v1s1ons on arrest without warrant are const1tut1onal. Do · English version, pe1111it arrest without warrant i11 cases where the offence is not both serious and flagrant? If so, they must properly be considered null and void, because they are contrary to the authoritative (Amharic) version of Article -51_10 As we shall see, the Criminal Procedure Code contains two ''clusters'' of pro \'ision.s pern1itting arrest without warrant: Articles 19-21 and 50 (flagrant offences) and Article 51 (miscellaneous other offences). As to th.e forn1er group, drawn from the same continental tradition as Article 51 of tl1e Revised Constitution, there is no .problem. But the second, inspired by .English ..Commonwealth arrest law, is gene• rally in direct conflict with the const:tutional standard expressed in the Amharic version of Article 51.

utio·ns65

J'he Code: Flagrarit Offences

Code Articles 19-21 and 5071 define flagrant offences and declare that any person ma)' arrest a flagrant offender. A compariso11 of these provisions wifb

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4 65. See, for example, the constitut ions oi Belgium (1831), Art. 7; Brazil (1946), a trans 5, Art (1951), Greece Sec. 20; Chile (1925), A.rt. 13; Iran (1906), Art. 10; A. Peaslee (ed.), Constitutio11s of Natiorzs (2d ed., The Hague, 1956), 3 vols. . od� n] (Belgi 127; 66 &e, for example, Fre11cl1 Code, Arts. 53 ff.; T1,rkis/1. Code, Art. {es C� d; ck, d'Instn1ction Criminelle, Arts. 41, 46, 106, in J. Servais et E. 1-lechelyn . Italian] ol Beiges (28th ed. by R. Ruttiens and J. Blondiaux, Brusselles, 1951) , � ·f' [, I962). Codice di Procedura. Penale, Arts. 237·38, in. G. Lattanzi, I Codici Pe,ial, ( M 1 an � roe o c 67. �road arre�t pow�rs are a,mong a nt1mber of special p_rocedu�a l rule� \Vhicll ��: �- See, m s, tal 1 continer into operation \.V1th the commissi·on cf a flagrant offe11.ce 1n for example, Frer1cl1 Code, Title I, Chap. 1, and source"5 cited in note 66, above. b ia,v e-1957 68. Frenc� Co�e, Art. 73; see a]so id., �,.rt. 67. F?r, a discus_sion, of pr !,f:�� o/ogie . de on �his point see P. Bouzat and J· · Pu1a.tel' Trarte de Drort Pe11al el to as · 00 1 fus (pans · 1963), vol. 2, Sec. 12 9. 9. Befor� the present I�':' • there \Vas some con i appl ed a ways l whether .the rules should apply to nu.;demeanors (de/its), but they were · ;011 r). . 1 raven to the most serious offences (crir11.es) and never to the least serious (corzt 69. See the discussion at text accompanying _notes 78-86, 'below. 70. Rev. Con., Art. 122. 71. Art. 19. - Flagrant of/er1.ces ttinS . mntl . co d (l) An of fence shall be_ deemed to be flagran.t where the offer1der �s f ou i fe nce. of e . t tbe offence, attempting to co1nmi,t the offence or has Jt1st committed

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French Criminal Procedure Code72 demonstrates the . 1es S3 67 and 73 of . . AftiC ' sot1rce o J f hi t s cont1ne portion nta of the E thiopian arrest law. We nably Stio ue · u nq · · · · b f y. 1rst noting ·t h e compar1s1on differences between the two the ch proa ap may . ' .. sets of rul. es. d1v1s1 �n �f flagra11t offences into ''flagrant'' b' 1-part1te a adopts ]aw French The ed'' ones. To these the · Ethiopian Code adds a third category, milat ''assi .d n � uasi-flagrant'' offences.73 011e shoul d note, however, that these lables a.re of no fJnctional consequenc e , since the Code treats - all three categories in exactiy the same w ay. (i) Definition Reg�rdin g the definition of ''flagrant offence'' (including sub-categories) the Ethiopian codifiers both added to and on1itted from the continental inodel. To the standard definition of ''flagrant offence'' as one which ''is being committed or has ju st been com�ilted'' Articl e_ 19(1) l1as add:!d flagrant atte1npts. This probably is not a substantial cl1ange 111 the old formula because an attempt to commit an offence is in itself a p enal offence, and. therefore needs no separate rnention.74 (2) An offence shall be deemed to be quasi-flagrant when, after it has been committed, the offender who has escaped is chased by witnesses or by members of the public or ,vhen a hue and cry has been raised. · Art. 20. - Assi111ilated cases. An offence shall be deemed -to be flagra.nt ancl 'lo fall under the provisions of Art. 19 ,vhen: (a) the police are im.mcdiately called to the place where the offence has b· een commit·ted; or (b) a cry for help bas been raised from the place where the offence is being or has been committed. Art. 21. - Effect as regarcls setti1zg i,z 11iotion of proceedings or arrest. (1) In the case of offences as defined in Art 19 and 20, proceedings may be instituted without an accusation or complaint being lodged, unless the offence cannot be prosecuted except upon a formal complaint. (2) An arrest without warrant may in such cases be made on the conditions laid down in Art. 49 et seq. 1\rt. 50. - .4.rrest Jvitl1oi1t Jvarra11t i,z flagra,rt cases. Any private person or member of the police may arrest without warrant a person who has committed a flagrant offence as defined in Art. 19 and 20 of this Code, where the offence is punishable ,vith simple imprisonme1t for not less than three months. 72. Cited above at note 26. Art. 53 - The felony or misdemeanor tl1at is i1 the process of being committed or which has just been comn1itted is a flagr,tnt f_elony or 'flagrant misdemeanor. There is also a flagrant felony or misdemeanor ,vhen, in tl1e period immediately following the act, the suspected pers-on is pursued by clamor, or is fotrnd in possession of objects, or presents traces or indications, leading to the belief tha'. l1e has participated in the felony or misdem�oc Every crime or misdemeanor which, thotgh not committed in the circumstances provided in the preceding paragraph, bas been. committed in a house the head of which as�s �he prosecuting attorney or an officer of the judicial police to establish it shall be assimilated to a flagrant felony or misdemeanor. Art. 73 - In the case of a flagrant felony or j}agrant misdemeanor punishable by impri5? nment [or jailing], every person has power to apprehend the perpetrator and to take him before the nearc.st •officer of the judicial police. 73. Art. 19(2). 74· See Pen. C., Art. 27. AlthougJ1 one might ask whether, then, an attempt lo commit [the offence of] a criminal attempt comes witl1in tbe ambit of Article 19 the ans,ver would have to be "no," because that would e[fect class 1s a "flagrant offence" an act which is not in a penal offence at all. Jn any event ,\ rticle 50 .,vould not authorize an arrest without . ,varrant in such a case.

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A�other : '_'add!tion''- to .. �lie,, traditiona:.. <;�11cept is fou�d i11 A:ticle 19(2), w . cb includes s1tuat1?�s wh �r�. -� -h�e and •�r� has bee� raised. This, again, � . _ is n h cates pl d e ly mer It f11.st since _part · e _ � u add1t1on: t of the. same sen ,. a substantial e t . chas d s by escap ''when . ·. the offender who �as �r�esses ?r by member n�e ed i � , s . ng . s een11 s �ode n om op1a Eth1 1?s1��- ofl-1�portant cir the publJc."75 As for_ the cum _ � t the e r suspec whe. law, 1. 1s Frencl the found by d covere 1 stances n possess·Io.n of . . . . that he has · obj·ects, or presents- tra·ces · or .Ind 1c,tt10ns, 1ead.111g to tl1e. b el1ef , 76 ticipated in tl1e ·f. elon·y or· ·:r�.1isdemean-or," tl1is was. no dou.bt motiva_ ted by��r consideration tb�t the Engl1sh-Commonwealtl1 forn1ulas of Article 51(1) (f). (g)7� adeqt1ately provide for them.

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'_'assi�ilat �d cases'' of '::ticle 2.0. are in form different but in essence quite The . _ . s1m1Iar to the ass1mJlated_ cases of Article 53, second paragraph, of the French _Code. -�though the _Ethiopian provision covers a bit n1ore ground tha.n the French, it ser�es _the. sa�e object o_f al:owing immed.iate action. where att�ntion is called �· to the offence at a time ·soon after its occurrence. . ·Having in Articles -19 a11d 20 .' established the definition ..of ''flagrant offe�c�" tl1e Code goes on in Articles 21 aod 50 to state the procedural consequences thereof: in the case of ordinary78 flagra11t offences proceedings may be instituted wi· thout . an accus�tiqri. b�ing . lodged; a11d,. both ordinary and complaint of ·fences,79 i. f flagrant, subject the offender to arrest without warrant by any police officer or private citizen80 if the offence carries a possible 111axi1rii1111 punishment of . . .

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75. . The .substantial jdentity of .tile tvvo for111ulatio11s is seen in the rendering_ by one translator of "lors.que ... la personne soup9cnee est poursuivie p ar la claµieur publique ... " by ''when ... the ... person .is followed by hue. and cry." {J.S. Army, Ji:idge Adyoca�e . Div., Fre11c!1 Code .of Pe11al · Proc�dt1re_, Aft. 53 .(tran slation J. Belanger, 1960, unpubli shed,· Lib.rary, Faculty of Lalv, Haile Stllassie . I Uu,iyersity). • 76. Art. 43, Para. l , Fre11.ch Code. .. 77. · Quoted and discussed at text acoompa.ying n.otes 107 ff., below. • 78. As oppo s ed to complaint · offences; see 1ote l 6, above. 79. Ibid. . . ·- The _ arg·um�nt has beeq made that .A.rticle_ 2J(2) allows ar�est without warrant · fla�rant complaint offences on.ly ,after tl1e lodging of a complaint, orally at. leas� .,_ G_raven, "Prosecuting Criminal Offences ..,", cited aqove at ILOte 2, PP· 2 •.23_ Although , there is some wJicy ju&tification for so reading Article 21 no sucll re� ir�t ment is _laid down in Articl� �O, -a1�d .the better view n:i�ht be to allow arre5t ,van-rant U1 all flagrant cases, without a request from the 1n1ured party. By tb e _ver y\\�at�re n io ttent pf most com.plain� offences, their conmission is n,ot apt ,to come to ptiblic a y 1n a flag�ant posture very o fi· ten.. Where tl1ey do, it is arguable that_ noton�ty b alread ravated been ach1eved by the f. lagrant c1rcuIJ1.st-ances of tl1e case, and so will be little ;� ul , �g ad rs by an �rrest.. Mo:eover, one must pr�vi�e for the a:�est o� flagr�nt offend� nter e 1 aila a ly , --terers) 1n . compla1, n� cas�s whei:e the 1 111ured party 1s not 1n1med1at etl1e y e i� ,vas made a complaint. If a pri,or complaint were reqt1ired in such cases, by um _ 7, be]ow. the offence ,vould no longer be ''flagrant;" s�e tex,t accompai;iy1ng _notes . 87 9,, roceed· see to · wish n ot �n �ny event does w here _ case the i11jured parly i11 such a J . 1 ptai nt �n c in_gs insltt�ted" (Book JI, Title· I, Chapte1. 3 of the Code) his refusal to lodge a will, by virtue of Article 21(1), effec,tive]y preclude sa.me. · oted q 73 SO.. The ·French code also allows arrest by privat, e citizens in such cases ; see. Art � �the r · ·. abo". e a_t 00 te 72. Tl1e other procedural consequences wl1icb; in tbe F re�c :n dcarried · oonti)lental �ys�ems, .apply to flagrant cases (see note 67 above) h�ve 110 be o.roinantlY · · ?Ve r t Q.�futopian law, largely because the;' would not m·ake sense in the ? red. . accusator1al, common law ·procedu ral scheme of tl1e Code. .

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st We may here derive _ re a . mo ere or nt sev lt me na son pe pri y im . ple . sim three ni onths meaning in Article 51, Revise:! Constitution, 9f the word ''serious." . . French 1 a�, . . clue t o the •1s �llowed· . . .arrest h out, wit.. , :'arrant _ m that -. for flagr�nt seen . nave �e B2 · a�d certain m1sdeme�nors _ {del1ts)83 .ut ot in fl_agra�t.p�tty es) 2 � , . (cri, � ies . n _ �o the cont inental der1vat1on of the .Ethiopian ranted - es (contraverztions).84 G f� enc . . . ,, · , ,serious orf was meant to t-hat denote offences �orr.esponding probable is it s .. 'sion . . prov1 · ss In f act, by. excluding all offen_ ,,1�1r,ts. of cr1111.es an d cJe categor1�s nental conti . the less than three mon�hs simple imprisoi:i,ment of_ pun!shment m maX:im_u a with ��s .._rule, for co11trave,.1tioris are tte approx1n1ate_ French closely ver_y does Article 50 1t for ��t mor� _th1n _two_ mo�ths a!-}d a fine of not · more uriish able by impr1sonme1 86 Accord1�g t? th_1s re�son1ng. the definition francs. of a '''serious �an 2,000 i;iew · · Const1tut1on 1�. sat1sfactor1ly and consistently rendered t�e of 51 ,A�ticle in ' e'_ offenc . . · · · · . · · . b y "Code Article 50 · . _' • "

(ii) ·App/icatiori: J111111ediaey and Publicity . .

There are-two other matters in connection with flagrant offences which deserve discussion, corresponding to tl1e two elements wl1icl1 are central to the notion of flagrancy; .i1n1r1ediac·)1 in ti111e and pi1blicit)1• The first element is apparent in such 87 c offen the co11z111itted e/' ''after it -has been commmitt�. d ." 88 ji1st . ''J1as as · phrases "the police are i111medic1tely called," 89 and ''a cry ... lzas. been.r:aised."90 (Emphases added.) The obvi9us crucial questions are, How · long a· tjme is ''after''? How soon is ''immediate''? etc. If, two weeks aft�r the commission of theft; the. victim ,

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81�- Article 50 uses the la11guage . '.'where tl1e ·offen:e is' punishable with simple imprisonment · for· not less ,tl1an three months," which is �lightly ambiguous. ·•It most . likely ,means , "where the offence carri�s . a 111axi1111 11Jl punishment of at, . least three-months simple im prisonment or of rigorous imp.risonment or cf death." Thu,s, for example, the flagrant • - commission of an offence under Article 415 cf tl1e Penal Code ("A b1ise of tl,e Right of Searclz or Seiz11re"); which is punishable with "'simple imprisonment for not less than o.ne month,•. ·and fine," would subject -the doer tc . air.rest without . warrant under Article 50 · might be only one month simple · imprison penalty the though even imposed ultimately · ment, because the offence is still p1.111is/1able :,y up to three years simple imp·risonmen•t (Pen. C., Art. 105). And since Article 50 is m!a!}t ,to implement the constitutional policy of allowing ·arrest without warrant in the case of serious flagrant offences, it would be by _rigorou� imp�sonme.�t anomalous to read ¼ticle 50. as excluding offenc�s punishable -· · · ·.. ·· · · · · · ,. .. or death. 82. A.!criir1e ·is an offence punishable by severe ·renalties: such as death or imprisonment at '. -·hard --. labour, ·and loss of civil rigl1ts.· Tlze Fre1 1cl1 Penal Code,· Arts, 6, 7, 8 (translation • · J.: Mor. ea' u• and G. Mueller, London, 1960). · :· . ·, · ··· � �'.t • �· d/lit is, an offence punisbaple by jailing · more· ,tlian five years for. not or :niprisonment· - , . · · ·· . · · · · ·, ll:Dd . a fine. ".Jd:, Art. 9. · · · 84- A contr�ve111io11 is an off�n�e punishable by iripri.sonment f.or not more th�. �o months . .. . · · :and a f1ne .of n<;>t _more. thart,.2,00Q new francs. .Jd., Arts. 465:-66 . �5- B� t . the Frencl1 langua.ge version. of the U.N. resolution to which we have· traced the . :. · ong1n of the constitutional prov.ision does not mention cr,i111e or de/it. It reads: "Nul ne ., _,p.ourra- etre_ ar.rete.ou ,defenue si ce·n'es�;- pas iUf l_'ordre d'µne autprite competente sauf _: , . en cas de �iolation · flagrante ·ei·.'grave d� · 1a loi e�· vigeur: ... . .?' Res. 309 (V), Gen. Assembly, cited above at note 61. .· , , . 86· The Frenc/1 Pe,zal Code, cited above at, Ii6.t e ·s1, Arts: 465-66.

87 - Art 19(1).

88. A.rt . · I 9(2). 89- Art. 20(a). 9 o. Ar t 20(b ).

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thinks he recognizes the offender walkn1g on a pu �li� thoro11ghfare may he l and suspect arrest the cl1ase h1n1? to passers-by Or •nvite does ''after it h e ially �ommitted'' in Article 1?(2) me_an ''in1n1.edic1te�y after .... '? ''91 .?oes Article � s e�n 1 1 1n autl1or1 e Article with 1,ol1ce a W�tl� to 50) always, z n, o f1 combinatio � cer arrest warrant an offender who re-appears at tl1e scene of the crime twel ve hou s Ut after fo � eight fou ty twentyThe r? offence? ? r a11sw the of commission ering of suc ques· · . er easy. nev 1c 1s · h · h w 1ng d raw tions demands a l1nenot only in foreign law92 but by refe sought be Appropriate guides might . renee . . 1on. . . \t,.v'hy does the law permit th to the purposes of the prov1s1ons 1n q1est exceptions to the general rule that no. 011e may stiffer a:rest without prio r co�:� scrutiny and approval of the grounds 1he �efor? The obvious advantages of arrest without warrant over arrest by warrant 1s that the former allows pro,npt actio by avoiding the delay involved in trave'.ing to the court and applying for a warran� According to continental writers, flagra11t offences require or permit the omjssion of such time-consuming for,malities on tl1ree grounds: pre\'ention, detection and certainty. P,·everztion applies where immediate arrest is tl1e only way to prevent the offender from carrying off the fruits of his crime.93 Detection refers to the need 94 offender the stop to order in arrest from escaping, and to preserve evidence for which might grow stale or disappear during a delay after the occurrence.95 Certain(), refers to the fact that where an offender is found ''red-handed" there is no possibility tl1at he is innocent, so there is no need for such judicial safeguards as a warrant.96 a

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It should be noted that although these argun1ents are offered in support of allowing wide arrest powers i11 flagran: cases, tl1e first two may be equally appli cable to non-flagrant offences. A police officer who, for example, some months or years after an offence spots the su�pected offender in a railroad station, risks his escape if he delays for the time necessary to procure an arrest warrant. Simil arly, an officer who three weeks after an offence learns that the suspected o·ffender is about to cl1eck out of his hotel room, risks his escape with the fruits of his crime if he forbears from rushing into the room and arresting the suspect

91. In the Amharic version the word "imn1ediately" l1as been used. 1 li 92. We find in French law, for example, a change from "temps vois,in d� de t (Art 4t� (old) c_ode d' l11str11ction Cri111i1ze/Je) wldch w_as interpreted as cove:ing ev�� forty-eight hours after the offence was committed (see Bouzat a�d P1�a.tel, cit �hove at note 68, vol. 2, sec. 1298) to the st1icter formula, "tem1:s tr� voism de !'action" (Art. 53, (new) Code Procedure Penale), u11cler wJ1ich a ,tl1irty-s1x ho�r ?elay basC.been P., ruled . top great. Dec1s1o·n of Sept. 8, 1960 (Cl1ambre d'accus., Doua1. , Fra.), 1 Semrune Jur! �·, Seri� G, 1960, para. 1:77 (note Gondr<:). . tly aren a . have PP The words 1mn1ediately after'' and "just committed" m It-al1an law v'sion· ous Frenc�v:J� eass.: rec eived an interpretation na_rrower than. tl 1at given to the analog an arrest three hours after the commiffiion of the offe11ce h as been �PP 1, p ocedura Sez. II, 18 maggio 1949, Lissone, Ac/1. pen. 1949, II, 621 cited in Cod, ce 1 ' Penale, cited above at note 66, commentary t o Art. 237. 93. Expose des motifs, cited above at note 64, p. 280. 94 . Ibid. ve abo d cite 95· Bouzat and Pinatel, cite . we, Plosco 1295, d above at no:e 68, vol. 2, Sec. at note 63, pp. 443-44. • 96. Ibid. '

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us from some .1 bout a warrant. Nevertl1eless, although it might· be adv.antageo · t · ou t w�rrant _in· sue.h e ·xception�l (but. nanar_rest �1'th an execute to w vie poi·nt& of .,.. the mind extraordinary 1n keep nature of must this procedure one es cas ) n a t flagti e xtension of its scope to cov.e.r more and progres sive ; the in that r dang · . · · a nd the egtar af d' s · I s d 1c1a h '' prescr1 JU e t 'b ed by cases, .the Constitution nal eptio ''exc r mo � will be .altogether lost. · That, and the fact that the ''certainty''· case ary ordin e for. t with each passing moment after weaker the completion of the r ows n g ale · o rati · ct construction of ArtJcles · i str very. a 19 for and 20. Therefore, argues act • . . . . l · a •n· . . . . cr1ro1 . ould be best 1f the prox1m1ty 1n t i me required by Articles 19 and 20 were is, a. matter oE only a few hours at most after the. that . narrowly� reted i�t;p . e c n e f e f h o t f o n io s is comm The second element of flagrancy, that the commission of the offence or its aftennath be in some ;ense ''p �blic," is appa!e.nt . in such requirements as that . , the offender be '·'fourzd comm1tt1ng or attempting to comllllt the offence,97 that he ·be "chased by }Vitnesses or_ �y members·of tl]e public,"98 that a ''l1i1e a11d er)' has been raised," 99 that the police have been , called to the place where the offence bas been committed," 100 or that a ''uy fo1· help has been rajsed'' fron1 tl1e place of the offence. (Emphases added.) 101 The policy allowing free arrests in such cases can be justified, not only by the added certainty which ''publicity'' lends, but also, often, by the need promptly to restore :Iisturbed public order and tranquility by removing the cause·from tl1e scene. Such. prompt action might also be neces sary, in some cases, to avert further public cisturbance in the fom1 of lynching or other· violence committed by the offender or his pursuers. Thus it is easy to . understand why the concurrence of a ''publlc'' offence, together, frequently, with an o pportu.nity to ter1ninate a resulting d:sturbance while it is in the course of happen.ing, should qualify as an exception to the rule requiring prior court approval o f all arrests. d1

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Granted that ''public'' commission or consequences are essential to flagrancy let us consider the application of Articles 19 and 20 to a particular ca�e. Suppose. there is a disturbance during an authorized public meeting, and· a police officer102 comes upon X and Y pushing and shouting·at each other in the assembly. Three or four of the bystanders tell the officer that X is a trouble-making intruder, so the officer arrests him for having been ''found committing'' a.n offence under Article 484 of the Penal Code, for which arrest witt.out warrant is authorized by Articles 19 and 50. Later · it turns O\lt that y· was the real inlD,Ider - X was r�ally the meetin g's chairman, who had been trying. to eject Y when . the policeman arrived and, owi�g to the false accusations of unsympathetic bystanders, arrested the wrong man. Was the arrest lawful? •

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97. Art 19(1). 98. Art. 19(2). 99. Ibid. 10 0. Art 20(a). 101. Art 20(b). 102· A priv_ate citizen would be in the same positi,,n ( Art.. 50). Not only are private persons author!zed to arrest f)agrant offenders by themselves - they are also Te quired. to respond t� pobce cal)s for risk." See Art. 57 , assistance if sucl1 assistance can be given "without · aoct Pen. C., Arts. 433 761. -- • . ,. . .

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VOL. Ill - No..2

10� the police protect . to order in· officer,· wh .o acte that. clear .· �-it see�s d V�ry e uld l1av wo we to s, say nce sta um circ t the tha er und it y reasonabl is 1• mmaten I . ,.· �n offence. ., t111g a that� the .arrested person ��.s n_ot_ tru1�- ''f. o_u11d com1n1L Rat he he r, · and the offeoce, an proper . comm1tt1ng apparently'' ' interp was '! retati on ' of 104 ,. •-ecjuiremen·t under - Articles 19 and 20 must be so viewed - not ''f every d d n · nipting 'to commit the offence'� but ''fou . appa,·e,ztly attempting to co�U� t· ·· atte he offe11ce'' th but " committed . ''h,ls l rn.mi� : e: · appareri j , just ''has not t ) ust co offence, t te 105 A tic r of test . le 19 or Article 20 reas· 011 mia b /3,d the. offence'' ·and so ·on. So long as the . la r case tI1e po"v'1er o·f· arrest without w appearJ· to. be sat,s. fre . any part1cu . d 1n r t a a as seen in 50 be . applicable, must · l w granted by Article · even if it· should � a�ner · .. develop that the test was not actually sa.tisfied. . . arrant .which do . . . Simila,rly, the converse must be true -of arrests without w r�asonably. appear )egal· at the time of execution bt1t whi_ch are justified, post!�� as seen be �ust 1llega!, arrest e h t cases ..and the officer hel d those I� resu��s. he t .y _ � �abl<? for �1s m1scondu�t. Thus, for ,!xan1ple, should a police officer in the cir� c.u. mstapces_ describe� _ above_arrest a peaceful onlooker, simply for the unsatisfactory reason that· the off�cer dis�ikes his appearance, the arrest cannot be justified under J,\rticle 50 even. �hould it later develop· that the :arrestee wa.s the ringleader of the intruders,• and in fact guilty of an· offence u11der Penal Code : Article 484. For,: in order to protect innocent citizens, one can�ot allow arrests which, from the point _of view of the arre�tin� party at the time of, the _ arrest, were lega.l�y unjusti� fiable,. even though subsequent 9evelopments justify prose�ution and conviction of the .arrestee. The proper test of the le.gality of any arrest under Article 50 must be 106 flagrant -of·a existence actual, arent,.not p ap t)ie offence. · . . - . . .. . ' -

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103: Fr-o�:. in, �is case, "s�if-b�lp'' c��e note 51_, abO'ie):.. The officer's good-f�tll mistake � : · to the facts would doubtl� negate an! civil (Arts. 2039(e) and 2042(1), Civ. C.) or pt1? (A�ts. 7� -a�� 16, ��- �-)_ liabi�i-ty . on his part. · . . . 51, qu�ted . , � 104, Thts reasorung· -applies equally to ·sub-a.-rts. (lXb), (c) and (f), o� Code Article _ . below at note 107. 105. That is h?w "foun.d committing an offence" is in,terp� eted. in. E�g! and;. see Wilt�1et; Barrett, cited above at note 13. Similarly, some American 1unsd1cti·ons tnterpret, being ''committed in the presence of ... " .to mean '',roosonable belief'' •tha-t the offe�� 15Crirni ' committed, although others hold differ!ntly. See note 62, above, and L. O�field, . . tzal Procedz.tre f� om Arrest to Appeal (London, 1947), pp. 18 ff. .mes ··. · ra· Ualloz, . _ 106. This 1s -the I;aw 1n F.rance; see Dccisior. of Oct. 25, 1928 (Court of N1 �,F J�•ustified 1· " 1929, Recue1l Periodique, pt. 2, p. 46. American casC:s h.av also �eld :tb�t an � ,up. $CC arrest c·annot be made legal retrospectvely by ,the 1llegal1ty whi ch it ·329; . 9 p Draper ·V. U.S. (Sup. Ct, U.S., 1959), U.S. Sup. Ct. Rep. (Lawyers ed.), vo • ' . Snead v. Bonnoil (N.Y., U.S., 1901), N.Y. Rep., vol. 166, p. 325. : . ... , · ·, 1:07 •. t\r�. ,_.5 l-1 :-_, ,A:rrest. :'wit11011 t lvafra,rt b · tfui · po.lice. . ··" ·· · � '. · · · : · · . .' y - est, Without warcant ·.any person: an !_ - (l} · ,Any member 'of '-the police·m ay. ar. J}1ll1it 0 ' . . d . b ·n· g about to C h fa)'.: whom . . ' :'·i· - .,·.- to+ e �- �.or"' . � · �- :. :. � · . · · r�son,3:bl . · y _sus,pects_ )f . · , hta.v. ing comm1-tt� offence puo•ishablc with 1mpnsooment for n-0t less ·than one· year, '

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We have so far considered one g1oup of Code provisions which permit arrest without warrant - Articles 19-21 and 50-and have demonstrated their origin in continental legal systems. ·\V,e ·have seen, also, that they are entirely :harmoruous with the · restrictions of Article 51, Revised Constitution, which bas a siqiilar arrest oi-1gin. _We_ may now .-tUD} · to the second '''clu.ster'' of provisions allowing . 10? · 51. Article in contained those warrant, t u witho· . . . .. . . . .

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51 Code.: Article TJ1e .. . . . .. .

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per1n it detailed consideration here of each rule not does e spac h g AI thou · genera 1 comments, 1·11. ustrated by reference to f ew a 51, rticle A in .· d cont :;:i :r rules, might be helpful. part that in c?ntr�st to the ''flagrancy'' provisions considered first note might We . Article 51 are of derived elemen from English-Commonwealth, ts us vario the above, imme sourc diate e of Artic le 51 is apparently Section 23 The law tal ...: n en 1 . not conL ioi wh'1ch .111 tum 1s C ure p I . o d d . e, roce . closelyto9 based upon Cr1m1na )'an Mala of the /

(b) who is in the act of con1mitting a treacl1 of ,the peace; (c) ,vho obstructs a member of the police wl1ile in the execution of his du•ties or ,vho has escaped or atten1pted to es�ape fron1 lawful custody; (cl) ,vho J1as evaded or is reasonably snspected of having evaded police suspervis1on; (e) ,vho is reasonably suspected of being a deserter from the armed forces or the police forces; (f) who has in his possession without Jawft1l excuse housebreaking implemen.ts or \Veapons; (g) ,vho bas in his possession witl1out la;vful excuse anything which may reasonably be suspected of being stolen or othenvise obtained by the commission of an offence; (2) Nothing in this Article shall affect the powers of other government officers to make an a,rrest witl1ot1t warrant under special ?rovisions of other laws. 108. Malayan Code, Sec. 23. W/1e11 police or pe111l1z1/11 ,nay arrest 1vit/10111 warrant. (i) Any police officer or penghulu may witt.out an order from a Magistrate and with out a warrant arrest [sic]. (a) any person who has been concerned in any seizable offence or against whom a reasonable complaint has been made or credible information has been received or a reasonable suspicion exists of iis having been so concerned; (b) any person having in his possession .vithout lawful excuse, the bu,rden of prov ing which excuse shall lie on such pfrson, any implement of house breaking; (d) any person in whose possession anJthin•g is found which may reasonably be suspected to be stolen or fraudulenlty obtained property and who may reason ably be suspected of having committed an offence with refe.rence to such thing. (e) any person who obstructs a police officer wl1ile in the execution of his duty or ,vbo J1as escaped or attempts to escape from lawful custody; (f) any person reasonably suspected of being a deser,ter from His Britannic Majesty's army, navy or ·air force ,or from any r-egular forces maintained or paid by the Government of the Fecerated Malay States; (h) any person v,1ho has no ostensible means of subsistence or who cannot give a �atisfactory accoun,t of himself; (j) any person in the act of committing in his presence a brea.ch of the peace; (k) any person subject to the supervision of the police who fails ,to comply with the requirements of Section 296 of this Code. (ii) Nothing in this section shall be held to limit or to modify the operation of any other Jaw empowering a police officer or 1penghulu to arrest without a warrant. (Note: A pe11glzul11 is a Malayan village headman.) to9. But with some differences. The Indian provision in question contains no analogue to Sec._ 2�(i) G), nor to Sec. 23(ii) of the Malayart code, which have been brought in !o tho Ethiopi an law as Article 51(1) (b) and 51(2) rfspectively. Such facts are strong eVIdcnce that the Malayan, not the Indian, Code was the principal model used by the drafter �or �he �ommon law parts of the Ethiopian Oode. Considering Sir Char. les Mathe� 's pnor _ Judici al experience in Malaya (see note 6, above) this seems a reasonable conJecture. Note, also. the related arrest provisions of Police Proclamation, 1942, cited above at note 51, Art. 14.

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Vot. III - N 0 2 .

110 ure r de. ced Co And, as might be o l P 1i11a Crm ian Section 54 of the Ind Pected non '' w Ia_ t ''c arres these :� s, isi prov stanc ircum �� c ons � _ do n under the _ _ lllesb l1 wl11 n, r1ct1o 1s res con · nal 1 itutio const ne11ta � l the 1 witl -insp � sn1oothly ired. In _ � _ fa�t. y learl ]e 1 Art1c \'I lates e (Cod ? of the e � � ru� ? every e prop almost r (Am _ version1_11 ?f Article 51, Revised Const1tut1on, and 1s therefore, to tha t e��ic) nt, 112 . al on tt unconst1tu Article 51(1) (c) permitti ng poli'ce Let us take, for example, (Code) · arrest b · z o za, a inte,· o, str11cts w h person a membe·r of the . without warrant of any po 1ice

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1 IO. [11dia11 Code, Sec. 54. Wf1e11 /JO/ice ,nay arrest l·vitl1oi1t warra11t. (1) Any police-officer may, witl1ot1t a.1 orde r, from a Magis,trate and without a warran� arrest: first, ai1y person ,vho has.bee1 1 concerned in a11y oogi1iza?le o�fence or against wh om a r�asonable complaint has 1?e�11 m�de, �r _credib�e 1nforma.tion has been received, orr a reason.able_ susric1on ex1_sts, o� l11 s having been so concerned ; seco11dly, any p_erson l1av1ng 'In !11s .possession w1 tl1out _Ia,vful excuse, ,the burden 01 _ which exc11se shall lie o n suc_l1 person, any 1n1plem�nt of house-breaking; . proving tl11rdly, any person \vl10• has been proclaimed as an offender either under t, his Codo or by order of tl1e State Government; foi1rtl1ly, an)' person in whose possession anything is found \.vhich may reasonablv be suspected to be stole11 pr)pelify ru1d wl10 may ,reasonably be suspected of havi11g committed an offence witl1 reference to st1ch thing; fift/1/y, any person who obstructs i police- officer while in the executio •n of his duty, or wl10 has escaped, or attempts to escape from lawful custody; sixthly, any person reasonably suspected of being a deserter fron1 the Indian Army, Navy or Air Force; seventlzly, any perso11 ,vho has been co11cer1 1ed in, or agaiinst whom a reasonable com.plaint has been made or oreclible information has been !Teceived or a reasonable suspicion exists of his l1aving been concerned :i11, any act committed at a.ny place out of India wl1ich, if committed in India. \vould have been puni shable as an offence, and for ,vhicl1 l1e is, under a11y law relating to extradition or otherwise, liable to be apJ:.rehended or detained in custody in India; eig/1tl1ly, any released convict corrmitti11g .a b·reach of any rule made under section 565, sub-Section (3); ninthly, any person for whose arrest a requisition has been re ceived from another police-officer, provided •that the requisition specifies the person -to be arrested and the o , ffence or other cat1se for wl1ich tl1e arrest is to be made and it appears therefrom that tl1e perso1· 1 mitht Ja.wfully be a.rrested \.Vitl1out a \varrant by tbe officer who issued the re.quisjtion. (2) This section applies also to tl1e police in .tl1e town of Calc11tta. See also similar provisions in the cri1ni1 1al .procedure codes of Singapore c;I�ny an u 2?), Sec. (Si,igapore Code, Sec. 31), Tanganyira Territory (Ta,z.{Janyika Code, (Sitdarz Code, Sec . 25), and GI1ana. (Gl-a11a C(>de, Sec. 10). 111. s� dis_cuss:i•on i� text accompanyi11g notes 55 ff., above. Most do not 11 eces s��l)�v�rcb flict with the (incorrect) English versio11, whicl1 p.resumably ,vas th� one ,vi . •r!zer the drafter w�rked - almost every offence described in. (Co de) Article 51(J) .�ee� rue, fotind in . fla.gran:t or senous. But they do .rt1n aJoul of tl1e conjL1nct1ve forn1ula Anlharic rende.Jing. 112 . I t sh<:>ul� be stressed thait some p ts of Code Ar icle 5 1 ar� susce?,tible of �ef�g::::� � con:stitut1onal]y, and those sub-art� icles are not void "on their face but '?01).in a flagrant tbeir purported applications. For example, Article 51(1) (a) coi,l� be_ applied case, e.g. to arrest a murderer in hot flight from tl1e scene of his cr1 n1e. b are • c wbi . ases c · to the extent 11at Code A.rt1cle 0 t ' · suggest�, Bu t, 1· t 18 d lie · a.pp 1s �1 • super· y tirel 0th flagrant and serious, the article . though constitutional, 1s aln10st e; , n 50 as d a 1 9-ous. That co�clusion. f,ollows from· our finding that Code Articl�s t 9- S ee note 122, b�:�tly drawn implement the constitt1tio11al standard almost ex.haustrvely .

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3 11 Now b� �he ver� na�ur� of this offence, its . s e ti u is d h f o _ n o ti u c e x e _ , : . in the , while es to be flagrant with1n the meaning of ordinary cas . 1n nd bou is 0 . olJ)J]llSSlO · · · ti.,,. t u c . ion. ·t B C C 1· onst1 •� d onst1 · tut1on Revise � perm its arres t the witho ut of 51 e Articl offe11ce 1s both flagrant a11d serious, and by ''serious'' we the e \Vhe r nly varrant ° pun1s a e h bl b mean · y to at least three months imprisonlaw the reted terp . 'hav e unaggravated form), punishable with simple imprisonits (in ce offen This :� 115 therefore fails to meet , th n m e n th o e_ constitutiona� standard. g i� d ? e c x e t o n : �· : :: _ · hi' s 5anie obJect1on applies to other parts oi (Code) Article 51.116 With respect . T some o em I f · th do es sat1s · ·y the ''seriousness'' f -artic b · su test only ning remai the to 117 y. anc flagr to fail as to · exen1pl_ i fie the n confusion that can result from an tio u sit rtunate � � unfo _ This _ 118 common law : Ja e 1v ct 1e on of at 1 ad w f1c d1 co to h rules on arrest ac ro pp . . · ecIe.co·c a e with. �ontinenta1 rul es, by a code subject generally b 'd s1 e s1d ed, adopt y een b _ have _ prov 1s1on; the continental rules comply with that constitutional ental contin a to rovision, but the comn1on law rules do not. The only possible escape from this repeal of the legislative offending Code provisions, is to take of outside a, �ilemm

113. The apparent source is Malaya,1 Code, Sec. 23(i) (e), quoted at note 108, above. 114. See text accompanying notes 82-86, above. 115. Pen. C, Arts. 433(1) ("Resisti11g A11tl1ority"), and 762 ("Ref11sal to Obey an Injunction"). 116. Depending on one's interpretation of "breach �f the peace" Article 51(1) (b) might be in this category; see discussion in note 118, below. However, Sub-article 1(f) apparently refers to the petty offence prescribed by Penal Code Article 808 ("Unjustified possession of Suspicious Articles"), not a "serious" offence, and the same i, s true ·of Sub-article 1 (g). In the case of Sub-article 1(g) the provision cann.ot be justified on the ground that truly serious offences (e.g. Pen. C., tArts. 630 ("Tkeft"), 635 ("Aggravated Theft"), 636 ("Robbery"), 647 ("Receivi11g"), etc.) 1nigl1t have been committed; the described offence is possession, a non-serious offence for which airest without warrant 1,vould be unconsti· tu·tioo-al. Likewise, in Sub-article (l)(d) the offence (Pen. C., Art. 453 - "No11-obser vance of Seco,zdary Pe11alties and Preve11tive Measures") is punishable by a maximum of one month simple imprisonment; it is therefore not "serious" within the meaning of Article 51, Rev. Con. and ar�est wi t, hout warran.t is impermissible. 117. For example, Article 51 (1) (a) clea,rly pu:11)orts -lo allow arrest without wairrant in non flagrant cases. Sub-a '.rticles (l)(e) and (1 )(h) pose· somewh1.t difficult pr,oblems, because although the described offences (Pen. C., Arts. 300 - "Dtsertio,z" or 412 - "Breach of Official Duties," 471 - Da11gero11s Vagra11cy") a-re "seri,ous," it is disputable whether or not they are necessarily fla.grant. One can argue .that both desortion and vagrancy arc "con tin�ing" offences, i.e. that once having desertei -or having fulfilled the conditions of �1cle 471 the offender is in a con 1tiinuous and flagrant "state" or "conditio, n" of deser ti on or vagrancy. But in view -of the general philosophy underlying the flagrancy rules (see text accompanying notes 97-105, above), :,t would seem better ,to require arrest waa-�ts_ in such cases unless the circumstai1ces show, by overt, "pz,blic" be/1avioi,r, !,he commission -of 5ome element of the offence, e.g. hot pursuit of the deserter, threaterung acts of the vagrant. Where there is no "1public" disturbance there is no real flagrancy, and no compelling reas.on for avoiding ,t he preferred method of a-rrest by court warrant 118· � example of problems which can arise from a different sort ,of eclecticism,. the adop· tio� of common law p, rocedural rules with continental substantive -rules, is found in �rticle 5�(�) (b), allowing police arrest wi,thout war:rant of any person "who is in the aot � committing a breach of the peace." "Breach o.f the peace" in this context is an obvious from the common law (see, e.g., Malay::i11 Code, Sec. 23(i)(j), quoted above at �import ote l08) and has a fairly definite range of application to cases, however minor, which 0lVe or threaiten imn1i11e11tly to incite violence and public disorder. Sec Halsbury:s , ws of Engla11d, ci ted above at note 26, vol. 10, Criminal Law, para. 635; Corpz,s J11r1s

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VoL. III

. No 2

. . h it9 no tl1e Co Am v a? c, as authori . � ), t1 . the·English version of Arti�le 51 (R� t But this, it is sub1nitte�, wo11ld r�su�: 1n an. e�c��s1ve broadening of the pow:�ve. to ion tect ld pro �ou nal ut1::> be st:1t con red·uced to a arrest \Vitl_lout warra11t; the 120 of e y l 11c P°, era gen tl1e d a11 tl1, ad bre f�vou d. de en r i11t its of ring f�action ar e:i warrant wherever poss1�le 1 argely defeat�d. Ratl1 i�r t l 1an adopt . such a solutio� h s a_ va d _ t l 1ze . h e ogn c re. A m 1 to . b e 1ra ar1c versio n of th �e� re mo it w?ul� be e n111g 1ts n1e� esses expr l1 wh1c , 11 , ect10 truly prot l iona and repeal th constitut incompatible and superfluous powers of arrest wrthout. ':r'arrant gra.nted be Article 51 of the Code. Then, to wl11tever exten t tl:e rema1n1ng arrest prov isiony in force prove inadequ�te,. the lack sbo.ul� be remed ied through legislative amend� 122 121 e. 1ss1bl perm n�lly 1tt1t1o const ever wher ment

Secu, :du,n (N ew Yor�, 1937), vol. 6, A:rrest, _pp. 5� 1 ff. \V!1i1 e Sub-�rticle (1) (b) clearly desc ribes offences wh1cl1 are fla.grant,. th. er� 1s .. a d1lemm.a 111volved 1n deciding \\'hether . or not it d escribes serio1.1s ones. If v e impart a normal common la\v meaning . fo ''breach of the peace') then many of tl1e offences covered a•re minor ones. See for example, Pen. C., Book VIII, Y.itle I, Chap. IV, Sec. II, e11titled Offences agai11st p;,blic Peace, Trariq1,ilit) a11d Order, partict1larly A.irts. 770 (''Disti1rbat1ce of Work or Rest of Or/1ers") and 771 ("Blaspl1e111ous or Scar1.dalo11s Uttera,zces or Attit11des") for which arrest without warrant would be unconstitutio11al. On the other hand, the con ,tinentalmspired Penal Code also conitains a cl1apter (Arts. 484-87) specifically entitled '·'BREACHES OF THE PEACE," all of whi;, h offences are ''serious." But it is most unlik.ely that the drafter of Sub-a•rticle (I) (b) meant ''breach of the peace" to refer to that chap:te.r becaus e some of the offences described therein (e.g. dra\ving a cheque without cover deliberately wl1ile in a state of C1)mplete irresponsibility due to drunkenness - Pen. · C., Arts. 485 a.nd 657, and violating the re sting place of a dead person -Pen C., Art 487) are remote indeed from tl1e origi11al common law co11cept and from any justification for permitting arrests witl1out warrant. This Penal Code chapter derives fron1 continental • antecedents: see the Italian Penal Cod�, Title IV in G. Lattanzi I Codici Penali (Milano, 1962); Swiss Penal Code, Arts. 253 ff., (A. Panchaud, Code Per1al S11isse Annote (2d ed., Lausanne, 1962) ), Belgian P�nal Code, Title V, Chap. IX in J. Servais and E. Mechelynck, Les Codes Belges (28,h ed. by R, Ruttiens and J. Blondiaux, Brussels, _ 1951), vol. 2. The question which results is whell1er one ougl1t to interpret ''breach of the pea�e" in the Crimin.al Procedure Code in accorda11ce witl1 th e oommon law, as probably in· tended, and thereby exp·ose it to cons:i· tutio11al nt1llifica.tion, or whether to inter�ret tlie term in conformity witl1 the (contine.1tal) Penal Code and Constitution despite the drafter's probable intent otherwise. 119. See text accompanying notes 55 ff., above. 120. See ,t ext accompanying note 62, above. . 121. A prim e candidate for ame11dment in any case n1ay be Code Article 51(2), \\Illich · pre;s�rves the power to a.rrest witl1out w�rrant give11 by s_peoial !egisl�tion ,�o go��mm :it officers otl1er than members of the p1)lice. When read 1n conJttnctron with Articl � ' the omission of any reference to the _police in the Article 51(2) saving clause ef�ectJ�e1Y invalida�es �Y poV:er to arr est without wa1�rant giv ei1 to the police by special.. legi�!a ��; � The saving cla�se 1s thus rei1dered superfluous (what "otl1er gover11meot office rs •an : · actually been given such powers?) . In additio11, tl1e language closely pa:r�l Jels MavlaJon i Code Section 23(ii) (qt1oted at note ]08, above), except tl1at the 1'tfalaya n pr &ng is,, expressly does apply to ·tl1e police. One is te111pted ,to conclude that the w_or office ��d�I def ment tive that �d t r ec .•. '' ir� gove� it was of s meant po\ve o the . . an Malay Surely 'a s it stands the provision has aa opposite effect from tJ1at of its C . 122· There is, �eally, v ery little constitutional leew ay. If Articles 19-21 ·and 50, Qrim Pro eod� tho co ec n t y the · z:r i interpret ·the consti.tutional s�andard "flagrant and serious, " ��ted by articles presently authorize arrest without \varirant to the maximum extent · bable pernu pUillS t�e Constitution - i.e., when there is ''flagra r r1t'' con1mission of an offence� fo by t?1ree 1:11°0 !hs simpl� i�prisonn1ent )f a m ore serious penalty. _But there 1�. ��19-20 , manipulation in two directions. Firs ArtiC Code 1n flagr ancy t, :he definition of

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ETHIOPIAN Aro.EST LAW

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C:iminal Procedure Code closely regulate the the and titution Coi1s h the into ctstody. In _general,. sum ons is prefer suspect criminal a g takin of ?1 01etb warra nt p. by r eferre d r rest over a . arrest and witho ut warrant. st, arre v r ed_ � : c lit not to isst1e arrest warrants ulless satisfied that there is re�sonable �our u guilty of a c�ime, and that a summons would not accused the ve belie to'"' groun: � plish the same -rest1lt. Because there 1s ·no clear provision in the Code for prior to. t rial, · the consequences of a summons ac�used ed summon a of ge ��i:i:r 1 1 owmg on arrest. To remedy the present anomaly,- th� o f those to r are simila transferr ed from . the police to the courts and, until to b� ot1ght ower p ns mroo a clear to have right to cµscharge apparently innocent ot1ght P?lice the , done is ;�at . ed n o m m ve su ha ey th om h w s et P SUS e Article 51 of the Rev.ised Constitution and Code Articles 19-21 and 50 derive rf om a comn1 on conti11ental source, and .allow arrest without warrant only in case of of fences which are both flagrant and serious. Code Article 51 is based on commo n Ja\v sot1rces, and purports to allov arrest without warrant even where lf agrancy and seri?usness . are not �resent t:>g�tl1er. Alt�ou?h �s accord� with the erroneous English version of Article 51, F.ev.1sed Const1tut1on, 1t clearly violates the correct version, and much of Code Article 51 is unconstitutional in most of its intended appljcations, superfluous in others. These and other problems have arisen because of an overly eclectic approach to codification, which has attempted unsuccessfully to mix continental and common law rules allowing arrest without � I warrant #4, ·

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It is submitted that in codifying adjectlve law it is hazardous to draw too freely, at least in the beginning,123 upon different legal ''families." The best ap proach would be to draw upon a single f oreign system, and.· adapt it where desirable to suit local conditions. If it is felt necessary to draw upon more .than one� foreign system then the sources should. be from a single ''family'' of legal systems. In the •

might be b roadened to fill part of the vac uun left by tbe demise of Code Article 51, e.g., by incorporating the continental formula "fou nd in pos session of objects, or presents tr�ces or indications, leading to 1:he belief frat he has participated in the· felony or �sdemeanor." ,See.· text accompanying notes 76-77, above. Secondly, the Penal Cod.e n:ught be amended _ by increas ing the penalti� for certain offences in order to make, them constituti,onally "serious." Thus, t, he the oJfence of refusal to supply one's name and add,ress, etc. to a police officer (Art. 762) might be transferred from the Code of Petty 9ffe�ces to the Penal Code, and given a maximum punishment of three months simple imp_rrsonment. Then,· in most of the cases · now (uncons titutionally) covered by Code Article 51 a warrant of arrest could be used aJter tbe suspect's identity were established. On·. the other hand, ·failu,re ,to satisfy the police as ,to identi_• ty - would constitute .a flagrant, serious offence for which arrest ,vithout warra1t could b e made. .· 123· The Japanes e experience with a "mixed" continental and Anglo-American criminal P_roc�dur 7 cod e has apparently proved quite stccessful. But even there the initial ''for eign-1.. qspixed" codes ,vere drawn from a single developed system (France, and then Germa ny), and only later modified selectively -10 incorporate Anglo-American adver·sary r esses a nd st Tengthen individu al rights. See S. Dando, ''Japanese Criminal Procedur� oc k · efor�1: A Practical La.\v," in G. Mueller, Essays iti Crimz ent tire Experim Compara in �� Scien ce (London, 1961), pp. 448 ff. Such a g:-adual mixing process has m<? re cha.nee of ce�s, one would -think, than sudden and t:>tal melange no part of which has been a ..een in prior ope ration. J

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JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW - VoL. III -

No. 2

e uld v ha. sho t n tl1a bee , t1re ced pro the commo nal i11i cri of case . n 1aw 124 e11 1 1r� r d t·· d ''f 1 1sca Y . a to ·a_ se beginning" · Owing, probably, to a r�l�ctance . alo · g n 5 d e 1f1e Cod cod a re cedu Pro 2 l tu al mix m1n Cr1 1e t re of continental Iines,1 conttnentaI i26 Th - e net result was . 1 pr�c t··1c�s Englis�-Com monwe�ltl1 and trad.1t1or.a . O ·, h 1 1 as welt.12 T e f fen _ confusion, not only 1� t�e l�w of arrest bt1t 0 �t!1e: areas ai ur w1tl1 1ts �ystem, balance d integrate of protectio s e to '' take over'' an existing advantages_ to the �ccused and sta.te alike, may ha�e led in Ethiopia's case t o : caoct und.t1ly weighted 1n favor of the state and aga1JJ.st the accused. In comb· �e elements from three very different sources. eve11 protectio11s con1mo n to all were omitted. 128 Etliiopia11

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This degree of electicism is undesirable. It was apparently avoided in codify. I ing the law of civil procedure, 129 and reportedly will not be practiced in th forthcoming code of evidence. 130 But the Criminal Procedure Code remains i� need of alteration. By selective, thorough amendment, its ''mixed'' character should \ be revised, and replaced by one which is more genuinely con1mon law or continen tal in essential structure and safegtiards.

124. See Graven, "La nouvelle ... ," cited above at note 2, pp. 74-76, for a disc ussion of ,vhy it would ha.ve been a mistake to adopt continental rather tha11 common law oriimi· nal procedure. 125. See note 6, above. 126. Exainples of traditional p.ractices retained by the Code can be found in Articles 150-59 (private prosecution and joindeir of ci'\'il claims in criminal proceedings), 183 (appellato revie,v by His Majesty's Chilot) and 2)4 (J.mperial confirmation of all death sentences). 127. The writer has not yet had the opportunity to discover and analyze the sources_ �f every part of the Code. It s_eems fairly cbviou� a.t_ this stag_e, though,. that �lecticisrn h� created severe problems 1n the areas of police 1nter,.rogati, on (see F1sl1er, c1tod above note 2, pp. 333-34) and preliminary in:iuiry (see note 128, below). 128.A prime exan1ple is the priliminary irq11iry, combined ,viith the rules on bail. See te.X� accompanying notes 9-15, above a.nd fisher cited above at note 2, pp.• 337-38. Al� o�g · · not i!l continental law, n,or in English-Com�·onwealth law, nor in �raditional Elhiop: practice would an apparently innocent accused necessarily be kept 1n custod f from.ely day of arrest until his acquiittal at trial in ser�o11s cases 11nder t, he Code that 15 pr�� a �hat must happen, unless the public pr.osecu.tor choosoo ,to dismiss tl1e charge. . ·ht of single system or single family of systems been ,the source, sucl1 a fundan1_ental Fur· the accused as the pre-trial judicial screen would not ]ikely have been . �sea.rd . · uirY, ther1;11ore, even the ,accused's rigl1t ,to discover, before •trJal at tl1e . pret�n� b10t<,de de�ls · of the _ pr osec11tion's cru;e against him has been eroded 1n Btbiopia Jminan' �.rti<?le 80, the import ?f whic_h is t11a: n·o acc sed eveir J1as a rig/zt ,to a '!;'re ri ht to � g his inqu11 rr· . By C?D�r�t, 10 cont1� entaJ. a nd Engliis m syste h-Commonwealth -s,safeg uard. see . a preli.Ill.lnary 1nqu1ry m ·all sen1ous crues is recognized as a fundamental · £. J., is Lou F. s·ulliva.n, ''A C?mparative Survey of P·roblems in Criminal Procedure," SI. vol. 6, no. 3 (Spring 1961), pp. 388, . Code 3�2., an .Ind i 129· The �:Vil Pirocedu t�� upo re n Code ,of 1965 is 1pparently based p.rimarily . s. n of Civil Procedure, with liberal moclifii it:1o ooo rl n cations tio sui.t Ethiopi� 130. Which reportedly will be comm on law oriented.

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Och,;J'f!m• = n'l:'f·'i ("'Ill+ a,,-- � tf>"•Tc (/i) ODIPl:,,. Jrtq:,.. = roitr�m-: (Im-) : '11�.T : : oot}t,t\_ : f � Olm· : f,;J,O;J! : CDf,'/° : h,;J 11:F : (D•61J-: f10.l : P',;J : "}"}7-',,r : ""'"*l,11'i : Off!'i : Orf : �1''il- : 00 tihA: A"'/:: h+mllJ.1.. t ,n;J'P. : '111; . : �ro-: f+flllm•: ti'l:,"�rf:"} : nm·A : 1 fLfil,1--1\t\ t;: : f,9:i•I\IA 11 :: : ftt\,i\ (lro• : . ... ..

�I

ll1t11: A1:, ·nc111, ODIPl:,, = Jrtq:,. = roirr).:,• = (lsi>'f = o--1\:t- = lDf,'J°: h,,,.1\..-,�: fli\f,: (l.,lf). i , f,tJ : -:,:'?C: {1(1}•&\_ : aJf,'l° : 11,h,;J'f! : "19°:,·: ODwt.:,• : f,CD(l'i"/,\ 12 :1

7·

+--Tc I %f©D :: (ft\lt: tr�t& :_l1f.\•l•1,\g•. : Oil·f'•l'c.: f"IC.1, 1."1flt.f9'':f I ,r,\: I f°tf!D 00 1th-l:�f' : f�·)· ,h : .-flth.C : ,'l,°l't : �(D• :,) . 8· · '11... %f.� (iiJ lljf�l!�� :,c :z 9· '11... if.�(�) h%f.�%-:l?: :,r; == r-. i:f.:l� 10.

11.-

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.,,... :tf�R �,'i

jf�li ::

7,f.�·2 ::

- 493 -

u • : � f = " " firt•,n+(l •:,."} }'l();'f � "7rotf ' 6.i1o9'T"} : hH•u •. : h ,., 0:J,:Y,' : 1' p11l 9° &,.t\ 1 :: 1 1 = : l � mt\ ,f t\ m s / nfl'1•�:,.. i n;,11:J! = w�'J" = h .;111 ;1: � . ..- •61J, • = n'11ll : I";J •. "1'} J':,. {Ii\ "7 (D:,, ll ?" : : ' :, } ti � •' 'ht;:,..�'1·1 : "'ll;>"l'I' : cl'I\A : (t.lf1 � (�h1..r,f:9° : h 1f: : A�. Jt,1• = {b,r: nF;, = .ODrot\,c;.'t = ODllJ(l"} = "i'i\A � 1ro•t;_==) 1.�:,.1 .· · �, 1' '1' , 0"71l1W•9" ' V'l� ' ,'h"l : �11'1' ' ::!•I\:,, : °f'?C ' f"'l.&.'i'C , �Or:: 01/1 � llr9° : f,f•?i 7ft\ : ,"11' ? � f,U"} 1-��c = fLY:l'IAA: f :Ftt m•: <<lt'}_r, .. A� : (LCD/\�· : OJf,9° : (LO�il I flDAf..::j•m" : (JJ�'J° = f8�()1•m• : fl,:,.: Q : A f�nlro· (lm· i ft\,l:. = q:,.. = �ro·• �=>> noiz.A = ,..,.:1, �� "'I ill� = IL+c,o u 1 {1,1- : {1"'1Y,l-A : n,n."l : "19°:,... : }lD• - �u : «?9 :,... : h'I' "}:1''l!UJ • ¾ <<}'tq�.. : -- (D• : � (D• : )) h 01/.{\ UJ« h;, f : f (D• OI/Jl (\ : (l (D• : ;J : ffi:,, (t OIJ .. l OD ft h(D• 11, f : ;,'I!= nflflA = ;,c: = tt 1�-- = �co• 14 == rtt.:i•f"kf'P.m·?° = ,"l,"l = h0r6Lh = ntt1.r; ODV'l,1· i <<A-p; : f;J-flff-J!{l}c : P'C'¼� : h..-l•L�UD : O�I\: hxt: +1 : nti,e,c;: "" i :9° : O�I\ : cf : cf>"}: ltf,'1'1\ = r,1.. m l\� : h 1�If� : it Q:,-c; : h'irf :J ou4 :: h - ' ..-J·;,11,t-ar : O�O«rOT: 1.tt: 1'.11': i"lJ'i{l: lf'i: f,100;:J,A_1s:: n1t�: ,,,;, �t : flll/.tr1 : CP/ill� : ,,1J;.cf>C1l : nf,t.+�"9° :: ff : fn..Ti'-k.rro•f1'i: f 0r,w, = u1c : tl111... = ODODl){lA • ;\ilh1·1..u = .("lit : �ro-:: h1·LU : tf>'Pfto, �) · : hftf, = f +m+(lro·1 = ,,-.:J>�t "'I ilt.i>, = f"? _r.+c:11n'1·1' = rt11'? : "19°t } fln.Tf-A-f: ft\W•'}: (14.:,.: g) ftLtn: '?9°:,•: ;}f,/;\ : i\1'0Dl9'1�ft1:: � I ftLU: '?9°'1- : fl4- :,... I �u : hl\f,: f,f·m�J>(lro« : fh'l,r�,r: "19°T: f°tf1l\"J(\Or : h;>1l;f. : t\,f•W(\f. : A1: : 11:f- : �(D• : lDf,il: flt\t\9° : h;J ·-o;t- : (Jr� : O'IOl. : "11,-.�T : t\,j•(D(\f_. : A1:9° : 61}>9°C : .,lD4? fCD•6/l' : U1C : fih"l : l\.:J>lD·'},r -i <<n1f: : rA1: : n;,,n:1= : 1.tl, : h,t,mt\f.,.: }'t(l,f:: f{b,}f-q> : 'l/;\ : �(Jr :)) 11/\lD'" : ODtD{lt;:fro· I 0;>11:J! : 1.lt : 111 : rai11 ro«'}: {l{b,rt; : 0011f: : ODt}hA : f fllD·' } ¾ h "fie!' : f oo'fC'i: f{llJ,f'OI/OD'} ' °l�;r : fiODODCholf : �(D• :: f,U9° : tt1.i;.:,..: ( t:'f• : tt1'Y:: OJ1,� ": 111'11:: r '1 ... lD" � : t\ 01/.il,f:: :'.."'I�: il !l. : ; 01/� : �1· I 'l !l.'I° : ;\ 1'J;. U• : it, I\ : {b:,... : Itr -,ro. :: n11�: 00 'rC9°: f,1 q:fcp A:: 1'. �lLU: rrt\,f: I tt..-fi{!': oo'fC'i: {ID,rd'/ 00 1 n;, 11:f. 9°h1f ..-,.. : ih;,'I! = OJ�:J•?>;f.:f!ro· = c;:,:roc :: y,u = hl1'� = n;1 , 11:F: 00 '1hA: i\,f-Wl\f...Or: Al"-- : ttfl:,-r-,,.,..: '1/A f(l}•: ,,n;:: -,ar : 0'1'/ft'f' 16 :: fln. .. ar .,m : .etJ i"" :: :t• • 4' .. •"} : U /L far� h1'°l}L n"I a; : C: ro :, : nfl ff : .=>> '1-r·A-f : &ih°l = °11 : <<h;11l:F : a>·'ih : f1°11ll. : P';J : '11'1-.,� : (IO'iC r 1 f01J.fli\t : lri;r : ODirJ--IJl/oo'}t; : Ji,fi{� : OU'JC : ('02_(}�:,• ') : °1J!v: f " : IHI\ : °ttf.,f./\'I° :: lf'r'I° : i',fl:,- �:,,1 : 00'/lD� : Oh·A : h;J-0:r : (JJ•6IJ' : fl°11lt. = P';1 = °l1"f..�:,- = OD':c = n,"h°l = ro·il'r = i n·A = f...l� = ,,.(1'1',f•:J"A ,.

nct:

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- 494-

-O!r: lD·611' : 0"11ll = P',:J : "11�'1:,.. = 00 'i c =>> f°1. •.Lmlm• : '111: : r ' 1 , Ah • J.'.T,.'.Jf h «!:;,; , h1'-'l.•r a:,., ' IA 'i": "'l.1'17', fi.'f?-, �w- ,1,, h1'

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t'I , '¼f.�,J: , hltlt"f • 11-�;J· ' 11'" }9 " 'Oll.-"t•V-'f''i" • O(lw•r w•,ool-JhA, roo �� P" 1 , "If.,;J- : fl,(',.C.'l' Cll" � Ati ' h1 J.'.,.'.J 11:f. , V•lr i « (I w-�w- , �a,• , :,-t'l'1: f{IO'l"t.-1· =>> f°1.A : TCllJ6> : /!,.LT�A:: /!,U"}: 'PCllJla : ',(De : '7,1f.' t.11:i•�·l· ' "19"..,. ' (JJ�!- ' fhl17'1.' "'IW<f,f• HJ.'..•l-'"'i.J'f.C1W•18,: 11:J! I h;,11:,;c; h;, OJ·il'r -f" .. "4 P ih"l m•fi£b ,.. ' n °l :J : Ol : f ;, : °11 k o -�:,- 1 11"1•(D(\};.: A�1 : OD'1hA = 9°19° = Ai.,..-,.. : '1/\0D'iC .z. ttq,7.. .,:,-., : . {I h :,. fl01·1 = lD· !'}>:,. = "fl:J! It!!, If"} ; h I\ J!, 'h11',1,1/\mw- I "'I It m:,, f"'l.J' ., : ftv.fl,f:9° : Ajl.:f.. : lt"}J.': : 'h1� .lf) , : :J Yo f9° ?1 f01//tlD'l!! lf ll:,.. : 'l 1 h . t,.(-C�A :: g / ftLtJ : fJtq:,...,:,. : '?9° ,l· : :�!,A I /!,U"}: fJtq:,•.,:,.. : '?9°:,W : (loo . lL f + c,n = for1. A OtJ.,m•? OtJ {I l�w-il = rui+c ;,m r .,,.. :1> � t = °7 ii l"A = om -: '1'1Yo'1·: ',lD•? f,U11il: l\Ol/f:l'?: f1 .1·1,: 11'11: '1/\: a>f,? l\',f·LU: ° '11 f4:9'if: 011J9 :f,f•OJ(l',: 00Ail: (loo{lmrf: ¾f"-.:,Wr·kf: ;,,'?: r J.l"}() f,1: th°l: f,tJ1J{ll\A 19 :: t J) f,IJ"} : ftt'l:,...,,). : °19°;1. : ll..:l' OJ'J° : f°tl-/\m• = at/"} , ',m•? : hCJ-l'',"1:"}: OOD:J>OJ'J° : till : l\01J:,,l"'1 : f°1.1'/\(D•: (lw -: Om'? : °1'1°'1' : nCJT : 'IIJ: f.-f,'l/\OJ•: ()OJ• = ..n;r- = 'lw•:: 'h1�.u : '¼f,',,f:"}: h{l: (:J--UtJ�: fAlf'l1•tD« =) 'h'i:,• ? lDJ!,'J° OJ� � = flf'lw - (lm• ¾ OJJ!,'J° : r.-,,OJ/\1'w- 1 A"/: 1i1,;,. = ll.f+cn· = '11!,l-il.·9° 20 == (flbl\1 = flm• = Jt'l.-l•'I:,· OIJl/001 1 tDf,'I°: fA�: t,11:,..: t\,I\ : ',OJ• : 0°11\T: {l,trf:'J° : lf'll-: OJ�l: i CDJ!,'J° , . = noo.�m'J° = nil = /\°1:,. r+rofl"-tD« =A�¾ r:it;,'P.m•1 =·tt'l:,- = 1t11:,,.,.. -, l-0: f,(ID7-: f,lfc;'A :: f,U"}: 01/f:l°l: '?"} ;; hi\/!, : 'h."}1'.-1'1/\mlD• : u--� ¾ nf,ftr'J° :: ) f,tJ'J° : f,f'1'G10:,• : 'J°ti}f:,-- : f{l,1•(lw(l"} : fll\ 9°'i" : �T;J-- : t\oumn:,,: ODt}{l{l"}: /\°1ilOJ1f..' : (t(}te\ : ',OJ•:: fi't'l'1•',.-f: : h.lD•',,f,t1'1T: hll,1-(111: (tf\9°: .f11tA: OOl/ll:,-s,u: fT1-l1: 'Im•::

fl) Om"l : 1111:: lt'l;l..: 'IU : f1"'ll\OJ•: (lOJ·: .-f•:J>�).: DI/ill�: l\.J'+ C,fl : f°7.1'/\W-: 'h.1Yo:,- : ',OJ•?f1"1.:,--f-kf : "1°1 : ltOJ•6Lh : /\f-f.U: 'rJ''I: ' f(Jmro•: tJ1JA,il: 'h.11'1\f,�w- : 'rf'I: : ooA_il : hoom"}: {l l\f, : f,f•OJ(t', 1 . 1 :, 'l:, } (D« == n ;,, -- "19° . tt = .,u = r ,f--'lt\ OJ• fl OJ• -:

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h+OJll1'lD- : A:e: : 'h'i":,-- : ;JC : O,n'? : n"l"OJ(l',OJ• : fC'?1-f'i" 2 ( �. : h ODOJ{l);. : Ok�· : Orft10J•'i : Ofift10J• : +'ii' I ro�:,.. : Clr{l'J' : A 00 tthA 21 : ) '/°"}'J°: '}f,', :,..: f'?1ll: P';,: °111--'1:i•: 'h.1�A 'I Olm · 1 OJJ!,'I°• 17·

-,,.., !lf.u(;;) 1 J[: h7i:f·'io.:r.; '';h°lt; : lltJ� : (A9°X·) : OJ1..,1·V-kf'' 1 flt..Tf-kf s fih°l • 1-r11.:,· � 1:.: = flAf-r <xnx:li> i 1�· = §x�·l:, �c�'l! s ,,,.CL, f°tl\m-1 , hc'hll:,. 12

19·

20.

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'l!g s ..,.�: tf>•·rrc:: f·l·?.&.m-1 : rticfl"}.,'} r ,..,,...� : .,,... f:l§-!ll; 1 rf•ODAl1·1· f1 .,..., Zfj II .,,.._ iY.ii•r = h?;xii•2 :,c :,

- 495 -

. . ll f1,.};tt·) : Jtll'llt : O•t; r9'11 = "'illl� = no11oriAn:,. : ct:c�- .· I I o,, If i,.1 : "'l A n . t � , r, v,,., lll >: :i• 1 f."f� o.11 , , 1i "L" -,: , :, (L'-:i,i·i.l.:,. , ,-. 11 : , h '} 22 � : :-i'. : 1"l ;JC �..,. : : (J)• (I l It {I,., \"''P tj;C.(' l fl,. ,f: I 'I ,; : {I,.'I,; (I,..,. : �0 l (l.{ll1�:t't : O"'l_op� , _mf,'/" : htii'f· : f+mll..J'.m· • A"{: : ttq:,. : h�� 11ft '. 1 {1-f: = &::l'� = n 'T.Y· = h CJ.-,.� •I = h It n..., ; ll.. ti if. �c .(" "J.1po'} 11 : : = 0 11 -- A'J 23 :: l ' : : 1,f,1 ill.� �l "'I · .. t : }-'l.f h 1 't· oPtJ' f"'If,.;-rA : [ / fltn,,. : "J9°:t- : Ji{),1• I .,IJ : f,f•{){\(JJ• : �(D" : f&_<f>J!..Or'} : "f' .91� : "'lilli; : {I..J'-,.c,n : f"'l.l•ll..<D· ! f(l,,t,J: : 'l.t;T �rf• : t-(1• : hht.1-:tt : 1'r· = n�c� = 1''t�.ro (l1 = rA�.,:,.. = u ,.).:J:; nchc� = 4'Cfl = h1itr� �m« :: ,. , tJ ':7f\:,• Ol/1: } A�: h'i+. : 1,1f..lf'i"l li': fA�-, --1:1: U•1:r: ft.01/m:P f 'l°: · : nil : i'tif>C{l :. 1,'}Y..lf'I 1 t,'l:,•: ',tJ: frf"fll\lD· = (lro• : ft.<f,�0r1 : °7ill.�. A 24 :: it:,,Cfl : i'tfl:,. 'I ,f:1 : l\.ti� : di) nen'I'" : "l 9"° :,. : h {) :,.: ., u : . frf-'1I\ lD· : (\ (D• : h {} :,.. ., rf:'} : n ODq�, : till : "7:,,l·fl : fCP/..1'/\lD• : oP:(: : '11J«? 00 Ao.• : ll.0•19° : f,f-- ro(l � : �mc :: f,tJ') : l\"'f Y,.•ldJ : fOILl-/llD' : frf•(l/l(Dc : �� : (1,f-�t\Y,. : flfit : if>'} ! CDf,9°: frf•(l{\(l)"": (:\�: h.'j,f:: "1'} : },'}f,.(f'/rf-c: l\"1lJJif,: ft\��T: fr�;J,: till : it:,,Cfl : 1��f. : (l(i:C..f.." : n�:l. : fl··f• ro(l',: flfii� : <f>'I.. : ro•{ ltp : �m• ::

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nh.:t-r--A·,r : r�:,-,,, = •fltlt.C: = ,11ai = ro·ilT = r•1•{11Jl\h...1·ro• = rtt'l1•�,r =

"l'l°T : h;,11;1: : (D•61b : (l,f•tD(\J!,, : /,\JI_".}� : fi't'l:,.. -,:,... , "'lltWtf : If'. : ill\lP/.f'lil"llA ' f f-1.U : ;,,a, : il4--•1' : ;J·•lt:,, : ',ro• :: ,f.....4>t..t : "'lhl-n : /\"'I:,, l11 : fCT'/..l-l\lD• : (l(lr i f 0'1.f<J,C,fl(l,l-. : 1..IL'i : f"7.. f4>C•flfl·1· : OD'}'l"' : r+wfl� = i ll\ = tr� = f tt.u = f ,n'? = "lr'1· = OllJ9° = h<t: = fl\ = :}f,A = ttl\c& r. h;,-n,: : lDf,'l° : h,:J•fi;.f: : (D•� : fl"l fil : �;J : "111-�:r : l}f,lf1 : h1-'ttr : K-'.''1- : ht\,l\(l}« : "111·'1:,• : foY.rol\J!,. : AJ/.:f. : ,'h;,'l! : (JD.-f-l}{lC: flt:far: hl,'i;r:f{I)«: 11.r: ',ro• :: h�f-1.U: A.-;l..:l._: i',fl,f,.,::,:ar: fl"ll,\: t..:J' >;:('{I)« : it:PJ..w· = Jtq,}i-;;J--:flD''l : \i'\W<hl\:t=ro• : rof,.'J° : f1-..C'.'t.:fc: lt'l•l·: 07/\1 : ° 1 : til\ 7' I i't'l·r : h'J�I\TlD' : itY,�m?,9 25 :: t,'1"1·'1"1•") : 01/lD:,, " it1f.... : (l(Dc: fl&.:J,J!,, t fti1J.!": A�: <<i'tfl-"l': ',� =>> irfll\ h"'llD'l?: f,f.. �Vf: ·it '1'1-'11:1 = fl.,,r l;J"IT = -;co- 26 == n1·lU : 01,-,:i·• : {11)11� = h q:,-�:,- roit.f ,,'1 1'1'1\:,- f ;,1;,'1! : h'lT : ft\,l\a>• : A:f: = 11:f- : ',(JJ• :: fl·l;IJ : ot�rf: : n'l' 11

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f 0'l.1•1\.ro· = 'll.r;-:,- rw- = no�fl1 f : .. m t : o9° m:,,:,. : 1 n:,t r = L y, = ,e,*��;, : {flJf..&..C = ,.l·'?'lC = "l·&c?t--tfll'l:,· = flf� = i1..e.rr�: 'I • 50 ::

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m f • ! O'l,hi'ft(J} "� f • htLtJ9° • r 111fl4- P'&. = ,1·&.?i'l°'l,.r = r A,:= 1t'l:i. = ""1 1 = my,r &.. .. {IJJf c f bI : ,_ij,� :J--m·:,, : (l.:,• : f A:( : h'l"1' : .e,l;J1TA:� : 111\ : hil : A:r+ f9 ° 1' 1 u :: 9 C-0 : 1t:t--:f·A ° f<< JTD..e.tcc: P't- = 00 &.�9'° =>> f°7.'lfrT: :J>l\:,C: i! / f<< mft4- =>> mf.,9 : . : illl : If� -:· f�lLU : �I\:,,. : TC1·9'° : : A f "l•1/l ih'? : ft :,Wdt th.? 0 : Ofi! : l,1F.."l--1/l�ro-: ooro•(l,,e.,., : hll111 51 :2 ro·ilT : : ,l1'? .. {IJJ:,,liliJ,m : ,:t\� 0011 tt-0Jf�OJ •1: 'LtL: Jt'l,l·.,,).: n�c_e..,: f°1• .l;J1mw-: nmll4-: mf.,9'°: nooF.. t.C: r 1«,LK{JIJ : Fir : h°tfilh:i•ltm· : fm1lA : :/>"1,)· : n�I\ : .,(De :: m l\ t, s mf,9° : f...4-t 1 = nro1,:A = ll"'lil�"1:,-t; = r Aj}:1 : J-,q,.-,. : nc;:c� : fl01/lD:,, = roi+co•:,- h fa = ,,.."lsro.llD· = q1_e..,., .. 1.= fl..+en·: Y,1-l\1r 52 = 1,1>;..l;11T = hil = noi�l'c11n:,. = 1.u = <<fc'? r / 1t'l:,...,..1. n�c:.e..· u e : h'lT.,,f: : l\...l)1Tll:,- : f<l lllw- : A,.,__... : f+O.,(l 9 . .. m�:,c; >> m = ,, 11 1 : O-l-1: 'LtL : cf>-"-'l'C : %!ii.. 0°1.,m{l',ro,: J-11/°ltf : oom(I") : f.,:f.l\A:: << h'l "r�·l·1 : nc;:c_e..-- : "'Im:,, =>> hlLU : ll:J·l- : ffl--,)·1 : v-�;J--911· :

fttft :

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§ / ti'l:,...,:,.. nri:c� = y,;1--m:,,A� = fl.A = hil = ll011:,,1. ..n = f°7..l-A • ll'l�ar? nm:,,1\1\ : h'l,,?1C : f.,U1 : hil : ll"'l:,,1.11 : f9°,,r1'A : f mfl.iJ.. : mf.,'l": fOD�LC : P' t.: firl•&.�ooq:,.: A�: fro/lf...1-(JJ«: fl»:,•: 11:f.: 'l'f:: 'h'it,f:: 'l°:J': mf.,9°: ,1,lt!l1: /lDD'?fl?i: fA:rll'f: h1f...tr.,? fA�: 'I°'? lf.:,.: ti (t,"} : ll..f4'C11 : f.,1•1\A.:: l; / tJ(l•"}: °11:,,1.11: f0'/..:1:l\.w-: ou:f:: .,ro·? tifl ·1: °11:,'l-0: f°t:f.fl.(Dc A:�:: h,f•OJ/\f.: lDf.,9°: Omll.4-: lDf.,9°: O��l."f•: illl: irf•&.?toom-: P'�: ti{l: +ell : 'l'ti.1--�ro •: :,,flJ:,• : h,f--m(l'11l.-l· : <111 : O�I\ : Ou•llT : '}ou:,C: CD•{l' J' : ., OJ• :: j / ODhl\hf -� h(lc : f<l'.lnn:,- : ml\L : mf.,9° : f.1-t i firf,fl/l(l}«1 : fmft-i..: mf,9°: f�c;:G:,.: ro1lA : O(l.•l·r-'P : l\f.,: ntc�'J°h·'lT : m:,,:,. : l\il81'1-r: hl\.-:f-A9°: 'lOC: (LA: ffloo,:J!fl.;,.1: U•l:J--: '1l;J1 m: (ll9°'1t\: 000'11�:,-: f i''ll>/ i (l.:,--r-,p1 : l\il01lt�- : hA1'A9° : 11tr- : ooti,.,,1:·t : lJt;>1m) : llh(l« : ct:?t,9° : JTDhl\hf : f.,IJ''l'PA == i / h'l.-,,_.,:,. = O.';� = ri:c� = y,;--m:,,A� : fl..'lA = hil = °11:,,1.,n = roi :Ftt.ar' Omllti- : mf.,9" : n�ct:l:i• : P't. hirl--&.Koo f'?-Ol = P';1 = '?11"-

Zf!li " s1. rm11.tt�: oo�"'- • il1°1 : -,.... ?if:l� : 'h'i' • ?.if·itii :• s2, Lfl.Tr °l&,,o'} ·I ''fro1�t\'i': tj::,•,h : •flth.C: "l9°t. : )1il'': fh.T�k1 1 :h°l • 00 Y.t11a:i•• f ji;;: J flAf..9° • ji (Iiif:li) • 1� I f,Jj?J-!l I ,,.or>t\11:,. II SJ. +--. 1tl!lu-i� 1 ·f•ooAh·)· is 50

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lD {\f: I 1(7• : .,(D• :: ,O i\ � !/''h'}j ·, : : /A� ( ',l>f L ,f : f � � frf•�u, ·� h £ l : /\ : PA� " 1 -,+: {lij:C�: f,l..;J ' �"'/ 1 01/ � �fl ..�.hf,:J•t\.9 °:: },1 . qt 1 : l 0 /.\ : H�· .·H I R ' /;'i Otifi: l hi\,(', f i ? /.\ : 117?1•1· l OD!Pl:'f· I (L l 11 : hf.:J•/.\'J' : "'111.·)· ' }1 " f.S'. : :,,t: ,,., : till ? �:, : h h n 'P tJP;f--OJ�'J l l\"'llll 07.'llllDCI• : r11'l:1-�:, .. D'Jmt,. )(1}.i : f : OJ:, : thlt.11 : n'lT'l-l•'} : {l(j:C..{!" "? r: Omli. 1 ( � mf, "'i.f 'lh ll.O , 'I" l r,:�:,-: P'"': = f"l-Ol : P';J , .,,..,�� '. "l f � b,f,t.KOD : {l�I\: I,\.,_.. : (Lm/\Y.·'i I flA;f.1: itCf,f•: fl{\,t\: Hfo: OJJm:,» 1 : r fA : +c : •Of 1 �m• • 11."'1 iiT : }O ,, 11.'l"tift, = h1� : {Im- : t," ti� I � I\T 1 0"'1110/.\ : f"l-Ol : P',:J : "T}i-�:'t· 1 t1f.l1 : O?.I\ 1 A.';: : fW{\f..i.: : A;J�+c,o: tt,)·l h'Jf..lf'I i fIA:(�: it q:,,: OP,�',,,.), : �;J-·m:l'f\� : 11ft = ° 9 · A'I° 54 :: f,U : h1-'tU : flf'IOT'J : h1'f,:t· : fltl.U : x·,,�<;:: ODOJfi,f: l\f.,: '1 itl..�+'iIA :: t I 1'(),l··'IT = OPif: �c5.!· = 1\..:J--01:,, = f01.filhTllW• = ;,1,:J'f!: m•m�·= h'IT'IT"} : O'i:Cf: : {Ill qm:,, : ,,r'}.(.':"} : (Im« : lD1Y:tt � : T'i,�·· : fcn: :i»liliA : n1F..': tlYo : ill\ : lf'I � fD?.fith,l'l\ll)" : O)"(fl.:,-. : it(}:,--�.)-: Oh�A: �t; : I : (Ll..;J1'P : hOIJ.fith:1,/\l& : OJ·m.:'f· : ht·I..U : (l;J--1: : OOl/.hri--t\ID• : ,. 'lncn• = ml\k = mf,cr: �� f = 'i=Cf: = 11,1:,.. = a,u = r--, IA == l11: = f,/\f tlD·: A�:1: foocPi,l··: tf1;J'l!: 0l!o:t": (L 'iCO-"I· ¾ i','lrU : ',W•: i'rf•flt\ID·: A�: °11: n'l-f:1: fovcPi,l-- : tf1)'l! : °l�:J-- : fl\{l,l,�1 :: ht·LU?°: r.,,,�.,,: A� = tiF..1 = O?.f\ i n<t:cY: = ;t- 01·•�A'1 = IT'//Jf...1.,,r = fh&.ttt\�1 J'tfl,1:11 ttAI..Pi9°: ILIA: f,1--1\A.:: i't"}..(!': f,\,:e:: OPi�: 'i=C�.": f;J--ro4'1l.T1: ll'l·r: fooCP,r : °lf.o;J-- : t'l\0:,... 9" ss := I

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2 ;: n'l-l--'l-l--1 : nro·•A : il/\"'lfl,t•l\l\(i:;. (lth °I : IL:PW-1T : ,.,"} f: : (l ··t-l\OD.{'..(D«

I f(l (D" : OD11,f..:f I 1'1f.. : i°lf: : iJ:J> : Oil9°9°'1T : m(l). : '11,.e..l\•'1° :: Otb"l = f,t-ron� = ill\lf-,. = IL7i'11· : tnf,9°: {Ll\mm- = i'tf,--:f lt-9°:: �u : fW'fi/1' = LJ1C ll.:l'w· 1T I h'l;J1C : Oi't.-l--r-A-f : th °IC.": 'l,)1 A : fmo�,, : OVIJ.'l;t-: fllOJ•: h�.' 1C: i'tY,F..l\1/° 56 :: fi't1f..': (ltD-: ,:Jr{l:f- : mf!,9°: l-}'} ,c;..:'frc: : ;JC: fflW•: h;,11:J! : (Dc.6J}> : fl\ : f°l•(l� : P';i : °11?-'l·r 57 : h&,�(l : mY,'J° : ll�{]IJ: htf : 4>'i7f: 0:\/\: A�: f+ml\ i: 1,1�tr',: ,"h;J'l! : h q:,.. : flf �OJ•: h fl-r '11:1: l\fhf\ = nco- : flilSJD9°'1T : IL..ffl,f•I\A'i= : f,-:f.-1\A:: 58 ti I An.. : f+lDt\F..m· ;- ;J•O:f-aJc : h&.. �(l : lDf,9° : h:i-O:J·:: lD"61!1 : t'"} 11�: P':J: °11'7-'l"h: h�ou : her, : �1>1: 0:\/\ : OD(f"}: i'ti\.{l•r:: (1,tatD'i t,'}°: i'tll-l·'I+. : 1'"},c;,,,.,-.l\/\lj:{\:,-';r 0it.lA1tD• : (l(D• : ;,,,.,.�} : &\1u 1 ��: 0T :t 1}ho : OD«f>(lf,\ :

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tt1-�.:,-- : 'h'i;'f• : IA� : nml\.e..::fn:,- : "1.l·L : h'l!l.. : ,:JC'i : h;J•fl:f.'P9° : 014611': ht\./\ : (lro· : ;J(: : f°l•fll : P' ,:J: OJ'}"f,.',:,-- : f,'i�:,- : f,IJ''iA :: m : ,:JC: 0;:>•fl:J:: ,f•ltP'�: O'IOl:fn:,-: lD'JY...• t11Y...": (I,:,•: 'f' ").';, :,•: tt : f, OJ:,,:,.: Aj/:: ;'f•01ll'i: 'hfl·'J: &.;J ..: t\,I\ : h°l•fl;J--: ilT'iC: IA1:: f,Wf\Y...•: or1.. r,v-1(1}«1 l\lA"P;.. 1 r = : of,'1. 1 1.1. u .. 61 q lfc; o = fl'h'J,� ru-ll:i• Jt o 'i :, A 1, c: 'f'?c: : fn.. T\'·A·f m·: ,"h.°1: h.m•� : U•fl,f:: f,f•'lfl�:,.: (l 9>if,: Oll?°?° ',:,•: hU·ll--1:: f,}•�m-: Jtq:,.: 1,1..e..ll''I : 'h'JJ;.m{l�.: f,J..:J,f:t\:f'PIA:: f,U : �f.l'?: 9.: rlltJc»':f : 'h'J,t 'j�.: .r"lf/;\ : (1,f--Q;b01/t9°: 1--��: �CY:: (L :,-: 'l>CP • t;:C.l!.': n.,J: : 'h'i'rf:-f:1 : '1..e..ODm : 0:\/\ : L:J>Y: : 'h1-'tfl'I' : f "/fIA :: hltf,: r--r 'lt\(J)c: f'1'1:,-r,:,- : ":f·°IC: },'J�.u : flil9°9°',;f.: l1·l•W(l',: "�" : il9°9°'11:1 oo"lfc : hf,:J!IA?° :: ll9°9°'rl:1 = llOI/llm1Y..." ooqohc: it'IT �T: llll9°9°'1-r: h--l�t\l\&.: fl�/\ : l\OI/iltJJ11: : l,"),e..ooqohcc; i i',.():,-r,:,- : (A�'} : {1"701:t, : h+l;:>1m : n�t\ : ""{lm1Y..." : 'h'J-'-"OD'l°hC : U-it- : {liJJ9° s ltllf;,t: ',OJ':: (ht\f,.: f,,.�t_.m,;: f,ODt\h;tA. : ) trll·l:: f,1-()ft-rl-- : (1911· : ('Ajf.: }',():,-: °71: 1'1..e..ll'�: flilr'9°�:,-: ht\OJ(l�: h'J-'-"lf� 1 :lt°l: nlD•6/!'llr: �(l• : f'l/AfOJ•"} : Of,',:,• i Wf,9° : IA�: f,f• ml\-'-"0:'f•'J: «,,1 : {lODODAh:,.. : 'h�tLU'J : ..,.��"'l. : '1.Y:C� : (1UDODCP11 : flA�'J 1 '1'1:,- 1 tmhc;A::

= nfln,r ==

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: nll+'l:,•1 f''tfil-f•'lAt.{l}« m•A = n1.·d1-� = ll''i 1�:,- 9°iln !-,,.1>t6.C""•n:i• 1 n":'"""0 .�: ,= 1-�r- ' <;:c� , n.:i• , -,,cp � <;:c� , e�: 7''i,f:--l:: f'J°;'f•(lOJ•'} . h(l 1 . n�." . it'l:,-r,:,-: 00-f•t\f\4•1: noo'f»nA. I a, 1 • • ooilm:,• &,:J'.("h�·l·�•l·: hTftl\6. ' �:\t\ ' oo�c.' hf.:J!A9" ,, hll:i•}T1 , "'lilm1� , --r,:,• l:, n' lD4 1t:J,c:: = = } · 001/m:, , IA�1 '1l;J1m • O:\t\ : oofA(l : : : ll ffr "'l f ,l1.,: oaifAn•l· 1 n--1·&.'f».v":,. = u-).:r9'1' = ,n;. = 'Im• n+t..«J>.c;. , •11:-1= n'l:,-r,:,-1 °7ilm11: = ,\1,c;.:f.lA = r+..e..l1n:,-1 = 9° n11,l· = i ():,.�:,.1 ' ill\"71D:,. •» 11"7..I\ID•: l"C' THC11 Z'.A S9" (J''} ' f,ODl\h;tA ') t, .. ll .. ? 1 OIJ.. ,,.,., = c c 60 = :, :, n ° , r:,.. I 11 nq:,..,, =

tl1) hf\ : A;��,), : "'1llt.'n ::

OD9°l,f I tt11:,-�-1-- = oo;1-- mck1 = f"'l.,,flllJ;. = ,1�9'1· = ll•n:1::rm· = nti1Y...· = f'i! -� th11"1.C: ch0l : h�IA : m-il�: ,1·tlC1l l'PIA :: hf·LU9'1 : f.,. .. ,,.,., i hti q:,. 1 "'lltm,tf: lf1o9li•: oof\ff;r:fm·'J : fltfIA :: 'ht;:,.r,:,, : noomflY...' : ,fl:J! = {L:J'm� I h'lT�:,..1: (til\OIJ{l8�il : t1/;\,f'l;J1m) : h'lf,.: O,J·HlH?-:,• : H� P'i- = "'ll..'11'1' : f,.:f.t\A:: lf'i9°: tt'l--l-'1:'t·1 : l\O'/ltm:,, = 00 ml\f:1 = ,fl:J! : z.rii ! .,,.., if!li1 hilrl•f}!., 60· .,,.., ixii-�·§ 1 },'i 1 ,J>--,J % t� : rf•DDAh:,- • f 61• (ii) f.,,._TC , Zf�ji , 'h'i , +--'TC : i f�?;(ji) 1 mf!.,"}'l° 1 (t) r O,,._..TC r :f:f�li • mf,1'1° • jf:'1�(ii) ID-i'l"J' • f'',J•Wftf.'' 1 'h'i , f''.,l·O}fl'' 1 "'/ODIfII� • outit1A 11 59·

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= f�fllm-1 , r., . taJ?,tr'>. n-1•ml\�-n:,. = 1.1t I nc,·:,-c; = _qq:� ·= <J1 �h:'11 . 1 . (},} 0 f .. ,:, °I ,,-: P' .. ,:J 1l • lf � ' h;,-0:J! : (D•lif.b : fa; (ll: f'? Wf,9 : t, ::F? ; /I.Or l «A:( I)) 411\" l t,.q:,.�,i:'} I "'IOJ<h'} I Wf.9:' ' Jctq:,� �:,. ' 0i19" l'tq � ,f': 9° : ffoo 62 m i = /;\9f: � 7i � . J.!" == hi A A;J & fil : : .. . '1 ;J1 "'ll. � p.. , : . ODT l\ l\ i : 11-1' I 'Lit I t,.q,i:'}9" l ll'� I 'h',-1: '} I f\"7"10J,,, I f°7.fi1"fA I 9° '}9": "'"'�':'�'. "'lilt. � : n� : i'tf,'f1.m· = f,lf'i'A :� cii1 {T= l rO. DOJftf:.: = ?Dilhc = wl<1>:,. �� • -- : 63 'h"}P,t\lJJ" : f lf ti� : £11/itt.n : '1t\a t n;, � a;:,.. : o•�:J r f,9° : fA� 4,:,. • +h h I\ l1 Or : A'f: • � O r • ·l-.flfto ' (hH. tJ 9" : f..,·�"I , fI\ , �lj If. 1 {� ' oiwcil : A�) = .e�mt•A. :: 1'a;1·LU = f"'lil.�� = Of,�,y..-:f. : fOl/!h�hl � 'i:flD' :: 'l°n,fi: 9° : ll f-0:1::f {D« : -tmil�OJ" : 'P ;J : fl\:f-ro·• : roritr).{ ; -- : P 64 f;J ll} J\'}f..V'� : �(& :: ff"}��1T1{l : Olf'i : HY-a : f°t: W°"ITW·•: r-tro(l� = 'h,f.11, = cii, = n1--P,r,. = ��.9'1 = nchc = }\'JP..e�ti = ,,rF..c;,tt-:: 65 bH.U : 4>'Pll� : itht-tit'i' : fOI/.,fhlr-TI� : flt'l.:,��:1,; : o0 :rm�, : 'lOIJ.!flt. �:,.; : H�?>f : hiY: : fl,�.. : 'h1.0°l9'1t-i\1 �= 11

.. tic = rA�a;-l- = �ilt.� 1 fi / f"'lfht� I O'i!:i-m : -Och.� : ,n'? : fHDri ;J1tf : d11°i' : 66 DDLJJl.1" I hith : 1..ltlD' : f:lil 1 (llJOJl\f: I (l{IIJWt\� : �"dt.<j: : tif,V'i I h9°Cout. : n�." : nai1� : O;f"'W«f' : (l.,f: : 00/..,;J"l'P : ht\0-r :: II]'}: h14'"1... : £�}: rorz.m:,,ti :,:(De = r:r m«k = o., p...:f1 = roi..r1·1.�i.. = rn-nc = OD'J-11,,n = i--c11,..,r = ct:r : ° tf."79°,:I.. x wf,9 : 0th'? : llrA : i\,J;,.f&.t-coo• : r-1--&.+f.t\:far : 0911.. : fit-9° :: ;,..,--; : P' t, : l\f, : f'17..fro-A : t,,�l-'J° : �"lC : fll\fl,I\ I <<t\tLrr : ,--�y, = ni't1c = '?If ,r = oitil-r� = n:01J'J°1:,-. = 1,001..fff l\• =>> r+'l/\llr?° nA+&.1too'J° == 67 I! hl\f,: f/;\.,W•'}: OOIJil:rwil t 011.:i-..r·A-..r: W ..il'P: J-11�: f"'lfht. nc = rA�.,rr = "'lilt..� i rA�.,:,. = r,-);:J-- = roi..rtirro· = n� = rflnt>:f = r-1� Llou(D« : �th-'i! : a,w• �s == i't,f: = A� i fA)_}:'1-r = u�),:r = ttl\ar = f°t'l f\(Dc : h.1f: : (lw· : wf,'J° = i't'JJ;,.t : fb:i• : wf, 'J° : noop.:]!:,:lD. = 01f,'/",: ib�l- = (lSJ>lc = rtt..r = ow• = wf,'J°: r,-L..rl-: fb:i• : A�: -,m.. = i,,e t•: 1 roi1

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,,�: f1" (D•OJm- : c;:f (IJ• :: h;:, 11.?' = tJ)•tif..b : 0�,fl l: P';J : "l ') ��:,-.: 00 . 1 r ;c A : 0 ootJ : -:f � .t;.. 'lD,\ ;r hA ;,-O � : ;J'I! : ll,n � : TO> 'i f l\� m Ol 1 h 1 11 11,: : rttq:,.�:" : OD:J,m'I''} _;_ dL'r-: �·1·th : n:,. {loom : '1,.,,. 1'1-..t\ :r'I!:

1 1 i h1 : = A : 1,." i\'}, ;alf� : it�C� A :: Hlos-11" : tif.b?°C : I\V-i\.--1:'J° = J:� .. 1 : : 'l. CO· '} lJ-1• ' : h ' } il."701:,, ' f" -f> .'f• ' h/tl- l\.ODo/',� {I.IJA ;: OT'}+. : T : "70J-tf'i I t, fl·'f-'t-1·: oo;J• +. �, :r-'t' ft-ifl I ro 1 f� · '1�11: fA'tOt.:fOJ<'} �;>"Im· : HY..,?J'f'} : h�"I : -f> '} !l A :i '1�119" = h 11�..Y..I\ T 'PA :, ,l'.u : h ,iy -(l i\ ',ro , : :: = ,t-ml lfFu ) , n ih'? , Q;),a76s,u u fi',.:'fcr-A·f : fl't'l�•�:,.� = f ' f, : f 9° "'ltD'l!f ·= �,;,�?'le : hh4-t.t\ : "}61iJ,: lD· : f 6..G'}lt� : ,n"I : �m• :I

-• : : ih'? {IDi JL:,• i') ,,e,;1,,1 ?° : l't/ltl1f : f,U : �th.�: 0} fn.:,•f-�1 : f th(L.: me: Ii1£2t = '¼. '/°. ;r1'11\ = �f, = i\.rf•f..L.1ro• = llo'l+fw•: Jt.1·�C'i' if..'i"A : h1'1fuil : 1'tj:: ti'J°;rt.t·fl : l\ W": t1cf>lfl : ,fltt•: ro� f: ht\&.w: 85 84 00 . : : : '111\oliJ. g,'Jl �'i" : nnct:A : I : th(g) :}-A :: hil{l(l{}(l}« (l}«(lt:,h+f..l1(J)c = m•f,.e,:,- = f"th,tcf\c:i--, = nil+,r,r-1-- = hv-1 = l\ODtJJ.ouc = f,;FI\A : . h I {lm«6£b : lJ1C : f"1..f..l.1lD· : f,n'? : ooqqA : ,f•"JflC: 0;J1lfr'i' : h,;J,fl;r : (1)«6£b : {ldJ,{ll.: JP,;J : C1J')7-',T: OD'jC: frf•(D(\J.;._ : Al.1• : hltA I ih;J'l!: 11*9°: 'h.1�'it,.:fw-: +ii: fl'l>il: fl1P/�'l.°l: l\f,: 'i'TW":: (mf,'}9°: hV-1: O�Cflc: 11:F: ff.l.7-: c;:fw·:) 1'.'JJ;,U: fl\: 1'.h-A'IT: flh:rf-kf: h�,:,.. = 1.'l°c: fl\ = AOIJf: = 'Im· == nt1.u �-if: = nc:i-r·A-,,r , nchi:f1 1 htr). = 1111:-:f = rrf\c = r+ilr':f = i;:,, « i f�oit'>f(l)c 86 = -OJLt-'e = ,�,; = h�t.rt = 1t1Y-.11\R0r = n;,11:r'i' 1 h:.>11:J! : m«61!' : fl&YJ,fll : P',;J : dJ')��,r: oo'ic : f,f•rof\J.;.. : AJ.f: h&A : h+gl� : ill\: A�',:,•: OI/ill'l{ : h4t.l-0: f.111: -OH·lD'1: 1..tL : '11}¾.0•: h1�+(1}«: ltff..C°l: h1,4'C9°:: f(I}«-/!>: u-ic: ih"l: hif?fr·':f: h{l-t·ff�•lj': h1f"'l"'l.f = +il = n+il = F,u1 = r"'l.h..1·A = f,ooilf\&\:: k:,--r-A-f n;,11:J!'i" 1 r h:.>11:F : lD'61l> : f"1..Wl\�T1 : Aft.�f : 'h. h·A : 11:t-f.Cd/9° : h�t1'J:fa 1 : l\"'lill�T : fOI/ill)f: h+t-l-01 : �1C: m(l') : h�·c;,n:.rl\1":: {l/\tLtJ9°: . T n. Y k-f: hlbflo:f.: :'f•f,�: lJ-Jl-:--:,:: iti11t. 0t: A�'l.'l·: 1'9° r:J·•flf :: m(l'}: 'h.1�f.l. n :,.9° = 11.1.1(De = I\m«Cii = ttq A = r "'l. �(l• = .,.fhc1J q ..n = rn tt· 1 f,n� m).'a: f.'1"7 = 'l'f4!?1l- = c.,•:fw• == Q(tqflcil:i• : u1c:1· : roim t.fl = f"IA

°'

84·

85. 86.

' l

t��:

fil-fl(aQ1& m:,.ltlt : �;re • n1t1:,-c h. .11--cJtOCiltc • f.. = _V:l:- 119"1:L: ' •0 l'ti➔·11,;1�-,. • fl"7.ma,w,. = �;re = 1c'lc: , 1-- = , ti1--,1,il = 1..11--c'i"fl.?''i"A fl?°T� ;1-:,.."° • 1,m111A r: h1Jtu , .f/\·•l·1 , �7--c:":f· • f"7.oPt\h;t:i:m· • 1t1e • ' OD(& 1

'' \

fW"J=f'PA

,�a,.

-508 -

�-�

fh"1')( tttnc(a.t • TC:A..(ac J;t.fLf1. ,:-.iltt- ,, 11 1 1 f�"1 f1 I h.1il-t,l•w-:,. : };� I ).:t.-'tlJA I t.ilt.":f : "f'f:A..{lC I ,: I �11&.} 1

•

:,,,, ,owa,-1 = 1.t1. = il""'" 1 wfl1 = fll,t\(Dc = rA��·r ="'lilt.if = >a+t ,,ol o_,,.. � •rA :: ·•• .• /J l.n f ! fl}t.,rf-kf: (DcilT: fli'l-r'l:,..: °l'l�'l·l·: ft\W• : n11c11c : t\..1-w �} s lJ•i:J-9'1"9 : ,fl:,f : ',CD• :: btL tJ: cf'Tfr': ht\t\01': Wf,'J°: h-flffc9';6 : il1l(l()(Dc: ltf, : h+t.n - :,- 2 : (DcilT: f A i·1..�'i: f}i.:,·r-k.r: �°I::,,,�,}·: l¼f,',rf.. �: ,h.&-'I! f.'i9'i" t : ,fl flf'J- T1: 9°fAtJ,f�: htl.U : O;J- ·f: >a;1..,: 'l'lf..': ,f•HC1fl.'PA :: 1ll : : W• ;F ll f1?1 liJ!> P',:J: °l'l�',,}• : hh'i'Tf'P : ;JC: roi, 'i : ,;,-O ( ) h t.m- = (l(Dc '1-0lf�w«'l = 1.1·1, . = 1-:1, t-t ="'lilt.if= t\..+c1111:,- r"'I r,;FA: wit�: Jiq:,. = 'IW• = f°!ffl� : °l'J°T : f°tflmw-: fh..,}-f• kf: ,lt°l: ,fl,r = 'IW-:: t\tl.U : 1·P,f..: f,U : flw· : Ah : h"}f..: 'IA , lf'i : f,�mt-A :: (h ) flh.TV-kf : he.·:,•.,:,. : 11:F : ,,,,.,, } : ii'l·r'l:i•'J° : flt"}P,'f : he hC: f'lA'i: ror1.il:,.. .,:,.. : V•�:J' : fl00 'i�: fl;r : l\°7l.;J1T : f,;F I\A :: (fl,fr':f : fi"flltl�7 : f!Jl/ilt.if: ii+t-t.11 : ,r>,;J-9':f : 1,'1 Pih- 1 "7tir•l· = ltf ilt..A°I ==) 01·1.ii = t.1,.... = °IA1' = 'J°il .r roi.1 70)•: ODCDt\f:"}: f'lA'i: f°1.1),l-',,}-: lr�;J--: OOD'i�: OT/l, :J1T: . (4>--. if� : (/i-J)) : h'i = °11'4�'1:,.. : fl\w-"} : +'1+'1:J-7i : "}fl lT : flOD111 : 'lt\V,fl:,...,:,.,: '"/ l,:J1T : ontJhA : _',CD•:: ( ,,,.__ hi(f!j : ;JC) ::

n..:lr

(th) l't'l:,• .,:,., : iiro-4, : ou+flA : Oh'it,f: : f°2.f..l"1'1:fm•: fltf• : h1C:i· I h'i•f:,f: : '1°:J·· : CDf,'/1 : iih'J°C:'P : ..�'im·?. : 'h"}f..lf'I : 'P,:J : ft\w- ="'lro:,, = t\.lf"} : rrPJ.:f..A : hf,onilA'J° :: flh..Tf-kf 1 .,,, = ro.r.. = = roi�n1c = fA'iTf'P = 11001: = mf,"}'J° = rA� 1 l'tltP,t : fltL U"} : 'LIL : "'Im+. : ,f•cf>'lf,',:,.. : t\.f1'1·: y,:l-...A: f,lf 'ilA r. ((JD) n+1hoA = rrr'l_ r1iq:,..,:,.. 81 = 01/ro:,, = 'J°'iA'l:i• nh..:,..r-kf, m«ilT : ii'PtCD•: (lro• : t-(l• : Jiq:,.. .,.-,. 88 : t\..'il.CD•: n�X «'J° : fOT/f,;rt\lD•: onr,-,..'} : ti·'ll.,:J1m : 'P ,:J : ft\t\W• : t\°71:l"l : fOT/ f,;FA : ',CD•::

"e.

(l) fll't.,rr-kf : (DcilT -I fl'}P,'}1..' : n+1llX. : V•),;J--!Pi" 89 : 1.11. 1 m,:J'f! = rrr'lw· 1i11:,- -1 1i11:,..� ..l· 1- flfl,I\ = A�1 = lloi.+nt\m« , (Im« : Om«A : t\.fil·l·ltA� : l,i•I\A :: f,IJ : hm«61.1" : ·01C:i' I fm°l: :t,1�:,..: 1°A,f--: f°7,,;J--f,: A�',,},: t\.'iC.: f:J!flm·: fro«liJ!> 1t1c = r�.,, :,,,�,,-.-..f, = iiT-O«tw- roionflh,1:,-,. , nr;J I onmt\

87, 88· 89.

h1-':1X' 1 1.,1. 1 O''hh-flC!',r'': (flODf..flf.\) 1 mf."}'}° 1 llt\.l\ 1 'l°h'Jf:,- r f°7.f..t."'I 11 /.\� 1 t\,I\ 1 ih;J'f! r h'l·r 1 1 "'J"} 1 a;,c :r c hcn J'aj I flJfl 1 ·f•OD 1 fOJ(IJ I i(!l) Zf!l h+---rc fttar I hlfa; : (...... if.�j) 1 ra1w�t: 1 }1C r htPJ!tm� ,rw- 1 'P;, 1 ft\,t\W- 1 a;w- :I - 509 -

°': lif}�-�r:

1:'1 = mf.'19° : f(la,• : JtlJt\ = r01147i"'r : f0il1m1' = °h?,f,h'r: r r r 00 t\CD·"} : OOIPla;l''l! : ,1,ti,,n: 0 h f"t\ : �W" z: 1-.'1'1° t htt.u: <f>F. ,f}I'\... Olt.lJ , X-,h .t;: , h1�+11'\�1D• I fV·h-l· , dl..'J'e , Uo'iC : 1'°1C ¾ U•fl:,c : tiQ,1• : ,;:,,m◄ : irtfe.a\GJ• : 0,,..-,00,,.1::,, : OD T = 11.& '/.'l° = J'.:l:A ' f.lJ''iA 11 .eu : hl\,e. � I nm· , il9"9"�' A hA . r1·'11lm· = m·A = m:J'I! = ill\ = ir� : fl11n-1,n = T�'?°?D = n.CJA : �f..ld/ : fOl/.:f-A : �ooft'lA :: I

2 i 1101:,-c = <<f1'h·A -,:,. = h*1° =>> hr,1··'1la = h"?..n1t-.ro., = oowl:rt = '? =

thll-0 : lblt • ft,.4:,·r-k.r : fooml\Y: = :h +-Ofto : Oh.6J.b«:-- : ��t; : : �:1:lllA : -

ou,;,t.:J·'P. : 1,1-JOl/01/...P: �1.itu:

(u) noorPl,f: = "' = rtPJ.,.rht-n�... = �,c; = flAn--9° = .,, = t,ht-tit 01''i''1· : OhcA : A'f;',:,.. : fODOJl\f..' : °701«� ::

(t\) Ooow lrf: : 'l'l : fOI/fht.11C : fJ-, q:,-�:,'11 : "7ill�· ! · t\?°'1/b i fA1: .,:,- =

v-).� = oo'ic: = n h· A ==

(th) (ti) Oh.ht.tit ; (t) fi't'l:,-r,:,.. : 1fCf : (r) 1'1� : h;111:F : lIJc'i!': r+mt\1..lD· : 0"719° : f A;J··mcr. : OJ�'/° : <<h;111;1: : (lr6IJ' : O"l -Ol : P' ;J : °111''1'1' :)) t\rf•mt\� : fDILf..l."llD· : ml\:e,: : ]iq,), : ',ro• = ht\OIJ..f(lj'm• : '119°�" = h,:1-0:1= : W•6Lh = n,�(Dt\�= AJ:1;:ftf,: fi•f..l.'1 : ��'J° : mn'1 : hY'h,J: : 0'1'j,:1,1 : h,t-�4':,• : �'Pf?J'f = f+'l'1 : f+J!..1.1a>· : m(I"}: tf>... ir5:i, ..... .,.... ,_ - : :J;,A : O:J A : '1111(1: f,U r ',ro• : htPJ.tlt\W· : m·m,1·: ..r'ln : ',lD• :: 1

(oo) 07"/Lfl.. : l1.f: : r1t.:,--r-�, : fODtD/lf.' : "1'? : '?A7'' : l)f,lf'}

'1.11..<;lD·• : '¼l\"'im- : ftD-Cil : (mf,9"° : ft\,n :) hChC1 : (t{1D'f� h'i' : 0,:,11:]!9" : lf 'I : h;J·fl.r : ro•6J.b : f t\m·'1 : fO]lrf•0111: oft9": 91 : 'Im :: f,U : '¼lt011 ; (ti) t"fl.'} : nllAf:. : l)f,O'r I f\oumn:,, '1.'}P,"}fu : h"'if,'lllJ(OODll}• : row· : {i:'J'l.:,• : U•l:r'i' s fAi'> : 92 r 1 'l':,.9°: hmQO:t, : '¼t\01/ : ;JC : 0'1''1..P4: : f,f•{IIJl-f H'i : ',a (g) n'1Pi'1Yu9°: flODl\(D· : '¼/19"°: l\f,: f(l m·: A:e:: ntit\·1: Jil)AC:: '1.f,O'l'9°: f"t/lID-"} : ODL.Pl;r'l! : d,l}, fl : t\f, : 1'. : f1:J'fA rs 93

-510-

UI'lDER FILIATION THE CIVIL CODE* OF LAW THE·

(

By George Krzeczunowicz**

A. INTRODUCTION 1 ac) iti111 I. Jl/eg as in other c�urches, the concept of sin has led to r: c I1, ch ian Ethio � p the In _ and � at�ral ch1I?r� n, which has a.ffected the law eg1t1mate between � ction a ·distin the_ thiop1a to Accord1ng Christians' ancient book of law, the � on. � cessi suc . of , 1Ileg1t1°:1a�e c_h1ldren cannot inherit unless there is a Negas /1c1 Fe ry centu � ; 16th Such d1st1nct1on, ho_wever, has not prevailed, or has vour. f their in ent � estam t . pract1 e the customary law making, as a rule, no distinction bet � : disappeared 1n 2 al d tt1r cl1 an ate na ld. 1t1m leg of tus sta : ,ve en the

Filiatio1i The Fetlza Negast COJ.?.lained no provisions whatever about any modes ot parental affiliati?n . of . cl1ildren. (lnci ?�ntally, this makes o�e doubt whether the mentioned old d1st1nct1on between legitimate and natural children was ever very real.) In customary law prior to the. 1960 codification, proof of filiation was free, all evidence being admitted. A very common mode of establishing paternal filiation was a Christian mother's religious oath, indicating the alleged father (who could be, if she was married, a man other than her husband). Such oaths had a particular force jf made by an unmarried girl, and were in all cases hardly rebuttable if taken before a priest at the child's baptism or in artic1,/o 111ortis.3

The fact that (a) filiation could be so easily established, coupled witl1 (b) the disappearance of any distinction· and the equality of rights as between ''legitimate'' (marital) and ''natural'' (ex.tra-�arital) �hildren, and (c) the lack of any time limits for the bringing of tl1e affiliational and the concomitant successoral claims, have ca.used a host of confused successoral suits, brought by alleged natural children on flimsy grounds.4 In order to cope with this unsatisfactory situation while pre serving the traditional legal equality between marital and extra-marital children, the Ethiopian Civil Code of 1960 severely lir1its the admissible modes of establish ing filiation. These modes of affiliation are discussed below.

• This article \Vas a rcpor:t ,to the Seventh Congress of the International Academy of Comparative Law (1966). It includes a few cnanges from the report as delivered at tho Congress. •• Facuit y of Law, Haile Sellassie I University. 1· Seo I. Guidi, II Fetlza Naga�t o Legislatio11e lei re (Roma 1899), pp. 419 and 541. 2· Cf., e.g., C. Conti Rossini, Pri11cipi di diritto co11s11etc1dinario dell'Eritrea (Roma 1916), p. 315; F. Ostini, Trattato del ·diritto co11sc,eti1.ii11ario dell'Eritrea (Asmaira 1956), p. 80. 3 · Cf., e.g., Conti Rossini, work cited ,above at note 2, pp. 286-88; Ostini, work cited above at note 2, p. 70. 4· As shown by -the largely unreported case la\V on this topic. For a case based on serious � o. uads (informal patern-al ,recognition: traczatt1s), see Mulunesh Hailu v. Bekcletch ailu (Sup. Imp. Ct., 1965, Civil App. No. 36/ 57) (unpt1blished).

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•

JouRNAL oF ErH10P.1AN LAw - ·voL.

III - No. 2_.

B. MODES OF AFFILIATIONs

•

Sumrnary 11iew �o de'� Chapte� X on filiation, of t1� vision pr ope�ng the � Under _ _ _ _ the 6 rules and 1 fathe s i chiJ1 er a of n1oth ' at1on r1111n ''dete may not be d on the legal by agreement, excep� where the law e�pressly pr�vides otherwise. It fol l�:��ed �e C?de's e�umerat1on ?f the mode� o� e�ta�l1shing a. m�temal or paternal fili:� .tJon (1n Section 1 of said chapter) _1s 11m1tat1_ve, except for the expre ss rules Sectio� � on the contractual regulat1_o_n ?r ass1g1�ment. o� pa�ernity. The m odes establ1sh1ng a maternal or paternal f1l1at1on n1ust be d1st1ngu1shed from the mod es of proving that such a filiation has been establisl1ed, which latte r modes are mandatorily governed by the provision; of Section 3 of said chapter. The modes of establishing, in law, the 'blood relationship of the first degre called fjliation (with its consequences in family and succession la. w ) between a chil� and a given woman or man, can be summarized as follows : I. Mate1·1ial filiation is simply established by the physical fact of birth of the child from a given woman. 7 II. Logically, pate1·11al filiation shC>uld be established by the physical fact of begetting of the child by a given man. Since this fact is impossible to detennine, paternal filiation is attached by the Code to one of the following situations or acts, which at least probably coincide with true physical begetting: 1. Paternal filiation results from the maternal one (which is established by childbirth) where a marriage, or a so-called irregular union existed between the mother and a given man at the time of the birth or conception of the child. 8 2. In the absence of an affiliation under rule (1), _ paternal filiation can be established by a man's acknowledgemeat of the child as his own.9 3. In the absence of an affiliation under r ule (1) or (2), paternal f.iliation may be established by a j udicial declaration of paternity based on the rape or abduction of the mothe. r. Io 4. Paternal filiation may be contractually assigned by the legal fathe� in _t?e case of a child born between 210 and 300 days after dissolution of a relationship under rule (1).11 5. Where a child has, prima facie, more than one legal father, such conflict is solved by a contract or by legal ·pre�un1ptions.12 d of odes m 11rnerate We shall presently analyze, one by one, the above en paternal affiliation.

�i

•

I I I l

17' . p l, vol. 5. Compare Workinesh Bezabish v. Yidene,u (Sup. Imp. Ct, 1963), J. Etlr. L., 6. Mistranslated as ''ascertainment', in the Code's English version. . is 1tated 1 7· Art. 739. (AJJ foot.note references are to the Civil Code excopt where 1 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

otherwise.)

Arts. 740(1) ct1n1 741-45. Arts. 740(2) cum 746-57. Ar, t. 758. Art. 765. Arts. 762 and 764.

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•

LAW OF FILIATION IN ETHIOPIA

••

1. Paternal Affiliatio11 throi1gl1 Marriage. or lrregi,/ar Unio11

because birth is easy to determine, determination est certa r se111pe ater While m all le �al systems. All d�veloped systems cope es in icul dif s ! � creat r � of the fathed.iffic ult1es pr!mar1ly by attaching 1 more or less oncl si e pre�umption : � � with these husban d of the the mother at the time of birth or concep 1s r whoeve to nity ter f � P�3 in accordance with the maxim pc1ter is est qi1e111 nuptiae de,,ionstranf.14. this method, which he supports by an almost adheres to tor legisla pian _ Ethio _ �:· child born a more that than ption 180 days after celebration of presum able butt . a ter its da. y s dissolution is :onceived during the 300 ! than less . or . ��rriage close s1m1lar1ty of our law !o foreign systems ends. We very is the Here · . age marri the sco�e of the presumption of paternity in Ethiopia _ roust discuss, in tum. (I) n o ti p : m su is re th p f o e rc fo e th ) (2 d an n The scope of presumptio : does it cover only marriage or also other the 1. union s? Foreign legal writers often. justify the presumptive paternity of the husband by the legal duty of sexual fidelity a. n d co-habitation, which exists only in mar riage. 16 In Ethiopian law an irregular union between man and woman, in which no such duty exists, is put for the purpose o1 filiation on exactly the same footing bebaviour of the as marriage. In order to create an irregula1 union, merely ·the man and woman must be analogous to that of married people. 17 Such faux menage creates in fact, in spite of the absence of a ''f:delity'' duty, a probability of concep tion by the man perhaps n°"t less than in marriage. Such probability is sanctioned by the legal presumption of paternity. 18 The absolute non-discrimination between marital and extra-marital children in Ethiopia is not limited to the effects of fiJiation. As sh9wn above, it extends also to the modes of affiliation, which are the same for marriage and irregular union. 2. The /orce of the presumption : who may rebut it and how and when may he do it? Ethiopian law is fairly near to the French19 in its severely · restrictive approach to this question : a. Who may rebut the presumption of paternity? Only the presumptive father can bring an action for disowning the child. Neither the (unfaithful) mother nor her lover nor the child himelf may institute such action20 (as they· may be tempted to do in order to claim or acknowledge another paternity). The interest in prevails here, g litigation maintainin preventing the an:l peace a of household • • 1rrespect1ve of truth, over less meritorious interests. 13· Except, in Ethiopian law, where birth occu·rs aJter a declaration of absen·ce. C(. Arts. 744 - cum 157(1). · , 14· See 1: Carbonnier, Droit Civil (Paris 1955), T.I. No. 150; cf. Art..741. 15- Art. 743, as qualified by Art 782 ff . 16· See Carbo nnier, work cited above a:t. note 14 cf. Arts. 643 cum 64 0. ; 17 A rt. 709 1 ; cf. G. Krzeczunowicz, "Code and Custom ,in E thiopia," I. Eth. -L., vol. 2 ( ) · (1965), Q. 425, s.v. Judicial Interpretation. l8. A rt. 745. 19· Sec Carbonnier, work cited above at note 1 4, Nos. 154-55. 20 · Art. 790.

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W A N L IA P IO I-I T E F O L A N JOUR

\ioL. III - No. 2

t the rebu r fathe um pres ve mpti presu ption of h'is the may . .. b. How . . Pat� . c e. s r1 t· t . 1 e iv y re Th er v e se t 1n a g a presu is er sw n a mpti s r' v to la is g e fatherr: y? 1'he le ·Ust prove: �n er the with n1oth with t he ions relat no had _ legal conceptioO . he that i. Period 1 ore day bef th 180 the and th) b1r th 300 ;2 the · r o en (Betwe circumstantial . ii. with court per·missio11 based on preliminary 22 The impossible. y absolut is P.aternity el his court may not .:vi�en7e, that permission by the mere fact of the mother's adultery or admissi dn ��ify its . _only free is where presumptio� the maternal affil' . iii. Proof against the . t i t be ng s determined blt 1 (by birth) is itself not established by an acti ona ion i to 24 claim status. c. Whe:7- ma� ·the p�es_urnptive f1ather b�ing . a� action to disown the child? The a�swer 1s again re�tr1ct!ve. He must do 1t w 1th1n 180_ days from th e birth of the child or from the final Judgment on tl1e (above-n1entioned) action to claim status. Conclusion

The scope of the presumption oi paternity i11 Ethiopia is large, since it includes _ '�irregular unions." Its fo,·ce is great because of the restrictions on ·by whom, how an.d when it may be rebutted. 2. Pate1·11al A./filiatiori by Ac:k11owledgement Children not born from a marriage or an irregular union, but from less stable relati on.s, have a juridical bond only with their mother and have no father unless a voluntary acknowledgement or an adoption has taken place.25 An a.cknowledge• ment of paternity consists in a man's declaration that he considers himself the !lather of the child concerned.26 Only a chi]d who has no legal father can b� so acknowledged. l.n an important respect, the effects of such acknowledgen1ent diffe� from those of an artificial filiation �reated by adoption;27 adoption has no _effect with regard to the adopter's relatives who have opposed the adoption, wltile_ no such �imitation has been enacted with respect to acknowledgement , 1,vh.ich ibe re• . 28 f�re, if validly ma.de (see below), affects even unwilling relatives. We . shall now discuss th.e following seven points regarding acknowledgement of paternity:

21. Arts. 783 cum 784. -. c 22· Arts.. 785-�7. The preliminary circumstantial evidence may consi�t,.. e.g.,_ i � �:;:. ysioal diss emblanc_ � (black child of white p arents). As to impo ssibility, it h frated, e.g ., by stenli ty or by negative ''blood" te ts. s 23. Art. 788. �4 . Axt. 789 cum 772. 25· Art. 721{3). Or unless pa1ternity has been judicially declared (see below).

26. Arts. 746-47. 27. Arts. 796-806. See also Art. . 558 . . . 28. The acknowledg . .· . ains · t thetJl· ag as ec acqu i•res m-runtcnfnce ts ng. h and/ or succ�s1on

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LAW OF FJLIATION IN ETHIOPIA

ledied? ow e n b k or ac ge d le ow kn ac Who 111a)' fath r alleged hi self. may acknowledge the child. the onlY � , I? rule a As · �- , , a: 29), man1f to es unabl his e w111 � a paternal ascendant may (o dead � is , he 0 . But. if · e. r s 1e am tl n e fa th 1n d il ch . . . 1edge the w · ckno 11v1ng ch"ld t may a e ack nowledged. A dead child cannot a only 1 rule, a As b 31 da t cen lef des s ha . nts he s les un kJl ged c owled -�-·___ _ . be a

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t s. 11 e 1 11 e r i u q e r l a rn r o F 2. must be n1ade in writing, including the signature wledg emen t ackno The . a 3"• ses. nes wit of two ower of attor�ey which is both special33 and appro a of case the p in Save b. of acknow.edgement must be made personally.34 declaration the court, the ved by . 3_ Necessil)' of acceptar1ce A cknowledgement of palernity is of no effect unless accepted as well founded by the child's mother or, if she is _ d ad (or �nable to manifes� he_r will), by one of her parents,35 or by the child7s guardian.36 If the child 1s a major (no guardian) he_ I_llust also _ass�nt.37 _T�e re�uired acceptan �es may be tacit, i.e., consist in ra1s1ng no ob1ect1on w1th1n ote month of taking cognizance of the ack.n owledgement.38 Tl1ese acceptance requirements show that paternal affiliation by acknowledgement presupposes, as do other modes of paternal affiliation, a prior maternal affiliation as established by child-birth. (It thus seems that a foundling can be adopted but not acknowledged.) They provide a check on the truth of the acknowledgement and increase the chanc!s that the child's interests will be considered. ..

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Revocatio11 -and avoida,zce. In the interest of stability in the legal status of children, no or little protection is given to a repenting acknowledger of a child : a. An acknowledgement of paternity is, as a rule, irrevocable (except if c0ntained in a testament, since testaments �re essentially revocable39). Its author cannot revoke it unless he was a minor and acts within a year from reaching majority.4o

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29. As where he is permanently unconscious, or is declared absent under Article 154. 30. In the terms of Article 750. 31. Art. 754. 32- Arts. 748(1) cur1z 1727 and 1677. As to A-rtclc 748(2), it is merely concerned with � cxcepti?nal mode of proving (by act of notoriety) that a valid acknowledgement ha! been given. 33 . Arts. 749(2) c11r11 2206 .(1). 34. Ai:t 749(1). 35 · In the terms of Article 7 51. 36· Who will then. be, orclina-rily, one of the rclaifivcs mentioned under Article 210(d-e) . �7- Art 75 2. 38. Art 753 . 39. Art. 859(2). .. . . 4o. Art. 755. .,

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JouRNAL oF ETillOPIAN LA\V. - VoL.

III - No. 2

is t cl, ca1sen vitiate his er's wledg ackno acknowledgemen the ere h w· · b · · t (d ) 41 ·,· . can uress ce lt violen 1nay by ed riot extort was be it if d avoi avoide be ded on the 42 ground of error (mist �e) or fr�·u�4� unless the ackno,�ledger also decisive! e r ack ov a s T u ger Y owled d ty. n who i n , l. patern his -' of was y e sibilit impos th defrau ed b s. y be to f e tl1. hjmse1 s ing child' believ into ss fathe mistre hful r unfait h · as, as a ruI e, an · . . no · remedy. 5..

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Tl-vo acknowledgeme11ts:

Where a child was, and remai11s, validly acknowledged by a man in accord ce with the requirements under 1-4, above, any subsequent acknowledgem en:� Y another man is of 110 effect.44 6.

Attacking the ack11owledgen1ent.

The acknowledgemen·t can be de[lied or challenged: a. By ariy interested person, such as an affected relative, by showing that the acknowledgement was nqt given by the required person (see 1, above), or not accepted by require� person, (see 3, above), or not ''written'' and .pe rsonally declared a,s required (see 2, above), or was directed at an already acknowledged child (see 5, above). b. By the acknowledger alone,is i� avoidance of the acknowledgeme nt is sought on ground of vitiated consent or decisive impossibility of begetting ·by him. (See 4-b above.) Juridical natc,re of the acknolvledger11ent.46 a. Is acknowledgement of patenity a juridical act which, in law, pre s ently creates the affiliation, or is it merely a mode of proof (by admission) which ascer

( I

tains (retroactively) a past affiliation? In practical terms, can the child claim his pa rt in inheritances· accrued before his ack:nowledgement? 47 The answer is not easy. Acknowledgement does not figure among the modes of proving filiation which ar_e me-ntioned under Section 3 of the Code's chapter on filiation.48 Obversel y: 11 figures among the modes of establishing the legal bond of filiation.49 But Arncle 747(2) provides that the acknowledger need not have in.tended to produce the l��al effects of acknowledgement, while an ia.tention to produce legal effects is a reqwsite of ''juridical'' a.cts. Acknowled.gement thus at least partakes of the nature of tbe mode of proof called admission, so that we may perhaps consider its effects as

4�'° 42. 43. 44. 45. 46·

Art,s. 756(1) cum 1706. Arts. 756(2) cum 1696-1704. E.g., by establishing that ho is sterile. Ar,L 757. Cf. Art. 1808(1). ·· · · . .. · . La nature 1·urid1que . Cf. Carb?nn1e�, work cited Motto, above at r1ote 14, No. 167; V. _ de la reconnaissance d'enfant tnaturel, th ese, Rennes (1934). rbinS tu pis ll. 47· E.g., by the petitio liereditatis under Artic This may have 999-1 les 001. effect on accrued successions and be an ince ntive to frauds. 48· Arts. 769-72: record of birth or possession of status ' or act of notoriety. ' 49. Art. 1740.

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LAW OF FILIATIO� JN ETI-llOPIA

coincides witl1 common-sense requirements .. . A man n solu tio This 1 . ,·ve r.�t,vcic_ · �t the father, or is the father fr om the time of conception. It is only 1··0 · · · · · 1 a ft·1· either JS n · 1 1 1 1at1on, d _ca e adoption (C1v. c., Art. 796), that the artJf1c1a of case nct e d;sti . 1 act invol ved has no retroactive effects. Indeed, adoption of another's ca . � d · . 1 ur1 · · · J 1 uat1on s ) t I new c ·· 1 1s · e�r a · � c�eat.1ng d1s_ t 1nct_ from act acknowledgement (an d hil declaratory of- a11 existing situation). .act (an ch.11d own �f one's b. Is that 5ometi_m�s inchoate juridical act, called :acknowledgement of pater1t 1n the nature of an agree1ne1zt? The latter seems true in is or rc1l, ;[ate 1111 . . DI·ty, f t or 1 ts ''accep tanee. ', (See 3 , above.) Practical conserequ1ren1en the of . view of ledgem �nt may be av01ded by _the acceptor if her acceptance ack�ow the nce: que was vitiated by v1olence. _(C�. 6-b, a�ov�.) More obviously, a testamentary (posthu 1noperat1ve 1n tle 1s absence ment of a (tacit or express) accep 1owledge 1 ack s) mou tance. 3.

P{1ter11al

Affiliatior1. by Judicial Declaratio11

Where a child has 11eitl1er a presumptive father under the rules of section 1, above, nor a self-acknowledged one under the rules of section 2, above; his paternal affiliation ma)' be jud;cially declared if his· mother was ''raped'' or ''abducted'' at 5>. It follows that: n. conceptio of time t11e · sidered n co. what is 1. This action ca1111ot be brought by a raped· or abducted mother ·of a child who alread.y has a valid affiliation. 2. The requirement of ·''rape'' or ''abcuction'' not being defined, we. must understand it in the sense given it by the Penal Code. 51 The affiliation judgement will ordinarily follow upon a criminal conviction for rape or abduction. The respective proceedings may be joined.52 3. The ''time of conception'' n1ay be fixed by analogy to - that determined by Article 783, i.e., between the 300th and : 80tl1 day preceding birth. Other characteristics of tllis remedy: 53 4. Wfzo may bring the action? As a rule, only the raped or abducted mot.her. If she died (or is t1nable to manifest her will), the child's guardian may bring it. 5. Whe,z may the action be brought? Only within two years from the child's birth or from the relevant criminal convicticn. 6. Defence to the action: it is a conclusive defence for the rapist or abducto r to prove decisively (e.g., by estab:ishing his sterility) that he could not have conceived the child. .. 7. No action for judicial declaration of paten1ity may be brought on other grounds. Thjs does not exclude actions concerned wit.� proving that 'filiation has been established by the other modes discussed in this report. It merely means that ..

50.

51·

52·

53 ·

Art. 758. Pen. C., Arts. 558 and 589. See Ph. Graven, "J oind er of Criminal and Civil Proceedings,'' J. Eth. L., . pp. 135-50. . . · .. See Arts. 759-61. - 517 -

vol. l (1964),

JoURN'AL OF ETI{IOPIAN LAW - VOL.

III - No. 2

d y'' ite is nit lim ter pa to t1'e ground of . ion rat cla de a1 ici •ud s of ra . . . the mode ,,1 · , ., o se. f e.g d 1o e 11ct 1cs t 1 n se o pri com or r .Pe t no ad es do s · d mi an . . s· . n · ,.,,.., tl·o s4 ion · · uc abd . h e 1n t Ven uc Bl rod 1.nt en be the s n ha t1o ty eri sev . to h suc th i 's for ·. ale re·por · t. rat100 . . . . • . . . • . . . e S111c al 1c d 3u. t1on. 1 f1l1a aff1l a c1al jud1 . tion � � of is a san Ction � B.- Effects se of ry tl1o of 111a n1 ord fro er diff lia cts affi effe its tio t, duc n con in th·. e follow. blamable must ort ::;tor supp abdu or tl1e t rapis cl1ild, the co the e Whil ct: respe . ;.,,g nve rse is h' 1n1. The c h'ld . t _ suppo 1 owes not need no child the main and tenance to · · not true a 55 . er th fa '' d re la ec d ly al ''j_uq.ici llJ.

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Affiliation by Assign111e11t of Paternity

Accord. ing to. a well-known Qrocarcl ri_ghts of status ar� not ir1 co,n111ercio. The, ) about. bar��1ned be not Th1s should d a law principle b ed f are � is ,iot firm! � _ � established 1n Eth1op1an law (and trad1t1on). 56 The legal father of a child b Y less than 300 days �fter �he dissol�tioo of his marria.ge or irregular union wit�� 57 may assign hi paternity to �nother man. The material and formal woman, � _ for such assignment are as iollows58 : requirements I . The child must be born more tha11 210 days after the dissolution and the other man must declare the child to b� his. 2. The assignment must be attested by four witnesses and approved by the court after hea.ring the mother. Assignment 9f paternity is irrevocable and its avoidance is subject to restric tions similar to those concerning acknowledgement of paten1ity59 and enacted for similar reasons. 5.

Conflict of Pate,·nal Filiations60

A mother in childbirth may have, simultaneously, a husband and an irregular

union with another man. Or, a child conceived in a prior marriage or union may be born in a subsequent one. In order to solve the ensuing double paternity co�· flicts,61 the legislator pem1its the men concerned to decide by agree1r1e11t who IS father� Requirements: four witnesses and court approval after hearing the �o�er. Such agreed regula.tion of the conflict is irrevocable and its avoidance is as difficu!t as that of an assignment or an ackno·..vledgement of paternity. (See above.)_ It 1� only in the absence of such agreement that the legislator solves tl1e conflict � im�elt by giving preference to the quality of husband, or to the time of birth, as criterion for deter1nining paternity. 2 vol. ., L h .,,, · ,:,t 54· · Cf · · G · K· rzeczunowicz, "CTvil Code .\rticles 758-761: Side Issues," 1.

(1965), pp. 185-87. 55. Arts. 808(1) cum 810. v. s. 17, e 56. Cf. G. Krzeczunowic z, ''Code and Custom in Ethiopia," cited above at not Para-Legal Outlets, Family Law. 57. Cf. Art. 743. 58· See Arts. 765-66 and 7 68. 59. Art. 768. Compare Art. 756. 60. See Arts-. 762-64· and 768. · tcria cri 2) , the 61. Between. (1) T he 1 . ( or 745(1), e � , of ;Ar_ticle .A11ticle h of 741 at t r.znd "born , �nd ,,conceived,, w1th1n Article 741 or 745(1).

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LAW OF FILIATION IN ETHIOPIA �

C. PROOF OF FILIATION Foreword

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iscus are s�d in a sepa_r�te_ Code secti filiat ion g prov in � on and are of Modes of establishment of f1l1at1on. Filiation from the D:1o des the from hed s ui ch �: d;' stingestablished by birth, fro� the father (beget�ing bei�g unprovable) by is be Ill -discussed modes. But such birth, p. us the marriage or rrregular unio n ' or · ore af the · , must somehow be proved. i 1at1on or ass1gnment o f paterna1 f'l' ment ledge know th ; ac l uccess or, 62 at his parent's death, often has no direct evidence of his hi d-s T �lia�- 00 on hand. He is, however, legally presumed to be the rightful child (and a ff1 h�ir ab i,1testato) if he has a record of birth or a po ssession of status of . lh us are non-_ f proo cont�t1ous beca?se, take separately, they f o me�n s se The .63 child � __ 64 their valid contestation, while taken together absence . of the 1n only tive effec . . are . 1s1ng_. 65 W m . � � ar a f . "h 11 d' ro n scuss, 1n turn, the non-contentio i ac y an t en ev pr they s of pro vin g f1l1a11on. de n1o us tio ten con and s tiou

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No11-co11tentious Proof of Filiatio,z

1. By virtue of the Code's transito1y provisions,66 ¢nquiry-based acts of notor iet)' must be used instead of records of birth for proving birth. But the "officers of civil status or notaries'' requirec by Article 146 to dress such acts of notoriety do 1101 exist and, in the absence of implementing legislation, there seems also to exist no personnel ''appointed for the purpose by the Minister of Interior."67 2. In view of the above, the paramount mode of non-contentious proof of filiation in Ethiopia is possession of status, as attested by four witnesses .68 A person possesses the status of child if he is ''treated by a man or woman, by their relatives and by society'' as being his or her child. This covers the require ments of tractatus and fa111a of the corres ponding continental doctrines on posses s:on of status. Another requirement, the 11omen, 69 is omitted, probably because it is not suitable to a country where family names are not yet in general use.70 3. Th ere are no major problems where a maternal filiation or, perhaps. a joint filiation with respect to both parents is shown by possession of s tatus. But

62. Filiation problems in Ethiopia arise mostly on occasion of successions. Sometimes the occasion is created by a maintenance claim. 63. Arts. 769-70. 64. Arts. 97 and 771(2). 65. Arts. 774 and 780: both claims of (another) itatus by, and con-testation of status against a person \\1hose record �f birth is corroborated by possession of status are inadmissible. 66- Article 3361, suspending the application o: the Civil Register legislation. But, as a result of tthe pre-Code :rviunicipalities P-roolamction, 1945, Art. 9 Proc. No. 74, Neg. Gaz., year 4, no. 7, following upon the Administr�tive Regulations Decree, 1942, Part 74(d), pecree No. 1, Neg. Gaz., year I, no. 6, sporadic cases of registration of birth, etc. occur in a few areas ,regardless of both the substantive and the transitory Code provisions on . this subject. The legal value of such registrations is therefore, to say the least, doubtful. 67 • Art. 3361(2) 68· Arts. 770-71(1). 69 • On the three requirements, compare Mazeaud & Mazeaud, Ltco,zs de droit civil (P . ans 1959), T.I., No. 830. 70· Sec Arts. 3358-60.

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JouitNAT., o·F Err-110PIA.J.1 LA\V - Vor.,.,

III - No. 2

· cl we be n llo io a iat fil to l na p er at m v ro wn io e, by pos. se . ki un of d il' ch a tan 71 ssi on of · oug h the '' ltl1 rds wo A ? rie' alo on a ati tre fili . · al ern ted pat bY a m • status, his i: , 1011 a ent 1t ont c ms see c 1. su e n or lud · exc ed rul ly ral lite · out not do b y . , wornan, h . . e t Wh d h es n10 e t e, r of f _ �e c �le l1 � estab sl1ow �s , _ slu m. syste nen our t of of P�t�i:n11y logic y. TI1e sam e applies a nit ter ma 1ng l1sh ab est to ory ess acc y rel me a]ie f · · ' · t · · t ,orz or · a di' f· o ance, , 1ns c F a11 111� 011n nei ent. 1 �1· l� tabl1s e ther · h suc be of proof acknoWied. � .. y b sess �d _pos prov 1011 tion fil1a of status. rnal pate his e hav nor , ged '' '

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Conterztie:1,1J' P,·oof of Filicttion

· 1. It sometimes h�ppe11s tha.t the ch ild or p�rent _cloes not 11osse,r;s his stat· · tl1e else requ11 Or_ parent. ed el�ments . of such.· tre�:� r l11ld c as tre�ted not is i.e., � ment by family and relat1ves _a11d. society are so dQ11btful that they have b . en contested72 by four witne�ses. 73 In.. su. ch ·ca .se tl1e burden is o. n the . � hllde pa�ent74 to claim a.n d prove tl1e filiatto11 bond corzte�1tioz,�ly i� a special a�tion·�i claim status. Strangely e-nougl1, tl1e procedure presc1·1bed 1n this connection is that of no !oriety, _wl1ich ,_ as we h aye seen, 1he Code's t.ra11sitory prov�sions have already, an.d 1nef-fect1vely, introduced as a )urrogate for non-conte11t1ous proof by Civil · Register records. The re-introdt1ction of t he ''noforiety'' procedtire75 at the conten- . tious stage of proof may re1nain ineffective for ·the same reasons as those given by us w·hen discussing no11·-conte11tiou� filiatio11. 2. Whatever be the procedure, the proof at tl1is stage -will no more be d irected l to showing a ''possession of'' filial-p1.rental status (wl1ich possession is here, by hypothesis, non-existent or deficient), but to showing a 1·igl1t to possess such status. By any means of evidence, the very facts establishi11g filiation, that is, the birth plus, e.g., the marriage or tl1e ack11owledgement 1nust be proved to have specifically occurred. But another kind of possession of status may play an incidental role where th.e existence of a 111arriage or i"regular union at birtl1 or conception time is sought to be proved by showing possession of tl1e corresponding status a s bet,veen mother and alleged father (not bet_ wee11 father and child).76 3. Claims of filial-parental status by its non-, possessors are disturbing for the social order. The Ethiopian legislator ad1 nits them 011ly upon a specia� court authorization based · on ''circumstan1ial evidence resulti11g from facts \Vl11 c� 8 'e. constant77 and sufficiently serious.'' 'The relevant fact rnay, for insta11ce, cons1st in a child's patent physical resemblance to the alleged parent. On st1ch basis,_ tbe claimant may be allowed to ·brin.g other evidenc.e and proceed with his action.

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71. E:8·, in -order to inherit from alleged Eather. testa·, con m · · fro 72· Su h. ed u1s · distiI1g of possess1011 of status mt1st be careful . ch contes tat1?n · · ly hild s c e • h t tion of_ status itself. The latter contes.1,ation (Arts: 778-81) does not dispr o;: p�ss�ssion of atus but his rigl1t to possess it, as where he .is sho,1-111 not 10 ., born frotn �� · the possessed mother. · 73· Art. 771(2),· On liability of w · •00· 'fhe 1h.1esses, �-e Art. 2061. st er . its v 74. The relevant a.rti' cI e, Arti · lish E · ng · 1n cle . , . . . 772, ed anslat is fantastically mist1, . ac�,on is not limited to th ;· e child. 75. Laid down ,in Arts. 148-51. . 76· 699 ,�u_m 7�1 and 718 cuni · 745. · estab lish�·'' ·ably 77· · stant in this context (Art 773), means ''presently and undisput

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LAW OF FlIJIATION IN ETIIIOPIA

78 �ction to clai m status n1.u�t as a n1le, be brought in d's his life: . _from A chil 9 d bring1ng it, unless the child died before barr : are he1rs � . d's chil .tune.4 The nty and they act w1th111 one y��-� from st1ch dea_th. In accord nce with twe � of . e the 8 � and . t_he _ pro_v1s1::>n tha� •t�e action shall be instituted befor e ussed disc ·c 1 he gJ. otlzer, so paternal aff1l1at1on IS 111.erely Incidental to the maternal one t . t ,,i 11ze oa1ns a., ·· as next prov1·ae d,· ''the mo ther anc.l the person to whom paternity will be · Indeed• s�cce_ f , s s ·u 1s 1 · must action e b made the a party c(ise to the suit." in ted O .b i attr th 1s 1s n�ater n1ty n legal i�ion, t pre-requisite of paternity. with � propo s ral e e a and .co11tent1::it1s ntious proof of filiation. non-conte both to gt c �. respe filia n d) be s (poss �iipro�ed? Acti?ns to_ contest (disprove) es ? a ? �an _ How � S. . _ 8 81 f1l at1on al e re a Just as d1sturbmg fo� the soci�l and a. � 1 p � m on 1 iat fi rnal mate . actions ussed (by above-d non-pos isc sessors) to clal.Ill it. For this the are as · r e · · ord · d to the same 1·estrct1ve reqt11rement of a prelim.inary ID1tte b su are reasOn , they . . 3 The severel . d a serious constant o d • evid base nce.8 rizat1on � � y circum� autho _ cour t child disown by overc to om1ng on � the presumption that he act father's _ � ed . scrib begot it bas been d1�cussed ��fore_ In con,nectJon ':1th the presu�pt!on �f �ate�ty result ing fron1 marriage or 1rregitlar u111on. As to maternal fil1ation� 1t 1s easily contes ted by proving· ithe · non-occurrence of a birth at the relevant time, or the non-identity between . the child then born ·and the defendant child (the latter's contested status n1ay be claimed by the . former) .

D. CONCLUSION

The Ethiopian codified law of filiation constitutes a peculiar ble11d of traditional Ethiopian notions with modern legal techniques and concepts. The tr�cli tional Ethiopian principle of equality between marital and extra-marital children has been maintained with respect to both the effects of filiation and the modes of its· establis hment. But the 1nodes of establishing filiation and proving such .

·..

78. A parent's action against tl1e cl1ild is less usual in Ethiopia. A mother's action may be incidental to l1er contestatio.n, tinder Article 7'i8, of the child's existing filiation (babies �ay ha�e been excha.pged).. 79.. Such b� applJes. onJy to cont, entious p.r-oof o� filiation in the action to claim filial status. There is 110 sucli lin'lit with respect to non-con1entious proof of filiation, for example in succession cla,ims. It follo,vs th·at, e.g., for the purpose of the petitio hereditatis, which h as no time limit where i t relates to "family immovables" ( Arts: 999 cL1m 1000(2) ), proof of "possession" of filial status, as distinct from proof of "right to" possess it, is admi_ssible generations back. The relevant genealogies are often notorious among relatives. But how will tl1e four "witnesses" rtquirement of Article 771(1) be satisfied? Perhap s it may be liberally construed for such purposes, in view also of cognate Article 1168(1): •�- .. any member of such-•family may '1lt any time claim ,such land." On "family property" see Tenagne Worke Abdi v. Yejote Worke Legesse (H. Ct, Addis Ababa, 1964), 1· E�h. L., vol. 2, p. 73. On "possession of �t.atus" see contra: Workinesh Bezabih v. Yid: neku, cited above at note 5. (Ot1r comment on this decision: (a) Possession of s�a tus 15 at no stage a legal situation. It is a non-contentious mode of proof of such _ situation . (b� Provisions on n1odes of pr:oof may be retroactively applied. Cf. Carbon_ ..�l�r, w�rk c1ted above at not� 14, No. 164, 2.) _ 8.0. · See Art. 777 (2). 81· d ,von by solely of the child's birth from the fact pl1ysical proving t11e by means any a eged mother. See Arts. 777 ci1111 139. 82· Arts. 7 82-95. 83· Arts. 77 3, 779 and 786.

�f

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JoURNAL oF Em10PTAN LA\V -

Vor_. III - No. 2

. hment, which were· unlin1ited in trad.itional Jaw, have been se ) . . 1s . ver . esta bl . el y · Iitn1tCd . d . t on 1 1 an a g 1tJ. a uc1ng d re f techn o y polic ique a with influenced . __ in accordance 1 y s 11te o als st1t con tem sys the ter lat r the e b sou Th ce . tem sys for al leg t h enc h Fr e g ca te · · o f o · f'I' I 11 aw . n. a p · ·1 1 t1o t 11o · l E 1a � e nes th by ed us ns and classificatio ''1 ADDENDUl\ti

I rt 1is repo of ion iD: t! licat the pub the in y Journal of Ethi . Due to dela _ o 1an P was d 1t since submitte elapsed to have months the al r seve. Seventh I rna. Law, tional Congress of. Comparative L_aw at _Upsa�a (Augus_t 1966�.84 In light �; he general rapporteur·s85 paper and of the d1scuss1011s held. 1 n Sect1on JI' A' 2 0f t� � at ng owi foll nts: the I m1e add con to e sibl pos now is Congress, it 1. Modern legislative ref �rn1s abroad seek gradually to achieve (or h only recen!IY achieved) an equ _ �l1ty of legal st�tt1s as �etw�en marital and ex�:� 1s a long-establisl1ed. axiom 10. Ethiop ia, 1111 marital children. Such equality ique 1n . . . n countries. this respect among Ch.r.1stia 2. Acco��ng to the_ national rapport:ur fo� Rumania,86 �n equalization of the legal cond1t1on of marital and extra-marital cl11ldren necessarily postulates that proof of the filial bond be made largely free. This seems also to be the view held and tendency gradually followed by tl1e legislative refor111ers abroad. Ethiopia constitutes a striking exception to this· parallelisnz in that, while retaining the traditional equality between marital and extra-marital children, it has restricted I the traditional freedom of proof of their status. These restrictions ,vere rendered ii necessary by the proliferation of stale and flimsy a:ffiliational claims brought for inheritance purposes. Since such purposes are hardly relevant in countries where inheritable private property is almost nonexistent, extreme freedom of proof of paternity prevails mostly in socialist oountries. 3. Pate,·n.al affiliation is, i11 Ethiopia, restricted to !imitatively enumerated modes. Below are singled out such original features of this system as were not discovered in any or most of the other national reports available at the Congress: a) Ethiopia alone attaches a legal and almost irrebuttable presi1n1ption of paternity to the man living in concubinate (''irregular union'') with the mother. He is treated for this purpose on equal footing with husbands. b) In Ethiopia, not only maternity but also paternity can be proved non· o t. case, such in contentiously by mere possession of status (without any need, f demonstrate the existence of any of the prescribed n1odes of afiliation). In �ts essio� pos by � respect, there is an illuminat!ng similarity between proof of fiIiation _ _ _ of status (A:"t1cle 770(1-2) C1v1l Code) and proof of ownership by possession I chatels (Article 1193 c11m 1140 Civil Code). I must ·t . c) In several foreign legal systems where ack110l•vledge1n,er1t �f pat ��1 ; the if l ssib be accepted by the mother, an effective acknowledgement seems impo the such mother is dead or insane. It is possible in Ethiopia, where , in �;b i ld's th ackno:viedgement may be accepted by the motl1er's asce11dant or guardian.

�

VJ/e congres 84· '!'h e Co�g-ress ' gonera.I rep rts w ll b o i e published in Rapports ge,ieratlX aid ·t co01Pad, ��;:f{zo 11al de d,:oit co,npare, ed i ted by Centre interuniyersitaire d e tli�hed in the ·. es. The nait ional repo�ts of which th e above paper 1s one, are Pu countries to which they refer. ' 85. Profe ssor Aure 1-tan Jonascu, o f Cluj University. 86. professor Jon Rucarean u, of the Rumanian Institute of Juridical Research.

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(

l '

LAW OF FILIATION IN ETHIOPIA

dulerzt acknowledgeme;11t of pate�nitys1 probably cannot be frai, iopia Eth In _ ackn owle dger the hims elf than by decisively proving the imposse erwi oth �ed ss ity. ern pat his t�l�ty of . . with foreign sy _s�e �s, more conc�rned than the Ethiotrast_ co ing � strik _ e) In log1�al ��th _of f1l1_at1?n or els� with the principle that b1 the with � . not 1n comme1c10, In Ethiopia paternity Pian one may 1s be s in certain statu ' 1 a · erson P 11 t s9 ua contra y c ass.gne d by the legal father to another es, mstanc circu d ·t· · spect ie h'ld · ear1·1er 1n · th '.1s paper, problems of h 1 • Also, as sh own c e t ing owledg ackn _ may be solved by contrac man ty between the presumed fathers. patem � legal ! ble" "dou agreements are la.wful, It even seems that they may be oned . e-menti abov the SJDCe . . . n io t a r e id s n o c r fo made e � ''e,iuality of status'' principle, the basic oft-n1enti tJ1� from �� Apart 4) . law of f1l1at1on may be summarized as follows: Ethiopian the of s e denci ten a) Essen��y free n?n-contentious and moderately free contentious9o proof of maternal filiation by birth. b) Essentially free non-contentious pro:>f of paternity, e.g. by way of posses sion of status. c) Radical restriction. on (1) contentioifs (2) paternal affiliation of (3) such e xtra-marital children as are not already acklowledged or covered by the paternity presumption attached to ''irregular unions.'' Due to the above three qualifications, the e ffects of •this restriction are much less sweeping than a prima facie reading of Article 761 Civil Code would suggest. d) Policywise, the Ethiopian law of fiiation's implicit ai,rz, among others, is to reduce inheritance (or alimony) litigation and preserve the peace of stable households, whether marital or extra-marital.91 This aim: (1) is judiciously bala11.ced with, without being surrendered to, the sometimes non-convergent a.im of d.iscovering the biological trt1th and safeguarding the child's interests,92 (2) is occasionally made to prevail over the world-known principle that personal status rights are not disposable.93

87. Sometimes given "by courtesy" (par co,nplaisarce) or for other pu-rposes. 88- :'rgument a pari from Article 756(2). But the acknowledgement is null from tho outset 1£ the child has another leg al father (Art. 746) 89. Art. 765. 9o. The qualification "moderately" points to the necessity to obtain prior court-permission to proeeed: Arts. 773-74. TI1ereupon, ,the physical fact of birth can be prov<:<1 by any Dleans (which clearly is 1101 the case witl1 1the physical fact of paternal conception). 91· An aim pported by, both, the limiitations o n :he establishment of parternity and on its ?u contestat1on (by disowning) once established. 92· An aim pr omoted by, e.g., the r�quir, ements of acceptance under �ticles 751-52, 0� of court -approval under Articles aims converge 1n ·the presiimptions o twTh� 766. and 763 of paternity attached to "irregular t1nions." 9 3· See Ar.ts. 762 and 765.

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flt\ 'h'11·1.. u r..1•&..'r � u•·n..r-- 1: Y'il:'f· tJ�t\1Jl- (I}a_e,_e, .. 1- il1;:rc = fO'/.h•t·tt·..l·: {llJ',i\" = 'f',..<'<f:?1:f.. : fl.+c:n·: f,rl\il" :-

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i;: 01''1,-1.u = uyn..r..:1: =I\�= oo"}"JF1· = (JD•t\• = ()t\u,a:,.-,:,.. ,; = tf?'r'rc: = 1''}Jtti°lm•: i'11<J,g-: r.©: }·11\il1�f.. I h'1l1,U: u..n ..,-:1�: f'?A.: '1'Pt?Jlc:

u,0.. ..1 ntr�- 1 ro!!,9° = n,,�fl- = <l-:'f'f'C = ilc = llt\· = 1., ,-1, i nu..n,r--:r: l\f, = 001 °IP':,": ff\<D• : (l?'r'fC :: 9°1 : fUA : ',Or? nooiODtf I f'}O•{i: l1i. 1«J,i--: (u): fh1"1t\,1l�:m, : i·th•'i�: t\,{l�_ro.. = n. m o�c; I /1.1-L/>:{..: f.@: n_..,.;:ta. :: OD(n"} : {l(lkOJc: (l.,f..l.1°9'1 I fl'l°l\ : 01 1-w �1p,f: OD1°JJ»,)• : ro"l'l'r 'lt\·,1· f,f·&.'rc> u1J,f·1� I\� ;: OD1''1 p,),: �?.. 9° 'i : t\lblt : f!PJ�--l·l\ft(i: :: 'lt\U,{l:,..',,)• : 'h1� t\lD• : f,1/;\.?,./;\ :: �,;J--1" : ,, 1�e.¥°r,tif lD" : »e lP: h ') 81 fl-fl: no•t\•: fl no«ft- : fl it01/ C'1 <JJ«: 1t·J,. 'i� = f,f•�1&.. : /1.f,f..f\'l° I if':9° :; ffl'/°1'1°: ")") : ,f.. <f>(}�',;f•'} : f11" : f, OD{l '\A I _eu11?11 � uoj m 'f' : fv'1'1A :: noo;t!UDt.r = n11•1P '11F,f: = OD'}°l p,,),: ID•il'r: l,'i: flibh :}4,.: ll}1J('::f 9 °: f,f•.e.1.1-.:,•1: {l,f·t\� 9°: f,711: {llJ'}O/

= '¼OD;J•:,. = h'i� = f!h. = i1ci-.c:',· = 11"11.-:,. l1•1·.e.t.·1n:1- : n�.I\: fli..•1·r·�'. '!�l� -;. I }.JtX:l�. : Jt'P-,. : f.1 p':,• foP'}"J : : iA : ;J·m•:' · {l:t•c:n : : ;11°1 : : J?,'} f f[\ : tfm• 01. 1 t l'l'f',:s l{l:,» • m , J: . .'} : f'?A : 1\<; _; ): ,J,.... : :1. , ;;: q01 o 7h• : . ?: ,p• . �f�·{: � '1:,t.:1,: .11BLmJ - .. .... : Inx:1� = r>,'P:�� r-;·i , 1,11.,,v• = fl:J• = .e{llJ"11;1:A ss 1\1111•

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r: -a .. : fi\ : h l ' i f�l�1n9°: 06 11 (it. h r 1, . F 'lt. .. , 0t\. il10 r.:t:'t : h�Kct: ! !1» l °: f : :: tJ � : 01\f, ! n1' , . • 9 t,{l&.t\1. f,\lf', ',(D fAr �'i I � . . . l. : f f..1 f f_ : , "' ..,.};�: �c;,1;: nll&..t\1.�:i-, 1Lt\'Pro'1 = r«1,e1"A = ..,e,1,n =.�!�*" = 0 � }� -� . -c» , .. , , , re , 1 ,. n-r-o <<f·t•& A:� r,trc; = � �,c 00�,: cP/�•1 ,-,. .. 1'm , =>> f � : f h ..T -,,.y.:f= {lootr'iTlD'= fl'}�": '}f,',:,-: ':'JJ/.,f : ,h ti1l: t1�1lf•9°:: r,t-i\,('� . : f1• u� f= i<D-I\ n-;. ril\.u. UP" ;. ri l\.: h.111.i; 1,i;:. f�'I' e, 1111-r• f"l1: l\...,.l\.ff.: . '" O c: f 0 :: f, t\ : fl r,1•t\f l.(JJ u11:'f·: (l"Ci: f,. a11 -f,: OJn) • Pl q i'\ ?lq: f!D 1'?P'� �; 'l'r.?: 1 1 m {loo& ,,f: : •{l'f' : f�-:,- : "'liJ!:C:l- : ffll\.C{\1: : V l.'!" : r,:fm• :: J Oh-n .: ! ?':J: : Ot\"'1:,• : �l>1!.ID· : hH.IJ : 1 'P : fl� • O'lf:•C" : �"l'I° : 11'/iJY:':'�� irl• = OJf,� OD r "rf(D• :: 4 (l(JlJGt',L'l9° !/o ao : lJ1l T '}'?P'7" : : f°71�ffl«911 : f f,f•&.'f'e 011:i� : r'?IA : 'lt\U-0-1·�,} = nt�.:i·cv•A"Y = (D•{ltp : f01/.. 'ic: hlf�: i't'Jcf>?t• : r.@: '}O--ll: it'}cf'?i": u) 1''}�9°'}�: 1f..--n : ll.OJ!�/\;I"�: (lt;,.: '1ft; . i't1'11 l = OD,f.. (:1°9°: .r7f'PA: i\·}·:(; fJ'IA: fl:J'A: ,,.}f. D?.'lnnr o•: ODUJ(Jf_,: itf,•111 (D'']° :: 10--il = h'}<l>?i" : u) f,1·f..'111w· = f'?IA = .,'Pt?J:f u11:r flf�ar1 = ., ' t11J 1 � (J)c }'l° = 11 "17i = {1lJ t,:,.. = n (IlJ ,,. l.il. � >i I\ £IL u �, =. r01/_e,11�-- = onf..'J°� oif : f,oP{\f\fA :: foot,:,, : f'?.A: 'lalJ,{lT'l:I·· ·; {loo t,:,•: f\f,: i\'?A: .au;» &,..:,..c;: {1Dm4'9°: ft,,,:,,r•A-f: ,�,,(ll.: (t,fl : hOl/..,,<19°1'1TlD": ODlPl.,;J--lD'.P'}: ° r = f l lf"} l t, 14' ft..: f@ = 6/!''J°C i ! t;:f : OD'}"JJP+.9 : = m1 a '11C1:Y. 'Pcl!•f:i: foP&,:,-: f'?A: ()f\lJ-0:'f•'l:i•: 'h"}f..Olf..t' l'A= f0t.('£JDfl.t1 --1:: :J'ftoi- 1= l,!LA�:5 "J't: "}(r{l: h'lcf'?i" : ll) h'}�'}f-': af,9°: u,f\•"}9°: ({f,f'&.'Pl.!1: Urflrf,l>>: 0 =>> : : "}1ll <<fUD'}·clJP'T .'T •fi(\o fihC )'1': f,(llJf:(}:t! 'PA:: f,U1 = fOD1'1P'T= 111l:,. : i'"}{l: ,h ti-fl : n ,11 ft.fl. : f{IDl�--1: ") : ,f•"l flc: : "'i P,n C: {\ ,,..T ft00•�-- : 'P14:?Jl- = 9°C9°C = f(JlJ1_uot,far : 1'.C9°;.f : 'ilD4 :: <<foP"}'?.P':,• : '}1ll.:,'>> : fUC/.t\D· : :l'A : ilil : ,,t-&..'P� : 011,,f"f : (L� 1C :; 6"}(t rhltfl'" : 0"19° : hP.filfi;I': t1&..l'lltf, : i'11C: fi•OJ(lf.. : f,(JD{l . f\A :i ili\flU: 'J°'}'J°: 1'.1\1. : Ottl.'}4f,: ,11"1 : f,lJ: fJ'IA : ,,e/\... •l·: it1flf11.. 1 fin..:r-r -A ·.<' : T&..?toi., :,. : flf,'i t,.:,:(1)-9° : {lf\ : 0 r-A-f : ,l1dJ : ftO'f (1J1' : 1,l.P.f\-c :: fl�, = 1.1t = nt.l1ti1, = ti1c = fOD1'1.P':i• = 1 ..01.:,-. = f'?A 1 'h'i' = f,lt e11ttot = 1-0 , 1111 = h1Aaiflo:,-. = , ...nl:,- 1 --t-111\o : t-nct:!l,A == f"-ii1111 = h1A 1.:i• f+fl/\(Dc = fOD'l'?P' :,- u--o--l- : t1''r = n,111111 = 'l':,,9° = f' P t\,0•1: 1-0 0

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ti.'l°: Tl\%\!t\ � :1,1,,t;{l.: }'.i : II: t).'i.A: l\"tr : (1?.?�: 1 1,:,.9°: Ifif.@j;) flfl·'P.1Jf'i' : ll·l: :,. : fl"(D•: 11 or1:li1- : ·l· ·l·t.1°00 ¾ 1ilx!l�) � )ltj;/,\: j:ct.lJ : ·fi•:: r�:l·d, : 11di. C : ,11°1 : cJ,-.'l'C : ra:9.f§!! : 1,1,e.''1.,5!.'l°l1lD• : lJ·/\· : f,1,11•0 : h1t\°ll\0:1, 2 f/;\l}'', : O'/'}'i;0>-9° : {'UV'}°l.P':I· : '}111.:,. : lJ·l\• : ''f(lfl°l/,\ : 1-01.:i� : fllJ''l-·l·: U·O·Y·:.-f . 1 (1,f•f..'!11··1� : ,11"1,::{, : fOIJ.,f•P,.e.<r. : r,:1=,v• :: ,: ,ev : f°lt\ : 1·flt.;I•'} : :1·C1•9u: f,(ltfJI,\ :: 11,tu = o�..." = ,.,....Tc = n:�ti�,�-§D = r,h11•0 = "11A°lfl"•1· = 1-01.:i-; = ,e.1A1.fl• � 111\.I\ = 1111.;1·9°: f,l\fl.;J�f.\. :: 'P''l'C: i:f. Y.f?.if:: "J,'}.e.ur1.,;•1la>-: 111f.; : '}•Ot.:1�: f,h'Jl·O: h1/:\°l °lft<>,)•: 1•(lt.:,.: fOJJ.'1/\lD•: '';,,11,0: "J, 1- ':.m•l•9° (};(!m-: r,f•t.TDf,.(l•'': mf,'J°: ''/\1,'}f.:: ,1111111 'J'q,9'°: /\c'Y.IJ''}: rP"/r: >t 'l/.\"'lft. ,1•: f•J•on.e.O•: O.IJ'�'i': ........................ I\J-1.U·: l"lr Of,.0/;\'J': "h.1P,..C11c\"1/\•: f•f•o0.e.O•: ('}.lJ'�.: �(D• ::'' ,,,..'J'C: a.§Y.�% 1 1,if.Ol/.l\lD•: f...'1'11'. 1 l'i1Pr1�· 1 '}•(lt.,Y·:.f. Q _e.v9u : 'J P,•;9l:.f, '} � \'4,11C : P.C;J!?J":J'·"}'i' : i',1Pr'} ..�- : il,11'9':.l'•'} : ffi9°C': r,111111 : >,·1A°lft 1·flt.,f·1·: .efll\/\• :: TlttV-/:\ I noic1.: '"J{It.'P,·: ,,,... � : f,J·n1•l•(la•'} : h�/:\: tir.x-�: .e00oh�t/:\ 1,lt,e. : f, f·m<J•i)a>·'} : _e,wf\}l�J.:A :, ll.'.,.�*··e: m·tt'l' � f(1•1· : uo;-1,,.,:,. : 1•0t.:,. : rai()l (l•f'm• s flll.U• : uo'}1f.; : �lD• :: fl'/°/tll, : ''(loo1°lF':,. : il.'J" : ,J•OO'll°lfl : /\rL•l· : oo;ai p:,. = (ltlflD•P,.) : '1'1'9°, {'01/.IP/rfl:,. : 1--0l..i· : V·h.·'': t\l\,I\ : flfl/f,•l·l\l\� = ',m· = roiz. /\ ID•'} I rJ•'i'i'lit\ faJfI}(JJ•'} � r 1,.:1-r·Y:f : il1 '1 : ooi°l.P'·)·: 1,14•�· : Iu(fl)'} : ,e.aof\tl:J:/:\:: 0 oomt,,.•l: : 4'C•f· I /\: ,,.,0 : •1· I :'J· 1-0t. "l/\ r : . 1 1f·fl ,1 : 1A ;l. f '}•(ll.. a •l: 1 !}f,.} : ,e 1 u Jf&. 1 1>[1-t,.7i 1 /.\ V. : filf� : iJUJ?.·,n � Or{I'J' : {lOOOJ(}:'f• : ''r11m·Y: : ;,ot.-1·'' : mf,'J° 1 ''f11•1P }1F•l: : '},nt.:,.,, : , 1•11/\u : f.,mt,,./:\ JI .,,..'l'C = if.oliJo 11 0

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-. O "' "/n_:,-. : UO:J:f\-. . f\. : • : �(O � :, 1 {1,) . f'h1"Jfl.1f�C0: : ft..tll•� � : (lhlD•',1::; 1·fr : on(f; : f/\rl•·I• : f}\'}cJ»ft.. : rt\aa1c;;: m.: �t (ll.4>"?. : 1 h 1 (ll = m = · . 1 (I fl : .. •' � f l f = "t w. , nm i\ f : :,-. c ,,, ?t' ; 'I I\ 1 'i! 01· 'i: •f� 1 1 : ai IL -f:;: � -. : C ft : tf, 'r 1' 1,1'� : lJ) tj:: .. i J, �tlJ• ,O, '11�� :: f10·il : '1.14>?." .U : 1\l\ _1 n,,.,,.LP : '11P'.-t: : ODi°IP':,•' °11·1:,. 1 naofu...l: : w-o,r : fl\W• : U . : » « -l U·l\• : hCIJ"Y : O;J--1 : f{\OJ : 6Lb9'f: : f �'}"J1- ,1i : "'}1lt.:,- : }W• :: 1 � ' f..ctJ'l°'I° 1 f"11 : ,OD'}"lFT: onqqA: tilll/.n.V"1 : c:f>f..9": •flfr,: Oh 1111 , *'* , ,.rn;,jf:f.OJ• = fh "}.,,� 1 �4!<1' ' f"'l.h·t-llOJ•"} : outJl.;t:, tu:!:�; t '11C : J!,t:,h_A_ :: 01?--LP· 1 '111"',f: : °llf:t.. : n 01t.rf: = PC =.. (.ro•il'J') I flf..'rf: m•fl'P.: .. -m 01' {l(l)cY : �YOJ (D• il'r : = = l,'i �-Y • . n:1--..I f . 1 f : /\W< : r1-& C11 ·; 'P U : .. � .-1'1-'l�'J° : "1.f«r I thf,4'>1 I Wf_flf'i : �'if I ftilU•)-9": ll"th1"/l..lfr9D ; f >t. 'Tf-k-f : :,�arAY: : 'r:,,9° : fiTC/...(J}«ft-- : f .-t-cfJF.t'• l•. : :,,c(l1• : fifm• u 1s. -fn,+?t« = 1.t� = +t(Dc = n�A = 1111tt- = t.1x. = n,1.1 = oo;aip-1-1: = e&tirp 1,."}J',t\lD· : hi4>?.' : f@ : f,cf1 T i\A:: OJf. : itV·-, .: g·,11-<t: : l\W•tp : oof..l1'; nou&.-r : lD"il'r : (PC) : .,C'i\OJ·"1 : U-fl,r : 11,,�,11cf'(l-.-), : hlb1t ':r : IJ1l .Y·1: I I\.OD/\j f:,, : ;J-- (l{l : ODU')-"} : rOIJ,f(IDt\n:,. :' f,o0 ill\A I �U9° : ODf\r�- f }O--il : iticf'?." : U) ,f-t..9'"'1. : f Ol/.lf',lD• : {lont,:,_.. : W•il'r: l\t\--: U-Off: 11.fr : �(I)« : ro�"'l./\ro4 >,b�lit, : ou.e.'/°.e.OCJ•..e = f,OD�"iA :: 9°'iAQ1.. : f.,U : U•ft- : 'fctJC : fif11 : OD"}ctJprf:"} : i',14'?.· : 'l°it;L-i,-:f.: Onnt,/l.'?: {LCD ' 1f: : Wf,'/° : 'fctJ�"} : f(lt\m : {\mt.�:,-- : f,:J!-A : f,(fc;/;\ :: �1C: '?1: 1,1Y. tLtJ : J'ftav} : 9°C'l°C : itU•"} : /\OJf:l.CIJ : itf,;FA'I° ::

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v,n__.,:.

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16, 17, 18. 19,

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23.

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24. 25.

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= ':�"

26.

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{l(\ : "JI,\ : ' }r(l{.,f•:-;,. : OD(D•{lj?_" : {1 J',OJ�t. : 7n, "i'i : (}(\p-'/,\11}1: i't'P� : r•·l•t'lmm• : P'AflJ'J = Ar- : f 01t\: ..-},(ll.;l.: i'1Wti()f-' : P''l : P'C'}..)• : }\'i :

27.

OC<?'I' I \'rf•ir,fflm• : ,111 : OD'}�P ':,. : }1"} -�· : }Jlj';A : /1.,111 : OD"}<l]fPrsl: = rr::I· t,.� : (h.,111: 7°1P ';.1·'P.) : /L U'1 : ii�":f-A'J" :: O,t1"l : J'1 0Dt!,ODC : ovwt.•1·9° ' f},'},l•i.·: f01 : flk 1 01{\'17°7 1 : 11il:.1: 11. uio "t,'i.' ·)·c·1•9°' i11'11•l'i.· : u1f : };,·1c 1', ;JC : : : : ;,6 : �1C : 111?,.e. ·· ,..... . . ..... (\9° :: i'1'}cf•�· : v,f'} : ()"'/{)t'JDChu'JI : llarz.•l'C ·O : h{l : J'1 il&..l\1.ro- : �'JC: "},fl .... : /\,; : 015"} ... /.rl;: ·l•m(),{?,.,(1'1 : '?01/.l\m• : (}OJ• : "}•flt.•l: : ft•il· : ODlf�-"} : 07tif·1· : ',m• :: }11,�i.·: f@ I nanfu:,.: W•fl.rp : .f'lt : "}•(lt.:,., : h°ll,\ : (}flU•(:1·'1:l· : m•6[.b : liJ�l'}W-: 1,1.';. U : L}f,',,f: ' '}111.:,. '',1,1 ao'} '1P';J�,,�,,: 'IAV''l , {.w'}1.f.:: l\.wn.�·, 11.e:1:A'l" == �u-·} = 1,,1:( ! ,. YII. : :i•c·1•'l": O.l"l,nw• 1 <ti"11'�� : il·l·ti(l•fl , i" = (11 rtTI , ;,,,ti•K" ;; J',tJ <tUTJ..Ylt'?m• .. . . �- .... '.:/fl : ,,c,· : qjQ'} : UD'}J.{l : f',.l.fOD�'/°}<D• : O'tf�-1 : ',ro- :: \'}'tm•t- : 'l Pi'i' , flt \P'At'TJ'} � f!uf�r : q : 'r : 1,'P;l?.� : 4,• •'J'C ' fI?; i 'l,:J6:r: ,:J11.11J 1 ? Ii : °icro:,. : ,,,..•'T'C: r1l· :: {l{\(D•Ll/},?J:)", � fl'J"/}i\, -: 21l)�{i: },.re;: !Pfti I ·l·hti7i � fJ',.rl•r-A= : '}:'I: li!/fL•1' �"PC: 3'fi ¾ Ii! f�i;) (?a1�•: P't\flJ'} � f_ '} �: UTJ: rl',m•t-.: ·1°Pii': flt\ ' (J't\:J··f·on)x i1ti·ri ; l\l\. ti ; 0\1} .i ,J·l1t1·ii: r i'i.•1· Y·t;f: '} : '1 : OD: fi',<D·t-•: '1°?a'r : 'li\ "' l t\'1}'", : (fn1:1, : l : } : r,:Jn.:i· .i Ifif.�;J; i:· rr,::1·,11 : ·tl,f1,C : ,eoi'l� : rr. 9.f�� u�i) �J'A;J·,1·un) : f.UDflh;tA { }1C : "j"} : .eu1 : tl11ti'ii � 1,ao:,. : 7'''1, ' aJf.\fa � rf'hll 1i I fi',. ·!·Y·?,·y: I : ., J UD : f,,m•.t,. � 70,v,r;: (}t'\P-' /,\£1J'r .i (hr,;,• 1 'i:m. : r,:/ (I,-�,. a J.fi�� flj';1•,l1 : "':1· = r,:jn,:,-: t"}-';if. 2 = '111 w ,1, ,llJ!, mf ; 00) • 1 • ;J·, • fA if!% .Z/ %r.9 ,1) ) 1-�J!, • 11 • f �•l•,J1 : •Otfi.C: ,e."1'1:'t : ,41••• "y_(fJZ/�;J; (J'A;J,,J,uu) : JC: ,E1'1�i.•1,11A u I ;

28.

:�;i.: =

- 537 -

n,�,f: :

.-i,o,-: l\l\ J', : fi,1·,n1<f>(t • n,t·?fq : O°'l.lll_e . . ;J,9':-f v-� ro : ft m• )'J • ao'}'?P':,• = h14'?i": �!! = >,'i = ,· 1 · a,1,tPJt =pr,= 1 cq:1·c.· = u•�:1,91:

-1 :=;,•.,

rfc: flJl1 l).J/ • ", •••• ,, qq "JJ> & • ({{D.('.. • fli(! • J','}4'7i : :,• ;1 OD1 ' I • I\ ( a 01 n1:�1-r--:f-- =>> 11:f! = h,111 = an1'?P•l: = ;Jc = f 1f,fJ. 1.00- = o.. ir�. = 'P,, • • · I\:,:0r ,; : f"7f1 fl"I f\< : 1,IJ',; ft< 1 � fl"'I. A : 0h1-4• lt : � fi : m.<'. : ;\I\� : �� &\fl : l\hlD·t� : 1°Pi'i : 'lt\P'A"l1 : t'i·fln1m·1 : (l&. : Ft\tl]"} : l I 11 : : : 9 : 1 ro,9°:; fl.. 'lA9° : >, ta. f hiitf?.it q. ° O;\i\ (f..-1�?j''7fflaJ• : ;,11 ;�; P'T : h ;J'm,:: m-ttJ) : (lJ·f.U : P't!'.ffJ'} : OD1Pl:,.. : frl"•�n- : f"lt\ : 11ll,}·!: 1 1"1P'rl: : ;JC : UD{lU'JtPJ:,. fftf}f� : m 'f ... h,)1"l : 0(D P'C'¼..Y (l1: : : : f,� ; f0 • ill\J!\ :: 30 f'l° : ira; = _eu = nct:,1·,a = ,n,Iti.?- = J1<1J = ro•il'r = rui1·rm, it :(.1 : f"'J.{ICHIO' : h1-4>7i" : h'P'.(.'1 : tJ.1.C(I ' flanif c : fP'A"l�'} : l,?A.� tr,:,. : ooflAhA : a; Ola:,. :: 31 1'C°l'r = a;ro• 1 f.'1.".JJ!, : f 01..ti.t\&.An:1,, = 11:r = t\UDro•n.l7 : 1,nl�·· = ) c ftP/il/\.tf>cf!f : P'C'¼;t.. : nil.t.l\"l. : �OJ : fCPJ,./\ro• : ,l1ti•n : (l;J--mc : f'1/,\ : 'll\U-01',,l-: .0Dlf"'1 : f?tf::J>A :: �c�-: ct-1·: t\f·f.U : ,..,,.:J>�t : rir� : d1 '11l: ° = 32 n1f: = �w· = J1'10·9 = n.�c-n n1,�� i't'?'lrfl = = 1.1·1. = f«l>lOc& nAa;nlar9° :: �1C : "11 : ct:c�- : n,,..y.:f. : t\<PJ.&.il&.l\ro• : f:'} ;Jf, : /Jf,lf'}: r -f �1.".J� : °t&./\&.AO:'f 1 : fl: : I\Ul/ilt\cf,:,, : P'Afl11 : Ul/il&.fl1..1 : r�1 4c.:,.: f,OD{lf\t\ :: }la;H.tJ : ro... ti�9'1:: t\1,Pi�: 9°19° : IP/(11,,,f: t,l\n;r."r1•9°: J �C1: : fL-fT : 1' a;H..tJ1 : fr�t\f�: tD•'1�9>l· : o.(l{[r : ff;"} ;J t· : (l;J�9>:f•'} : l\"'lilt\«l>� : (l'i. : ft\ : P'AflJ1 : r\1�/l : (loi.>,f'.mC : fiUDlf)..t; : P'AllJ'J.; f?t'i": ooir"'1 : l\"'ll.".J'1'r: lDJ!,9° : l\OD'i?a : fart:J--ou'} : tiC)lC : t\Cfl/:t,l•tl : ilf\A-t:f!l\ I tD•l)�?>l· : 1'1Y.lbtt.� : uo�{l)C : n/\ 'lTlD• :: 1i1°l>ttJ = n 1c1�,... = = rou��,. = (fit&.?.) = nfi:A = r,r).. :,,1 f1•&.'1'� = U-O,t',,1• ' hOD1°lP'•1" : 'lt\u,n,}�l· : (D•/l'r : n,,e{;J;},9°(:9° : ,j•;(lt\ l\1, ltt& : OD�(l-0 : nl\O:'f· :: nu,1 : fftOJ•1 : fuok,"1' : f''JA : 'lt\U11·l·�·1· f 04'l Oro• : ?n1'1>?i � r.@ : 10--il : Jri1cf?i : (u) t,,l ·l..�"lo9° : OD1Pl•1· : f·-f•cl>OA

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29. 30.

31.

32.

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. t\ :, : �-'} ;Jf,: foY.&.lt&.A(l:,--1: (l;J.. 9° : -�:, l : • : 7\'},�ll''} l foo&,:,-C � J� �OJ - ot./,\ : ti'/(\:,•_ : 1'11\f, • (1,f lll.tllW• • nchc : UDlPt.:,� ! --I--+CJJ?,',:,�.: 9 . f,��'l� : f;l•C::}oiro• : 017i''1if = f,lf'i' A:: fou1o:,. : f.DD1'?F1· : 1·flG:,.. f, (10/o l: l\"llA = ','Pt, = h�:11m1.. = fl�t\ = 001°1F;I.. = (lODlarf .= 1.-J?,: : ' = 1 � "£0': ,,,t: oo,n:,.: {IDffi-'} : ,(1:J• : hlf', ! naut,.-f,:: m•llT: ft\1:,-.: Y:1,:Jf,: Qu �� P ,,.. : fOD/orf: : h�A : {)(t : If)•: 'h'i : Ol/ t.fltL/,\'l:fro- : t"'?J r,..: n,71"1 : &,� f'h . lt,{lo:f- O'flJ�• 1·: '1}?,tr,.: {lrf•t..TC1: houta--1: : {)(t"'Jf,/\.� : /or fOD : : : f �: 1f. -- :: i• ltm it ,fl : {JD : • l"lD '1• 9° 'P ,n tt. Qftrt:1•: . ,,1'1'7'.. : f.'fl: 00'/lJY.:'f:.1.. : l.1�.. : ,.rf\m•1: t,'?CJ,fl: CJ6Lh?-: t\"'lm:P : fiPJ.h"l·lt·;I•"}: {TlJtJJ/..•1-- : ,l1'1fl :.f.. : "1J;f,l.·fl: ..,.. 10.: f,tr'it\· :: llA --; --r-:1� nu•lt•-1· = J?,11&.t\A u-n EI fUJJo� •• u) 9°..}9" : i\' }l,1, : 0,hll•(l : f°IA: ',<pt,?J--:f : tJ,(1,).. : t\.'llt·: fl:ft\ 9° l {TD; "1P·1 • {JD• t\'"'i = m �t\ l\ fIf� '1t\u ,,n:,.. 'l--1--'.' th 'r'rc t,ltm•: ,,.,nl\ ll.. 10D1": foY.. :J:A,1:foJ•: flOD�:,-: m•ll'r: ,.ft\ OI/lJ ..�·'f:f ! ht; : . tt) f lJ,ti,n = fUDt., .- 1: t,1Y..-- h<t=A flUDlf'i:1:m. = u,n:,.r, 7:,:ro« =· htW c:,,1: = 'lt\U•n:,. .,:,. ov,n.-f--1-:. nm:i 1tl\m• = flrf•&..'rL!1 t\..t\� = fOIJ J?; -:;..lt·,)·: �--;:Jy,: f °2.. t.. t\&..A '1 ;rm n ;-J--911-- :: RI [JD7"7p,�,,. : tJIJlJY:'f1" : 1,1,�.mm- : \11(1,(t,.\'"'i:r.., : t\OD{)m.,,1--'i : i -- �:,.. lt IT/ll'Pmc = ,,e:1�1\A 'lt\U•fl:1 :f; Ol/o�'' Oov1Pt.,,l: f 0'J.&...<l'�<D• = ' f rt1>Jt),fl.\'''i1--, ODilm:'f· = •fl:F = �,D• ::

:·=

➔ :

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OD"}"],w:1, : nt,,n,,'i:9-';l: : OI//J,,f:'i",}".. : l\f, : ,,ft\OJ• : f<l?'r'rC : ovm1: 'f:.1·..: I\!?, : J {\◄ : f () {\ (I,:,. ', :,.c;: /\, t\ {ID,(1,f•:1.. : ,n ,.,. 2 t1J (;\ 7,· : fl. lf; 9°: n.. e.. .. l\f,: fltm•1 ,1,;J'P. = r.,t·mt)(lfl· 7(•dJ�-:;:. Yil�ltl\ oo'J°ll-"'"7·: n .. e.'i:f f cr.:'rC: .ov ,n"}: {\{JDOJ()'J: nox>J!:OD{:,,r: foY..',l}m•: 'r,,r<I:: it1<f'�• : I@: .e.'i·1"1 U•f\-- ron;oiF: I.. : 1·flG;l. = ,r.. e.c:;1:1:cpfA : mf,? roaLIA �m• flh,tn•: llOD"} : {It)_ : J..!'i1" : '!"'fl..�:, : fODf.UDl,,,fOJc : :J""t\;,, : 1,C9°;f : f·i·m(JS;m• : 0� 10t/'f : 9'°�6\h : !IOU', : lfD1°1F:,-: ',(D• :: f.., 'f:r.. : t\fb:,.. : »6 UD / f: l,1Q;},:,,. : (1°111 Ch;J--:,� tl) • : i\ lJ1 t •I: : .ih ti 'i OlJ ..: h'ty,°2..l. .<;..: t\ au1.. (JDt.r : 1◄lL : /lOD11tl·f1 : r,,,;J!nmc : n,-,..,,e; : "LJ·L : ',(De :: t,� : .?°�Ah: f(D•6f!' :: u·1c = f..e..1 : ·fl,<f"f1 .. : 'PTl.llr: fOD;e._out,f lD•'t: t•O•"}: f:Fi\ : f.e..1: Tfl.. (!a : (ODOD6f) : (l{ll)ODp-'/.1.. : 1''i";.f.., : n�h- : �°lt.\ : i·fll,} : l\,e :: JJl\--:1.. lfl° : i·f t::::.f.. : 611''/°C : fDDi°IP':,_ .. : 1·fll.·f--:f : c;:i:m.. I ,fll\w• = 001/m;�: f�1 : P ;J""9l:.f1 : h1,ci1': it1t\.°1fto:,-- = �� :· i',f:l.1-t,:,:m.. :: 33 (t,;J'im•: f t,.(a.: ')ro•)::

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rci1· = lPJ.'J.01:c:;: v•l\•l·'i:m• = �i,�l1:,. = o,uv:,.; 'Tl\'t = (Ifif!i§-:lu) • 1x- 1 � = (1', 'JtJc.-m-= {'·l·mant. : }m•) :: - 539 -

1,o = •1c::-:f-1'i' = f.'il-- 1 = fl(JD«ti• = fDD1 '?P':,: �.1-•nl:,- = ll°'l�" • . t.. , f,� S!l1CD-: 'Pl:,• : Oi\w-�,J: : f f•q>nJa• : Oht.A : "'l1:F : �nc :: ntt�: 0'1:,• : l.1X" J 1 �t!\t A :, f... , t : : . � ', 'l'fl:J> : i:f f flf.' , ° : P'T P1'? fftlP� = o : f ?.1 11 ·�--l:"} : 1too,nn:,, : �: ()m : 0 : ft '?A fll\ fl• ! { f th1 f 9° l'? : lf. ? :i Jf 1'.C9° f m : r :,.c; : floo'l "11"'-,: = �f.A , "'I� il , r·h 1yif• , r; nfl (De"} = r.., A , f..,;�1 ' I fl/"'6- ' lif. I h")P,f,OJ•/;\ : If �A_,; h") S'.tl u ' f "7 il/1. .,.:,, I fD"l''l J' ll>''f'1 : hll-19° : 0. 11'1' : OP' t,. : �.e, : ll. oJ •A �. }1f.,"l"A· 9° I 9°h1.r-t:9° . : f,1-�1.1m•.= on&,;rfar : . lD''P�: OP't,. :i "": h'Pt\: .<!.'} = 1' .';.fi'-"'?(l:,• ti1A "lir':J- = f"7..f'm•."f• 1 f 00&.-h = 411. o 11 ..Y.1" = llt.:l'-'l Tm• , rf.1 , A,,.,; ; ,t,'?'1C : 'h11'ff.C1'- : ao'}·&.ti:farr : ,.l''l>ll1'tl'PA 1 7... ..tititr1 : ftoor;1 c . fflk,f: : OM''} : Jtilhf-LU : �-l(l : h'}J;., &.R� : f ;J�nn : OD(f',- : Ol,C°l'r: "IIA?i :. '11,1. ll'J° :: fltLU : DDLPl:,•: f,V : OJc<p"} : hU•19° : :l· A:P : 1,a,c: l\lf�llJ« ! IP/ilT � O�l' '�T : 'll_f .-f•t,.�i· : fl<T'J..'l�w- : fh..:1-.r-kf: �1 : 'PO:J> = "7il&«l\1'-1 : f"'lirfODl\h,l· : tf1lt"fl : ,ro• : 111A : ,1--10.. : ',ar:: '114'?; : f@ : fl(l&.ro• : (l.'100 : fl.P-'ti.: 1) Y,: tt..m•A. : fA:f.ttUr1: OnK. : 9°tAh : 1,1·1. : f'IOlm•"t : ,"ft'? : 'h'1F...1c; : 1'1.e.."'lm"j: : fUA. : �ar :: 9°h1fi:9° = �·1;,f, = ill\"'lt..l\ttt\1:fm• = n;J--?J1": fl1wff, = ill\: ,o,{l: h14'X" : (u) n+l!11°9° : fl<l'lflllJ« [ hchc : UotPl:,- : f,'f1.. : fO D' }"}p 11llT: f"'lrf)·T: fl,hlt"n : (noo1&.ll :)(flODIPl•i:): ,fl:]!: �(D•: (l'lA�: 1'1\1. I 10-ll : '114'7'.. : oo) h'}J!.,.1r; : <<�'il· =>> fo o'}'?F·1· : i·Ol,�i' : i.f (I}« = f." IA r, v =- ,�-;J OtJ.. = x-ch-'� 1 i" .e, : n ...,--'l" (l}c 0° v.• 1. :,, i >i,l, = ,t-Q;l."7t : h1A'?h�:,-- : itf\a,. I f,U9° : DI/ft:,... : foo1'?F:,- : f,f,lll.ll��-: '11C:1 "" : 'll\011:,•'larr : flchlt..0 : ,fl:J!: '1f,lf1 : 01,C'?'P : ft\ : ou,r�; : "1l ,;J1m« = 'IOJ • :: '11C : °11 : 10-il : tt,·t�: (oo) <<f.'i:f--1 : (ltJDct\--1 O"JA: {JD/a -f·'f = ltf, = ftt-:i--, = If c::..9f = 6f1»9°C :, i,. F-,. = <<OD1'? p:,__ = 1-0l>T =>> i,�.r.e. C,;Jf(JJc : lf'i : OD,f-C1°9° : 7,'} f.,_U?.1 llW• : f"'lf. Jf• : (lf; it : h/1'"1 heh c:'f = nl\• : f,f•6..'l'C: f,'l°: O«f>A: fJ>A h(JJctf, m <<S!.'i:f t\ : m•: f"?. : =>> 001.aacy 1 . t �'i'f : Jt1� : (lar : fil"'lf(1Jc1 : �'i-:f : "'11\T' : hf,f.t\'l° : 001/t\-l , cf''l 1'.1f. = 'l\ro•�·t: = hlf� i .�1 = f.'1:,-C = f"'l!i1 = hchc = l\"'l:,,l ..n = .e,:F"A "'lilT : 9°'} : "'Ii\:,- : 'll_'}f.lf'} : {\(flJ0Ji\?-..* : f"'Lf,;J'J'Ol}c : -Olf• : f'11�"f. : f nit- == flmfl-0 : n'l;J1C I l\arrC'i: : ,f••{l/\. {l(t(JJc : �ti9° : f(14'l\· : t·C:.'f: foo�.-J: : 'i:�911·: 'i:f(Dc: 'll.1� : ftwt-,,f: : f,t-ttTc»: (l-Ot\�1·: mf,'I° cpc; = 34 oo'}d/ : : {\ f itf, :, .. . u,n : , -� }ltj:k1'f : n f,f.lt-9° ! httu : r..,,a;l} I frt-&.'Pl!' : � 1 :t' fi.01/ f ' . irf, U,{l o to� : 'lt\ : 4 {l.4 1'. ., : 1>; ff., f : : o f f'?A P'T - : -� IL'f · l • 4''1f, ° ,j 'lo irl•l.�� , J,f•i\ T: : httl\1 : 'll.�tf..U'} : OD{lODC:-:i� : f,f--h 9 :P : lOJc : .e.1'1A :: 3s

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34.

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NATURAL· RESOURCES: STATE OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL BASED ON ARTICLE 130 OF THE REVISED CONSTITUTION By R1.1s.r;e/ S. B2rn1a1i* 1ntroc/11ct io1z

and conservatio11 of Etl1iopia's natural resources control tl1e i11 terest 1 ii nt Curre fu11dan1en tal of and long standing questions concer11t1mber a light to ouoht r b O · has ·t · t· cIe 130 o f the R ca11ce o f· Ar ·1 . ev1. sed Constitution: What 1 ·1 n g s1 cl n a e p o sc e th _ ing vernment 110\v tl1e G Q\\111? W�1ch of th se ca!1 it convey? does es resourc � al natur � _ _ t the Revised pr1�r n1ade Const1tt1t1on still valid? To what es anc ? con,,ey its Are extent can it co11trol tl1e explo1tat1011 of natu1al reso·urces? Ail understanding of Article 130, which purports to set forth the general principles controlling ownership a11d use of natt1ral resources, is obviously funda inental to an)' Go,,ern111ent involve1nent i11 the developn1ent of these resources. But no serious effort l1as yet been made to deal with the vague and elusive phrases of tl1is article. A brief review of available decisions indicates that the courts l1ave, at best, avoided tl1e few opportunities for interpretation which have thus far arise11. Now, however, His Imperial Majesty's emphatic directives and tl1e i11evitable den1ands of national planning and economic progress have prompted the preparatio11 of extensi\'e ne\v legislatio11 and the proliferation of schemes dealing \Vith 11atural resource development. Thus. it appears that the time has finally con1e for an earnest attempt to understand the tl1eoretica.l basis of Ethiopian 11atural resources la\V. It is tl1e aim of this paper to make such an nltempt. A cautionary note must at once be sound.ed, for there is danger of falling into pious and unreal abstractio11 i11 pt1rsuing the sketchy and highly theoretical sort of analysis ,vhich is all that the lack of i11.fonnatio11 abot1t Ethiopian constitutional origins and proper modes of co11stitt1tional interpretation currently permits. This danger 1nay be din1inished i11 some measure by its recognition. Even so, the prcser;t essay can te 110 111ore tha11 an initial 1eference point for tl1e really serious considerat:on of legal problems pertaining to 1att1ral resot1rces which will ultima tely be demanded by the critical importaoce of tl1ese resources in the overall program of national development. General l11terpretc1tio11.

Article 130 of t.l1e Revised Constitution reads as follo\VS: (a) The natural reso11rces of, and in the sub-soil of the Empire, including tl1ose beneath its \Vaters, are State Dcmai11. (b) The natural re·sot1rces of the waters, forests, land, air, lakes, rivers and ports of the Empire are a sacred trust for the benefit of present and su�ceeding generatio11s of the Ethiopian People. The conservation of the said resources is essential for the preservation of the Empire. The lmpe• Legal Staf f, Offi'ce of the .Prin1e Minister, Imperial Ethiopian Government.

- 551 __,

•

JouRNAL oF E·rHIOPIAN LAW - VoL.

III - No. 2

tial Ethiopiai1 Government sl1a11, accordingly, ta.ke all suc. h· Dleasure s as i_ t y conforn1 i11 with proper, and tl1e Consti tutio , necessary be may . . f n or . resources. the conservation of the sa1d (c) None of tl1e said resources shall _ be_ exploited by a11y _perso11, natu ral juridical, in violation of tl1e p1 �1nc1ples of co11servation established ir Y Law. Imperial ( d) � P:operty_ �lot h_eld a11d poss_essed in ·�e 11an1e of any person, natural or 1 ur1d1cal, 1nclud1ng all land 1n escheat, and all abandoned properties . . whether real or p�rsonal, as well as all prodtrcts of the sub-soil, ali . forests. and all grazing lands, water-courses, lakes and territorial waters - .. e Do1nain. are Stat .. ,

. ,.

I. Scope of tl1e Ter,11. '�1Vatu1·al Resozl1·ces'' .. - The first and ·most obvious question to be asked is, ''�l1at are natural resources?''• Comparable provisions i11 the constitutio11s of some ot11er 11ations avoid this question by specifying particular resources. 1 The term ''natural resour ces'' is itself generic and does not have a generally accepted legal definition. In the a'bsence of any guiding jurisprudence the bounds of its definition mu.st be left almost entirely to deli1nitation by legislative a11d j11dicial decision. This vagueness does not, ho�ever, forestall further analysis, si11ce there are certain classes of resources which can safely be assumed to constitute ''natural resources." For ~purposes of this paper these classes are confined to three: (1) minerals, (2} fores�.2 and ,(3) wildlife, all of whicl1 have been chosen primarily because they are or will shortly be the subjects of legislatio11 and, generally, because thej' are of the most immediate. legal significance. F·urthermore, questions relating to such other obvious classes of natural resources as land and water raise problems of utilization, conservation and tecl1nical and agric11ltural policy and reform which are far -beyond the intended elementary scope of tl1e present analysis; considera tion of such other resources here will only be incidental to tl1e general interpreta tion of· Article 130.

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Si,r;1iificance of tli.e Tert11 ''State Do111ain'' •

· As to these three categories of natural resources the following questions may be set for-th as a starting point for discussion : (1) Does Article 130 reqi1i1·e tlze total a11d irzalienable owne1·sl1ifJ a11d co11trol by the State of all of tl1ese 1·es·ou1·ces, 01· does it 11e1·111it {1/l or atl)' of tlre,n to be controlled by p1·ivate pers·o11s'? r v� ol corztr (2) If Article 130 cloes 1zot require totc1l Stc1te owners/1.ip and f lV ie, � 1 tl1e11 ove1· t/zese reso u,·ces·, t/1eri 11,h ...• - . "' . · at is· t/1e exte11.t of State cot1t1·ol . · 1e 1r;erso 11s • they co1ne under the owne,·ship 01· i111111edic1te cor1t1·0! of /Jrz,,a r

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. . Greece Article 17; . . . ,t.·ion� of,. e:g., Argen,tina, �e con�.t1tu 219, Arti cle Burm a, Article 40; �- Mexico, Article 27; Syria, Article 21(7); Ve .nezue a, A:rticle 60(17) , all as �on tained 1n A. Peaslee, Constitutio,;zs of Natio11s (2nd ed., 1956 l , ). . g manY · owin Ethiopia · 's first ex�ens1ve fo·restry legislation was recently promu 1 ga: te d .foll proc, 1965, yea rs of preparation and seliious debate. See State Forest Pr ocla ati 65 m f� ion, 19 , at . · . No. 225, Neg. ��z., year 24, no. 17; . Proc . Private Forests Conservation · Proc. No.- 227, ibid.·

- 552 ·---

OWNERSHIP OF NA1URAL RESOURCES.

pos�ible _rea�ing ?f Article I��. taking the English broadest the witl1, begin · . .To . on of paragraph (a) of the article 1r 1solat1on, would 1Il1pose. absolute ;;t,nd of all natural esources within the Empire. As will be r �,e sr _1 nable State ownersl1ip · · 1nalie not 1s 1ng f �II y supported by the Amharic version, rea_ d. th1s belO\V, ted nstra dem � certam a ready acceptability which should be acqt11red rently appa 11as . . . but I t . t erpreta�10? 1s altoget�er unw� rranted wit_ • h , so sweeping an_ 1n begin_ o T ted. refu 1n view of past practice botl1 within the Empire and Ill· other sary neces 1 ui and of wording and te11or tl1e partict1larly, more itself. Constitution the and, tries n . · unrealistic. single inf:exib]e a_ o� e�t · rule ould w establishn1 be wholly the over, :�re Nattiral resources are not 1ntr1ns1cally subF_ct to any �nifo�m governing princip.Ie. are n�cessar1ly res_ources used 1� different ways so that natural . rent Diffe vast and diverse bodies of spec1al1zed. Ia\v develop 1n respect of each - of them. 1n the United States, minerals in the land 2.re owned by the land owner.3 In many of the less developed countries they are ov,ned· by the state.4 Finally, if private o\vnership of land or a11y natural resource at all is to be possible in Ethiopia, then the provisio1-1s of paragrapl1 (a) of Article 130 cannot be taken at face value but must somehow be limited and understood in a broader co.ntext. · ... It seems an inescapable co11clusion that paragraph (a) was not.intended to co n fiscate every scrap of privately ow11ed land in the Empire. Private ownership and explo itation of land is a basic tenet of Ethiopian society, and the Constit11tion, including Article 130 itself, is ripe with refere11ces and implications to the contin uing private ownersl1ip of land.5 But paragraph (a) certainly does classify some or all "natu.ral resot1rces'' as ''State Domain." · The· development of a theoretical understanding of this concept of State Don1ain is the first step in the further analysis of the proble111s already set out. Tl1e term "State Do1nai11 '' as applied to natural resources seems to have been imported from Fra11ce, \Vhere the concept bas been highly developed. It follows that the French tises of tl1is term \Vill provide helpful points of reference for Ethiopian law, thot1gl1 the)' certainly ca11not be binding or conclusive. In France the do1nain of the State is today divided into public and private sectors. The public don1ain is com1Jrised of tl1at property owned by the State which is devoted to public 11se. Tl1e private domain is comprised of that property O\Vned by the state \Vhicl1 is '' ... of the same kind as that of private persons."6 This distinction between tl1e public and private domains of the State is implicit in •

: 3· A 1nerican lL1rispr11de11ce, vol. 36, "l\1ines and Minerals," se.c. 6, p. 285. 4· See, e.g., the constitutions of Arge11tina, Burma, Ivlexico and Syria, cited ab_ove at n te �; � L�ivs of Ken)1a, vol. 6, Mining, Cl1apter 306, sec. 4; La1vs of tlze Federat101i of N1ger1a '. .:. _a�zd L�gos (1958), vol. 4·, 121, sec. 3(1); and generally, pp. 1-2 of etr Chapt als, lVIiner • u_npubli shed con1me11tary to the Mining Code of Sa_udi Arabia, 1963. . ·· 5· See paragrap�s (b), (c) and (d) of Article 130; paragraph (d) ?f Article 31; �ticlcs 43, 4 1 onand 60; C1v. C., Title VI and Title VII pa:si111. Arguments m support of this assumpi arc advanced thro11gl1011t the present ess"y. 6· i�. �Iariiol, Treatise 011 tlze Civil LaJ.v (11th ed. 1939) (transl. Louisiana State Law Com111Js5ion, 1959), sec. 3080.

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J'ouRNAL oF ETI-IIOPJAN LAW - VoL. III - No. 2 . .- n law, presun1ably 11aving beet c,1rried over fT0 1 n the F·rench sou Bth10�1� rces of . "7 196u. of Code v1l 1 C t11e tial essen . isti the acter char la\v c ch Fren of ern mod prop der n erty m the U· . . bl_e nor presc1·�·pt1· ble. Tl1ese restri iea� a er · 1 l 1 ne�t · is it tl1�t is domain . publjc ctio ns y . ssar 1s t nece 1at t e l to l c1p r pr1n e prot ent a�c1 ct the in:uned1 rn the m fro. te s a of neans comn1. u11ication ... agai nst b !e and 1na.inly its t public · the of ssions e poss . 1 le pu Ee n days th . cy. · ver s111ce R . ff.1aen a :'\.Om en.croacbnie11t or governmenta I 1ne . res e ,� publicae have been ext,·a co1n1nerc1i,11'1. Such restrictio_n� did als� at 0�1e tine affect_ th� private domain , but this was due not to overr1d1ng cons1derat10_11s of public 111terest but rather to a need ''to obviate the ruin of royalty at a ti1ne when taxes co11ld not be freely increased" and wl1en property belonging to the K�g, property whic? was_ in effect ''private domain," had to be closely guarded.9 Tl1ls need l1as long since disappeared and the restrictions with it� The Ethlopian Civ] Code, in its turn, now provides that property in the public domain is inalie1able 10 and subject neither to ''possession in good faith'' as regards corporeal chattels 1 1or to usucaption as regards immov ables.1 1 But these ljmitations apply onl! in respect of the public domain and not. to ''other property belonging to the Sta1e." 12 The practical distinction between p�operty in tl1e public domain and property in the private domain thus settles on ttis iss11e of alienability - the right of the State to dispose of the property. Classification of State property in one or the other of these categories alters the nat1re or extent of State control over that property only in his respect. Eve11 wl1tn property has been classified 1tvithin the private domain, nothing either con1pels the State to sell the property or prevents it from setting limiting conditions in res1ect of any sale which it chooses to make. Given the existence of the private do111ain in Ethiopian la\V it is possible to formulate the following first pren1ise fo1 an understanding of ..�rticle 130: The classification of natural resoi,,·ces wit/1.i'i the State Do,nain does not co111pel the retention of tliese properties tt;ftlzin the State Do,nain. In otl1er words, private ownership of natural resources is at leas: possible even under the broadest reading of this provision of the Revised Constit1ltion. For, if properties within the private 7. �ticle 1444 vf the Civil Cod.e provides in part that all state property other tl1an property m_ the public do�ain ':shall �e subject ·�O the provi_sions [�f tl1e Code] relating to �ropea: P!1V:atel� owned. T�1s defines ,the p11v1te domain. i\rt:Icles 1145-49 tl1en d�cnbe n ?1stingu1sh property 1n the public don1ain: Article 1445 declares that the p�blic d?mai include � P!operty ''left at the disposal of the pt1blic" or ''desti11ed to a P�,blic s��icr«6 and pnnc1pally o� exclusively _adaJ:led !? tJ1 e public service concer ne�. A_rt.1�Ie declares that particular pr:opert1es, 1ncl11d1ng roads, seashores a,nd certain building5' are _part of the public domain. 8. Planiol, work cited above at note 6, sec. 3068. 9· lbi� . In Ethiopia, certai11 Crow11 property is still protected in 111uch this w�Y- iee, �� n ticle n 19(b) � h C C?,f the R�vis� Constituti on, which declares "realty registere�th�n th: State t <: riwn to b� inalienable . Such property d-oes not today f all � ! dinarily Domain ut comprises a wholl sepa�81f.e, an. d distinct category, ,vh1ch 18 or ref erred to as tlie ''Crown Dom.a.iyn'' OT the ''Imperial Domain." 10. Art. 1454.

11. Art. 1455. 12. Art 1444(1).

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0WNERSfIIP OF NATJRAL RESOURCES

be alienated to frivate per�ons �nd p,:-ivate _owner ca tl1ey able, alien � do_mai. ·n arefollow. To the extent that such p1oper1tes have been alienated, paragrctpQ t h s JP route reduced to a statement _of the theoretical origin of all ownership of ( a) ca � resources \Vith the State. O r, if tl1e word ''ownership'' is tendentious in this natura the tl1at say State does itself in theory continue to to bette r be may it t �ont;� 'all natural resour�es but that it _coaveys to private persons limited .rights ow . propertv ,1/hich are eqt11valent to pract1cal ownersl11p, retaining only its residuary in propertY pursuant to paragraph (d) m the event of f . 1 t 1e o return the to . hts· rig 13 n1e11t. abandon escheat or Tliis practic al ownership, tl1is b11ndle of rights equivalent to ownership, has been and 111ay yet again be la\v �ully gr?11teJ to private persons in respect of State properties in tl1e pri ;ate t;, r ttcle 145 4 of the oma111 . Civil Code that provides � . , . ated upon passage of a special even property in tl1e pt1bl1c don1a111 111ay _be al1en _ la\V exclt1ding the property fron1 the public domain. Furthermore, Article 31(d) of the Revised Constitutio11 provides tl1a: the En1peror ' 'makes grants from abandoned properties. and properties i11 escl1eat, for the purpose of recompensing faithful serv.ice to the Cro\vn." Tl1en, ·the c 1)nservation langu.age of par,agraphs (b) and (c) of Article 130 itself certa.inly implies extensive private use of resources. f\nd the language of paragrapl1 (d), tl1e words ''not held and possessed," ''in echeat'' and "abandoned," clearly ass11me continued private ownership of land. Thus, the Constitution, the Civil Code and the very nat11re of the Ethiopian economy seem inevitably to den1and private ''ownership'' ,Jf land, and land is the most basic of all natural resources. Taking these thjngs into account, it requires only a very short step from the suggested first premise, tl1at private ''owne1ship'' of natural resources is possible, to the follo\.ving second premise: 44,iy grant to a1zy persorz of la11d or atzy ot/1er

nat11ral resot1rce lt1wf1,1ll)' 111alie b)' t/1e State a11d ge11erally c1cceptecl as havi11.g been so 111ade is vc1lid a11d effecti1:c, tlze State ret::zi11itzg at 111ost, certai11 residi,ary rights 1vl1icl1 are less t/1a1z ow11erslzip but s·t1ff i-:ient to JJer111it suc/1 land or 11ati1ral reso11rce to re111ai11 pc1rt of tlze State Do11zain i11 satisfc1ction of possible reqi1ire111ents of parcigratJ!z (a). A corollary to tl1is second premise m11st be that: Gra,xts of r1ati1ral resoi,rces 1rzade b)1 gover1z1ne11tal and tribal ai,t!zorities prior to tlzeir a111alga111c1tio11 irz tl1e pre.s·e11t Etl1iopia11 State 1vere co11.fir111ed by the State as of tl1e ti,ne of tlze c1ccessio1z of tlzese az1t/1oritics tlzereto a,zd are as valid as such gra11ts s11bseqiteritly 11zade by tlze present St'lte. 14

13- The theory of residual state o\-vnership finds particular support in the Ethiopian tradition of f�uda) land tenure. \Vhile t11e principle itself l1as long since �een aband?ned in practic7, 1t seems to be generally accepted by scholars that all land � n t!1e Empire was th�oretJcally held of the Emperor and at his pleasure, reverting to hun 1n the event of f� ,I� re. of the tenant to provide adeqt1ate service or loyalty. See E. U�end?rf, The Eilz �opra11s (1960), p. 187; R. Pankl1urst, A,z Introditction to the Economic History of Ethiopia (1961), p. 179. 14· It s ems fair to asst1me tJ1at all privately o\vned land in Ethiopia was at one �c e conveyecl by such a grant. The existence of sucl1 a conveyance would probably bo tremely difficult to prove in al the mo�t recent cases, so that a proper rule would fx but l �ave to presume the rules on "prescription" ·or "usucapgrant The doubt. i11 all f o cases tion" wouId undoubted accompanying. note 36 text see on; presun1pti ly such support a bl c/ �� and ,the_ p�esent Jaw on this subject, Cv. C., 1\rts. 1168-69. For the earlier rules, ' r 7, no. 6, particularly Ar . 16-22 ts .

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JouRNAL oF ETHIOPIAN LAW -

VoL. III - No. 2

e11t g t11n clin a-1�g ece · pt mm ste the , ver we ho ing , ted ica ind from a, broad dy· rea . 1 · As a . 1 E sion 1 ng 1 1s ver i..... t1.e . of on ed bas icl Art is (a) e . aph agr par 130 • T.his. of g d • m rea r . w er e omitte -co e rn 1 si · 11 n 1a g a If s. u o u fl er p u s d e b t so that the . arg. ument may in .fac . ces our 1 res o ura t n1 f an 1e d ''Tl d , 111 rea the sub -s01.1 o aph agr par the of line first · '' · t11ose ben eath 1. ts wa f a , are · Sl t D ers t , a1n · 01n · th� paragrap � . _ the Empire, includ1ng _ h . o n State ship .1 of sub-soil resourc � � would be reduced to a n1ere �ec�arat1on . of es, . ld e o nate th� nee � for extend l1�} _ T hs � t1 excludin? la.nd, for�sts an� w1ldl1fe. _ ed State the of fJ01na1n which the act t1es qual1 etical theor t abou lation u spec ua 1 s ly punctuation of the English version unfo�tunate see.m to require. Happily, there exists a subst�11tial ros;ibility th �t tl1e pt�blished Englisli version is in error. In fact, the Am�ar1c ver�ion of the a.rt1cle, which s_hould be definitive, probably confirms the �ngl1sh read1ng_ of t11:e paragra.pl1 w1tl1out the comma. Re-translated into English, the A mhar1e version of paragraph (a) reads roughly 1s follows: Those resources existing in the 1,nd of the .Empire, i11clud.ing those beneath the waters, are State Dom.iin. Also, earlier English drafts of the frticle as prepared by tl1e Commission on Constitutional Revision include the following opening sentence: The natural resources in the s.ib-soil of the Empire, in its forests, and in, of and beneath its waters, as well as the air, lakes, ports and forests, are a sacred trust for the tenefit of the present and succeeding generations of the Ethiopian peopb. 15 The remainder then proceeds su bs1antially as does the present article . The change to the present version seems to indicate an i11tention to isolate sub-soil resources from the other natural resotrces m entioned, arguably leading to the conclusion that paragraph (a) does applr only to the sub-soil. Perhaps the entire problem could be resolved, or at least l:etter understood, by further research into constitutional origins. For the present, :1owever, such research is not possible. Particular Natitral Resources It remains now to enter into m ore detailed consideration of the proper scope and limitations of State control over ce�tain natural resources. It must be n1ade clear at the outset that varying demands compel varying conclusions and, in short, that not all resources should be· subjeci to the same treatment and legal s_tatus. The questions of m ost immediate impor1ance in respect of each of these part1cu1� resources differ, so that the examinations whicl1 follow are neither parallel 10 reasoning nor idet;1tical in conclusions. The differences and. their cai1ses sl1 ould be�ome clearer as t· he discussion proceed.s. 1.

Minerals

'!'he authority of the Govern ment tc control the exploita.tio11 and cons�rvati : of m1.nerals would appear generally to be virtually co mplete. Tl1e experien ce 0ther count�ies seems here to s upport the broadest possible readi11g of Arti cle ! 30 · tb�t an. owner of land has no significrnt rights of ownersl1ip in respect of the minerals contained in the land. 15. Draft of February, 1954.

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. 0WNERSI-IfP OF NATURAL RESOURCES

•n analysis may properly begin with refere11ce to French law. Ownership A the �ommon Jaw countries,_ includes, at least theoretically, in as , France 16 The extent of private of Ian . sub-soil. ownership of minerals i n the in erals n ,., the roi been considerably narrJwed during and hundred past the er, ( howev bas ' · Fra nce con1pr e e d h t 1 �t · prese n h l sdJn y_ e r�ght of tl1e o"':ner of la?d t at tl1at so rs, yea . ,.. fifty 1 111 resp�ct ?f �� er1 y1ng m1n�r�1 co�cess1ons. While ta n re_ ce "surfa a ect coll . 0 ! theo ry the ownersl11p of th� soil still e�tends _1ndefin1tely 1n depth,"17 the been . t? make a mn1e a p1e�e of property distinct from h�s laws us vario of �feet orda111 that 1t 1s no longer at t11e disposal of tl1e owner of the to and ce surfa the 18 " . land Utilitaria11 considerations l1ave forced this distinction. Since ore bodies do not coincid e with tl1e bo11ndaries �et 11p �or _surface rights, there wo11ld be great obstacles to mineral development if explo1tat1011 were to depend upon the will of individual o,vners of s11rface rigl1ts. This is especially trt1e where plots of la.nd are relatively small as in Fra11ce. The State, cesiri11g a systematic and economic exploitation of its mi11era� �esotirces, ha� been forced to assun1e control over these resources a.ad, when a m1n1ng lease expires, no,v takes over full owners11ip of the 19 behalf. own its in v e rights mineral ant r le Article 130 would, in light of these developments, seem to l1ave sought to make explicit i11 Etl1iopian law what is already implicit in French law. While the common law approacl1 still retains in full force the concept of private ownership of n1inerals, it seen1s obviot1s that Article 130 was intended to assimilate the French approach. The same t1tilitaria11 consideratio11 '-"Ould appear to have been relevant. Certainly there is greater likeli.hood of st1ccessful n1ineral exploitation in Ethiopia under Government control tl1an u11der individt1al private auspices. This is not merely a question of the size of i11dividt1al land holdings. The Government has greater access to i11vestors and tecl1nically competent people, greater capacity for promotion, and stro11ger incli11ation to utilize or assure the 11tilization of these resources for the national and public i11terest.

J��

In addition, legal and econo1nic tl1eory aside, past practice and policy in Ethlopia would appear conclusive of the matter in themselves. As already indicat ed, the Government has freely 11ndertaken :o gra11t concessions over minerals, and numbers of such concessio11s are presently in existence. The power to grant these concessions, 1,,vhicl1 n1ust rest on ownerslup of the minerals, l1as well docu mented support in Etl1iopia11 mineral legislation of the pre-constjtutional era. An Imperial Decree of the I 8th April, I 928, provided tl1at: All wealth of tl1e sub-soil of Ethiopia is state property and i n con sequence beyond tl1e power of disposal of the land owner . . . There are assimilated to mines, from tl1e point of view of the decree, the beds �f mi11eral or fossil substance susceptible of special use, v.rith the exception of bt1ilding materials whicl1 ma,r be freely disposed of by the

16· Planiol, \vork cited above at note 6, sec 2391. . �1. Ibid. 1,8. Ibid., sec. 2394. l9. Ibid. •

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J:OURNAL O.F ETlJIOPIA� LAW - VOL. III - N0. 2 Iand-ow�er ... The exploration" for n ail 111i11erals i_ n their �atural be ds p.,rsont, or those to compa111e . 011ly s ed prov peimitt is ided WIth a · '' gra te · b the E t·I · op · '' permit of exploration � c Y .... �1 �an Government.2o � 1·en1 r e _ t his 1ns �het�er 1� force, but it cl�ar � entirely � � not � � It is certain} of et t1on 1nterp or A.rt1�le 130. Its sub � OUght _I, direct�ve . . f � powerful a be to stan e al s I1nJer1 Decree by of ed confirm 29th November, 19 Was ' apparently further 29 21 a nd 9 2 19 . r, e b m ce e 5th D p It does ren1ain possible to argue tl1at the State. has in the ast conv eyed · to t f s e�s 1 . ?wn h o s�1re · o mea p f ·· 1_ 11 u f ·. th� :tau e c_ ons 1 mineral d e 05 .. private pers . its. , do1na1n this pnvate the w1th1n poss1b1l1ty are cannot sun p If minerals dism!ssed. I! migl1t tl1ere��re be usef1l t� 1nai_nta.i� that_mi�eral� are rather i� t�; '., ot l10We\er, I eas1ly pos1�1�n, !�at de�ens1ble � � public domain. Ill the light of the descr1b111g the public domain.22 Moreov . Civil Code prov1s1ons defining and / might even be legally inconsistent witl a11y exploita.tion at all of minerals by p r��• persons. C.Iearly, some f�rtber. research into tl1.i� question is merited. Since, ho�� I ev_er, the S1oven1men� policy of gra11t:�g concess1011s for, _rather than ownershi p of, � minerals 1s of relat1vely long stand.1ng, there are unlikely to be any claims to 1 ownership of minerals fot1nded on modern grants. As to historic grants and rights t app�rtaining to o��ership, it can be_ fairly assu�ed that the Ethiopian economy hav1ng been trad1t1on.ally based cliefly 011 agr1ct1lture and only marginally on mining, concepts of land tent1re a11d ownersl1ip l1ave l1ad to do only with use of land or soil for agricultural purposes. The right to exploit resources in the "sub soil'' v.rould n.ot very likely have been relevant to the traditional E thiopian concept f of land ownership.23 So, it is practice ratl1er tl1an tl1eory which justifies a g eneral .• assumption that the Ethiopian State 11.0\V owns all mineral resources within its boundaries, subject to a dim possibility that private ownersl1ip of minerals may exist in a few cases on the basis of previous agreements. I It must, however, be noted and emphasized that the Decree of 18th April 1928, I quoted above, does clearly provide ior a single general exception to total State ov;rnership and control of minerals: ''bt1ilding materials'' or, less gra1nmatic ally but ' ( more commonly, ''qu.arries."

·1

This is a well-established excep1ion in the law of France, wl1ere the own:r · of land has complete freedom to exploit qt1arries thereon.24 Returning to lheir , • - Contro1 of Trans·action s in and · the prean1bl� to the Prcclrunat1on 20· Excerpt�d 1n for the l The ful . 11 Conc�mtng Go,Jd and Plat1nt1m, 1944, Ptroc. N•o. 67, Neg. Gaz., year 3, no · text 1s reproduced in A. Zervos, L'En,pire d' Ethio1;ie (1930), p. 306. 1929 ember, Nov 21 · Excerpted as indicated, note 18. Th e full text of the Decree of 29th a ppears i11 Ze-rvos, work cit ed a,bove Lt no te 20 , p. 303. 22. Arts. I 445-49. the . h 23 · Limited research. has failed to reveal coc1lln1e11<t ary suppor t for .tl1is cont eo�o �i' :��hip" Emperor's historically paramount p ostion in .respect of la11d tenur e a� 1or priva te would s�em o mak: ine_ vi1table. Articl !: 1209 of the Civil Code now pro�ld la nd," and � d n Wll e r s of la ship of sub-s011 ·rights 0·11ly to tle ''extent necessary for the u_ se of ? t it would_ seern tl1at something like thi� would have been ,intended 1 11 past fa�sed Cons· h w t� n �rshl p. The practice· in r ecent yea··s ' eve11 before pron1ulg ation of � e 0ewnersbip of ht 1 t•Ution ' h.as b een to c · us tng ou an th van° rar t her .onfer mineral c oncessions · 5 of o n ral s. t e i d a c e, e g no , at ve a p 21 o t, . nd a the a i . 20 . o e Se decrees � � notes ci t ed t above d mining conces sions d · t . · · z i e · · work c ervos, ating 111 as early 1ncl11decl as 1899 20, pp. 301_18_ 24 . Planio · l ' work· ci'ted above a t n o te 6, S!C. 239 9.

t:e

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(

\ l , I ; I tl q d t} ) I1 ' , 2j 2«u

OWNERSHIP OF NATURAL RESOURCES

.eniise tl1at o\:v1 1ersl1ip of land extends indefinitely in its depth"' tlle French . , . 1 P� ' fron1 the 1·b ori..,g1na 1 erty of owners as regards quarries. No concession gated dero have n ot from the State are required fo� the exploitation of quarries. State its perm r o · · on 1 11ent· 111spect:.I govern an d the req, uirement that the owner to ned confi is 1 , tro v•, desires to open a q1 1arry declare ltis i11 tention at the town haI1.2s (\_ con .. of 1 an d ho A�t1 111terpr�t le :: to 130 as creating stibstantially the so� rea , good is . There begin To with, the public interest in developing Etl11op1a. in n tuatio i · S e sam nterest e eve 1oping tn · d · · h t as 1 er minerals and does not otl great i so not is ries uar Nor is. tl1 ere the same concern of society qrequ i·re the san1e. degree of State. control. . I 01tat�on o f . quarries. The area required for their e�p proper tl1e in whole . a as l development is sn1all. TJ�e1r explo1tat1?11 1s dependent neither on large outlays of � construct_1on_ of undergro11nd works,. which wotild capital nor on. th� extens1ve . _ explo1tat1on st1cl1 of by o\vners of lands; indeed, private decrease the l1kel1hood o\vnership n1ay actt1ally favor their increased use in private constrl1ction. Furtl1er, quarries are neit1 1er as ra.re 11or econ.01nicall)1 as essential as other mi11 era]s. And, finally and n1ost conclL1s1vely. qL1arr 1 es a,re usually found at or near tl1e surface of the eartl1 and n1ay actt1ally eve 11 co1 npris� tl1e land or soil itself. So, from a policy point of view it seems entirely reaso11able tl1at quarries sl10L1ld be deemed assjmilated rather to tl1e soil tl1an tl1e sub-soil, and should, therefore, belong to the ow·ner of tl1e soil. This positjon is some\vhat 1nore difficult :o 1nai11 tain 0 1 1 sheer literal analysis of the English versions of paragrapl1s (a) and (j) of Article 130. But it does derive son1e support from the express stipulation in paragraph (d) that ''prodt1cts of tl1e sub-soil" are State Don1ain. The i1nplication is clear, tl1ough not entirely per suasive, that the stipt1lation of products of tlie sub-soil 11ecessarily excludes tl1 e products of the soil itself, st1cl1 as quarries a.nd, with additional arguments set out b elow, certain forests . Put a11otber way, tl1e specification of particular natural resources under paragrapl1 (d) 111ight be intended to bring these under the actual and not merely the previot1sly s11ggested tleoretical ''o\vnersl1ip'' of the state. If this approacl1 is at all acceptable i t provides an expla11ation for tl1e otl1erwise apparently useless repetition in paragraph (dJ of tl1e principle already stated in. paragraph (a). A m11ch stronger argt1n1 ent for s11ch a11 i11 terpretation ca11 be made by holding lo the narro\ver 1-\mharic version of IJaragraph (a), already referred to. This version would classify as State Domain only t hose reso11rces existing irz tl1 e land; and it can be argued that quarries are ra tl1 er ''of'' the land than ''i11'' it. Ignoring the unwel�on1e punctuation of tl1 e English version, supporting reference for an inter pretation of the A111haric word ,,zare t may usefully be made to the equivalent . English term "sub-soil." Tl1e A111haric phrase b'1 nc1ret wi,st, ''in the land," may then be said to mean ''of and in the sub-soil," excluding the soil itself and, conse e tly d�� . n ,. quarries. 26 Tl1is is ad1 nittedly a s�lf-serving method for evadi�g .the 1 i ul es f c !i posed by the English version, but it does have at least a llDl ited t h eoret1cal va 11·a· · 1ty and the 111an·1 fest v1 rt11e of s1n1p · · 1·1c1ty. ,y

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25. Ibid. 26' �is can be done on a tl1cory of interprctati.0 analogous to the venerable "parole 11 ' · evidence'' pr1·ncipl · ti·ngs · e of the •com .':n d an ts men state 1 a extem tl1at hQlds mon law, \.Vhich cannot be used may _be 11tilised to but nt, un1e to doc a vary of tent l1c t , co11 ress exp cl •r the tl1e words ing erly ning und mea n 11Lio inte tl1e of ain ain expl cert to ds \vor and us�� n the docum ent where this is 11ot clear 01 the face of the doctiment.

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VoL. III - N'o. 2

in our t fav e1 um of arg r the fur the interpretat· 011e st lea : at is re 'fbe · ion her � e le 1rt 11ab co1 st10 que hly l1ig isio 1e dec son e asid ns ti11g Set o r d: the este . e . . . ee sugo s ms t o . t u • d ti· se c on R wni C L1 ev1 h 011s h to , t s � viou pre po pur law no rted to d have been rive c th nt�·ary, the On s. quarrie i r ov �hove� ights r . mentioned � � �. land owners of cree g d111 bu1l ed mpt ls exe er1a 111at ally c1f1c spe '' from State . of 18th April, 1928 ner t tion Revised Const of the stipula. t e 44 b ' OW t i tl and 43 that 1 ship. Ar icles ''life l ' erty ·, or d pr?�ess ue f I ? : a. w t 1ou '' · I a wit d e k be ta tl1at ''No one ma propert�'' may 11.?t ? � ,, _ be d_�prived of his pro�erty exce ft -�pon 1111111ster:a.l orde� Issued pursuant to th� requirement of a special expropriat1on law ... ancl except upon payment of . . ?111ai� of q�arries it_ wo1:1ld �a�: compensation.': If _Article 130 did _make _State D _ vvor�e? a conf1sc�t1on �f .property 1ncons1ste.nt with . at. le�st the_ spirit of these pro�1s1ons.27 . While this 1s ?Y 110 n1e�ns a conclt1s1ve b�s�s for Interpretation of Article 130, 1� n1ust be co�s1dered llDl1�el r tl1at one proVISIOn . of the Constitution sl1ould v..1ork 1n contravention of the pr1nc1ples established by its other provisions. !he sug �ested _distinc_ ti�n . bet"\ve�� qt1arries_ an_d other minerals is not ·who1Iy co_ns1stent with �ar1ous , Jud.1c1al de�1s1011s con �11·m111g th� power of the Imperial Highway Authority to ' take by e1111nent domain any pnvately owned lands for public use and fix the con1pensation for any buildings� crops, vegetation or other fixtures on the lands so taken." The theory behind tl1ese decisions appears to be that the Highway Authority Proclamation does 11ot sp_ ecifically state that compensation must be given ftor the taking of stone, sand and other bt1ilding materials or ,iuarries. 28 The en1inent domain or expropriation power give11 in the Proclamation has, in fact, been effectively negated both by the above-n1entioned Article 44 of the Revised Co11stitution, imposing specific expropriation procedures and requirements, and by the further procedures ·and requiren1e11ts contained in the expropriation provisions of the Civil Code. 29 Even if Article 44 did not retroactively invalidate the statutory provjsio11 conferri11g this broad power on the Highway Authority, because Article 122 states only ''future legislatio11 ... a11d acts'' inconsistent with the Revised Constitution are null and void, it would seem tha.t any expropriation proceedings initiated in the exercise of that power after 1955 shot1Id be requi!ed to conform to constitutional standards. 30 In any event, the broad repealing article 27. {?f co�rse, it is not possible for a part_ of t;l1e Revi_se� ·Constitution .to be "uncgni::: t1,onal; and as a matter of legal analysis 1t 1s not d 1ff1ct1lt to reconc1le the bro� .i for preta!ion of Article 130 with the language o f Articles 43 and 44. A necessary as srson a cla1_n1 under t�e Iatt, er a�cles is tl1 �t the proper.t� -take11 have be�on ged 'lo :h:el':irces . interpreted as, 1n effect, exclud! ng na�r� k ng'' f asserting the cla11m. If Aft1cle 130 1s . i o ta tition from the realm of pnvate property, ,there cot1ld be no 11nconstit . the that SJ such propocty. However, this line of reasoning merely 11nderli11es t�e conclu o; 44_ broad i11terpretation of Article 130 would subvent tl1e spirit of Articles 43 an for 5 0 28: Hi�byi,ay Authority Proclamatio11, 1951, P .roc. No.. 115, Neg. Gaz., �car io, . 1�P: Ct., dec1s1ons, see, e.g., A) ana Woyessa v. Jinperial Highway · Autl1ority ( .up (Sup. Io1p . t o i Au l eb . 6, Highwa 195�) (t1npublisbed); r F � y a In1perial Jrnp Lelissa i Beyene v . r e v. . d o 1�: Tsigi. C�., 1956, C1v1l App. No. 475 /47) (unpublisl1ed); but cf . Imet :s confi�ed d ) ' e s Highway Authority, (H.Ct., 1956, Civil Case No . 657 / 47 ) (u_npubli . .· · · by Supreme Imperial Cot1rt, Civil Appeal No. 137 / 48 (unpublished ). · 29 . Arts. 1460-88. e . d onsider w tute ere''fco,ture,,, in a t 30· U�le�s, perh.aps, post-1955 acts �rf'?rmed purs_un:nt to a pre-1 955 . d . � , · ThrcsboId or w ng also. to be insulated from constitu•-iw;o·n,al restr1ct1ons by· the lim.it, i • w Rev1e • · · Ar ticl� 1 22. See R. Means, ''The Con6titu-tional Right to Jticlici a1 Quest1ons. ,"J. Et/1. L., vol. 3 (1966), , pp. 175, 179 et seq.. 1

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co11cl11�i:ely have foreclosed further exercise of the power should Code of., tlie Civil the statutory provision altogethe r. 31 by ren 10ving expropriatton tl1at 11 proc�edings are required for the suggesti the se, r ? cou Of assumes that tl1e quarries to be tak �n are private ne�essar1�y ri�s r qua taking of has a court suggested otherwise,32 and the instance single a y 1n onJ · . p roperty grat 1itous. But tl1e courts see1n to have upheld entirely was t case that in nce . . ref ere exprop r1at1on 011ly as to the land necessary for the of· power and for need · . lI1e a11 d .not .·for quarr!' mater1,11s tl1emselves. The best that quarries of ion Ioitat · ex . are 1nconcl11si\e. And cases tl1e since tl1e varying positions tl1at is said be � l1e t _ fro1n ved presumed der exi tence l1ave of a power so broad courts ! the by � �:ken established validly 11oJr be persuasively argued to exist, they longer no can it that . d e d r a g e r is d e b ld u o sh Articl e 130 sl1ould te11tatively, then, be 1ead as excluding fron1 State owner ship those natu ral resources_ o� the Empire wl1icl1 are part of the soil. If existing p rivate ow11e rsl1iJ? of tJ1e s011 1s accepted on :he theory �f i�terpretation of par� _ graph (a) of Art�cle 130 alr�acl� advanced, then tl1� def1n1t1on of the owners111p of Jand as inclusive of quarries 1s a11 acceptaJle refinement of that theory on the considerations here outlined. If land is part of the State Domain only to the extent of residuary rights re111aini11g after the land i:self l1as been conveyed to a private person, then any st1cl1 private perso11 possesses the right to use quarries within the Ja11d, sucl1 quarries being, legally, part of lhe land a11d not intrinsically distinct from it as, at least for tl1eo retical pt1rposes, are other minerals. In summation of the sig11ificance of Article 130 with respect to minerals, a reas onable view n1ight incorporate the folloving principles: (I) Mi11eral resoz,rces fall i11to

!}VO

classes:

(a) 1r1.i11erals i11 t/1e s11b-soil as to wl1iclz Stc1te olv11ersl1ip r111d control n1ay be

r1ss11111ed to be co111plete a11cl totc1/, r1/t/1otlgl1 private ol-vnersl1ip of si1c}z 111ir1eral� is at least c1 tl1eoretical possibilit)•; and (b) qi,arries, 1vlzic/1 c1re t/1eoretically par! of tl1e soil a11d whose owners/zip is t/1erefore not i11tri11sic:ally clistinct fro111 the ow11ershiJJ of sr,rface a,zcl land rights generally. (2) T/1e State 111aJ1 grant co11cessions· for 1J1e exploitc1tion of 111inerc1ls a11cl even tfze owr1ersl1ip of t/1e 111i1zerals the111relves. Polic)' favors tlze gra11t 011/y of co11cessions. (2) · Forests . · While the exte11t of State control over mott minerals is reasonably clearcut and definite, issues of ownersl1ip a11d rigl1ts in and over forests present more complex problems. Tl1e first question to be raised in determining the legal extent of State .

31 · _ c· .. iv. q., Art. 3347, as ,

lied to Ar ts. 1460-88 tl1ereof; see generally, G. K�z.eczunowicz, app A .N�w Legislative Appr-oacli to Customary Law: the "Repeals" Prov1s1on of the Elbiopian Civil Code o f 1960," J. Etlz. Stitclies, vol. 1, no. 1 (1963), �-- 57. . 32 · !'::.ou Tadesse v. Imperial 1-lighway Authorit} (H. Ct., 1948 E.C., C1v1l Case) (unpubli-

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s d wa de n te. 0 in 13 cle to rti A er nv eth co wh is e.rt them sts re fo er ov l Contro a.II 33 to State Domain. · e1·n fo1 tl1e 11c co of s est for ion ess pr ex nt 1·ta of the Em po im st lie r ea Tlie . . p1re ,_ . t e E ·h f· o 1 11 re1g r ero tt1e ing dur M�nelik �� __ in mod�rn ti111es occurred . The ces ot1r for the national econ recognition_ of tl1e forests as productive timber res omy \Vas then frrst secured. Menelik employed foreign forestry experts and set up the first self contained and conseque11t forest policy in the country when he liberated the forests fro1n their subjection to agricultural pu.rposes and declared all fo,·ests i11clitdi11g all t,·ees 011, p1·ivc1te lands. State p1·operty. 34 (Em phasis added.)

This apparent attempt to bring all trees and forests into what would now be the State Doma. in was certair1ly only partia.Ily successful. While notable advances i11 the protectio11 and reforestation of tl1e country were 1nade during the Emperor Menelik's reign the nah1re of individual concern with prese1·vation of rights of ownership and. the relative weakness of the cent1·al government made the projected confiscation of property unwo.rkable. St1ch a plan eve11 today remains impracticable since, if applied, it would discourage any private reforestation or conservation efforts on tl1e part of land owners, who would seen1 to face the loss of the use of a.ny property where forests were permitted to grow. To be fair, however, it is tJot really clear that this ea1·ly plan was intended to go so far. Accordingly, it is appropriate for present purposes to accept it prin1arily as an expression of concer.n over a still significant problem: tl1e preservation of Ethiopia's fast diminishing forest resources. It appears, thougl1, that the broadest reading of Article 130 would amount to re-enactment of the unworkable law of Emperor Menelik's time. For even if forests can be excluded frorn all but the ''theoretical'' State Domain on the reasoning already advanced in interpretatio11 of paragraph (a) with respect to ownership of qu.arries, nevertheless paragraph (d) again specifies that ''forests" are part of the State Domain. This further specification must, as already s11ggested, have some additional significance, most probably that tl1e items specified are to come under the actual and not merely the theoretical ''ownership'' of the State. There a.re, however, at least four counter argume11ts to support a reading of paragraph (d) which would not 1nake ''State property'' of ''all forests includi ng all trees on private lands." only s n1ean t, i ' can it very ''forests' � plausibly be urged that tl1e tern1 ,, . :� , e � Io<le virgin or natural forests, and does not ir1c]ude forests created b)' n1an. .there are substantial problems presented in atte1npting to define just wl1at constl· ttites a forest. - Strictly speaking, trees c111tivated by man for commercial purposes e : 33· The practical answer to th,i� question l enac nt rece the �; 1as already been provided wit.11 of tlle three f?rest;Y laws cited. above a,t note 2 ser o h on e t base d are laws The se c . � nvce of . p�wer specifie xis d in paragraph (c) of Article 130 ' and i11· presuming the e te te"'t he pnvately ow ne d forests they T " ownership. rend . er state moo t most ques of tions tirelY en ana1 sis se�es chiefly to justify ost alm ds proc r ee tl1e and legi , slat inte ive rpre tati on + on LU.eoretical grounds. ent 34. Imperial Ethiop·a p1n . . . elo . Dev 1 n Governme t, M1 ustry ear y Frve Agnc Secon of uJtur d e, r Plan (1962_ 67), p. 6. (Bmphas1?-s added.)

562 __,

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0WNEllSI-IIP OF NATUll!\L RESOUllCES

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a 11atura ] tl1an product or capital element thereof· soil'' tl1e of uits "fr . ' . terpretat1o . a re rathertly they are 11ot. a 11.at 1,11.a.l resot1rce. -,5 An 1n n along these lines ue conseq ;ccepted if the State is to e11courage reforestation and co11servation efforts must b e 36 . ow11ers ·vate land by p�econd, a strictly verbal a1Jproacl1 to pangraph (�) makes it at least arguable property not held a11d p_ossessed 111 tl1e name of any person'' "All se phra tl1at the tl1e paragrapJ so that only forests not held and of words ]ater the all . 110overns of· any person are State Don1a1n. But this argument is 11an1e tl1e · in ssed posse . d .JCates tl1at the pl1rase in question is are 1n '' '' b 1 ver l t1ra p The . tenuOus at best. . f 1· I O 1st a Y apparent var1ot1s IS k'111ds of property comprising wl1at in erelv tl1e first �e State Dornain: so that tl1e p�rase does not gover11 and is not just further inder of the paragraph. Surely the paragraph rema tl1e by defined and · rated elabo . lakes those only and that terr1tor1al waters not held or \Vas not meant to convey 37 son te are per Sta of any in. ma Do 1e nan the possessed in Third, if, as see1ns likely on tl1e basis of tl1e extended arguments which follow, forests witlun the State Don1a in are alie11able and prescriptible, then those virgin forests whicl1, under the literal impact of paragraph (d), are at any time included within tl1e State Don1ain ca11 still be sold or gra11ted i11 accordance with any law on the subject, or grantecl by the E111peror under Article 3l(d) of the Revised Constitutio11. Arid if forests within 1he State Domain can be granted or sold to private persons under tl1e present Con�titution, there is no reason \vhy they could not have been properly gra11ted or sold prior to adoption of the troublesome provisions of Artiele 130. What Article 130 con1es dow11 to the11 is that virgin forests properly gra11ted, conveyed or confirmed to private persons by :l1e State, whetl1er before or after the coming into effect of the Revised Constitution, are the property of such persons. All other virgi11 forests are State Domain. This analysis leaves aside tl1e l1ighly cornplex problem of usucaption of such forests but docs provide at .least a starting point for consideration of tl1at problem. Since usucaption under the Civil Code requires as one of its elements tl1e payment of land taxes for fifteen years,38 tl1ere js a strc11g case to be 1nade that in accepting such payments the Gover11ment acl<no�,]edges the taxpayer's rigl1t to tl1e property and thus provides him witl1 a ki11d of grant. Fourth, and i11 support of tl1e three previous arguments, it can be argued with respect to all forests dee1ned to l1ave bee11 privately ow11ed as of November 4, 1955, that since forests 11a,,e in fact remai11ed u11der private ownership after Emperor ?v!enelik's decree, Article 130 cannot be interpreted as a possible ft1rther attempt to confiscate them except by doi11g viole11ce to the spirit of Articles 43 and 44 of the Revised Constitutio11.39 1�he expropriation law referred to in Article 44 as the 35· Pla�o l, work cited above at note 6 sec. 2790· and see generally E11cyclopaedie DallozDroit Civil, vol. 2, "Fruits - Arbres,:' paras. 4.5 et seq. 36 · See Art. 5(a), Private Forests Conservatio11 Proclan1ation 1965, cited ·above at note 2, requiring the owners of for exploitation only where it perm a n obtai te to sts priva fore • . are natural such forests · I purposes. for commerc1a ited explo be ts to are fores or 37· 7, 13 No. oc. r Pi , 1953 tion, lan1a �: Civ. C., Arts. 1228-56, an Proc itime Mar the . d g. Gaz., year 13, no. 1. 38· Art . 1168. 3 Se e notes 27 and 29 above 9. and accompanying text.

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) IAN LAw - VOL. Ill - No. 2 J HIO ET oF JouRNAL

y s ert ar op pe te p1· ap iva pr in of i11g part in the Civ tak e th for sis ba necessary ' l o taken e only may �e C t d erty e �her pro ''r that � � lates stipu equi 1960 and re of for U�lic purposes. ,,40 Respect for the _right� of p1·1v�te ownership compels the conc}ust n o � 1:>os l1c pu a pt1r for ere 1red u 1 wl1 rec ? lly rea the 1s ty per pro owner is that no able f t 1!f1l 1n fa� , te� by t1es � so req _ en hi wh s, � do� a�d self � ! g illin any i nt st � of fulf of y abl t1fy JL1s ceiv Lh con e ise erw oth ht ing mig tak ich wh lic pub of tlie that Proper ty. For the present, hov.1ever, all these argu111ents are academic. No one s eri y ousl te priva ts to take fores rigl1t e 1 tl has without payin g c co11tends that the State sation, or !hat such .t�ki�g is or \Vill be g�nera.lly nece� sary with ?r witho��;i · h eeds the wl1ere of 1nstan�es 1c 11 conservation ma y in f con1pensation. S p.ec1� I r· equire the conf1scat1on of· pr1,1ate forests 11nder a proper law will be discuss:� below. ! In any case, Arti�le �30 does clearly indicate that forests �n land own ed by the State_ are State Domain, Just as are those forest_s on land which may come to the State by escl1eat or abai1donme11t. T11e second unportant question to be raised in connection with forests is whether forests within the State Domain must remain there. In other words: Do State fo1·ests belon.g to tlie p/.1blic do111ain. or to the private l ,to111ain, as tliose two categories· hc1ve so fa,· beeri exp!ainecl?

In France, State forests are included witl1in the private domain. The explana tion for this is reasonably straighforward:

''Forrr1erly, great importance was attached to the preservation of the great trees of the forests, principally for the upkeep of tl1e fleet .... And forests were one of the main sources of royal wastage because it was al\vays easy to make money out of them and to find purchasers for them."41 Thus, some forests, the former personal possessions of the King, came to be owned by the State and io compose pa.rt of tl1e ''private domain." But there was no essential communal or public purpose - other than t11e 1naintenance of the navy, which has now long ceased to have need of wooden ma.sts and hulls - which required State o\vnership of all forests. While the State did succeed to tl1e forn1er royal domains, including the royal forests, as successor to the n1 onarchy and as a matter of cot1rse, it neither succeeded to nor confiscated forests owned by private persons. There \Vas no JJublic need for any s·uch succession or confiscation. Now, State forests in _France have even become prescriptible though they were neitl1er prescriptible nor alie�able tinder the old regime. And, finally, although authority for the sale must still be specifically granted by law, State forests in France are now alienable.4:. It may be concluded, then, that the attributes of inalienability and in1 prescriptibility hav� no modern justification in respect of forests and that tJ1e existing remnants 0 these- attributes are essentially vestigal. e. . · her n atio Noth1ng 1n the law of Ethiopia woulcl require a d1f .. ns · Ierent SI·tu State forests are not classified witl1.in the public domain under specific provi�%er ei I wo � of which the � Civil Co_· de, and there is no apparent public purpose · · he · t n · g def1ru JUsti"fY or require such a classification under the general provision 40. Art. 1460. 41 · Planiol, work cited above at note 6, sec. 3081. 42. I b!d., secs. 3081, 3089.

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1445. The _only possible exception might be for particular Article ain, dom ubli c follows that State forests �orest s desig11ated as parks or 11at1onal reserYes. It then · t. t t a s 1 un tis e1 1 ega d t l E sa1ne h.1op1an law as they do under 1e t e I1av . eral . ' gen . u1 f t·he private cb main and therefore can be sold or o t 1 pa e ar y tl1e : Jaw freoc h persons. private to ed grant Ftirthern1ore, tl1ere are good re�sons why Article 130 should not even be all fores�s as private domain and thus to expropriate forest classify to ed rpret _ inte date, effective November 4, 1955. This classification is its before granted . . •ghts .., fl 1 y 111 th e t heorellca 1 sense already explained in which all on all, at if ', essarj nec _ DomaJ1 tate S n1ade b under 1n1ght paragraph rce (a) while acknow resou � ral � natu _ . 11on�theless re1na�n in force. Forests within '·o,vnersh1p'' ledged private :1gl1ts of _ the State Domain 1n the ft1llcst sense, tl1at 1s forests subJect wholly and exclusively to State ownership, c,t11 be limited to those iorests owned by the State in its own right i11 1955 and tl1�se whicl1 co11!e to it by escheat or abandonment. The Emperor, before 1955, had al1e11ated to private perso1'E a number of forest properties, and there is no reason to assume that tl1e Revised Constitution abrogated these trans actions, wl1icl1 l1ad been effected i11 a. tl1oroughly legal exercise of His power, under Article 15 of tl1e 1931 Constitt1tion, to establish personal estates. Rather, the Emperor's continui11g po\ver to co11vey certain properties, under Article 3l(d) of tl1e 1955 Constitution, indicates precisely tre contrary. The prior occurrence of these transactions also lends ft1rther support to the proposition that State forests fall with.in tl1e private domai11. There is only a single modern ground for State concern ,vith forests, and this, even at its furthest reach, by no means requires State ownership of all forests. The ground in questio11 is conservatio11. Paragrapl1s (b) and (c) of Article 130 n1ake conservation measures obligatory. Laws promoting and enforcing such n1easures are necessary as regards both pt1blcly and privately owned forest la11ds. The French Cocle Forestiere goes so far as 10 require governmental approval for lhe clearing of pri,,ately ov1ned ,:voods and forests. 43 It sets up definite criteria upon \v.hich denial of sucl1 approval 111ust be based. 4• 1 ln fact, n1ost rnoclern states 11ave found it 11ecessary to impose son1e restrictions on the cutting of forest trees, whether pub:icly or privately owned, as well as positive requircn1e11ts of cxploitatio11, refo�statio11 and conservation activities. The scope of legislatio11 imposi11g sucl1 rest1ictions and requirements is almost entirely dependent 011 the \l/ill of the State legislature. In Etl1iopia too, th.is must be the case tinder paragrapl1s (b) and (c) of Article 130.45

43· Art. 157. Cf. Article 5, Private Forests Conrervation Proclamation, 1965, cited above at note 2. 44. Art. 158. 45· It s�ould be noted by way of caution tl1at the pl1rase "Imperial La,v" or ."B' '}egzisa neg,sr_ 11!e11gist liig" used in paragraph (c) probably does not in1ply _an special_ kind _of Iav, dtst.Inct from "law" as referred to else\vhere i11 the Revised Const1tt1,: tion. This special usage, \vhich does not other1,,�ise appear in the Constitution, !s most plausibly explained an attempt to distinguisl1 bet\veen Empire-·Nide or In1per1al La\v on ?ne hand, and ritre an �r local law on the other. Its effect would then have been to bnng the cont:ol a ll �ntrean natural resources under tl1e jurisdictior1 of tl1e. central. Government dunng �:e Pe nod of the Federation.

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1 �n �!1e power__ to j,:11pos such rest itatio1 1 li11 ant t impor �. rictionN The 011 ly nd d ine nta co ;i 1on 111 t .. ements lb. l oh tic pr Ar e th e re, mo 43 ce on of is . the Revis ct · , . requrr :1 . . • . . . e 1 wit t ty 1ou per µ-o c1ue of ing k ta. c pro the · ess inst aga of 1 a · Const• 1tution The :" v 1at no reqt1jremen t of con tl is on visi pro this of e u nc ifica sign ser . ati on ca prac cal . . law, _whic ,, ''· · · n t t k o 111� nts a o1 h o a� f e op pr ' b) r �n ev �. Where t � be imposed, �e u i est 11e� ly �?r ow va t1ld pr1 wo lar e ticu par u req b �y 1n st re s stant1al public intere or profit fro1n that forest, there limitations on the nght· of the owner t()· � use · Would · · d · rocee A it ngs 1 . ? 1.n_ acc?rda ce w h then be a pro�er s1tuat10� f�r expropr1,t101: � ] rtic 44 of the_ Revised .const1tut1on an d the �v1l Code. Lef1slat1on �� osing forese t s n _a a_ e 1n� VI d 1 or pr) ou h s d s ent em eterm1n1 ng whe n conservat1on requir ''taking'' of P:operty might r�sult_ from tl1e 1mpos1t1?n of sue� r�quirements an� 46_ _ Give� cases. se � t�• 111 tl1e likelihood that most 1on t comp:nsa. for securing JU_st forest conservation techn1q.t1es ca11 be 1nple1_ne. �tecl by pr1:1�te per_sons with relative ease and ':ithout substantial da�age to their 1·1gl1ts to t1t1l1_ze the1r forest property, expropriation cases ought to arise on]y rarely and tl1en 1n the special instances where forests are necessary as ''nation,l parks'' o.r, in certain locations , as perma nent barriers against erosion.

It r emains to note agai11 that, althot1gh both forests and minerals are declared by Article 130 to be part of the Sta.te Domain, the co11clusions here presented suggest different treatment for each of t1ese categories. This anomaly is attributable n1ore to practical considerations tl1a11 tc anything express or implied in the wording of Article 130. Clearly, all forest and mineral resources in the Empire have some connection with the State Domain . As is here argued, they are, wl1en owned by the State, a part of the private sector of the Statt Domain and can be transferred from this private domain to private persons. Wlen the State has in the past made transfers of property .from its own domain, it has transferred la11d - that is, the soil as distinct from the sub-soil. It has tr1nsferred a bundle of rights eq1tivalent to ownership of those resources wl1ich a1e legally within the soil, including on the theories here presented, forests and qu,rries a11d excluding all minerals other than quarries since quarries are instead deemed to be part of the sub-soil. Put another way, transfers of land i11 the past wol[ld almost certainly l1ave bee11 inte11ded_ to include forests, and there are sufficien� legal and practical grou11ds for assuming that they also inclu.ded quarries, but not other mi11erals.47 However, now that the economic 111d conservation require1nents of t he �tate are becoming better known and· recogn.zed, it is most u11likely tl1at State gra11rs of land will henceforth include forest rigl.ts.4 8 Accordingly, it n1ay be expect ed tllat exploitatio� of _ forest? a�d mi11erals other tl1an qua1·ries, as well as. though f�r 0th �� reasons, wildlife, will 1n the future be conducted ra tl1er under conc essio ns . ip ersb 1 wi o of licenses from the Government than 011 tl1e basis of any strict gra11t n tba ts righ �ights.. !'he_ argumen.ts here offered are rather i11 jt1stification of existing 1n ant1c1pat1on of further such grants. 2. note at 46. Sec' e g Art 6 Pn ·vate . ve . abo p•roeIamation, 1965, c1·t-A Fores ts Consenat1on · ' . · , t,U 47· See note 23 · above and acc ompanying · ext. . state res 48· See Art. � 8t te ecla d h \Yhic Forest 2, ' Proclam note � ation, [965 cited above at f orests to be inalien _ able.

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0WNERS I-IlP OF NATURAL RESOURCES

roblems of conservatio11 in Et?iopia are not susceptible sent p pr� elcss, rtll Neve either b1 leg�l r11les and _a.nalys1s or by any �ther ready t1011 resol � diate of jmnJe ucat1on of the po ?ulat1on e the as �o the gener�l importance r � f� need The _ _ es. devic conservat1)n forest of 1s vital 1f conservation standards 1ques tech11 uiar artic �n d pdLiced by Jaw are to be impleme11ted soon or, indeed, at all. If such standards . intro . . . 1 greater 11ee 1 d f o n1uc Government be will expropriation of pri•rrnored there . are Io . . ex p se to the d t ec u11 ssar) an gre� . � at ts s fore � nation and with _ �� . _ vate ly 0w11ed 1n tl1e nation s fas: d1m1n1sl11ng forest resources. losses inter1m le iderab cons of significance 1trticle tl1e 130 with respect to forests, a of mation sun1 In reasonable view n1igl1t i11corporate tl1e following pri11ciples: (I) Forests (ts 11atL1ral reso1,rces are l1;storic(tlly a11cl legally disti11ct fro,11 ,zat11ral reso1,rces existi11_r; i,z tl1e s11b-soil. Tlzeir ownership is not ordi11, {trily clisti11g11is/1a!Jle fro11i tl1 e ow11ers/1i11 of si,rface and land rights ., . ,,oe11erc1llv (2) Forests 01v11ecl 11)1 t/1 e State, excli1d:11g t/1ose 011 la11ds owned by the Croiv11 a11d tlzerefcJre ir1alienc1ble b)' i:irtue of Article 19(b) of the Revised Co11stit11tio11, are alier1able to pri1Jate persons 011 co11ditions set by the Stc1te. (3) Forests, 1vl 1ether fJri11ately or p11bl1el)1 Ol-v11ed, 1rz11st be ad1r1inistered in

c1ccorcla11ce ivirlz s11clz co11ditio11s as tl1e State 111ay see fit to in1pose by lctlv or co11cessio11 for p1.1rposes of co11servcltio11,, sr,bject, lzowever, in tl1e cczse of private forests to co11stit11tio11al restrictio11s c1gc1i1 1st taki11g p1·operty l·vithoi,t di,e process of law.

Wile/life

The authority of the State in respect of wildlife - as in respect of n1inerals is virtually co.mplete. Almost \Vith.out excepjon, practice throughout the world here supports the broadest possible exercise of State power, regardless of ownership. \Vherever n1011archy has prevailed the ownership and, conseque11tly, the control of \vildlife has te11ded to lodge in the King, and in the process of political evolution lo succeed lo tl1e State. Tl1L1s, for exa1nple: While originally tl1e ownersl1ip of wild ga111e in England was regarded as vested in the Ki11g as a personal pre�ogative, in the course of ti1ne it became established that tl1e title of the Crown was only in trust for the benefit of the English people.49

Tran slated into more modern terms this would mean that the State owns all wildl_ife and must protect a11d conserve it on behalf of the people. Such is, in fact, the li_teral purpo rt of of Article 130, and there is no both (d) and paragraphs (a) practical reason to interpret these provisions so as to derogate from attend.ant State power and respon sibility. On the other hand, the .n1atter �heore�cal knotty so e raise does ownership � of _ problems. Thes e problems stem from the anc:ent Ieg?l pr1nc1ple that things with-

49· Arnerica• J n 1trisprude11

ce, vol. 24, "Game and G:1me Laws," sec. 3, p. 374.

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ntil 1·educed to possessi u · ip ersh ow11 to ect subj not are ' ster' ''ma o n hiB t . 50 :�Jple has, apparently, been ado�te� in Eth iop ian law. Thus, if a Wild �: aI d. t 11e no ow 1, 1t r te as m 110 s . ha or is not possess�d a11d ( ( ) � 1 ct)· s apl �ra P of · ied rds p�l �o h glis �n to_ wild life .ar � � e bar _ � � e ·Th ; . . _ e 11 to take 1s its e 1c1pl pr11 ts. limi With respect virtu·ally meaning· less, · 1f .. th.ts · t o 1110 s er, ca1 t t ma I ro ca 1ng ogr 1av s,. · 11y be said to h paragraph · (a), wild an1maI ·1 _ a ve te in. Sta the ma i1 Do ce our Sim ilarly, \Vith res been ''vested'' ·as a natural. res pect 'Id �nlllla.1 c�no1 b e '' pro?erL. 1 110L,. h eId a11d possessed in th to paragraph (d), a w1,, e r, ?1ast 1t 110 ot g 1 cann hav11 be property; hence, _ naD_le of any pe�son . s1_nce, � it cannot be vested m the State Domain This latter con11ndr11m cai1 be resolved b w�at, t? �y�n� but_ a pr�p�rty lawye,� �1ust. se�n1 mer� verbal _sl�ight of hand, t� wit: w1ldl1�e 1s n_ot, _in �act, property, s1�ce 111 1ts natt1ral_ s_tate 1t 1s not susceptible o.f ownership.. W1ldl1 fe 1s, ·to use the te�m1_nology of tl1e C1v1l Code, rather a ''mov. able'� or ''corporeal chattel'' witho_ut i m�ster. _Conse�11ently, parairaph (d) does not really purport to vest ownership cf wild animals 1n the State Domain. As to paragliaph (a), there is no clear .resoluti>n except tl1at th_e p�ragraph was not meant ,to· apply to wildlife in the first _pla�e. This, as l1as already been shown, is in fact 51 possibility. real a very . . . Thus, it is at least plausible to argue that wilcllife in Ethiopia is altogether without ownership until reduced to po!session. The effects of this argume11t are of :no real s'ignificance since the State, a:;ting under paragrapl1 (c), presumably has full power to restrict hunting or capturing of game in a11y way it deems appropriate fo.r purposes of conservation and can itself_ capture and assume possession and ownership of game or permit other� to do _s o on appropriate conditions as it chooses.52 The only clistinctio11 might 1:e that sucl1 restrictions require authorisation by law and do not stem from an O\vncr's rigl1t to control his property._ It follows, then, that with the exception of sucl1 wild.life as may be reserved t.o the ED?peror personally under any _cf His traditional prerogatives, all wildlife in �thiopia· is res nullius and may not iil its w,ild. state· actually be owned by the State or �y anyone at all but is· nonetheless subject to tl1e la.\VS which the State may impose to restrict its capture or killing o .r otherwise to protect it. .. . Once again, past practice in Ethiopia supports tl1e broad interpretation. Wh_en, during the r��gn of Emperor Menelik JI, the diminution of Ethiopian wildlife f�rst beca.me i:ecognized as a major problem it was decreed that all ''big gan1e hunting should cease, a.nd ·that all you big-gam! hunters who before this we11t do\\'ll to tlie dese� and are, hunting should retu1n to yo11r provi 1 1ces.''53 This decre e �as certainly _ not then enfor �eable and th� roblem 1 1f h it sou �bt to resol:e re��n ;f ': � � : , ucuo Th� __policy expressed 1n this and s 1n11ar prol11b 1 hons against the destr -

• •

50. See Civ. C., A.rts. 1140, 1151 and 1152 �1., �ee text. accompanying note 26 above. of . ·o]ators 57- · .Penal C., �rts. 646(1), 804 and 805(c) already provide for pt1nishm ept of �reparati0_n . �.. and their such co�d1t1ons, and it only remains f.)r them to be forn1aIJy esta�Iishe of detailed wildlife regulations is in progress at the time of th.ts wnting _ n can promu: lgaitio be anticipated in tl1e near future. . observer, .i op ia 53· Decree of 1913; see R. Pankhurst ''Willlife and Forests i11 Ethiopia," Etlz ' vol. 7 (19q4); PP-. 241, 248. · •

' I,

)

(

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0WNERSl-llP OF NATlJRAL RESOURCES

conomic of e life "a�ue'' �il�l is_ �till _va:lid.54 � fact it.should her ot a11cl s · hant . _ _ 11ce as the Ethiopia _ ''elep _ s1gn1 f1ca n er tot1r1st trade continues to exp·and: grea t even elop dev rea �on wh� l1t1nti_ng ·need be absolutely prohibited. apparent no is e ther ht111 1ng, part1cul:1.r of ly �mot1nt of p: edatory and �oxious animals, 1 certai1 � a e ed d. In _ 1 e11 for ge11eral conservation purposes and to maintain e\ a11d touris m for ul usef _ . the s�ec1es. Bu� �o one has � right to hu�t unless the a1non g nce l b er prop �� :: 1t. !he M1n1st co11ced ry e to of Agriculture has �ade. general will1ng is . State 55 but l1t1nt1ng licenses, of grant even these do not give·an· absolute the rovision for �o\ver to enter a.n� pr �:111ises and t o sl1oot any ·animal authorized to be taken. t, c e 1 ff 11 e , se u a ec b so . is This . . . t11 e owner of prenlises whereon game is located has a qualified propert)r interest i11 such ?an1e; without his per1nission no 9t�er person can go upon those premises and take the game. The owner has the lrnqualified right to control and protect the game on his lands, subject ·· 56 to sucl1 regulations as may be made b! the state.

Agajn, 110\vever, this does not mean tl1at tl� owner of land has any right to kill or capture wildlife wl1icl1 happens to be present on that land. He can simply prevent people fro.m comi11g onto his property, for virtually any reason under the Ia\.v of trespass, and he can, therefore, certainly preve11t persons from coming on in order to hunt. 57 Furthern1ore, vvl1ere a11y person is auth0rized to hunt or capture animals both by the State and by any relevant landowner l1e does not t]iereby acquire property rigl1ts i11 any a11in1al. Rather, game is rigl1tf1 .1lly reduced to 1he possession of tl1e hunter, title thereto is 11ot subject to private owner5}1ip except insofar as the people of the state declare it to be so.58 .•• u11 til

... Private owners]1ip 1nay be so qualified that a person may kill game for his ow11 llSe, bl1t l1e 1nay be de11ied the right to transport it or sell it to a.not11er. But irrespective of game laws which may be enacted, an individ.ual l1as no property i11 gan1e u:itil it has been subjected to his . control.59 This must also be the case wl1ere tie State grants concessions to exploit certain game a11in1als or fish co1n111ercially, unless, of course, the terms of the concession say otherwise. In such co11cessic11s the State may impose whatever

54· Sec, e.g., Game Proclama tion, 1944 Proc. Na 61, Neg. Gaz., year 3, No. 9, and subse quen t legislative proposals of and relating to the Wildlife Commission as well as the draft regulations referred to at note 52. 55· Art. 3, Game Proclamation, 1944, cited above at 11ote 54. 56· Am�ric c!'' lurispr 1rde11ce, place cited above at 11ote 47, p. 375. Ethiopian law on _this subJe ct 1s, perl1a ps: less broad; see, e.g., Penal :., Art. 805(b); but cf. the draft regulations referred to a t note 52. ee �87. S C iv. C., Arts. 1207, 1216-19, 205 3; and e th er Etl1iopian sources cited at note 54. · .11,nerica11 J11r1sp · r1rde p. 375• 49, 11ote 11ce, at a bove place cited 59 . Ibid., . PP, 375-76.

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1o�der the �xclusive right the n 1po fer con ay ! n d an s ose cho it � ns restrictio to hUnt tely or w1tl11n a particular area. ol11 abs her e.1t ls, n1a ani n tai cer e tur cap or While alternative practices and ?Olicies to those l1ere stated do prev . 1 . n so11 why re tl1ese apparent no is a � i there ought states, :� to n certa be appli in . Ethiopia. The old English rul� tl1at tl�e owner·. of !and has the exclusive right hunt on bis property and that 1f ga_me,tl1ereon 1s �1l!�d by a_ tresp�sser it re mai!� the property of the landowner 1s, ,s already 1r1d.1cated, 1ncons1stent with th e Civil Code.60 In sum�ation_ of . tl1e significa11ce of � ticle _ 1�0 with respect to game, a reasonable view might incorporate the following pr1nc1ples: Wildlife within t}ze E,n,/Jire is res ni,lliilJ' ancl rzot a subject of o1-v,iership. 1 -iing or capt l11·irzg of wildlife on sttch princi lzi,1 (2) Tlze State ,11a}' c1i,tlio1·ize ples and condi�ions as it n_1,a y by law estc1blisl1, _arzcl owne,·ship of lvildlife niay be acqi-11red by p,·zvati JJe1·sons only 11i accordance 1i:ith si,ch principles and co,iditions. (1)

(3)

011,•n,e,·ship of a l-vilcl arzi111al cc1rz not /;e acqi£i1·ed by prii ate perso,1s z,111.less and i111til tl1e c111i1nal lzdS' beeri ,·edLLced to poss·ession in accordance »1ith t/1e lali/. 1

C011clusion It should now be obvious that the cautionary note sounded at the outset of this essay has a range and volume somewl1at greater than any scholarly self consciousness of the writer might justify. Common sense general conclusions can be d.rawn and l1ave been suggested, b11t tl1e analyses leading to these conclusions are many, and few are altogether sitisfactory. The full ''intended'' meaning of Article 130 may never be truly knov.n. Indeed, tl1ere are adequate grounds for doubti.ng that there was a generally acepted understanding of its words as it \Vas enacted and proclaimed. But in Ethiopia, as elsewhere, there is surely need for distinction between constitutional and statutory methods of interpretation. Thus, since ''it is a Constitution that we a1e expounding," we are bo11nd not only to probe for intentions but also to retain a certain pragmatism and flexibility of out look.

60. S� note 50 above a nd accompanying '.ext.

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r,11"1 = ,1--atJt?':.f lJl/"�(lC: -Ott·= ,n:J,OIJ. flJ��- --1·c>c1J�'l°1''J t1 h. 'iars: A I O"L •fb,01r1: ''iiir;1..-1·ro• = �l)}.'' = fOIJJlA I n;,111,n t,f..•' itr,:,.. Y1, J 1"{!'"1t'r9'1'} : i'1Ii•£J1, /;\: 1\,1\ = f U'J;',(11',...: m:J�oi: --rc!'d//r9° .r, ''f,11°1= fr •"'l t?1:y..: (1..)-.'': /»Ir: }{} u:�(Jl}c : OD�"h.9°: ',(lC:: f,J•CJl/t?'�:!:"}: {IIJ'j J; _ : /,f a.:,.: t\�.�... , : O(RJ!!°: ffl"/.fta...,,,. : ',OJ•:: l1t\, i\ :i:: ?°ti,y,y. ,,7,: il,f\ I tu : it�.:.'i. '} : r:l·? °VC1"1' : f!..��·r, : fP'lri : oo1&.{l : f',?.1 o,", : ',lD• :: 0

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fn.:,,f-A·f: ih°l: {ID?.'Jt.:,.: nm:Pi\�OJ•: il.!{f.: 17'" : fl/'� : g : iiAiqn:Y, J

;J--rOD'PA I t.('1�,,� : ii'A�9° : i : ,\:1·9° : tt1r:,-. :: OD ?ttfbrf:: : foit;rt 011m- = h�Cf...' : OIJ.til,f;C : ;JC = nm,.l·fl{lC : �m, :: n..-t-hfl'r : J-1,f,: 01\:fm•: -nilt..:i- = t\.�OD1nc�:,- = f{ID� th...,: = ,,11:i:e: = nc.e... = {IIJfPt.;J··t = fr.r�:,..1: flJlf,f•'J° : '¼i\"'l?>'f : (7fl.fl.SJ>'f) : J!,OJil'il\.-- :: f0Dft"J1,,f: : 11'?:e,:,,. :· "11\k �T : {lOD9°tJt,."},;' : i""'/6 : ltff;J:e._".�-:f• : l\f, : ,J-. 'I'�/,\ :: OD�;,,(i::,. =-1til'11r1 = (l'1"1· = 00�,1,lj::,• = :J·· :i•OD'P&\ i n�1-Lu9"° = 1rta.1: = hh. :,-f'kf : f'f''i"1· : 9°C9°C : n.'1ll,t,J::,• : ;JC : {lOf),f•'lOC : ill\ : oot,1· : J?,t1:J- = f,.t-u:ii.. = c;:far == f�tl.tJ = fll·/\. ..1: = ooftm'i=:,-.. = ,t-n:J·:J•_e I ht�:c�·= ;r1ncri:,, = f+F.at.(le& ¾ iri:1--t = r.. (j: = 0,1;,1• = ,\al•�cn:1· = 1.� = 1\1.�' : 0= r ? ,1· ih11: = i\1f..." -i-�c = tt., = ''--:,--r•kf f,f·'lt\ = {IIJ?.J,<t: -i 11.v -1 = n(Jl): i\f, : � OJ- :: fi-r"1,"'lt9° t {l"f f!»to(l1: : h. �11 : /o.,e.1 : f,f•J.'.l.{l : �',h•�: O"'i +°tf : (b:,, : f.1�A :: fl"'lt..{lf = ODh.'i' f,fcfltf·•: K·t1i.c:::f,( :-O,l1°1 : 4-h•A.,f; = t\"Jl'./.om m· = ltf> �"}�-- : f:,•9°tJC;I.. : '¼f.�:,-: oy{l,f·UfC.f: f,lf 'I·: Jf'}f...• � 0''1/�fi.�: oon..�.. : {11) ODm.:,- : qov irJ•:i· f 1'.�:1,u1 = �,,.. f+fltr : �•tft.c;;.� = ,t-u�,F..· wi"""-,t-q> A :, I\. .,... • •' \:.t'tP. 1•.• 111 = ' .. 9'� c=�: ll'h:,--"'1:,-. = ,\11..oin<J? = CPJ�--1.., = hci-t1•/,\•tro· = 'l''i = 1"� f.l.l''iIA :: : • ' f',?. .J-,fit\lD lOD : lf'jl\.-.. ? 4'', : ( l]�� l\f., : fit• : f1,fr1... : aJ•Tf:.}: :-,11.. : f, ;J-OD)...,, : 'i:C F,.";f- : 11 di.., I ..,.,..tJ C..,. : 11,..,. : 11,.,. : (IP�dilj:.,,. : .,..,,...,61, .;� >tI.I' �'i = h1-tv--9° = h1�1 p..:,1 = n,1i"l = uP 1''c11>:,. = i,, .�.:J ·1 ·00• • �l� ; = 1' ' fc)l'i!-r : rot,.:,• : ,f•tlf/ t?':.f : fl•,f, <.. : !l! -'4--' "l ll,i\ := &\ {/IJ'P P'i - (J) 90 : hC lD' : ,, ..·•'' t\., \,..,ft. lt = Tc-1r'' = ll"tA = oomi,f = f+(lfoaro, = m·'P1 = ��.: :·• f,tJll'JO : _ C • (D ,Pl : fe&tiJ.b : 1t1c : frh°l : ,Pl\:,•"} : OnlP/C'1 : ,1··hhft � : :, l¥°

-576 -

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-- : P : : il . f\:, 1 n,m�n1C : :l"..'??- 1 = fl0l/hw11: = . ·! (){l&.t\"l : 1.tL9° tt.v..c;.. :, iii; e..: f{llJl{/lJC. : 'hc._9:�•.: ��• :: •f •':"t9l:f-.; f&,f..A"}: �Jf_. Tf.\ rJ� 9": : -h (JJ(l . f ° -- : tP h ,l il '? .. n . W• T : 0"101/c�:w, : O'h1'? /\,"lf /f:l. .. 1 � r 11 l V'/.1 fl � : " P p l = /\.UD'?t\?t" f•r� z:tJJ..c; (1..ifC9" n& .1.1-ti.e.'i·ro• ?·t t1•-� = '11.r:.. 1 '1c ;.:,•1: :J'l\"1 ..: {lovA4>9": ''01tD ..filiJ,'' : 0"'/tl;,;::,.. : f\f,, : '1:fm·:: .e,·r, : a>c.tp'}: u fA;l, ¾ r'1T�·: 9 c.9"C.: flait.PJ!..C.•1• : U·l\·: {';11°1: .':1 1\:I.: Of'il..l:: !f:' }sl: . (1.,, tD• 1 l\ e . : ?'°f : l1 r : li1 ., " : ..lD :: ,l\lD' }\1 -�i· : 'h "} f,0?.,l--l.1°00• : 'l61.1'C : 'LIL : (D•{l'1': l\O'JaJ1' : ffl·l•/\·t·'PA ::

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2 I {l(O ;J--?J:}:. ::

(u) 110,A;toi = UD"J'1F :1- = frt1"J : ?;,ft•l::1" : {1(11 ;)• ::

t}"}

iz•lin.P.r.Ili = r�A:�:a-1 = ��·}h = fui..rro,q =

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(LP) h•l -- '10?-;I• : OD'}°IF;J•:i, : fh�tlJ : lt..l't'f 01. : P(JIL(L\'-1 : ilt\ : t,..11'iOlJ.. ., f°1/ ,11 flt-.'P. : � -� : .,.�...l!',fl lbqo1" ·} qt\9° : t1 «I>� : ,71 °l � - '¼ t\9°: it 4'r,:: hil rl•�f..C ¾ f(J.ro� : UDi,fl:l·'i'= lbno7f..'}°: ?..',l1-C::1": fCPJ.m;t,(J.«: f(J.�P..":f•: (l(ll;J--:: (l) hJ-1... )·r ·kf : h'i:..l''i: : 'i:c..(• : '1:1 .. : �;;: : f..rflA � : '?�fltD4fl h. : ll"lA: f;,,cri I CL·r: DD?o.,111..:; J..:fmc: �: p/,\�9°: fl(ll:J' :: • CL·l.. = an?.,7,<i!:J'7f1 = i'tv-1 : 'lfln:r = v--),:J" = t\lDF-k•I: = 09"19° = q_e. �.;,, : flcl! : i'1�lf'}'J° nc(t : 11'11,,fl : •fl'i1� l h.•1"f"A·f1 : {lf.. 9°,{l : fUl/.f'J f " l O A } : 9°UC : fUIJ irf"fl,e.9°: oPLP/.:,• fl ¾ n:t, r Tt:°lt.O? -.. l ' tl'/hti,kf: : ":f : 1 ·

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(}OD;1--:,.. = n'1Crl:1°'i : {l�Ch.01\9° : f : fu h-A,t·?Jf 1 .rit+r'i- = f'IO'i-,r 1 1to-1 = f'1Ai--il:1,. = h '1!1-il = �tii'co.,1: = t,ll,t·'"lt. , .. : "1'1 : :,..I ,1:,-. : t,fl,f--"'I t : Tc.' 'Tl!' tc,(lC : 'P.ll.f9° : :,-- 'Pf,'J.1dJ.'i 1 !"1C'lC(!; to(lC : eic&.'ifC : fOJ•tq;t, : 1U l/:Y:t.. : lf',OJ.. : :,,jfi.rl: 1 : 1°.-n�lrf''PA :: U•ll 1:9° = ill\ = :,,ruc:i- = itn"l'P = P, = pca,;r:.1-1 1 hi\ = t,il ..t--"'lt91-:f = i'tcf' ! • 11Jmt--l·1'i' : itt\lbt\�-:fr = 'l1e9f : i',il"f Yf;t :1 ro,1c; = 9°nt.:fm- 1 : }'tt14: l\m•'i IA = hitil+ff,f·:J!:fro·9° = T<l!i'--:P1 nr&- = l\f , i'tlD't\'if'PA hlltJJ�il : �'l.iiCo.,t i Tc>ta( C : 0tc·f:} : f..Ol/.li'1 : lli'iilC : 4''.�· = .ru A : ?011'1,f,.OJ•'iA ! 01""--fl'1;r:f IJ•9 ° : 1. 1·t : flD1it\'1 : on:,,tiliJ» : ,l,'1/ : O,fil,f'9°'i- : (l'}.-{l•·l-- 'PA : itt\ : fl'7if/L{l,r : t,1e7l".. : ftn1]!l\� : ov:P66J»: ,ntJJ = 1t(l,t-tin·fl9U = 1-tJJ'?c = itf.'C'l'PA == 1-.-n��;r:,:l&' 1 "�:, = n"'IOl:r:J-1:9°: lbt\ : .-Ott« : t.� ,f·'iA :: OG:c� = Y..·c)!::,.. • fCPJ..ti��ro4 i t\lt�t:11 = f;,,°I = :,--jft,f..-:f. = 1tll+"'lt. = Ooo�mC'i : il1C : W'6fb : f ir;l•"} : itit+UJJ t9'i'4 : Wf;f,l : Oon:J!A : hC�:J' : f'72.omro• : f ltf,l\C : ti'}Or'} : h(l�?.0?.. : t1oiz..,1: : t\.cf>0010C'i : f'J:'}(LA ii1f = �'l.ii'co.,t = JL1 = flf).:,... = -'l1 = i�cn1 = G:cY.--Y'I ° = f\,nt,. = 'i''i�' 1 1o1l�,f,ro•'iA ::

n&.:,.. : t\� :

filC.-J:9°: fat'?: ti,.h•At: J:.) i JL 1: •Jb.: oo•(lt1J4- � flht.A: "t•lt Tl»' : �it:r I Oh&.A9°: f1,�t'1 : ?,l,tJJ : :,,ruc,1· : (L-f--'f: Ol/"l{lC = {ID{/D P' lT1 = +ilti,.: OU'/�I.'? i fh. 'lf..1: ,"h."J : 1til1·"'1 t9'-:f: il·Ofl'l = f{ltnlD·: hfl»f•ff:,• : OP'� : itt\"? OJct\0:,.. : Hf.o : /lOD',,:J1C : /\-flfj·• : 4''i1• : -Jo,{1� . •tlD•'iA ::

+¥.."'I° = f�. n.. 1t,A. ,.,. f1t�tt·1 = 'P'i:,. = "fC:''Jt--9 ° = '11\t. = f�n�t' f r n�1 : °1hfufu : fT/L,f:ilA : ltf,'r(l : ··1·c�tonC'i : t\.4'0D10C : ft �, : -rretooc :(9°h ht\,UJJ'J = 10-0'1,1.. m..1 = .,,1c :, ntt<j:t.. �= �ml\' , ct· (°110C) : fTt\tli: it!f!9°: 1-tJJ'?C: 1t�C1'PA :: flt�hthc:,- : mn�';f : °1"�(1( : 'l A�l.'1 : flf).:,• : P.ti,f·C : th,16 : l f : · : , '? C : ht\ : ,A. f.' (litOJcc>;r tJJ 7iT C l, '?l \ il1 1f'i' : fl 1 i . h : n1taitti : 1'.�1:,-. : 'J'?tJJC : it�l.'1- :: fh�tlt I '¼ll9" : h.,,� : 1'1.'lllt+.T' I lit\ : ''h.�t:I' : ih"l f [J'}{I -O'i' = P", = P'C'¼'T'' ' nTc = me ' 'D<ll'I' = ilhP'C = -,,,:;:,.. = f'l''i":t· ' ":,et' h� l1 :: hnil+"'ltsi>:Y-. ¾ bmtJJ : F� : tp>f,t-"f--:f t bmn�l-'i: hh1�

�t�

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m h , lD , t ' i" i • flJ f • l lJ · ! il : ' t '(!':: .. f l J' OIJ. l-t'i" hn�t:J> : foum, : 1l: : : , f · {l ., 'A {l , 1;l": f11.IJ : 1·'llb: --11· 14-r•ir}c: tr',ro• : ., nc :: htl.U•: ;J o-, : C n (l)4 f r1 1 ¾ : 1 ��t:I' : '¼/\9° : itcf'<j; : f"1°1 : OlJ �nc : f'}OD -1• : 1•f)}b m"1: 04,h•Airl; e.l.1:: : 11. ·1 I f:£ l f,1,"l , 1·0'/t9'1· =Ol/ �n�: ncn�- ,,rtt.- T f;,,"1 ,r11?'1·•c; 1"1'11�-:f = : 'r'l!-f..:J-: � f��if..r : ' �-(l/b9° i mn.�,, : fOl/ •f,} IJ9° 1 ' A 1 �tL h Y,... : '? ,, 1 L } , 'j": fp"}70: /o"F•fl/t. .tJ : f;f11: OD"}d"JF;f- },.,e_"' O lf'"':J"' 'J!: {llJfl, ' (J ' D } J :,:• : ,l1 l: �(14-:: 0 ..,l: l l irf·O'/ t9 ' 1,•,nc = h�-,-�,n- = 'f�'?t-� f;,,°l -- 1.. f, ," 4,1: � (lC.1 n1-LtJ : '11\:1· -� nr,.toc:(1 ...1:m•: 'Tt,11.v,1:,-: £JDt',:,, 1 ''f,'h'?: ,,.or, .,y.. : Ol/'fP: :J".,{',.( : ( .. :, '' .. f: 001.P O :: J/t. f 1· ,, nn?l : r : ,. , 1· 1 l f�c�· : GlJ.t t,?1 : I (1,J;C: ft,f·t11t?':J: : 1'?"1C: 1',,,e.. l1, 1 ,1,nr1t?>:1:�: fh�·f·'i:m.: �C�·: a,:,... : • 'f/.,Jl,�'}1· ·I J;ti rl··(:: n·,l,lC: f){l;.J:/t... n:,.. : n-1�y:1,c: : 001,\h: ":f-(to:,- : i',l}�:: -- ' " u-fl:1- f,l,°l :,.; 1 ev y,{l, '}OD;J "i:,0, 1 f,1,°l £ -} /n,:1 ,1, · t1fll/ :, .. : : , n,:r: cf,'f1•:· ,enf.\'11 h�c;,y,:,,1 : 1',°l�;tf.\ :: ft'12.0DflJOJc: qoo:,. ¾ f�Y-,--qo: , 10. 1t ?':l::1 •; : f''..l."l"f.. fl ,.1· : f,l1'? : : '1'1 : h1Y.9°'ih11C : J\"l'lPJoo 01,�•CJ"ll: "hff.. 1: (l..1t�·9"; (lflJ9°: "fl f·f•: fcf �''I°: c;i\V•lf,1,"l: •ttJI/t9'1' f'PJ..1·1,,n,} =''f,l1"1 = :1..ffL,)· /\.OtJhnc 1,1.e.?"1n.�, I (JD•j\,:•J'•{l4.: 111\.� :: ''1\'i'}irf--ro�: �"-�·'': Oirl•'l/t.lD· ·• n,f;/b•o·1r1 : n.'11t.l7: n'lnt.ro· ¾ n,11 1f•tl : ,t,m,v,��:,-1 : '1(11"}'<0• : T�"lt-9°9° : --t·°1t9'1· : ..,.. ti:i •&..'PA :: 1,� 1 ,tu = f,e°l'l� �c.� n, .. )•= hcnl!':f.. =f·t- t1;,�::1"" n1i.\1•f.\• flf.\.,{',.l.'l 1: htJI/'r]/, �1 · ¾ n,71 '? : rf'0'1t?':f.. : "11 n(: : ,,.. q'lt �:,. : (').,lJ''} I f;J--,J, ,<;....1· I ,71;J'C : tiChC'i : f,11 °1 : F'I : FC'-};f·"} : OOl/'1f:i• : ,1,11n·1 : ,n'? : f\Ol/il rf•tJI/C: } OJ• ::

:,-/a,:,.

·r/a,:,.:

= :, ;a,.. =

= ,,,,_,, =

0?1 : {JD:,• : 'i(: C · f ir h°til r,f ro• : .,{',.. m(') .. «',: l ' : �' • 11. : : lltlU 'l''I'fto : f lD ir 1 i'tll--I.."1t, OD"Jt\66J, �m• 11c, fi'tfiUDt- rOIJ;J-- =:,.. 0 ;J--: -r9°tJC:,.. =T�°lt-9° 1 f : I ,n" : lilt. n1ux11 '-}. '}'1. fl11ilovt,.: �,fl&.ft.1.� :,.. 'I'c;,), : flOf/ y__..1.� : m..e. : ii. i l01rt-- •tI\h u, h,n:,, I\.e 1', :I' n" = -- P' �- hh� 1 & .. ii. : A .1'1 (1:,: 9°h:, �c.e.-: "J : I 'i p t ;,,1 hm:Pf\.,e : '} , : 1P'-- : �c f:= Tt,11.v.1:,..r; nii.ilODt--=nt, ... 1. �- f�cY-.· arz.�rilrf:C u : f01 ;r : :i•9°UC- : TC' : -1r , /t. 'J P't- i' l lh.f�� : ;JC : 1°1°1C : �:ao cl1· :: -- = ° :, DCP, A /t.O = ru .. '?t-'l° ouht.:,.. = i',ll& .."-� � avir�•1'i =f--1--;FI\TlD·19 -/ / OD OOI OT :J fm<} : 1ft ?ta A 1 :: , 1-- fl,non1 = h--1·mff1n:,.. = n�.t\ i n1�c = i·1 ,,,,. If1!2i = '¼. 'J°. "" l'?1 :, = .. t.f.. ei 11'?: Lm· tt1..1 r 'n flao no 1 & Jt .. uc:, :1-ro = Cit/;J-r " : •1 f = . � ,. , } °l f OD : } •' TlD fl\ : �:, o .. <1J "f;, 1 tr • : t,°1 : <pc; : '¼l\°1 � n; : F : C fTc>"lt.o f f : , l : : · ij; �= t " : l\,e, {ll�' &(lJi 1 C-i\ ( C Ol I\UJ:J b : \, : /» ).. 1Pt-.ir1,7r-:, { t- / : il : � lC _ = 1\0 :J"= =C11J.to,1;c =Ft-.=l'l.�n ,i: { f avaric =c,;l\·):,..1-c; =f1,1°11L11'1 ,,1� CY.' . )

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= (\OIJl/ 1 : � 0Dtf10· : H1 · ltTCD'1 : U•/\4 = 01 (�"lt-OO• = f l : " lfif fk:f!o,c t2 fOO }"Jf'-':,• : lP6-•T7f-1• : \tfoop&jtf' : fi,;J·•,f"OJ< : t._,,cJ>f:..• : :,:OJ< • ·1'9"0c-f: : h(l q:,. , n,. I\ = h1 >',. (l'f : .,•m (l � ,, oor1,f , n.1.::;-..;�T;:1: 0'1.hti:t\OI«'} = 11'1f 1l , hf..oom1 f t I f t\OD"7 : � 't-'11 '} : ,f•"7t r : t.f-$ . }i� . _ r } O O noo(lm-1- ' 4-h-A•f:lD• ' '11 If f '} l <f>I\A ' D" 'J f.': : h1-'l.f1'11 O"'IPrC : CDC ¾ {llJ-c/lrJ'�(D" : '19°1:, . { nt,ilOD&c :-- ,:}tl,(111"« : U}cfl'r • 1 -= ftT'J:J·· :, rv(:,1· = , ,�°lt--r = uoh"--":� = 0(..' : e '1>1 = ....,uv'i:Z. ri ..-...-r-ir' . '¼. .... = 0- -Jc,._- . . �l\1->:,.. : fl\:rro·« : (l?J1'11 = '1\4,P.OIJ'I! : :�f,fl = P''1.fL = f..�..��(t....-f: : fOI/; : ,):; uc:i• : {t,l• : :,,.--,l,t..:i·• = ft·1-- : hfi.� = 0Dr;s>11-1,.n : m :rl\·fm•"} : fcnz,·iAx- . "'lil:J CD,t.f : :J·•,f•OD :: (D·•(lt-i::9° : 011J9° : t,'P..�Oil : lf'J : t,1·r�ro• :: h�A ; I\OOlODC t n...nil : @ : rf-"7t,9'-:{- : ,,rftt..A1·-'1A : 11/\, : ro{l�'} : �nc :: t nm:i»/\/\: i i = ,1,atJt,?11� = (l.{IIJ111n· ¾ l\{llJ�e_ODtf = ftJ<j:t\ = 1.u = �t: ..,.1 '11-w· : � nc . !!!£2% : q. '/°. Yl•l 00l :: 11.ou-y_oo1,1(D< I :t·9°tJCi: : n#�P.C : f;t-9°tJCT : {JIJ1t.:,, : f,l·(lma1� : :1·• 9°tJC:}• : fro1-:e:A : ,11"l'i : fh.TV"kf: fm'}j!t\'i: : on:,,6li], : ',OC :: nu..n,·1...-'i:(I}• : f;f"9°tJc:,, : OD"}&.:t,: frf•(lm(IJ<: :t..9°UCT : f it.:t-f-A·f : fro,j!t\'i: : oo:,,66/, : ,1,'? : P''I : P-'cq:,.. : �nc � 1''11LU : ,:}•S,UUC,f-� : ooj!oot,f : r..-t-om•O-l- : 9°ti1f;l.. t i't·fi•f�?Jf. : fou ,,. 1°1P'T : IP�,f,--?f� : ,f_,try t,9'1-- : ,,.,�::fw, : flD }j!A : th"l'i : rm1;e:ti�: : OD:t,liliJ. = ,n"I = F'I = rcq:,.. = n14'il = ht\.,n1. = .,(n, rof. = ,0rq:;: = q. 'J°. ootJ;11.t1· = ,01-1•- = o?':f. = t\ODilhl9° = ,urq:T: = t}-. 9°. iiJ;.i;h�A : flUPj!oi;c: ii:PY., : h1f.lJ'', : h01m:,,: mfi��;fl{\ tt..u = '11c 1- h19° = hi't:1''1 = ;,1-r'i = hh<i=,f•'i: = �c� = (1..-J: T�t1�1:,-- ;,c = ,f-',;J1Ch-:: i',-'tll : tili!A : fooj! OD�1 : nilL/\"L.,:,. : ,e,0Dlf1'1.ft· : h°t'l l\W• : °19°:,.. : ;JC : tt{l..-f--ffT : oum(I� : 01•19° : ttil:i:;Jt : 'lfiC :: fOD'}"l ,,.,:,.. = IP�.,,--'1>7f-. = fAlf�- = o?>:fsro = oo0'1c = "h.11..uit.A1-- = :rfi 1 Cj:ft'Jo ;:J--:far9° : o0cti:,.. : h1P.t\0•1-- : i-1'11f•Oh· :: fooJ!oot.,,rro• : £}{11!,r : ,rlil/t ?>:f = n"fili�9':f. = ,1104\:fi; = foo1"1r:r = IP�,,t·?fl- = '104- ,,,c 1·} { a,°l 1 = "'I m:,, : fl\. fl :i!(De : f001"Ir:,.. : IP t, ,,,..7r:f.. : ,,fl :1: = l)f, lf� : t\,l\ lD' = ,n1f•09° : ',(I)< it-'t(}•7 : nli!A : oonL:,-. : rf•t.1\1.. •,:,-. : n.. e..1,n: l\11'/0J:P 1 �t\'Jo:,-.-- : fl\:f(Dc = (15Jl1, = n+�"7'f = :!Jf,l\. = rl\{I , = �tii"co.t = flT'J :J ... = :,-/0,:i• 7' ;,1 &.:,.. = n.,1.. = 0000111.u = h11.02.l-tt.· = fOJJ.1/A?; = "'lil:J-01tf = 1t. 11..1'i n:, 1t· l0ifc: :r1-on .{j:l\'JnT : fl\:fro• : n4! : (19 >:"'f- : 11,, ....,·f. , tt>;.ll : h�A = "� 1 -r = nL:i = : +F. 1 Q.f1il = h�z:-m = (19':l-.. = h1�·oon1c1· = ttllt..t\� �nc • "fi•f :t-:fw- : ht : 01\f, : rif! ,,;n,,��:,5 : f0lA = 1Pt•i·'lf1· ,. O•f"(J;L"'it9"� h(lq:,-C : 0?.I\ : t.:J'Y: : l\"'1"11:i-- : flA:Flr : fOD"}'11P' T : IP&-i·'lf:.* : � , :, = n1n- 1,�..il = n<t:A = /lUPY.ooc'i • n ..,.Q;t1PJt9° = ttil,t·Ol/t9'°:i· " = me : 11"1':e--l- , +f..t.1 :1 m;'f,l\f, 1 t.711 = <"h 'l- : f-f•hll?- : h.f I h"'l'I-}'..:, 'l9°f. : t.rtlilbA'i : fi--hO� : n"Y.. : 11--1>£ : t,;J--ro:P :- fhtj:,·l•�llJ• = t;:C n.:,- = T�tr�1:,.. , tt1 � 'lP..:t:, = :,-.rtJc.,y.:f = ll°" ii.,,."'Ic .= ,,..lltPJ (IP" =' 1 1 1 . _>.l!. hlt 00.&- 1 hf.t.(lh- , mJ;.tJ : Of.9"11 : f,f•lf;JlOJ< ."'./¾- ;f� �'} ; 0-r9°tJC:'f· : '17..til-rC : ,n"}� 1 0 .n1f 11 : (L,J.• = {IIJ�tn£i:-1· • tD {l'I' ,,1 -- '1:J--&,

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f{ID:�{llJt.e : q{/D:,• : hij:A : ,f·II'/t 9l:-)":. : U ·fl ..l"� : q{/D:1. : 1- fl,l"a>• : . = fa, r,111 = un' }'?P':,.. 1·9°uc:,-- = flj:1 .. ,1. = •fl,IL C = ,11'? r'l = rcq:,.. 0 : A ;,, 1 : f,OT/t.l\-4 ;: fl,1,9°{\, : me : 1fJrijfJ ........... ,. ....... : q. <}°. 9°ilhC : a>l.4'T : i't°l:,;

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1'� H. tJ : rf•"'It9171: � f OD lll·•:l•: h i'1.,:1--f--A· f i ,n :PI\f, : '? •I..y::;� : � ffi• .. • P e . n111f'lf=J: = 111-1,n = �rt-,f' A 1 hJt.<;.il = i'1fl'l :: w• 61J' = h°1..0Dm.: 1•9o = .. f>i11 1 0 lf'lf:f. = OD'iCf = 11:,. = l\••l'•OI/ t = �--r. = f l.. hiT'JU£J = ;,/)e,.e..n'I°

=�

fh-Olf'lf� : ·l'tll/t9':J!1,"} = fi-� : t,�:.\"} : llllJ9° = fD?.,.rti�J11 : �tii'C(Li:(l)' : fon�;:J-· : h�A : Of..�o·c(l•.-f;�- : Jri i°l'ln. : &--�: {1,f.1,: "1°11"" 1·: nn1'1°: nfl;l;Jt: }lJJ-i:: le.}'\Sf(l•'fV';:t:: ·l•Ulft9l"f: !ro. : (l,,:f.'f : l\ 00 tlt-f:,- : ht\.hTt h : f l\:t hhq,u-,:fm· : (lft,e : }m•:: l

!"-tD•'/° ::

}m• •: f°th ID•Yc;

f ,tJ : o-t;� : {\,f·tll/t9':f. : m<;t; : 'l°t--A : 0D'PG: : hoDlf�9° : 01\.e ·l fT 9°uc:i,: �l.�:fa}•'} = 1-fq, = .r.r..c1'PA == y,u = u-t;,J: = ou:J--1.'J° = i',ttn:1... 9°h1 .r,t:9° = f ,11"1 = :1-rvc:,-.. = f•nr1· = (lq;1--:,.. = TA:,, = 1'1,n = lli\oim.e:P ; �(l)c :: {l,f-tJ,btll/t9° : ,.,... 01/t9'=J: : }.Cit : Ot-ti:f,1J• : 1\'} .. � .. ht,.h�'i' : 1t1-'t"I '1ft : filt..A;JIA :: f ,11°1 : :,•9°tJC-r : oo:�:<fDC i fl'l°Y : P't,.:;: ODfl"'Jt-1·: "11 {\�... : ., (De :i flit ili--"11 t?':.1·... : n°'1'rtt.,: ,-. ¾ ,fO'It9':,:: t.. ti:rm.., : OllJ9° : fl •1-:,,:1?«1· : t9'"f : UD'fl,f : lt·1· : {\lP/ il1·r:,. : {lODll}ll}C : l\f, : 'irm• ::

'"°'

,l'OIJt?':I:: ''fc11"1: rf·CP/t9'-:f: a,:,-..,,: /lO?V't,.:I.: Ot"f1'1: ,· f· 'Ul/&?1:1:: tTl/"'lflC : f°i.1·�Y.C 1 t -P'1 : flt -il: faoc�:,.. : T�"l&- 9° : hll;J:�--l''PA ::

''fth'? : +CPJt9'1' : n,:1-- i'' Ofh<t:fl-- : lrll :}• : Afl.1' -:- nm:,,""lD· : ' : Ap."f: f,f,Jf/A:;: oum','i:: foo1ft;�: (l;J-'i: fou;t-mO .f: ti�A: f,�l'PA:: flTbtl»OI/ &9° � f cf>� [P : f thOJ : rf--0,t9'"ft; : f ;h0J : '1"'01t9'9:f'- : (lf1.ftiD4 : f°i.1'i"f,.fl:,, : (l;r : f,lf'iA :: �tiiC(Ltro• = /\ltrf: : OT/V'tf: J!,,lf'} : Ji'},,e;.· : oo&,•1-- : O'l ':f:A :: f"11 : , fl flt A, f lD : C : : ?J 01/ ,� 0 Vi(D«,. "'IV't--T 'i: "1 ti�>;.. i �I\&..', :r : f ,nOJ : .-, ..''1 t :f.. "'I "'l n� 9° -1 th11i(Ir:'} = n OIJ V't--:,-. , 1 � -il = >i n 'l = ro•il 'r = t1oiz..1·rm, = f;,,1 = ° ' : : 'h'i 1 : ht\.l\ (l;J--9 : }\Ci;:.r : f,&..A;JA :: 'hC°lm� : '11tf19° l ' °vt'' ,'h1f lt : 0..G� 1 '¼l\°'l:.f,1 : h"l•fl : 1,1Y.lllJ.f..CilA 1 : ,f-fl4-: "h'i�C;,i\1 :: l

f,U : T�°lt•'I° : f'¼Cit_..C'',:,-- : 'f(�'1t•· 'I° : ',ro, :: fH.U : q,e.�1· : ��:l 1,.9° ..= n�tilC(L rf:(D.c: OJcit'r : {\OD1_(flJt.C': ·z.. ft : 0111qoh?,, : ',�•::. fm°l: :�? t9'9:f'} : �l\1n:,-. : h1P/Clt•1' : 1\,1\ ! �tJ : .�ait-9° f rf•0'1t91T'i : i'tf'l·f oy� jJJ"f: flOD,f-l}flC : },1 f.o:,.. : 1',�..C1(JJc: f�to·c,,.,.,:roc:"} : f(L,l·: O'J�ll : , l'11C.· 'h1�0'l.filw"l�- = fil .t-9°&-A .. = •fln"2 = 1\t;�'·}n;J�t\..} == 1 f �n , .. '' . ;-,.� ' . ° ' . :,.. .... ' 'J ,,,... : ,l { 1 ()}t? 9° F.c: O : 4· +il I : ''f 1 f"'I 1 Ooom,l?f : I,\ :i•/n.T : foo'f_oot,y : T(JJ</Af: : '¼,\"'/ J {l(t,/A�:,-', : ��&, : �'JC, fltfflt }�t\t}. : �(J)c :: f,U : r f-"J(}C : t\lDY.t..:1, : f cf1"J : 1"'117 &9'1"'9° : f"1,-"7�(1 C '/t. : ' {I : O 1 J.f\'LlD Ji il :: • t\U � : f ltj.. } r ,fi� h /,\ C,:J f-{ T'J> : Cl : /t� : t._ D t,.1J-.r �; : +1'1+ : W•T�: h"IO- : h1'�°tY.Cil9°: +il4- = hf.C,:J/\�:: - 582 -

. l

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\'OD,f· : i',t\:JJ : i',.f(t• : hf/;\ : ,-,,f· : II(:'} : -n�.h : i',n� : i',�f· : ..r�cf,•O : :}f.,f\ : "1Cf'I° : i',,y. : \'·,l, "} {l : "� ,;.f., : f OD,f. : J-1 (\ :J> : ,P, 7 Ji,/;\ : tit\tp : J't,f. : 1·0l : ,1,f,m,1• : i',l;J f, : rou-f- : J-,t\:J' : 1.;J--u-, : .V.? °m : i',·f· : "}CCP/ : :J--J?..(l ::

�0

1.0Dl'I!: f"10T/7i : cJ ,'} : (f"'l:J": rf•IP/t?':l..,_) ::

nn·c : J't,f. = 1,nt. = J?:9' 01., = 1

(

.it·f· : °hf.:,,. : .e,9•>(1, : J't ..y. htlf, 1-0l 0T1c"rr ,., ,y. ti ,,, n r� t, f" = t,·Y· : mc,J! ri"&.� : i',..-y.. '¼ n. r· 1"; --

11•-f• : OD'}•J7i : lD(:�,�U :

= = =

,, .y. = (l, e1. = &.l\. er n·f· = tl•/,\,= = ,e.OlJ�'"'' 11·Y· : '1 n..e : f.\O,f.\ : h�tt, : ,, .y. : '1 ;J : t, .. 1 ;l" : 11·f· : 1,(11. : �;JV 0

fl,)1°} : f tbt\. lb/,\.

a..

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lt. : {l(l� :

me : IU!�lU : '}.

'/°.

f{PJ.ODl,.cl! : {JOD•t\• : ,J>'} : ,rf,CP/t?J1".. ::

n.e.. :

i't,f. : h Ii '"I : fUD.-f• : il.t\� : m,.v.r, : 9°,hlrf: : it ..y.. : '¼t\{JD• : .e...'I 4,ro' : fao ..f, : i't t\:1' : '¼t\01/ fO• : tt ll 1- OJc : i,' .-f• : I I {JD', : ti(l';� : --l·: P'l\fb: : O U• : i'tf, tfC /\:11 , ' f ao,f:i i 't,y.. : 111f i',{) t;.m, .. : lD "1 'i : . . : /;\ I\ OD .. :J' f, : i' t f y 01/ it' ".f• : ll)'}UD : {lf', : i',,y.. : 'r O• {1lJ /;\ "l : I\ OT/ : h."f" : t;.. (Lf,\ : t;tJ'l/° : h."f": �P',11 : 'lf,IJ ::

- 583 -

Oih'? : fJ'ht\ : h,IA : fl. : >',."It : lln� :

roe

=. �flt.=E: q : 9u : i',°l�;,,.w.. • ... 0 fIP/.uo.G ii! : fool\-- : 4,1 : ,1.. 1 tfPi."· ::

I-

t,.f· :

(IP,f-: 1,l\_4, ' l\"'I : 1,rf-"7 : hT I l\4>tD• : .,OCY� : lt,f: i'l!,I· : '1--hl\"'ICf'J° : Jt,f-: (LAA�.: "'11f...li=� : ii,Y.. : +il4-: hf'i : h"f: +il4-fu : tJJ,'J°C : lt-f-- : i-1:1\ : 1--+"'I : ou,f·: itl\:t, : ;t-m �, : ;rf,. o : n,Y. : Jtl\lP/11: : 1-0G.P'l\(b : i\,Y.. = '¼l\"'lf u-- : o.e� = life : nl\9°i'l11: : +ll�fo : lt,f: 1t9°dt�f·1 : f.ootti : i\�f: tiif-OC : 1· &.t. : ·lt-f-- : itOt. : f...1-- : lt-f· : i\..ltfil : ;}f,l\ : IP/C,,f9° :

11... f(i.. : }.. ?°} ,,.l: : h"f· : �Y-a'J : 4-n.A : tt-f· : h OF.. : hli!ib : i't,,y. : ,,e,Aa7 : ;} f., l\,.. : }i,f.. = r-tt� = 1-nt.. = i1.ai 1·Li',·Ot1i.c = oo,,r.. = itn.•9;, = r•fL<i: = .r11w• : it,,y... = r-,111 o. = u,n,t--J»" fL : 0-Z.ll"'l"C : )!CJ!- : lJ1Pi'P t : c Jt»f.. : 111{. : oocq : i't·f-- : 1 .f:il : i'lOl/)•}bt\ : h.��Ot/Cf9n: Jri,f.. : 1...f,:9'1 : '11'1 : 011 ,,y. : 1t : 'L ;r:fro.. : 1't Cl Cl : ift\::t� : 1,7:fm• : ;}f,/b : }1"f-. : 'l,;J•· U•' } : OD ?""t..tf : 1,»f : '?COi/ : P'l\(b : l,Cltf ::

O,'h'?: >t'f/r>IP/:

l\:P

no�= me= ii:iriJu= 4.9°. .,...,.. ,... .... r---

- 584 ·-

1i'1'1'1•m·-= = fOIJ.oot..<f! = ,1·0tJt?'1•:: I

l'tT : oo{l�1 : n9°fl:f(Dc : '11· : lti'l-i, : Ocf't\ : h,,,.. : OD ilt;!'} : ti--,. :r : fOD,f,, : till:P = J-,(ltf. = ,:,-ell = (JlJC f'l° = hT : OD"}-tiC : 1-0i: : O?Cf'J° : f OD�f-- : l,t\:P : itflt. : ?ofi'i'" : 1,.,,y. : 00-1\,f: : A'1'1 : n"f : 1,·flCY9° : ?t;>f� : it+ : 9°'i(b : f-1-- : 01/.illl : "7th : '1.C�.t»f·T : llT : IPJ!,� : LJ!,i>t : ti ,,y.. : tihIL fl.. : t,,r I\ ll :,! m• : i\,,Y.. : i'lJ!,4' : n'i'L : l,-:Y• : itnt\.ft· : fbi• : D'/Cf'J° : i\,f- : (lf,4' = f ➔·if = roe:,, = fuu..y.. : nl\.4> : hC:�(J}t : �ci : fq'J°{l/.\ : l1VJfo : 0'/1.. �tj:£!1tJ: >t,r. : /too«lbA = roc:P�u = oY.ll+c = tit.ti.A = titi,cn = tt-r-- = t-ii>tfo = '1.F-1° , hT : Oct>/\ : i-h-i--f.. : it-:f• : ht.l\� : 071.,f'Jl'/A : 0?C,f'l°: / 'l h ' ,) f '11'- : -OCY� : l>fUl\. : 1. f C1.il : fif9°0/.\: mtAf,: t 'PC : Jri,f-. : -OCY� : tiL"l--W' : 7f7i't.?1' : HlD"� · : }t,,Y.� : i\.f-: Til4-V.. : l>fU/b : fif/\:J> = Y,A(lll = wtAY.(1"11f·r = h T : +il-i--f '¼flao- : i'-t ,,,y.. : f...'I°(I, : fl cf' l\ = fOD,f• : hll,:P : +ra·oo = {lf� : = .--' �-a,�u : ooq?f' n-f· : .c. ° 0? •f-ll- : llT : ,f--pon : 1/P'l\{L : 'l. (l rf-)! 'P h. o 9 : C: fif9°0A : ;t-9 "� : ;!,F,l\. : 1·0ClbA : ti..y. : )!(I,'i! : ;}f,fl, : f C fq9°{1A : :J-fo : W/Af. : 1.f·C1.il : 'f' .. :}f,fl.D'/ : : 1,fl�f i'l·il i\»f· -- = hT : W11:°711lJ• : '1.if- : 1,f.:J fl-�- : Jt,f-.:��=wA,_�_tilbA: f?f9°0A : 1,;J·o•"t : 04'" : .. : : . i'i,,Y· �1,� : aJAf. : IP/Cf'J° : it f-: d/C IPJ.e : lflDt\1fOD.,,,. I iill:J>: �-,"J7i: i-ti/\: "7Cf'I°: h"f: Kf.+ : ·f•ti /l, :: 0 :

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: (1() 0'/: °l J', �fl ); . (l;h : 0

•

(f1,1'?l\;ll�: ti�A) ::

c /l, 'P : : (t {JO• : :J> (\ /\ (11.1,f• : n n t, : of\11'/1'1' ,,,f· c ,,,f· : '(i'l',f>'i' : IL'i : t,,f· : flt\:1:m. : tto0f:h ·1 : 11•f• : ,flC·'J'J• •. hc,-olo,, •• ,,,f· : ,1·(1° 1 : 1·fllP-'ftfb : J'-i•f• : ;J•OD� : Tl\fo : r · Y..11 f : r ;J it· , : r r it·Y.. : ;J•J!.(l : O, f"oY £:f' : it·f· = ;J·�r, fl;>l\ ,,,f· :3,elb "9°1\n �J!,l\ ODt\ti:1·= ,rl\:J' : 1•,-.v1, : mt\Y-.. : �. ilit,A : 1 • L.11 1 : '}l\ {10 • : ,f 11 : ,,,f: 1,l\'I° : O'I .�' : 7/l,'? Il.t,,fl,l1,C : ,,,f· : 11 l.h! : OD .f.'U1 : avc7i : t,·Y· : 11 ilc;,p : ;J·.�(l :

: hft:J> : h(lt;,. : ;}f, lb : 1", ..y.. : t,'11" : OJ"} f:'l°i'1"11U• : cf: rt = 1hC'l°f {l : hn.e. : t, ..y.. : },7f,f: : ,,..() ay : au,y. : '1ft:J> : h1'01� : W&\f.. : '19°.l\h ·: J-,,f· : h(l,f-- : 0?h. : ,., ..y.. hn.e.. = �f'b� = nc,f..fto<PL�{l '1,y.. : h·'l° ti : tt;J· : rro,y. h l\:1' ti•>1 u•1 = n.t--,1: = OD,f. : J-,l\.9' : CD'} f.'}?,�t-,<D• : (1(\(Dc : O JJ,f. t,l\:J> = .e..nn �1,ttt,,y. : 1,;r:fm· : ,,,.9'°:i•CT?. : J-1 ,f. : 01COI/ : OD'} °If�1: : 'l?°Ot\ : '?COI/ : ff(D•� : UJJ ..y. : 1,l\:J' : 'rl\U•1 : :i--cto ::

:z•c&o : &,; r/ fl AO"f. : {l i?° : t,·Y· : {JD\1' }1 : i'1"J 'i�C : ,, ..y. : {JDP11 : .. �il;J·: · ,,,f· : OD}1'}1 : roAf.. : (11JC,,<!'J0 UDH?11C: ODf,\t}�f.•q>: Wt\f.. = P't\a.: il·f· : 00� tri;J· : ;}•O•l' : ·1�0Cl1,t\ : ., t1· · (JD•ll·i;J· ntu•, : Y it ·f · : {JTJ• l\ 7,;J-- : i'\ 11. ft· : t,•f· : UD•{r1,:J" : <DA.� : 'l..\).C1.() : if(\ft' : (JD•')_ :1. : 1,1--� .et\ {t" : '1· �,(l/,\ : (loo•'} : '}q> � : , i't·f· : O•Af1J1 : of,..{:" : 11·f· : o· 'P V-a : ftfTl/ : i,·f·: 1f'P1"1tfroc : <DA� : f"lfli'Jll : •n·,·e. : liDDA{l ,1 &..t"' = · 11.Y· : Ollm : fllY...�" : Wf,Jf� : 0/.\ r- : 11ll : uv{lcJ>A : i,.y. : Ot\:1::ro. : 111· 00" : !1 ·Y· : Of\,e : on,17f : l\·f• : fiC� : 0,:Jfo :

<ro,y. : i',ft.4' : Of� : ' lA:J: : t,,y.. : ,OCY)· : hOY. : h ftfl),t\ : •OCY)· : lD&\Y-..f rt : i1"9"(1t\ : ,f•{)',.,fn : OD"}"J'i1" : q(l,.<J, : 1• (11,fo : 1•fll.f {) : i',,f... : ,f•l.tt : 1O'IP : i,ft:J> : ,f·nrt,I" : •OCY" } : OJf,\f.f (I«{) : i',,f• : ,f•OJ&\J.'.. : '1- 0lY : ,,,f, : ;:1" 9°"'" : 1·Ol. : OD1:11 : J-,,y.. : ;:1--_e.(l : i',tiIr''? : 7i9°0A : ;J--Y.(l : 1t1'?� : Jt,t'• : ;J"f..(l : I1 I>/ fo : OfJ,f.. : i',l\:J., : ;rf..( l : 10DP, : fi,f• : ;1,fo : 1' &..&,. : i'1 ..y. 11--'-'i. = � a>·•m ,,,f· 1-1,.,.,, = 1-,nn = 7{1\,,4' : '}{\OD• : "]IflD" : lt,f• : '}j\OD• : OD{\(l : },·f· : °ii\OT/f l}• : fl t\� : i',,y,. = q l\.01J ru• = fl;, " = · : : · l. 1 tilb f °ii\ ''?f U· : ,fl , l : , 1

,,�

:, (

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- 585 -

:,-. I\ : .. A , : o f 11'/ ll 'l : i't,y. +'1 : -i:r : nil q:,:ro.. : it"I : tt..Y.. : 1t {ID lo = llIP/ : tt.·f· : 1'01/ � = {ID«l\ T = (IP.Y· : 1t ll:J' : 1t (I4, : oo "11 7r· : tt,f : hil� : LD(l1 : Jri,f: i't(l1f..m·: ttoo�'7i''P: it.Y· : itflfl : �&, : '1.lf_e.= q_e,t = (IP,,_.= ttl\:f' =1,Tl\'l:ra14 = it·f: itf t\, ar : hf� : = tou-1 = •t-ooA(l = n.Y-. : hfl1: : f..9°(1:. : n.Y· : tS:l\ : HlDA� : it·f: hflf.. : ;)orfli" : OI/C!'J° : if9°flA : hflf.. : flcf>t\ : oo,f- : 1tl\:P : h�tt, : 01\f, : OD ..,-. : "fl,:}> : h ,, .. 01/ : .e. (l:r .:

n.Y.. : n

n�t..

n.Y..

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(n-til = nn111 n�A <>) := h.Y-. : t\01/ : f..14'« : 1b/h0 oocf: : i',llt;... (D« : ,..,.. : OD�f : h7t:..-1: : n.f- : ooh 1'1 : nll�ar : nT : OD•ft-1,;J-" : f,oo�. : n.Y· : 'J°ll;J'i : :rl�� : oo'J° 1s, = .,, ufl f:-1'1A = .. ,,nl cil..y,.� = it.Y.. = {lftotp>"} : ��TlD• : f00.Y. : ht\:P : (l,rfl{l(l, : hOF-.. 1 n.f- : (lq>(l(D< : h1far : n.f-=ilt\7i =F..il:J-- = 1-t.f- : 01\f, : "L;r,r"} : n.,_f : 114>/l : OJt\.f..f·dt1ll : n..,.= il4-fc. : 0If "fl U : it,f : ..�;-.-OP : 11\'?A : n.f : i""'1 : '11ll : m_e.m:1... : ti,f-.. : ..,..tc� : Of} : fifll:J> = :rr�:,-= 1v n tt = n,,y.. : ;1,f..(l : norfli"ar : hT : ;J--f..l) : Wt\.f..b.�1 : n.Y.=��il=nltc:q.e,�= i\i- : :}f,fl : P'l\{b : �h1uil : :

r�

n"f·='?.et\=P"l\(t, = n•·111u =

fif 9°11A : :}J!,i\,. : �il;J-- : ii.�r--=,:,J!,tt,=mt\Y.. = "'c; hT : 1';Jrl: : U1l-t°7(:.er I f if9°0A : nOI/ l : itf..lr : n-1'.. : h(lti.. : 1--i1 : J-,.y... : it(lti, : n t1fl : ,11!!,m•l- = it -:Y.. : 1t (l4, : hffl : };_..f,=nil4,0J4=J!,:1-,1ln n1" = nll ,1 = ·1•n1. , ,,.,"t). i't·f· : it 7i"llo : :}�/b : Ji..f, = 1tnn= t,m·"l:1:� ° -Ji..,y.. = i',-nc:Y9 = .. n.�f· : i',"Ol:Y9° : ..�"t.-.'1 : e ,-1 ...y..= i',.,} ,';.. :qft¥", n1t,, , -- : <1 h·Y· : i'tft\ : (Dt\f..tl,'PC,. :, h ..y. : h(>ll,(l}• : f.{l:J· : r = -= n1. = 1 1\ ""�,, 'f' tt·f..= n:--1: = 11 ..f· �/\m· t1 (/IJ = 1\1 n = 0 , • ,:1 .. ( (JJ 1 : n-1'' : t•} lPi ,,'I' : ' " • f 7i9°0A : hll'"" : (l1 n�f· : ,., ...,,.=ti,.,., u-1 = t, n n =

-586 -

= , n"' = = =

' I

Jt•·f-. : f.ilf\� : '}(\OD• : lt,/ho J.1.'lt!\. cJ: : 1P, : Jt,f. : 'P"U•i : ;}!!-,ft, : Jt,f . : 'P"�; : i',fl4-w• : i',,y, = x-1, F-cnu = i',·f -- : &.t\ c:f' : .e...90 (l, : it·f· = ;1,f.,m:, ..

= ��

= n.en_e.·} =

Oih"1: LJ'C-i:&.h,..1·:nn�: we: If!f.Y:1;: '}. 'l° · i',"l�+m•:f,f•ODlcf::,f .. CJl/t9'"f:: (it-�.ll =

itn q .,. nct:A = <<fl>>)

,1,f· : I\ cry : ..l•l&. : ft,/h ft•Ao·1.�· : :�f,tt, : rov,f• : ,,ft.c.P : ft·An'1, e; : 11--"£ : f7f9°l1A : {JlJl\(t : (JD:,$/t : f ov,f· : h ft.<J1 uv t\ (t : qt\ 00• : " ,l1 �: : {JJJ,I, {JJJ.f: : (L t.� : : [JJJ fl�1 : (111 'I° : n•f : OD fl �J} : ,,-1•&.t• : tt,f.. : ODC;J : (I� : fOV•f· : hft.� : {JD7"l7f : IIOJ•,, eo : r {JD.y.. ,, l\ :i, {ID; "l P J•1: = n;J 1fro • = ,,,f· : {ID• fl.1'1,;J-- : ],·};�" : � ;,.-f• : o OD,fq : i'1·f· : 01/'l° : mAf!...CPJC,.f'J° : r,,Pc = t,tt:J' = '1°1f!.,A= ,i'P u,0,,.1: ,,.y. qu n.ti ,:J t = n·Y· : of,1.. : n:{,f : 0 ,f : , ,, P f-9 ° : ;), e{l. 1J. lllhf.\ : > t ,,.y..=PV-'l° 1 f 11·Y· : ,.,., U fl.· : 'l°,11 l:l: : /\.. y. : 6... t, (De : OD 7f q' : ,,.y. Oc/·'ll : f!...9'1(l, : ,,.y. : ·flC��- : t, 'l,e : t,'lLJ.' t•'} ,,,y. : ·l·il?,..fo : J¾.. flt\ : ,,.y. ,1·1.1� : 1•fll.dlJficl1t\ : rl•'(. .OD : 0.lltm• : ;,.y.: ·l·hti1" : ·OC�i : ,,<:·'10· : hoftolA: ,f·ht\OI/Cf'J°: i',fif.,t,: !1·f·: .., . h"' : 1•fl l. : OD fl"';,A : l1•f· : ..,...l� • fl f I I • U ., t,•f · : ,.,..1�� : m"}P,��7i :

n�r•

·n

it,.

= l nn =

, ,,,r, = •nc,f? =

,,�r• :

Jr". 1l

UI/{JO•� :

run,f• : i',il:J' : :rf : ,:k9°":f(1Jc : ,t-il ,.. ?f9° A = :J··Y.. J', rf-. : :J·.e.n : i',nn : h..y. : ;J--F.(t : OJAf..1'f:1 : 6/J'li[}• : it!!-, h,y.. : ;J--f.. !'l° It : i',l\:J' : ;J--.e.(t : &.f,i\ : it+:;}f.,ft=A�A=U�+��;{l: itwf, : ;},, el\ : P'"(I, : hfl4-(D• :: /',,f, : ;}f.t\ : f (t«{l : h'f· :;)f,tt, : i',1°c.·�c : ft,/hu i'1U ODY.• : it '1'/. )• : ,,,.. f· : 1',t\., : OJ"}-� : f 7f9°0A : it(111 l : ; ,:J• ·l: : i'1 .. f· : 1tll1/l : f..°l&a : it,f, : 1'lt-;J(Dc : OJA.Yu : J',,f· : i',(tti" : lli'1 °'1't-l'bt\ : t,,f· : J-,n4- : Y--fl:r i', ..y.. : 1',fl 1t-OJ• : OIJfl'l : i',,y.. : it {l t,..m« : 1 ·fl lai'i. fO· fl : •I· °1 i', ..y.. it i'1 •f" i', ll1 A'P J-1 ,f· : i',Y.•OTJ(t• : itfllfl : 0 o• l9°fl&, = 1 s: i', = ' :J ll r7i ll"f" : it.r.:OTJ(I, : 11PIP = c: J f"a 1 °1 1 : 'P 7i' 'l : ro,,et,� : l}f,t J-,, f• : i',;J : ., ,,?"ii : i',..y. : l1 1i',1; : hOf.. : ,,,f· : hflf, : ,f'•l&.. : UD,:f" : i'1 l\:J1 : l1'J..f\ : i',f,:1U : ,1 �f· : i1'1lJ•"} : lDC�''llJ : ,, ..y.. : OJl,\,.e.:t·1'-'l}b : 1,fll0ttih,A : J-1,f-- : (DI,\,.�.�.(-- �' : lDt\f..,, 01 lJ:,• :

- 587 -

OD•":,, :

= =

n n· :

nn = n n n = ;,,

J-tn

-n"f • tJJ1f:OO- : 11lloP.,l! ��1 : J\-f : tv1f:tv(t1 : 0"1t\ : 1\•f- : 0,(\ ll'Jf(Jc.: tt;., : hT : '¼/lf11JfV• : a>1,:no- : ti.f-- : '¼t\9°fl11-.. : 1'C1'f : ti,f-c : i)�-0 : f..il:J· : 1'1'-- : ff11J', : 11C?1 : oof\ h· : hT : f,IAIP/ : 04't\ :

t,-f., : .. �:t-«llh: ,J·i\·oo :

i',vf• � �--ml'I'' eit : 1•n lei, r; : t,,y... � �tl � (l•1l1J : tt•r-- = 11\0�1 : n. fl,f, : ,,, rf-. : 11 ,m:,:i : 1··:f' : hi'· : 1·fllP'I\ (b : �il:J• : h�f... = 1.. 1;J·u•"t = •ncy�. = h·f- = <;:;J·� m:p = �001,.ffl•il ::

OihctJ = rPC-ttttbT = O(l1=roc: 1.ilf2t = �- '/°.

it� ;,,... 01• = f°7..00l4: = ,,-.01/tsP:f ::

(Jt/"'006') :: ti¾ : V-0-1· : O'/Cf'J° : f..'lil : Jt,;f : th°tf: : il0'/1 : tt.1:til : Jt,f : thcfL 1 : �&.th : h,f : ODtit00,_.. : th1h.A. : h 1'-- : ODtitODf: : �(: : 4?lllP/ I\ : Jt,f : oot1,001:: ht\. : Jt.f: ODtltOOf-': J\.-0/r'l9°: ,111,:Jl\f,: hT : ODdtOD1: : h.1:t {l. : (}-ODC : 1',f- : oohu11 : nlll(t- : hT : aoho11 : Y..ll;r : hT I DD'PhlA : OD1}t.tJ,f: I tt..r- = (ltr-'1°1 = timilf. = ttif : (lf,1:: hfl.�.. : h.f : il&\ih : n:t1. : n,,,.. : pf.'I° : ,, ihY..'1° : n.Y· : Ff.'/° : tj:fltlt : K•f·1 : n·f- : Of� : )tiltj:tlt : n-f-: Of� : 11llPl\fL : tt+ : -OCY� : lJtj:fl"7Cf'I° : h ";f- : +ll"T : H"titi'hA I it+: +ll4': �f-1 : 1'.f(l•:

i',1'· : ,,,ti }'b : 1,filhCil·fil : J-,,f I rf•"'fij\ : tJ,1tl}..e, : h...Y-- : 1'Cii.,,<' : 1•fllPl\ft : J-,,r.. : ht..mCq:1 : }!C� : t,,f.. : i',..lt.f,fll : U-0·1· : P'l\ti: t,.f : hft.'1• : OD,f,oof.•: l¼IL: n".f-. : 11 ,11tif, : h ft�,h : lt-:f• : tiv-10•1 : f.l(l : f7t9'1{1A : h11l : h"(l : llC¼ : ° 11..e,t\.. tt..f = tJ.-oe9 = = Ji,f. = wt\P,.. = nci = Y'l°ti = nt\:J> = ml:J-- = +nt\ = 11tlPl'i1· = i't.-fr : 'h1tf?'l1J1. : i't�noo : f'l°il : ht\:P : f-"11 it : ,f•ht\f{l : h.Y.. : 111l°tith,IA : •OP't•1· = n...Y• : 1-0lP'/tiL : 1l1(llt, : n ..f-.: 11llh°l tLn•O,lt.C: ..,.(l4.: oi1101A: h·f· : 1"f1l:'f•11>f lh : 01/,\f-.P'l\fb : 1t,f.. : Ktl, f : f-,111ft : n•f· 1 i;, r.. 1 fl _e,�.

=�

> ,.•

• � -:f ·1 01/t? 'I!: OIJ avl · m· Oih"I: {1Crf:'6h.:,.: {1(11:roc: ........ °l� . iJiJ 79\i '¼ f • : ,f : 'J° : n : ......-... ,._

o+ : tltl1tJJ1,1 : HCitf-tlt1il :r h•f- : ODtht, : 'J°fl"Jt; : 1t1.. = 'I°t1too,: = �c = 1tv ooY: = h-1'-- : lH� : ,f--fl4'� : n-f- : Ch(l9° : 111�"7Cf9° : h-f- : 1.'1Atl1 : ti�c : iiif•

: h�� : �;,tt :

n.f-- = ,1ci = rof,\f...tPJ."lh,A =

1t,r. = or� = 1.v-c1. lt = : 'li ;i � " 'J : -"'I l.4 f ·i C •l · t,-f , : A ti, ti . O'J 0l 1 : ,A h '1 tt-f : ,f-(ltl..OIJ. = n .. ,1 ,, = A 1, h. 0 ti 'i· ,f n...f. = il it...y.. : >'f--ht\ : 1,.t.. -A : = nci = t,-f = ,,·'n/\'/f,11'/'r:,• - 588 -

v, 1 (JD� )1 = 1..nl h•. = = . A h·f· : l'h�fu9° : O•· Cl!'11-0Ch./.\ : m J!.. 1 i't·f· : �il : Jt ..f : h.�� : -OC?� : : ;J· ;i7i � h •f· : = Jt..f . : h·fllh·O : h �-n : t,ll'f' l. ncP/ : h·f· °I &-11011·· : t,Cn.,, <' : ,h 'lo fl : t,..y. : h�/\ : h.�� : : 1 m· f ' n -�· : : n 1't h·f, : h'i:/\ : y,hf, : : h·f· -. : u: i't·f· : Jt•OCY9 f.. fl;J J' ,..y.. : lltU•1 : t,\11\ : t,·f·: 1,-0C.Y'l'' : ' l U /\�, 1 I 1.1, : i't,f, : fOl/'1 : +hi\ : OD• Q : : 9° i\ .(l f • : f ,oo ii 1"} : ch.en : ·1.r·c1.ii : h 11 : l,P, ·Y· n•f• -°: i',.. f· · : f-,f11il : ;}f,(l : I\.y. : hf-9 qu,l1 OD ..� : '11\ u : i't--f· : f..Oltf, : ,J·ilti, : ;J11C : h·f· : q9°,e. ,nc.Y'} °= 1•flt.r'i\fl. i'-t·f· '}'J°f-.OIJ(:.<'9 9"°fl.•1-1 J',..y. : ;l•C1.f : +ilti,P i\(I, : it ·f· : �a>·fl il : lbe_ t,· f· �tll t,:nt�•lvn , . A:: 1

= = = = = ,,•• = n,1,1 = (JD1dJF'-�l- = fl(l� = me = 1:iif.9.:f: = q = ?'' = flc.-1:&,n,-r = h"l�ii, 1·w• , 1

r,f•UOl.<h: ·1· 0'1t9J':-}� : (fJ,'}r'lll.11,;:: ti�A) ::

f·l·hn'r : t, ·f·: (lf ,tt : ;J·J?.. (1 : r•l·11f1{. : i't·Y·: O f', : h-O,c;.: : :J•J.1.(l : h,,<'t\,0}• : f·l·hn�- : n·f· ,, y. ;) e..9"° tt. f·l·hn?, J!, I\..

= .. =

f,J·hO?-: r,1·nn?- = \'''l"hll?- : f·l·h0?- :

h·f·: t,1\9°',U : n",,e : ,til i'hc0'l.ro 1111.e� = 1,·f·: nn.e..: il·ti : i',,f : 'Pi\U•' } : �J!,ft, :

0,111 : OD'}dJp:,.. : (l(l� : me : 01i:ir'/:i: : q : '}'

-..-• .-.- ,--.,;

·kh.;l. : i', 1��rrl•m-- : (lC•l-----0

f•f"ODl.<I! : ,1·0'1t9l",f : (fJ-,0'/C'i: : h�A) ::

{'•l·hn�..: 11-f, : 'l'r't.. : ..�t,'1 : f,,-l•hO?-= 1t,f.. : hflt.. : '11\ U : f ..,.hn�, i',•f· ,fif.' A:J>f... c t, u oo f.' f,l•h(l?,: i't·f-: i',-Of.'Ahli.11:,f,<m f.': f�hn?-=tt�=tt'l+=1trn c-0 c = f,f•hfi�: h"f·: it!/l,(Jr : 'l fL f·l•hfi'r: }',,f: n&.. roc:,,: (JJ{;\f,: h..Cll = f·f•· hfi?-: i't·f.. : J-t.,flt.•l� : 'I°,h{JlJ J?: f,t·hO?-= }'t,f. : h1�?rro• : lllf..f.• : frf··hfl?,: i't· f--: ,,,fa.>·: 11PIP: :: r,J·hnc;..: i'1·f· : fltU•"} : (JJ"}.,�"?°'IU : f,,f•hfl�.: i',.y.. : hOf.. : J'l'r'r�: 0.11 r--t· hn,;.. "..y.. 11 it�:,..=m A�: (II) il <I' t,\= r1·hfi?- = h+= hn �=Pt.�: V-thO?-: i'\·f· : ·l·fllll/ : J;.'}Vf : {',1·t10?-= i'1·f· : hOf..: 'l't = A '1 = tPJ I\ t, Af..= -�tb 'l •f m = , Jfrf·hn?i: }1rf11 : rf•rOD : 'lU�� : · = n ?r•l·h f,f•hO?-: J-,..y.. : ·l•ht\, : l•V. : f ,J·hfi'r• ,,.f· : 1,; J·� U : hOJ.'.. . : y .. ;i nl\"li a i',il !.,CJ'' : r..,.hnc;..: ;,,..y. = ,1·11� �ii o u: .. f : i', : f,J·hfi� f ..l·hnc;.:. t,..y. : ;J•f : h!lf.. : i'•l·hO<t•= i',,,y. : r,:1,l.P'f\(b : ,1·i14-. : : 1): f .e. A m : ., l :p fi: ·l· : l -i 1t °' 9 tt hn 11 : f,f •hO ✓,.. : t' �. i'1·f·: :J·.e.o : rr.roY..""1• : f·l·hn�r••· 11� •f• : :J•&..(I : m>•fri ;I• : r•l·hn�: J-1•fac : fl 1 : i',n,:111 : r,,.. hn�- 11 ·f· {JlJ ii r,;1=;)r.,l\ CfTJ cf'I° f,,.l1 0?-: '1 ·f• : £11}• ""'q. n?"I.) : h A1·1,e : r,t- hn'r= '1--f· 'f0 1fl rot\.e_ = �.e;:,, r--l·hn'r m.e,, c=t- OGf=1t,t.1f..A�J>�£:= r ,f'hn?-= t1,r•= nt\'1111 ,,,0 .-1--=1.r·c-z.fl r,f·hO?-: f1..f,: n.et.: ,.<'tof..--: f}t\01/fu•= f rl•hfi'r: h'f•: flODt\{l : A{l&,. : f·-l•h(l'r: i'lilC: i',ll:J' : 0 l°t : WA.e.. : 1·flClbA :

= = =

= =

= = ,;-,

- 589 -

â&#x20AC;¢

THIRD ANNUAL REPORT FRO:tv1 THE DEAN 1965-66 (1958 E.C.) James C.N. Patil, Professor of Law and Dea11 Fact1ll)' of .La,v. 11aile Sellassie I University �ear past occurred on June 30 _ Sene 24. This The outstandi11g event of the _ lar gra ges dt1 an t, at1on - a11d tl1e first where it was my privilege ,,,as our third, d to present �o I-I_.I.�1 .. the Cl1ancellor, tl�e names of candidates who bad qualified for the Un1vers1ty s LL.B. de�ree, the first class of students to attain tI1is honor. Then, on July 9, \J, e held our first gradt1atio11 jn As1nara, at whicl1 43 students were awarded certificates i11 law after t,vo years work i11 tl1e Law Fact1 ]ty's extension program. 1

Thus, ,vitl1 tl1e grad.L1ation of 1966, tl1e Faculty of La,v n1c1rked its first n1ilestone. Perhaps it is not amiss to review briefly some of the l1istory of the Faculty during its first tl1ree )1ears.

Tire First 1\vo Years The La,v Scl1ool started 01 1 a modest basis i11 Septembe-r 1963. \Ve faced the usual proble1ns of initiati11g such an unclertaking: plannjng the educatio11al program; recruiting staff i11 a re1atively sl1ort time; n1arsl1alling the minin1um library necessary for effective ,vork; sect1ring s0111e outside resot1rces to help defray the heavy extra costs of lau11cl1ing tl1e institt1tion. All this l1ad to be done quickly a11d in a fasl1ion \\1l1icl1 ,vot1ld, to tl1e n1axi1nt1n1 extent possible, set dernand ing professio11al standards, create a professio11al esprit. Since t]1ere were no published textbooks on Elbiopia11 Ja,v, vie bad to n1in1eograph our ow11 course books, l1oping eve11tt1ally to develop the1n into 11seft1l Ethiopian law books. A seven-1nan faculty and 23 ft111-ti1ne stt1de11ts and 40 evening stt1de11ts started classes. Several basic decisions were tal<e11 after the first year. One was to develop and expand part-time progra 1ns 011 a non-degree level to provide basic legal education for persons prese11tly involved in legal ad1ninistratio11. Thjs. \Vas done thro� h the creatio11 of an eve11ing Diplon1a program and tl1e expan?1on of the � Cert1 f1cate progran1. A second dcc!sio11 ,vas to expand staff to ma1nta1n ,vl1at we regard as an essential condition i11 legal education l1ere (at least during the develop mental period), v iz: 011e 1nan s]1ot1ld 11ot b e expected to teacl1 and develop more � an one basic st1bjec� area. a conditio�1 dictated by _the alm�st total absence of e t and sour c 111ater1a1s, tl1e co111plex1ty of th� sti_bJect n1atter and the need. to � x dev�Iop n1ater1als expot1nding the law ancl relating 1t to local problems. A thud �as,c clecision was to atte111pt lo expand the cont?cts of _our Fact1lty and the o�rces of furtl1 er staff recrt1it111e11t: ,vl1ile we teacl1 1n English we 11eed te�chers �rained in continental lav1 a11d civilia11 met]1ods. A fot1�t� decision, 11ecessit��ed_ _Y the others, \-Vas side out of rces so11 11al 1t10 adcl ld, cou to we k as see tisly , as viaooro finance.

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JouRNAL oF ETI--1101>1AN .LA\V - VoI�. III - No. 2

By tlie second year our full-time ttaff had increased to 12 witI1 new te ac . h ers secon . . s grant was rec . d generou drawn from Can..ada, the. U. K. and E.uope. A . e 1ved . h t e · n 1 f · or1n o f fi· nanc1ng for tea from the Ford Foundation, and ass1strnce h and gifts of books _was given _ by the Br.itis�, �re�ch and Belgia11 govern:ei:� Several small foundations and_ private lawyers 111 tl1e U.S.A. do11ated fttnds totallin U.S.$10,000 to _support our library an:l stt1de11t_ research pr?gram, and the Ne! _ \Vorid Foundation gra.nted U.S.$5,00 0 to our library. Negot�at1ons for assistan from the Feder�! _Republic _ of Gern1a11y a11d from U.S. A.l.D. were initiated ai� l1ave borne fruit 1n our third year. In recruiti11� stafi, contacts were est � blish�d. with M7Gill University, which led to the recru1tn1ent of a t�acher _ fran 1ts ne1ghb�ur,.M �ntreal University, and prospects for further cooperation with :l1ese QL1ebec 1nst1tt1t1ons. This cooperation is of particular importance becat1se Quebec, like Ethio1Jia, is a ''mixed'' Jegal jurisdiction. The U.S. Peace Corps agced to ser,,e as a vellicle for recruitment of several stc'lff, whom we wot1ld be free :o select. B y the end of the second year Vie had enrolled an a,dditional LL.B. class, a 11ew Certificate class, a Diploma cla�s, and. we were starting an Extension Law School in Asmara - a Certificate class for prosecutors, jud.ges and advocates. At the beginning of tl1e third year we eKpanded tl1e Diploma program by initiating the teaching of one section of tl1e entering class in Atnharic, and the teachers in this program began preparing Ainhrric translatio11s of materials for text and sourcebook purposes. In addition we vere rec1uested by a grot1p from the Parlia ment to initiate a course i11 public lavv for interested MP's, and a special program was la,unched, with teaching in both E1glish and An1haric. The 1-\smara program · was expa.nded by another class; it was staffed by one ft1ll-time and two part-time teachers, and a small law library \li'as developed in conjunction with it. All t.old - in both Ad.dis Ababa and Asn11ra - some 550 people were enrolled in all our various cou,rses. During its initial two years the Fa;ulty began the developme11t of a research publication. program. The purpose wa.s to try, to the best of our ability, to prod�ce basic text and teaching materials which. would: (1) provide tl1e core of maten�1s need,ed for instructional purposes in 1he Law School and (2) begin to prov!de a body of available expository material on 1noder11 Ethiopian la\v. In cooperation wit11 the Ministry of Justice the firs1 issue of the Joi,,·,ial of Etl1iopia1i La�v publishe� in �oth Amharic an� Engli�� - a.ppeared _in June 1964; i� _ pro_VIdeif _ for the first time, a selection of court 1·udgments publ1shed for the ed1f1cat.1on . the pr �f�ssion as well as articles deali1g with problen1s . of �onten1porar� 1 In add1t1on to the Jau,·ncll, several other books were p11bl1sbed, a. substantial of court decisions was collected; transla:ion of other material was undertaken. During the period July 196� JulJ 1965 our lib1·ary grew fron1 z�ro to � .6,000 books. , r s Profes of ? . Its , growth was fac1l1tated by the yeoman efforts , 1, . Blauste1n of· Rutgers University, who served as a sort of· , ove:seas l1brar1a1we consultant and p·urchaser. He did his job so well tl1at by 1965 _it was 1 of s �1:: pro ng needed oomi both a mushr full-tin1e the competen handle . t staff to · · · taken' adm1n1strat1on and enlarged physical quarters. In 1966 tl1ese steps were . staff, tune fulland the library has vastly improved under the administration of our an able librariam. and a very hard-worlin.g faculty committee. · for g, din . buil w Inde.e� our a The hysi cal reco rd. ! .. te c abinet, g• r owt h to is t!res in ting � , me,rly the Duke s House'' and later tle office of tl1e Emperor s priv a •

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Tl-IIRD f\NNUAL REPORT FROM TI-IE DEAN

for _ b it eb a od a11 ing � pt �hen we entered it in the rainy season un sw e ty, e1n p ,vas �s is to ed it w m ax 1�l1m capa�ity - with classes al N . 19 63 of � Ju l)') m ost ( _ till a.in . 9. 00 p.m. 111 lhe even1ng; the library cove 8. 45 from ousl y tinu rs most con h_ a tak ve en w� over 011e a1111ex btiildirlg and next yea flo or; nd gro u tlle r we of ld1n g 1 1sed �y _the Scl1ool of Social Work. We \Vill also occupy tl1e bu have l en1 s pty e. o a bt11ld1ng to, nex t year, a ''canipus'' aln 1os t a11 m fro n grow within a campus.

;�f

Tl1e Tl1ircl Year, 1965/ 66: A Sl-1n1111c1r), of Major Events During our third year we l1ad in Addis Ababa and Asmara I 7 full-tin1e staff (3 for only one semester), 9 part-time staff, and one on. leave. 1"he progran1s of the Faculty J1ave included: 3 1 3 3 1

LL.B. classes (ft1ll-ti111e);

LL.B. clt1ss (pa.rl-tin1e, a. 4 )'ear progra111 virtually identical to the ft1ll-time progran1 \vith stt1de11ts taki 1 1g tl1e same examinations, together, anonyn1ously);

Diplo111a classes (2 sectio11s in English, I in Amharic); Certificc1te classes (2 in Asmara, teaching i 11 Englisl1, 1 i11 Addis Ababa, A111haric);

Special Certific·ate class i11 Pt1b1jc La\v (designed for Me1nbers of Parliament. at their request).

All told tl1ere \Vere, at the begin11i11g of tl1e last academic year, about 550 sLudenls, approximately 90 st11dying for the LL.B., 190 for the Diploma, the balance for the Certificate l1ere a11d in As1nara. At least 75 per cent of this total stu.dent body were judges, prosecutors, police, civil servants, 1nilitary officers, or Members of Parliame11t. A substantial n11n1ber of advocates also were enrolled. A "pre-law'' program was establisl1ed i11 cooperation with the Faculty of Arts; students in that Faculty (a.nd. in the business fac11lty) intending to stucly law are no\l1 required to register for tl1is option at the end of their freshman year. In the second year they tak:e courses selected by us, i11cluding a11 introductory legal 1netl1od and writing course t111der our instruction and Frencl1; they enter our F�culty upon successful completio11 of the pre-law year. Next year the prob,r_am will co11tain a little n1ore legal conte11t and a l1eavier empl1asis on F:e�ch. Tb1rt7 st�dents were enrolled i 11 tl1e pre-law progra.m this year, and 'rve ant1c1pate that it will becan1e the principal source of ot1r entering classes in the future. . The Fact1lty continued to empl1asize individual written �ork as a �ajor part 01 t�1e , duc�tional process. Fjrst-year LL.B. students are given short proble1;11� solving assignments continuously throughot1t the year. Second-year students wr!te longer papers, i11clt1ding ''drafting'' assignments for various cot1rses. Each senior pre�ares a major the r yea ful the er v o_ n � o : rks wo e h ich wh gtl1 er, le11 sispap . the _ _ l? esis counts l1eavily in his final grade. Witl1 some modif1cat1on - and intensification - this program will be contin11ed next year. The Faculty Research Com1nittee continued to develop our research progra�. rlinT\vo more public o11s nde Va . Dr and k boo r111 Fo gal Le s en' dd ati (Professor Re - 593 -

. JOURNAL O.F E1'l·IIOPJAN LAW - VOL. Ifl - No. 2 1) have �ee11 pri11ted ancl two La11 Ethiopiari of others are d n'" Sou,·ces· w t of i1 11ot delays g , p11bli ri�1ting �t1r � �� 1_ cati?n d� telines :� : p;es :. Dtie to p . . b e ts 1ss t delay reflect, were t1 s I tlii nk, co n tin t e ��'- Ll i Jou,·nal of Et�1.zopian La1,v uin g a Joi,1·11,al as profe)s1011al tl1e and scl101arly organ. j111proveme11t m

o�1r

library has continu�d to exra11d, �oll1. �l1ysically and i� terms of the collectJ.on . After s�n1e alterations and 1enova.t1011 of several rooms, 1t now occupie s 111ost of tl1e ground floor. Last y·ear tl1e Fac11lty la1111ch�d a _n 1ajor _ st11dent v�catio11 work p rogram. Studei1ts worked 011 a number of _proJects, 1nc�ud1ng tr�nslat1o_n of court judgments, . translation of Journc1l �f Etli1op1ari Ll!� art1�Ie�, _assigned. field studies to gather infor1nation and on assignments for VLr1011s 111d1v1dual faculty members. We are convinced that the long vacation 1no11 ihS 111ust not be wasted; it is a time w hen valuable resea�ch can. be d�ne �.nd wlten_ extra reading an_d non-structured study can be emphasized. Five uruvers1ty ye�s 1s all too sl1ort a t.11ne to educate la wyers. '"fo waste tl1ree n1onths seems ·un\vEe - to say the least. The summer work program will continue this year. In additio11 we l1ope to develop a program of required 011tside reading and study on selected subjects. The Law Stud.ents' Associatio11 sponsored several important programs and presented a series of well-received TV programs entitled ''The Verdict is Y our s. Another importa11t LSA project \Vas tle i11itiation of ''Law House Project." The housing conditions of our st11dents are deplorable. Apart from other factors, this affects academic sta11dard.s and profes;sional esprit. It is essential to our future clevelopment that we l1ave a facility to house students most in need of housing and a facility which will enable professional growth. Law study should be a ''total im1nersion'' in law; law st11dents sl1ould. illdeed live, eat a11d breathe Ia,v; they should live in a setting where they can meet vith more senior members of theiry profes sion� they should have adequate study facilities for study around tl1e clock, throughout the week. ''Law House," ,iiscussed below, is a student self-help pro gram to achieve that end by raising fun.ds to build a hostel on University land at. our expense, under LSA management. Its st1ccess will 1nean m11ch to the future of the Law School. 11

The details of s01ne of these iterrs of report are set forth below. T}ze Resea1·cl1-J')t1blicatiori z:,1·og1·a11z

ic r h a u i n ach, o r11al of Et/1iopia Law - 2 vol times of 2 isst1es � �. � _ �� . English - a total of 1,120 pages. The Jo1,11·11al 1s pt1bl1shed 101ntl) with · j sr�t w �che � Ministry of Justice. An editorial board, cl1aired by H.. E. Ato Bela oria edit . ig Work1i Vice-Minister of Justice, determines basic pu blicatio11 policy. responsibility is shared by the faculty and student editors. . . with tly · · � Ol J Bo�ks - Seven books are now iJ print, two of tl1em publ!sbed book d th1r A !he I�st1tu_te of Ethiopian Studies as pl.rt of a Land Tenure Series. · n v1 o s in _this 8:r1es, State and La11.d in Ethio?ia11, Histo,·y, by Richard Pankhurst� den, bemg pr inted. Also now at press is a monograph by P rofessor Kennetb ed The Law Making P,·ocess in E thio pia. 1· 0 e • lll th M'inieograp · hed . of y inan s, material s Materials - Sets cf mimeographed es ur co be the fo.rm of temporary course book t of all s, have been prepared for -594

TI-IIRD ANNUAL REPORT FROM TtIE DEAN

by the Faculty. ?ne of the Faculty's major tasks ove t tau gl1 g bei n y r the . - rentl develop tl1ese n1ater1als into textbooks suitable for publi to be wil l s yea r cation. ��t Ot/1er 011-Goi11g Projec�J· - Over the long vacatio11s slttdents have been Jt1dgn1e11ts _for the law facttlty library and for cou rt ca1 1t sign ifi ting nsla possible Ano tl1er �aJ �r Jour 11a�. project is tl1� so-called ''lexicon project " the in tion a ;iblic , tullsc_ a le lt�gu a 1st1c study wl11c}1 would standardize, and the first step to\vard Aml1ar1� equ1valen� s o_f foreign legal terminology. Students cr�a te, ssar y nece re ,vhe alpl 1abe t1cal g �ross-1nd1ces of tl1e legal tern1s used in the prep arin been e hav Amharic, English and, ,�he�e 011e_ exists, Frencl1 versio11s of the Ethiopian codes. \Vllen con1pleted, tl1ese 1nd1ces will e11able researchers quickly to determine how legal terms l1ave been translated between the three Ia11guages.

Size of Collectio11:

a) Ge11eral Collectio,z: 8125 volu1nes (of these, 1803 are pamphlets and 790 government documents). b)

Et/1iopia11 Collectic>11: 1)

2) 2.

in the stacks: 230 volumes;

in tl1e arcl1ives: 46 volumes and 220 unbou11d items, inclt1ding docu ments, case reports, copies of legislation and materials relating to legal science.

C11rre1zt St1bscriptio11s: 195.

PL1rcl1ases Since A11g1.1st 1965 (exc·/11clir1g reci1rre11t ite111s): 1150 volun1es.

Gifts:

b) c) d) e)

Fron1 the Belgian govern1nent a collection of legal materials representing a gift of 81,411 Belgian francs. From the Federal Rept1blic of Gern1a11y a gift of 60 volumes.

From the International Comn1ission of Jt1rists a gift of 8 books on subjects related to international la\V.

From the Mi11istry of Foreign Affairs of Ethiopia a gift of 20 volumes of the I11ter11atio11al Co11rt of Justice Reports.

From the United Na.tio11s Economic Commission for Afric� a gift _of various U.N. docun1ents in the follo\ving fields: economics, s?c1al questions, international law, international administration, human rights and other rr1iscellaneous materials.

f) From Judge W. Grabowski of tl1e High Court of Ethiopia a gift fron1 his personal legal library of about 40 volumes. Our library is by haul.. G_iven adequ?te long the no for n1eans adequate nds e will ht� h build ell, Ethiopia serve w l � \V here will 1ich a w research library 111 provide the base for expansion of our educational progran1, particula.rly in

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JOURNAL OF ETI-lIOPiAN LAW.- ·VoL. ·

III - No.

fields of comparative law in Africa. _T1) ma�e the La,¥ School excellent, we . L excelle11t. We will continue to need substantial resourc= �� ma�e the libr_ ary _ complete that Job. •

Distingi,islied G1lests and LattJ Scl1ool Fo1·1,t1ns

Professor Willia� Twi?�ng of Queen's U�iversity, Belfast (who has previous] taught for 5 ·years 1n Africa a_t tl1e Faculties of La.w of Khartoum and Dar Zs Salaan1) and Professor Roger Fisher )f the Harvard _La,v School visited us as external eva1uators. Each made several recomll?end.at1ons con_cerning our curri. culun1, recruitment methods, and other matters, some of which ·have already been ad.opted. Professor Mirjan Damas�a of the University of Zagreb visited us for over 10 clays lecturing tl1e regular Penal Law class; l1e also delivered a formal lecture on socialist concepts of penal law. His visit was most helpful a�d �timulating. Dean Jefferson Fordha� of tl1e _University of Pennsylvania, visited us for several days in his capacity as Chairnan of the Executive Committee of Project SAILER, a Ford Foundation spo11sored project which _provides assistance in staff recruitment and overseas staff expense5 for la,v fact1lties .in Africa. Dean Zaki Mustafa of the Facult) of Law. of Khartoum University visited us for several days, partly for pleasure, p1rtly to discuss problems of implementation of the Ibadan law teachers conference proposals of last year, looking toward the formation of ati · Association of African. Law Scl1ools. Professor James Coleman, former director of U.C.L.A.'s African Studies Program, now Chairman and Professor of Political Science at Makerere, visited · us and lectt1red on ''African One Pa1�t�. Political Syste1ns." · ,

Dr. Henry L. Shepherd of the Connecticut bar lectured on the developme11t of the legal profession in Europe, England and America. · he International African In.stitu� sponsored a 10 day seminar on ''Africa·n T Law - Concepts and Procedt1res'' durirg Ja11t1ary. About 15 experts - teacl1ers_ and practitioners, lawyers and a.nthropologists - from Europe, America and_ Africa · . participated. In conjunction with tr.a t meeting the International African Law Association held its annual meeting a'. our Faculty. The _Law � tudents� Asso�iatio11 s�n. sor�� a. nun1ber ?f s_ignific� nt forum.s lectures, 1nclud1ng ones on the Rhodeslan cr1s1s, the consntut1onal right to couns and constitution.al development in the Republic of the Congo. ,, _ ay; D ol Sch� ''Law The major program of tl1e ·Law Students' A5sociaLion was · on this occasion we dedicated the site of Law House (see below) witb Pr�;; dent H.E. Lij Kassa· Welde Mariam presidtng; H.B. Ato Mammo Tad<lessebod Minister of Justice, addressed the stucent body, and members of t�e student thirYd e t wa s l t on a T ''mock trial'' with President JL1dge Bul1agiar pres�ding. u � rwar d P!,l t annual ''Law School Day'' - and tl1e most successful. Next year 1 10� ;e daY to_ a ''Law School Day'' which will br. n g back our alumini; and hop efu: 1 will come, when we are old. enough, that i t will be a very large almuni ay .. . 1on v1s . · . , . tele . 'S� ud�nts al_so parti�ipated in tlLe highly popular series �f re_ cent Ilate court programmes ent11tled ''The Verdict is 'Yours.'' T-hese programmes of a ppe

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Tl·IIRD ANNUAL REI>ORT FROM TI-IE D EAN

stu de th nts under L.S.A. auspices with a e by uc ed pr od t , me n faculty adv1• ser, . argu . es1• gned as an educat1onal demonstration of d d an est ed req u the \Vere law , le al · g s. es l oc ga pr le e th arg ument and

r1e rz1 n a, io gr is ro er P xt E a ar 11 s, A le Ti The following is taken fro m the report of Mr. Norman Metzger of our Asmara extension faculty: I \Vas sent to Asn1ara in 1964 for the purpose of investigating the need for a law exte11sion program there. I began talks. witl1 the Attorney General, the Vice Afenegus of !h� Supren1e <;our_t. the President of the High Court, and the Director of the M1n1stry _of Justice 1n �smara . . All agreed on the desirability of establis l1ing a law extension and promised their cooperation. After the prelin1inary discussions, tentative arrangements were made for cpening th� la\v _e �tension on December I, 1964. Since t�e extension was mainly interested Ill tra1n1ng govern�ent employees e��loyed In law related jobs, an appeal was sent out b}' tl1e Director of the M1n1stry of Justice requesting all interested persons witl1 a good command of English to enroll in the law extension courses. Courses \Vere to be ta.ught in tl1e afternoon. with government employees excused from their \Vork to attend classes. Furthermore, the government cooperated by deducting the school fees from each student's salary, which made fees easily collectible. In the second week of November a notice was put into Asmara's local news papers announcing the openi11g of the law extension on December 2, 1964, and requesting those interested to register at the Haile Sellassie I University Extension office. ·The response \Vas overwl1elming. We l1ad established that 30 students were needed as a mi11im11m before classes could be opened. We had 82 registrants. over 68 of \vhom were present for classes on opening day. Classes began on December 2, 1964. The first course offered was criminal la\v and the Ethiopian Pe11al Code. The second course offered during the second sernes!er was the Ethiopian Criminal Procedure Code. These courses were offered lirst because 111any of the students were government employees involved in appli cation of criminal law and crimi11al procedure. During the early part of 1965, ma.ny persons approached me concem�g the prospe cts of opening a new class in September. I discussed the matter with the Attorney General and tl1e President of the High Court. It was difficult to deter mine the probable enrollment of a new class. It was clear to me that there was a need in the private sector of the community and it was a need which should be answered. The first year's class was mainly government employees and advocates. But private businesses need to know the law as well as government. . To more accurately ga·uge the demand. an announcement �as _again put _ in the newspapers req11esting i 11terested persons to register at the University Extens!on . e. .I not office. the to se � pon res e the Op on ent g end nin dep of a 11ew class was made _ Agam 25-30 students were considered a minimum enrollment. Over 60 prospect.Ive o als students answered but d. y plo em ely vat � pri _ inly ma the notice and registered, er aft government emplo g st10 exi the for rk wo m fro s wh o could no t get leave yee e noon class. Plans wer s ent em ang arr and s clas new began immediately to open a - 597 -

JoUilNAL oI•' l3TI-�IOPIAN LAW - VoL. III - No. 2 ers. tcacl1 Most aw l jo11 fortunately bot_h_ Ii..E. adclit 11g it recru : � for � made Ato � a11d General, I-I.E. Judge Negt1 ssie Fitaw Ania.nuel A.mdem1chael, the Attorney · k a e , e to h som eed teac of tl1e agr rt, Cou rse cou h s. President of the Hig One project wl1icl1 l1as been syste11atica�ly carried out _since my arriv al'·• Asmara ba.s been the �row th _of. the la;v sect1�11_ of t11e p�bl1c library located �� the Ministry of Ed�1cat1on _b1�1ld1ng. 0. 1 n1y v1s1t to _ Addis Ababa i t1 November 1964, I prepare9: a l!�t of cr1m1nal la� a�d procedt1re bool(s to �e p_urcliased ·by the University for lise 1n _Asmara. Aga.1n -� Septen1ber 19�5, wl11Ie I was in Addis Ababa, I prepared � 11st _of books _on_ c1,, 1l la\v, co1n111�rc1al law, evide11ce, inten1a· tional law, legal philosophy and JUr1sp111dence, taxat1011, property, admin.istrativ law, history of the civil law, etc. Toda�, tl1e 11ew books vvhich have arrived tota� 127,. which supplement the law boo1cs ,lready i11 the public library. Purchase of the books was made on the recomme11datio11s of law professo rs i11 Addis Ababa �nd �ith the assistance of Professor Blaustein, tl1e La\v FacL1lty's consultipg librarian. Students have developed tl1� notion that outside study using the library's la\.v books can �upple-n1e11t their class lear11i1g and 111ateri�tls. The Ministry of Educa tion has consented to tl1e 11se of th�ir library for housiµg the law bopks until such time as a building can be permanently p.irchased for the Asmara Extension, which hopefully will have a libra,ry exclusiv�ly for Exte11sion }?ooks. P,·ospects for Next Year, 1966-67: At the prese11t time, two certificate of law programs are b eing taught to two seJarate classes. The second year class will finish the certific.ate of law program in June, 1966, and it is tentatively planned that the graduation exercises will be held on July 9� 1966, with tl1e students receiving a certificate in law. It is hop{d that the seco11d year class can continue with a third year class of advanced law training, \Vitb courses in the Commercial Code, evidence, and. obligations, resulti1g in a diploma or an advanced certi ficate.

The first year class will continue for a second year with co1rrses in constitu tional law, civil procedure, and obligat.ons. They will grad11ate in July 1967 with a certificate in law. The Special Pitblic La1v Ce,·tificate P,�og1·a1n

In November, 1965, a number d Members of Parlia1nent req11ested u_ s _to. offer a special course of lectures for tl1em on the Constitution of Etl1iopia We arranged such a program of instruction, wl1icl1 was thereafte r approved _by �e University; the curriculum dealt, prin;ipally, with constitutional law, legisla t:J.ve p�oce�ure, administrativ� law and � ax,_tton. Over forty l1ours of lectures we�� g iven 1n each semester with an ex.am1na1ion at tl1e end of each. se111ester. Tl1e stu. n � or sli Engli i11 ents were given a choice of registering f)r a course of justr11ction · · a11 Amharic · · Amh ar1c; · an Engl1sl sect1011 and th'1rty-s1x 111 , . . · e1g · ht eruo11ed 1n 1 ecia sp �r. section . I think the course was well-re;eived and it n1ay be that stmil purpose courses can be offered if there is a similar demand. The ''La1,v Hor,se'' P,·oject

· our . There are about 75 full-time stulents st u. dying for the law -�anY . , op Ethi ia of parts ,,P b .. . Faculty. These students .n all come from the to iversity U · a. · of Add"15 Ababa v"' have ·no money resources and most who come from outsid e .no ad�quate place to live. ,,

i98 '

d�gr�e

Tl·IIRD ANNUAL REPORT FROM TtIE DEAN

n1an y grea of t our stttdents are deplorable. The Univer � fo� ition s coiid . Living 001 and t1es . c1l flats to rent 1?ear the University are f 11itory 1 � � dor � � s � Jack : _ sit _ le to find, . fac1l1 t1es ith \\ acleqt 1ate electr1c1ty a11d water are more oss1b in1p st •11:io ' n . s rd ca 11t fo de af stu 1y a1 n1 n · •· !) th expens1·ve bad for l1ealth �111d discouraging to morale but · t tL1ation si this is only Not e n1ust rec ified. For law study requires 'endle;s It . ndard st ic � � en acad � � �res mttch cl1sct1ss1011 affects between students. Entry into law reqt1� . 1t ; n readi of � hours . n io s s fe o r a p to in )' tr 11 e school is 0 themselves The stude11ts, witl1 tl1e advice of staff, are trying lo do sometliino qt1arters for those 1n?st in 11eed. Under the auspices of livin te adequa e � secur io _ they l1ave organized a cooperative, self-help project c:at1011 Ass ts' Studen La\V ? the l. e st a o , J1 ' se u o H \v a L " cl il bu to "La\l.' House'' will l1ouse 40 stude11ts, 2 per cubicle; i t will have a modest recreation roo1n a11d ce11tral batl1roon1 facilities. It ,vill serve also as a place where la\v alun1ni ancl law stt1de11ts 1nay n1eet from tin1e to ti1ne. Tl1e University is providi11g land. Tl1e Law Students' Association \Vill assume the rest of the responsibility - to fin,111ce, build and operate tl1e facility. They will need help - contribt1tions from tl1e legal co1nm11nity in Addis Ababa and else \Vhere. \Ve do 11ot kno\.v - bt1t \Ve hope - that a pt1blic st1bscription will enable us to succeed. This is a demoostratio11 project. As far as we know, this is the first project of its kind at tl1e University. Asid.e from 111eeting the needs of law students, we believe tl1is project can sho\.\1 tl1e way in ,vhich other groups of students and staff, cooperatively, ca11 help to meet the critical University housing shortage. I hope, finally, tl1at Law House will be a deinonstration of the purpose, n1aturity and achievement of tl1e first generations of students to pass tl1rougl1 the La\v School. I hope tl1at it will l1el1J to develop traditions of pride for future law students. I l1ope it \Vill receive tl1e st1pport it needs. I hope it will st1cceecl

- 599 -

• •

•

• •

•

Appendix STUDENTS OF THE FACULTY OF LAW_ 1965-66 LL.B. Class of 1966 (Graduates) r .i b jo a b A a iy b a b A Ato l u o g n a _ u G e b e b A t. p a C Lt. Aberra Bant1walu Lt. Daniel Zelleke Lt. Eyassu Ayal1 ry a g re t A e iw l1 re b e G to A Lt. Getahun Dante Ato Girma Tadesse A to 1-Iaile Mikael K eb ed e

Miss Alexandra Hamawi Lt. Mam.mo Mezemer Ato Sehul Micael Ato Selamu Bekele -Ato. Shemellis Houssein Ato Y acob Haile Mariam Ato Yohannes Herouy Ato Zerabruk Aberra

LL.B. Class of 1967 (Part-time) Ato Mebrahtu Yohannes Ato Mengesha Workeneh. Ato Nabiyelul Kifle Ato Nega Fanta Ato Seifu Felleke Ato Worku Tafara

H.E. Ato Aberra Jembere Ato Abiyu Geleta Ato Assefa Tsegaye Ato Bulcl1a Demeksa Ato Ijjigu Demissie Ato Kassa Beyene Ato Kebede Gebre-Mariam

LL.B. Class of 1967 (Full-time) Lt. Shin1elis Metaferia Capt. Tadesse Abdi Ato Tadesse Gurmu Ato Taklou Makonnen Ato Taye Nigatu Ato Teame Beyene Ato Tiume Lissan Lemma Lt. Wondayen Gebre Med:hin Lt. Yilma Ghizaw Ato Zegaye Asfaw Ato Zemene Kassegn Lt. Zeray Habte Selassie

Ato Abebe Worke Lt. Alemayehu Asfaw Ato Alemu Denekew Ato Bekele \Volde Lt. Berhanu Bayih Ato Fasil Na11um Ato Fisseha Beyih Ato Haile Kifle-Egzi Lt. Hailu Makonnen Ato Kebede Kassa Ato Kesete Haile Lt. !vfesfin Gebre Ka l Ato Semereab Mikael

LLoB. Class of 1968

Ato Aberra Degu Ato AJemante Gebreselassie Ato Alemayehou Seifu Ato Alemseged Tesfai 0 Am ha Tsiyon Domenico 0 Asheber Teferr a Ato B·11· 1 illign Mandefro Ato Eden Fasil

Ato Essayas Haile-Mariam Ato Eyassu Immetu · ·. Ato G eb ru Mersha· . ·: am an M e an id K el u an m m A le ed A to G Lt. Getachew Abebe Major Getachew Hail� Ato Getahun Metaferia Ato Gideon Ageg n

- 601 -

Ill - No. 2

JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW - Vol_, "'

Lt. Tatek 1 adesse Ato Tedla G11te111a Ato Tesfa Ayana Ato Tesfaye Chemer Ato Yil111a 11ailu Ato Yoseph Gebre Egziabher J_,t. Yoseph Yazew

Ato Girn1a Selassie Araya Mr. George Kandawire Ato Jpban1:1es, H,abt� ·. Selassie Ato Kebede Kifle Ato · Lakew Berhai1e Lt. Len1ma Gutema Ato Seifu Tekle Mariam •

Law Diploma Class of 1967 · Ato Kefelegne Manyazihal Mrs. Nlarica Arvanitopou]o A to Menkir a.ab r. e M,1ria111 Ato Mesfin -Ambatchew .A ,to 1'Iesfin Fanta Ato Minesaie Degu Ato Mulatu L:ikasa, Lit. . Negash T. Mariam Ato Sainuel Worqneh A,to Sayifu Rayisa Ato Seifu Yeteshawork Ato Seyfu ,Anage Capt. Tamru Haile _Gabriel . Capt. Taye Walde Giorgis Ato Taye, Wonden1agegnehu 1\to Tesfaye Alen1ou Ato Tesfaye Sahi1e Lt, . Tesl1ome Beyene · - Aio Teshome ·o. Sellassie Ato Tsedeke Tekle Capt. Welde Hawa.riat G. Mariam · Major Yilma Wo1desemayat Hon. Zewde Otero

Lt. Abera Gobena Ato Abraham Tsegaye Ato Aklilu Atlabachew .Ato Aklilu Bete Mariam Ato Assefa Bekele Lt. Assef.a Hailen1ariia,m Mr. Arakel P. Sakadjian Alto Bekele Tesfaye Ato Berhanu Sahle Giorgis Ato Birhanu Kifetew Ato Demesse Bekele. Lt. Erdaw-Darge Ato Gebreyesus Haile Mariam Ato Germay Zewalde Capt. Getahun Bekele Ato Gudeta Berou Ato Haile Wolde Mariam Ato H,ailu Walde Michael. , . Ato Jemaneh Mek,asha Mr. Joachim Matovu Ato Joseph Haile Ato Kassaye Adam Capt. Kassaye Ma,nfredo

�

•

Law Diploma Class of 1968 (E11glish Section) Ato Abate Wandemagneghu Ato Alem Seged Gebr.e Egziabher Ato Alemu Rezene Ato Araya Medhjn Marsha Ato Asnake Taddesse Lt. Assefia Haile Ato Belatchew Zemedhun . . . . Ato Berhanu Kidane Lt. Debebe Hailu Ato Eshete Tesseme Lt. Engida Walde Amlak Kes Ermias Kebede Ato Getachew Temtime Ato Girrr1a Mengestu · Capt. Girma Zawdie · A;to Haile Amlak H�iJle Melekot

Ato Kebede Joseph Bartholomeos A to Kesete Beraki Lt. Kesel1au11 Bira tt1 Ato Kun1ssa Letta· Lt. Mt1lu Wale Major Negussie Walde Micl1ael Ato Shoakena Ze11a A.to Solomon Abebe ,Ato Taddese Bogale Ato Tadesse Bete Marian, • Ato Tadesse Taye Ato Tammene Tilaye . Ato Tessema Gebreselassie Lt. Tilahun Tirfie Lt. Wondyifraw Belaw

- 60f2. -

TlllRD ANNUAL REPOR'f FROM TI-IE DEAN

Law Diplo1na Class of 1968 (A111-haric Sectio11)

Arefeay11ie y o h a b A Al o Ato Abebe Jirie sa s w a e h K c a b le A ta e G a ll !! Ke y a l e B u h e y 1a 11 e ] A ; At Ato Alemayehu Bogale f\l o Alemayel1u Gebre Teklie Alo A1ernaye11u G11lelat Major Alemu Giza,v Ato A.lem1 1 Melesse Ato t\mare Mulat i\to An1edie Lemma Lt. Assefa Mengesha Ato Assefa W11ssen /\to Assegcde\v Amenneshewa Lt. Atlabachew _Gas11a,v Ato yA alew Ayene Ato Belache\v Ge21n 11 Ato Belay Mengesha Ato Belete Bereded Woz. Beleyu Gebre Meskel Lt. Col. Berl1ane �'oldeyes tA o Berhe Tsegaye Ato Berih11n Kebede Lt. Beyenne Balcha LL Debebe Kassa Ato Demissie Yadetie A t o Derebachew 11ohammed Ato Eguale Zewolde Alo Emun Temelleso A.to Eshete Demissie Lt. Fekadu Wakenie Ato Garedew Belay11el1 Ato Gebrehiwot Wolde Hawariat Ato Gebre Marian1 Mergia ,£\to Getachew Asfaw Ato Getachew Menlik.i e Lt. Getache\T✓ W11bnel1 Ato Getanel1 W 11b n e h i\to Gezal1egn Wolcl11 Ato Goito 1 n Beyene

·Ato Gossaye Zemedk un Capt. Kebede Bekele Ato Kebede Habte Mariam Lt. l{etema, Des-ta . :Lt. Ki.fle Belay A to L e m n 1a Terreffe Fit. L11lbejie Seydum Alo Makonnen Agooafer Ato Makon11en Desta Ato Makonne11 Wolde Mariam Me�em er Mel�etsadik Wolde Sellassie !vla3or M 11lat Endailallu 1-\lo Mult1geta Akalt1 . Alo Mult1geta Beiihun Ato Mt1lugeta Habte Gebrael Ato 1'1u1ugeta Wolde Giorgis Ato Neg11ssie Abebe Ato Negussie Newtie Ato Sl1itn.1ellis Teff err-a Ato Shoaye Tefferra Ato Shoaye Le1nma. Ato Showangizaw Wolde Yohannes Capt. Solomon Neway Ato Sul tan Said A to Tadesse Aklog - Capt. Tadesse Engeda Lt. Tadesse Gemeda l-\.to Tadesse· Kal1asay .(.\.to Tamru Gebre Medhjn Ato Ta.ye Tefferra Ato Tebebu Abral1am lde• Yesus Aleka Tewesteberha • 11 \Vo Ato Terrefe Gessesse Major Tesfaye Gebreyes Ct1pt. Tesfaye Mengesha. Ato Te\volde Ab.raha Ato Wolde Micl1ael Gebre -Ab Lt. Yilma Mengistu Ato Yilr11a Tadesse ✓

) es at du ra (G 66 19 of ss Certificate in Law Cla - . (Aclclis Ababa, Class A)

tA 0 Abebe Awt1ge w tche tA o Abraham Deressa� A Ab al1am lo r Tekle Capt. Amare Adera

i\to ,L\to Ato Aito

.Andt1 Alen1 Belay Asfa,v Yetbarek Asbagere Haile Assebe Gebre Selassie

- 603 -

JouRNAL oF ETHIOPIAN LAW -

Ato Assefa Akale Hewot Ato Assefa Ayele Ato Assefa Tegne Ato Ayalew Desta Ato Ayele Wolde Hawariat Ato Bekele Wolde · Yohannes Ato Belay Getahun Lt. Col. De,balke Geda Ato Desalegne Alemu Ato Endalew Mengesha A1to Engeda Geite Worku Ato Eshete Gebro Mariam ..-'\to Felek.e Demissie Ato Fire Hewet Beybeyene Ato Haile Selassie Bezabeh Ato Haile Selassie Hagos Ato Haile Wolde Hana Capt. Hajlu. Desta Ato Kasahun A·bebe Capt. Kebede Senbetu Ato Lemma Degefu Ato Makonnen Asfaw Ato Meqoya Eshete Lt. Col. Mered Asfaw Ato Mesgenaw Tarkegn.e Ato Mulugetta Yemenu

VoL. III - No. 2

A, to Negatu Habte Mariam Men1ere Sahle Dengel Gebre K ristos Lt. Sebsebe Kebede Ato Seleshi Desta Ato Sewasew Enyew Ato Solomon Dagnatcl1ew ,Alto Tadesse Abetew Ato Tadesse Welde Kidan Maj. Tamrat Gobeze Ato Teferra Beyene Ato Teka Gebre He·wot Ato Tesf aye Bezabeh Ato Tesho,me Gelagele IAto Tewodos Arefe Ayene Ato Tilahun Asfaw Ato Tilahun Haile Ato Tsige Dershe Maj. Wondemu Gebre Mariam Ato Worku Welde -Aregay Ato Wube Woldeyes Ato Y emane Berl1an Wondemayehou Maj. Y eneneh Alemu Maj. Zerihun Gebre Selassie Ato Zewde Mezegebu Ato Zewde Tedla

Certificate in Law Class of 1966 (Graduates)

(Addis Ababa, Class B) Ato Abebe Asgelette Ato Abebe Tessema: Ato Admasse Gessesse Ato Admassu Aserese Major Admassu Gembere Ato Aga Negash Lt. Col. Ahmed Aminu rAto Alemayehou Aga Ato Alemayehou Wondemu Ato Alemseged Araya Ato Alene Wende A to A.mare Degefe Capt. Amare Negatu A:to Argaw Wolde Ato Asfaw Gebreyesus Ato Asfaw Meshesha Ato Assefa Desta Ato Assefa z. Amantiel Woz. Ayeneabeba Shewangezewe -

•

Ato Bekele Demissie Ato Berhanu Abaye Aito Berku Abaseran Ato Daba Sunta A.'.to Demetros Gebre Hana Ato Eshete Kebede Ato Esu be Dest a Ato Fantal1un Berhanu Ato Fet,1w.orke Demeyesus Ato Gebre Selassie I>esta Ato Getah un Aba:te Ato Gemetchu Guta Capt. Goshu Yemer Ato Haile Agonafer es n n a h o Y te b a Ato Haile Leul H Ato Haile Selassie Asfaw A to Haileyesus Mulate Ato Kasahun Workeneh Ato Kebede Terefe -604-

THIRD ANNUAL REPORT FROM

e Adgeh efale Lt K e ref Te . a emm t·o L tle H eged Luls � t Col. Neguss1e . eged Luls Lt Mariam Wolde o Mam At� Meshesha uye Mam Ato Lt. Melese Alemu Capt. Melese Mechesa Lt. Mengesha Zewede Lt. Mengistu Begashaw te b a a H \v e . h ls e y n e M t. Cap Ato ?vlergiya Segne Ato Mesfin Mamo Ato Mesfin Tafa r i Fit. Haji M o hamn1ecl Siraje Ato Mosisa Gari Ato Mulugerta Endale Ato Sahle 11eheretu Ato Seifu Bogia Ato Seyoum Abebe Ato Seyotun Haile Michael Capt. Shiferaw Meshesha

THE

DEAN

Ato Tadesse Abebe Sgt. Tadesse Feyesa Alto Tadesse Tcheche Ayebelu Capt. Tadesse Tesfa Ato Tadesse Wolde Tsadik Lt. Ta.ye Kumelachew Ato Tegne Habtu Ato Tegne Wondaferashe Ato Tekesite Berhane Debabu Ato Tekle Gebre· Meskel Col. Teklemariam Abayere At, o Terefe Gebre Meske! Ato Tesfaye Duba]e Ato Teshome Biresawn Ato Wolde Tensai Gebre Michael At, o Wolde Tsadik Wolde Semayat Ato Wondemu Gebre Medhin Ato Wondossen Bekele Ato Yemane Berhane Melaku Ato Yetbarek Teshome .A.to Yilma Bekele

Certificate in La\v Class of 1966 (Graduates) (As111a.ra) Ato Abraham -Peitros Ato Afewerki Giorgis Ato Aria Ghebresellasie Ato Barachi Kelkel Ato Beiene GI1ebresellasie Ato Berhane Kiflemariam Ato Beyene Asfah a A to Chiros Ghebrel1ewot 1to Ghebremicael Besserat Afo Ghebresellasie Gherensae, Ato Ghebretensae Woldesellasie Ato Ghebregzhebier Tesfamicael Ato Hamid Osman Idris Ato Haptemariam Debbas Ato Hussein Farah Ato Issias Haptesellasie Sgt. Johannes Teclies Ato Kahsai Asfaha A to Kaliffa Moha mid A li �to Kasahun Derres apt. Kebreab Berl1e Ato K ubrom Ze ilo

Aito Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato A 1:0 Ato

Makonnen Asressu Makonnen Desta Mawail Mebrahtu Mohamed Hankil Mohamed Ibrahim Hangalay Mohamed Nur Kusmal]a Mohamid .Ali Omar Moha.mid Idris Omar Ogbazghi Adcheme Said Khalifa Saleh Shifa Seium Ehdego Seyoum Fessahazion Solomon Khasai' Techie Ghebrecris:tos Teele Khasai Tesfazion Eyasu Tesfit Zemicael Tzehaye Johannes Woldu Berl1e Zeggai Bairu

- 605 -

? JOUllNAL OF ETHIOJ IAN LAW - VOL.

III - No. 2

•

Certificate in La,v Class of 1967

•

·,

(Asmara)

•

Ato Abduselan1 Musa Ato Ababa Debacl1ew Ato Abraham Desta Ato Abrahan1. Gl1elezgl1i Ato Ad.an1 Mohamed Saleh Ato Alen1 Amare Ato An1deberhan Ghebressellasie Ato Andemariam Mesgt1n Graz. Araya Hagos Ato Berhe Wolden1icael Ato Beyene Gl1iorghis Ato Debesay Tesfagab.ir Ato Ephraim Ogbagabriel Ato Gurgia Tesfasellassie Ato Haregl1ewein Zerejob.annes Ato Idris Ib-r.ahim Ato Johan. nes Haile Ato Kebreab Eyob Ato Kidane Berhane •

Ato Kifle Kidane Ato Kif1e Tzl1aie A to Mel1ari Mesghena Ato Mohamed Nur Ai1n1ed. Ato Negash Desta A lo Paulos Igel .A.. to Resene Tesfai Ato P---tissom Gl1ebremariam -Ato Saleh Karrar ·Ato Seyoum Negassi Ato Teele Itel Ato Teclal1aima.not Berhe . Ato Tesfa111ariam Negash ·Ato Tesfa1nicael Ghebremicael ·/:\to Tesfiamicl1ael Hagos f\..to T\voldemedhin · Ghebr. ekidane Ato Yema.ne Teele Ato Yin1esgun Haileghiorgis Ato Zerihun Aiele

•

Certificate in Publ.ic La� Class of 1966 (Graduates)

(Engl:sh Sectio11.) Hon. Hou. Ho·n. Hon.

Ato Ato Kes Ato

Alemeneh Be.lay Beyene Abdi Ermiyas Kebede Hailu Demissie

Hon. Hon. Ho11. I-Io11.

Ato Ato Ato Ato

Kebede Kt1ssa Seife Taddesse Tadesse Ayale1vv Tilal1i1n I-Iaile '

Certificate in Pu•Iic Law Class of 1966 (An1haric Sectio11) Hon. Ato Abate Amberber Hon. Ato Abdelaziz Mohammed Hon. Ato Abdelkadir Ahmed Hon. Ato Aberra · Baleh Hon. Ato Afework Wolde Kiros Hon. Ato Ayalew Gabe Hon. S gt. Berhe W.olde Gebriel Hon. Ato Berihune Wondemeneh Hon. Ato Beyene Abdi Hon. Ato Bisrat Walde Meskel Hon. Ato Ebrahim Mohammed

Hon. Atd Erid,1shawtL Bereded� H·o11. Ato E11eyew ·aessesse Hon. Ato Fikre Selassie Tesfa Ho11. Balt1111b,1ras Fikre Woldeyes Hon. Ato Getaneli Kebede· I-Io11. Ato Gaye111 Asri.1elash . Hon. Ato Kebede Atnaf Seged Ho11. Ato Kebede Borena Hon. Ato Kebede Sori ·Hon. Ato Legesse Abegaz ·_.. am ri a M e il a H n fi es M to . Hon A - 606 -

•

n111ID ANNUAL REPORT F'ROM TI-IE DEAN

H on. Hon. Hon. Hon.

Hon. Hon. .Hon. H.on.

ik d e sa ld T o \V es g o M Ato e y a lk e m K le a lu u M to A Ato Nen1era Deressa . Woz. Rabna Abdelkad1r Ato Seife Yared A lemayel1ot1 Alo Sheme11Âˇ1s A. berr,1 Alo Solomon Hab te Gl11. orghis Ato Tadesse M e de.f11

Hon. Hon. Hon. Ho11. Hon. I-Ion. Ho11.

- 607 -

Ato Ato A to Ato A to A to Ato

Tafesse Mulat Taye Kebede Tekle Redda Tesho111e Baheru Tessema Dinsa Tezerra Shebeshe Wolcle A m a n u e l Dubbale

â&#x20AC;¢

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1 1K" 1 f1.f '��tt � • ) I i (J.P.ft = f l = ... ,11.:, ... o,,� = flA = <"11<1 1 1�c ll.,J...'t} rJ-1..:1-r-A:.r Pr= ' .: ';!;?t •f>Tfto : '''l,�Cll.'}f."}'' J i\r,1•()(\ : f,m•,,/)f.\u) .,e·nm- : �·,11.ri: I fl'= l'C CDC!:'f· ,J.Jlf. il7 1'i.n J1'i (1D� l r ,h° • ,1: c(l v.io = \(t. .Fi , ll 4 ::,.,e = 'l! = ) �OIJ \'-l' •rm fl;J (h = lt. = 1, = •to.r·'} = >,1Y..?°c9'°c = �",li-'i: , ;1·,1·'1° , mT,Y· , �nc =1 '''l'}�Cl\..'}Y,.'}''• fi°lC'l. : '1'/fll'J1, P-.'l'C : !ii 'h'i : ,,,.h;l•f.1 �•tfl.C,:: f,(JDt\h;I:A 1 flA • ,11•l:,-i ·r. 9'1 • '1. 1,::, : Y. • n1 , ,::,11. 6,1· },::, , :,• °1.F 011'} ... r lt..-1·r-k.r = 11•LP , ..,1p,:1 = Ii (h-'til I Ji{l(} t J.uf:lfi) : .,eon1th:tA II I

2. J.

- 609 -

':r

n,n

,, , ..,:, o'P,tl1'" = f/flt• : :}f..«1v.- = 1.,01, ¾ 4 ,1!,nl = /11,_,�:, ..c; = .. � "� ° 1 -.. •1•)•: 1'1,�,(Jl"fl:P: ,'h"lf"{l: '1lD:J ,.:f(D•= :$-'-..•C]!•..-f ,f•: 1'1 7ifJ��,,)�: O°lfv;J,: o f 1J. .. .. t•1°-f•-:f'i : tt.1il,.J;,f-: (I. V"f�'' : ll"7 : 'I" L1•00 m·•:r A. :: f,U : fl fl..;. : nf: :re,,,9° : s,or, A'1:,-. = IP/ t--'l! = '1-(�1 = 'PL.f m«, = fA (lJ• � ( ft it:,.) = • -'¼f,1 : i','r.,?{l : f,lf1 : f,tf.'i'IA :: ,7,'l .=. ''f (IOJ..1' : i'1F.. 1:�1°,Jc : l\OD«f>llJm : c --. {l P't. : l\f, : /L(D•l\. : r�.1'/1:• : f-1��"1 : ftll\. � �m"'' : ir(lt\� : h"01f· i1m•1 : u c1 ° ° : ? : --9 : t1T;.>Q : itf,f. 1.lt : t\°2..,<1il.,O : ,71 1 h'P'i! : •'11 fT(?&oO - ·) ·fl 'J° :: ''hY:t.1°,.y.-:,:,' : "n.'i : ''f: .. CZ:,..f--1-"'' (1'�'1 ll�1:,1:: fl<)f·<:>5f) '' = r °2. ft,:,. ; ° j'l\:'f• : h9 •{1Jf '}"' : (ll-4,"7.. : 'ttf,_e_{\--'}'1 '�,f•<1Jl} C'' �!?°"' fl : 'lf,lf'} : y,:f•ft.A; ) ''ti.1il.j;•f:llr·1'' = �°1'1' = ruifti?ro· = ff�9°n,1, = �Jl... = 'Im•== r;,.1J'l'f! = �� : ''f11Y:'1:,_..,, t Wf,9° : f''},f:-y),'''-¼l\"'l 91':f• ., fOl/..1\..:,_• : :J 1\1' : ,f•tf,q �,,,.,.. : q(\(l}c : r,)1dl : :,Cc1-.9° : l\f, : {l:J' : ,.C11\:f(D• : i't�UD{lfl•9"° :: i't� : fic/J ·1\"'ll I {)p-' t. : l\.,e, : fOI/..W4 ¾ ilil : ,)111 'l'C : �(? : ''i',1Y,.-- �:,.,, : Wf,'J° l ''hf:1:,,,, :. /tf,lf1 ¾ rf11l0•1 : f. 02.1•,",. : f11..IP•'} : '/f,OIJ':';I• : t\D'f {ltj..4,.:f•: f.;r +� : J!.'l°fli' : '101)¥. : 'Ll·L ' h11Dqt.:,:co• : O&.;I,. :· 1,'itl.U : �9°{1:f : ·J:',. 7,1ol-'' : nA'I {1�9°1? Oi'tU•�-il : 'tt1,... ,,:,.. 1,; : of...-- 1:,-1 : fOI/.fq""liA : ll•�;r : 9°1 : 1'.11.lf'i : oo {lfTl/tl'/:,• : Otl'/J!,:/!AO:I.. : OHoot;'£ : ;p,�:,. ¾ tt1t: = ''nf:t.1°:,..,, '',-,1ai = noo'l�'' = tt11..,.,:1--1<; = 'h.e..,,:,., = fif7il\A = lDf.,'l° : nftf"liA'l"' : ,nfl� : f0'i.Wil1: 117',(D•? f 1 'l1' : :1--c·r'J° : (\ou()m:,. : T�too,: = '11f.Cll..1.e.1 = r,1•,n <l'�•n:," = t\.i\m· = 'i'l'-O : h•fi �..--- r'if! ..... = fltl1· = {1',{ll,lD· : tf001 : ',tD• :_ 1,1){ : 'lU•� : lf001 : ,,.l•<J,l]J!, : ft\lD·'l° :: 'lU·�il : ti ao1 : 'ti'}� 1f,· : 1.9°fl:f : t1'/1 fl;.'£ : �-C!' : ro <I? : (l 9' 1· i t\ 9"'1 '1 "1 : n+nt\, = 011,'J"' = n,,,�,. = f..t..>f = n°7liY,'l:r = nFt-. = 1tf, = oo<J>/\1:lD' = 111 ¾ 01-/\f,'l° : n�:,-C,h : ,fldhC : <fv-'l'C : WJ!,9° = nm,:f!t\ �: = (JlJq>iwJ»: 4>---'l'C � ....i : ill\."t-q?- : ''"1'1'' : i•-0\0J• : i',f,m?-9° :: lJtr� : 1.lt : flh.1'\l" k,,r : 'lt'IH.U: hl\f, : rm+ilc;:fm,: �'l°fl1--: '';,,ai'': nf,f../l◄ 'J° i 9°ti1.f 1 --1:9',: f'IH.U' : f.'J°{l1•: OP't.. : I\J!, i ootpA: noo1"JP':I·: fl;:J•mcr.: 'i:Cl": {1-f--'f : h"?'llf,'IT : ODhAhA : J!,fF�A'i' :: f�

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fp-' &. : �f..�fo : 'f(�t0 0C : iJ1'r.C/\..1J!.1 : CC,)1 «1J'' : fO?.,t\lD't : :J'/;\ : h00,,.. c1nUF/:flD' : nt..:,, t r,l,°11 : su1u,n:. f, : ''llt\ : h..1·r·kf : ,'h'? : ,ett 11 :· /Je&+:r- : flPf..Q;b'J°«;,.: '1-0•1�@1 : 1.tL: (1�,l1-�: ,f•OD1f0ll10J': Ji'}f, ° 5 1�'1°,: h:J>A : fOC/...17'-'' : (Lit- : 1A?t'P:f'PA :: 'b.1'1>¾.U : ''9 161}''' l\.ait\(Ir = :J>A : 01&\?.' : ftr'lro•1 : ''flon"tf1•(l : ft\'' : fOl/.t\llr '} : �C'r9'1 : hom« : fl?./\ 1 Tl!1ta(l�. : f,'h«IJ'J : r1"}t,..,,n:.f -: ,f--.4>&-t : (}If�- : ''tli;J'l!'' 1 (tt'P� ¾ A°7Y:1 ¼ hP.V1:f : �c�-- : r 0,..1� : ,)1°1 I r ,'h 01 : tif,"}(l : th;J'I! : (l� f.."f) 6 = 1,c; = ''h th°l: lD'6f.b: fir: 9s1,fib:1..._,,: (ti�1"f:t..i1'f'i.: f/fl�: 7.•t11,

4. 5. 6.

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7·

- 611 -

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10.

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'''l"} 1'Ct\,1- 1'1'''1 '1 K' 1 fjf1' 1 .,e,oofltt,:A 11 I hl\1, I ll/l I '',l10J'' I .-l•C1•9° I hrJ-or>'-tl,f•OJ' I .,'1C I ftDP.Y:6--A st '''l1'1'Ct\,'}1''} •'' '1K' 1 ffjj'} • .f,ouflh:tA :• ;1 1 01� � hl\.,e, 1 {)OJC'l. • "'lllt.'Jf • .,...TC I j • ti-f-m4>(lc& • l1(l.�C • .-J:f...llh... 1 �th-'i! '.?C f Y:-6--A 11 . .. '' ,, l 'hf 1 I f,J-qfl • :J>A , {l"'lilJT 1 �'>1'1ltJ• = (a r�il : ?°Ah-l· • m-llT n�L-??1� .. ��llh:t· A1' 1 �'}m�--'P/l1' st .f,U'J° 1 ltll,t· ff-l·• f�-l-,1,: ..{)da.C • /l1'1 1 .,,.... r.IT.r.l�?: 1 /l0>41' • fDPqC 1 �1;t- 1 �'1P./l 1 {)oo�-e& 1 }a,. 11 , -t; f -r :, f°th+ fla,. • ilu+-l· • ,;:K.'J° • ,A;J·,n • 1,ooill\A 1 1K" = !lf!li 1 1tf. • ''00llt\h.� , fl"° "1°1 1 'l,)IA : h,:n°I • h,;:A : m.,e,'J° 1 h.h°I a tD-61!' • hlf} • )'1f:l• r ��It� 1 ;�, f"'L./A , ilm-l· 1 f,.+'l°hl. 1 'l!llf'!ic 1 '¼ 1 9° r Phc I 'lta.-r,oom- a OO�dt� 1 -o�, 1 �OJ- 1 'l1tn'1' ' lI I A I I . 1' {JJf,9° hfi: l. I flOD(f).. I f,h°l • QUA I 1'1-f..,.:'f• I ''ttm°l K",h.� .f,-J°i:/A st C ao'i'l 1 tl14"f.l-'' I ll.tr1' I ..el-1\A,. I .f,U I lt'l'l� I 1 1').. I )1C � ori/;\(a I {)�,'\ I :J>/A I " �' �a,- JI m,.e,9° 1 1i'1Y:-1 • )1c • 1A� °• {lltfi:&-1 • vta11 • h11'"7llh1-A I ftJIA I f"'i.��1:t-' , 1 .ffl� I ' "1°19° I 1'".}\\ I }\a,-�;rm-f1' I fih"I A.I\ I 1t)ll1-� I 00:J-(IJOI/J -612-

'' OP't. = '',1,ai OD' P A m 'r A.'1'/P.'1! l\,,e • 1+:rtr ,,ev, {lt\ = = {l • e=1 • A , . �01/.f.�(: ,,-,1 • = f(j::1�t1, •flt11»C = ,nai = f>"-TC'1�1 = nOD�<f'il'i'" : 1').9 ° • 1�; tJ: ,1,.e.9°: nt1.1·r·A· f = ,11'1 = 00�..,11»:1, 16 ll>'il'r = f<f'�..fl:\:fro• '}: htf. .It. ', (D• •••• . {1D r ,. l)/}{l:f•: (1(JlJi1DL, L, • 7'�t,.. tJ u,,{1:}.._ nrf"il4-1, = Jt\\:.\, = flt1.:,·r·A·f = r;,, a, = oo�"'dt»"l· = 'P: J;"1?11 : ;1..:1-0D'l'A:: 17 t-J,l'l·fl:\:fa>•: ''q>,;: 'Pt;: aJ•lti9''f '' : ·ll .. : ''foo7i'Cfl1r : x--,.�"L'' : OJC: ll ·l·{l"'/{10• : n:\I\ 1 �T.l:�-f?t__ i : � .. e.«;:r (r :,•,l1 : ,fltli.(:: '""''l'C: r'i1.['f�?:): '�fli'1.-1·r·A·.e: OJ·il'r: AIP/Y:: l,11': q. '11: OF't •: l\f,: f dl/.. (D•t\n-1·,: il1-i·: },j):� � ,,eOJil'l'PA'': ilA: ,,,,l J1 ,(ltJ-•1·1: uti,n : 1)?,{lUf/{JD• fl:,•: cf,C ..l·'PA:: '''hl!...·'11'': f°tt\lD•: ,:)'A: flP/ ll'it.'P1 : (i:C.�· : ,,<'lit\ : ',OJ• I ..eu?°: "l/UI/l 'I': 'h1.e..r �.t.jf .: f,f"'t\ff: : · lt 1': U J!,'?'P/.: i,r.e..1c,-:u--:- TC'�(l?,1 ·f hJt...), r-A'"f: ftf:,/.•'1U·1 • ·fl : : J �O ,e,nA1r = A"'I�.. 'h,.e. = ,1,'11 n,,,t.. l\,,e l,1.v,,,eOJ-� 'h]>:"l = rOJ(l '1: cJ>'P.: U1C : �,1\1.: 1,il..·l:: f..'l''1 (l•A�: ilA: 'hm,,e,:J>:f f\, l\ : f,q:t, : 1 tt f..· 'Pftll· :: 1\1J;.,rro·?0 � hi',ti•fl{!'1�: �c :r �f..'1Vo : Ult'l:fOJ•"} : t\OD1'1'i:: '"' t.t1•:,• , nl:nc = f(j::,.,,, = •flth.�-, = ;,."J = n.-l·hhA 1tfOD/lh1'?° 1 n:,.nn °: J · •9 t\lP/ll:,..: l,f..�t.llU•:: A'I°: t,f,·l L.1-(llJO

= ''UD7'''i..,., ,, = flhkA = OAIP/.{!- = f..OJ(lt;A i 1r'i?° = ''IPJ,� CD·1'1° : ;J•(l;J! : A 7�,;: fl/lODh•·l•A: ?°h,,,.,,.: IP/C,-:(.{l : 1'tf,1•A'J°'': o.tr = -re&on� = 1'-t,,t;. = i',,.e..'10J•1 = rorz... r�cil= uti..n = ;-,:,,cntf>A = r,1·'1 . r;.,,n;=

tirf:•1· ! n,r'l'C : jf@I: (fool��:, : ,f•'?'lC) : OJ•ll 1r: h°7.1•)'ll>': 1..e.-0: On•l''PC: f°i;,�: (19':}"..: o0•fl:J"':l-:ro•,'J°: lf'I: "1�:J":fOJ•"} : 'l7f:fOJ• : {JD11�': 0{19° �',:,.: (LOJil�•1': ..e1�f\{\• : fort.A: },(l,f•ff1·: lll\.e..l'lTOJc: f,UD{I{\�: t\.:: q t\ il : ,,..lJJ..01 t: OD,,fl..f•:f,t;': °1�:J' !JJ1•: {1,)•'htflf'f: f ,.,,'?: :J'flu:1· - i (l'l'....'11C: jf�: (J't-0(!': f OD'iC'.: \1'1-0l: P'�: ai,·i.,:,., : oot. �9u : "1.eo:J--?J":f·) ·! n<f,....'l'C: jf@j}: (4'"-'r?,1: ,,eoot\ll;tA) 1 f14'"- rC: :&£?!!! . C: j fIt: OD w l1' 1 (t'{ID,f•CJ?J OD 1: 1�:J·• �- fl m,:c!t\ �: oo:,,6liJ,: ,.,,'?: ,,,.'I' Adt1ltery fOTJ••('{lcl>flJ : flt\ : (f', ¾ ,,eu : fOD,f•IP/OD"} : '?�;t-: 1

\'°2.1/.\•r0·1·"} : t.11..•r : n..et\ilf'r : >,.1:1-�?'l\ 1f.il.Y·l· , m"l1 • nItu : 'lt\•l•{\avf,.: (IIJ11.�·: on�r,::.em>'. I\•'':(Lh· : {l,)111•{1 : 111J.>: : (l;rm<h I {l,f·t-: h•f>t l1l : mf,� : 09°/}fb : il/\°2.•l'CO· : t\OTJP.'l! : ,11'Jo":f : lll\?.4·:,• = 'Im- :: (1X' ff1�) .eu 1 11,.e. = hc)1c = r,t,lfl: l1rr1, !: ouwl•l·: O.ll : J!,onill\/.\ :s lbm-cc::rm•J'} = /L:J,m-1:,-, h,.e."-f\a>• : V·l\• 1.,,c;••em•9° : J!,OA"I' :- 0"1'1,..J•m•f'} : AIJT/P.l· : I\J!, : f·f •ouwl"f:'i 09"ll"-J>«e : 1,'l;J1C: ruz.cf•<:O·: .-Otl· : /.\IJT/P.'l!: ,"111°":f: h!\,.:t:m. :s 4 11t·: (}"-I\: it};J1C : \'/.\OT/J!:: f,11°1: t."16'1:,•: •1·"1'1�-: OTJl\1.•: '!OJ•: '''11f..C/\.1f,... }'' Rfif. 1 : f.ODl\h;J:/.\ 1: ''r,)11•°1: mJ?..: /.\OT/.�·: ,,,V,.il : Jri•,.�•l•{l 1 ('J.ilf!li: q: 'J°: f>,..:,•r·A-.e: f'i!."J·,h: ·Orh.C ,),UJ: '' 00 7f6.f1'': r1,· •1·c:: r,1 .:1-r·A-J: ,11°1 : uo7.•,,h:,. ,: {ll,\: li: (Iv.f�r: h: lb' >,.) 1�� = :l1: = "l\c; = --1•l1;J·r·:1::1 = •11.:f. = f.0°11.11::,�A =1 '':11°l'i =. fl,l11,\ J fll',.:,.r·A·.r'':· (l/;\ : �: rJv-. i (J.v.f.i?; : h ' ,.b I J-,) : 11.· I �fl!'i I rf•l1;J - f. � = ·1i,f• f.auflh:J:t\ == 1,1�.v•'l° , :�: = n·a:1-'i,1.:1 ·• , ''11 11..1·r-·c11 = (l.O.A 1 11.(" , iot.•l·il: f..111·A'lll � 61\."{i1 : ,f:: t}{l,f·9": lb'}.('.:: 1 1'fl\.hO.t\."l:''� ;(.C'iA 1 1''i!: h.�6111 1 f\ m-} {lf,\ I % (IuxtE: "/, >a. : J-1) � ,,,.. I f(:i1'i: ,1·11:J·r·:f.1 : 1il· I J!,Uohh;l:A JS f,U'}

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15. 16.

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r l•O : �en-) : 18 1i'i·: 04-"•'rC : }fill% f f,f-.rm A, : f «PIA J(l'i 11 :t·'JII f'C ),'?: .. f , : Jl . ... 11 /• ' ':\. �I 1 . (.1 � � fl A OTJ h 'I , 0 (• A. C 1 A c I:·.'"\. l : - l,l!"I" I : tllJ 1,;J•• :1•· : fo?.1• '. 'fPAT'l'A := ·1·c��11C : 1 ,.,... ,IL, 1 'i'1·ro· = ,nttm· : ou�'!-Tro• : fi"lAit : , = 7i"'l"lll,�°+ fLHtJOf: " 11:1· , f 1 f., f•/to\,f: : f o\fIA ,: n�' T,h : ,n,h.� I (h"l : •r'l'C : !:!illl : uowt.:i• : "lll,9':t: , m·til-. : '11�1 f: : ?"h1 f+ = f ,f•'.tti ' l'\9"1\l\. = m•ti�fTm• : ai > 0 a ° · f f = A n Al : 1 ,;J'f! A.If 'I ,1 'I'' : r tttw· fJ = 71'i: J•? ·= r:: : ('' (Llf1 O : : f = l'l = it. <l>c11 :,. ml'I '.t ID-1 = t:1;,1, = .OD llJll1 = S',tJ;J.?" �A) = b<j:c:1: = f,-:fl\A :: h1'1�,sP1' : �c�· : novltm;J.. u• : fl&.:.:,. � hi\f, : fl·llHC�\:fm-1 : felt'?: -,...'l'l!'T: h1��,.ovt\h:1::fro· · fi,f•u:,�c; = iltillfll\u• i'tfl fP'lr- : ��t1f rh"l--1 : (l.,.-1•l"J,{JD• : f..-l •IJ.ti.-1: : f,ODiJ.l\l\ �JI'

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r�, :

> t.n-:,., r�:,,,,, f = r:'f•'' = . -yf:,. i1� = '''P� = ?"'n1 «f t\(llJ:Pm'J° ,. = = 1lth.c = 1 -19 : ''1 1\'' : '11/t\,.l;i : �lD• :: �U : crTCt; : f°t<f> :it'? : «r''l'C C'i'LC£�i1 'I'�:,. : ,,,..'I'{!'1' I f(ID7i t,f : cf>---'1'?< : (4'"-'I'C : f.if.rf�i) : ilft °2_jilh:rftUr : 0

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. 1-trtu : 1t_e = f:t.'? = tim• 6C'ro•1 = h�A = oti•fl : /\UJJ°lfl'P = ,.ruA i OA "71: : j\0000�:,.. : itilfllD·: f'lfl�:,,: f,l11": l1C:l'cf!: II..� t·· flt,.-l·r·ktm• V·1) : J-1.titin,�:1, : f1•�v1 : f't : it"71Jt9l:J!:fro· : (f�:,·,h : '11r1:i• : "' 0 D"J : f,tJ'} : 0'111 : /1. Di\tD'r : 'lt')Y.,,1,1!!..>;. O i\?t : itil&.1\1. : f,UD{lf\.'«;: A:: 32

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· fit1°li\� : it�t\-t11 : ;,,'? : '¼�'1'1- : i\°1f,f1,1"tr : 01c:1: 1 h�g,1: : 'i!C�: f"t1� : '','h'?'' : fOIJ.i\m· : �'l;J1C : ThhA : fAlf'l : it�;11c: ',(De I 9'1ti'),.f,f:9° : ��:f : fl4>'4flt\ftD• : 1·•J;f, : ro•q); : f,{lflJft- : 1''}�: : f(ltD-1 : mflf, : flll/.11: : '',n."loi""'': (('rof_&,,,.f:19° : f°7.1,,.f: : lD•/t�?J:f): -'11,d.�r�9° == 'h1 �;J "1 °1. : lf'r : 1',a>C:, ,o•f1 = fl°tm,t, (JOc 'l :1: ,n.. : f:t ilT ?a�1il: (.tl.1'11,) 1 �6ilT��'}lf: ("1Af1) ¾ 1,7i:,•7iT�7f..1'?: (;�c on'}) i 33 1'>ir:f�:,.{l:,• : fl : (7'1\1 �) : i\rf-111\- : :1�1t:,.. : :,Wc1--9° : foY..l/'1: r+flrf• ltht\ = fh1'?i\.1f� : :J>A : il/\lbfl ;• 1f9° : .,flfl1 : 'lA,,.f--iJ.,rtiht\ : ''h��: : 'i!C..(!-: f1""11· : th°l'' : (n:,•'tt9°C1"": ,r:t,{l: {D•il'P: i'tf.""C1"}): 001/.A: :PA: h 11' l1--"'I T{D• : f,If'1 IA :: f,tJ 1 : {l[jJ!...C"J : "J1 ·f (1 (JI} V-' lrf: : (1 h tJ7•6'<J! : 1h(Irc::r = w·il'I' = Pi "ifl· = '? = "'jro•"1 :,.. = P' AflJ 1 = 1-i 1.. e..11,"-:,:m· = {ID c ti:t-: fl\1119° :: fltLU : h1""il°1°11 i rID•fi : Tl\'1\l·A : '' 01 : h��(l-: fart, :J-fm·: �c� = l\f, = 11:f. = 'Im·'' 34 (�fl:'f··: fl6fl.:," = 7._c;_e, = ll.01010-� = 01/ft . f : :,. : �tD-): (Lt\- i""'i1�:, 1: 9°ltibff: i't'l;J1C: A1m4'9°0·1··: h11· 1tft"}::

,n.

�'7:f : "1.°l: 'h1�f,J!...�°17·: f°'l.tlt\tlA ·t l,1J!...t.. l1 ltf,: f<;:.•r,l1 : 11,fhC: "1."1 35 tf>--. �: !fl: th'? : r lbl\:flD· : Ji m·e7lD ·f1: 0·1<:-:f· -:· ��-1· : (;,1 a11 : h"'I ro:e, = ;JC = fl. �Kie) : /\<D�fu:,.. = 9°19° : f 0"1.Y-'1°1"101• = �..,c: = f ft?" = f"'I.fltD-1 : ti (1 .,.. .., r:,.. : 'h11' : '? A ?t"" c.,· : 'h1..e.."'Ifht.. n C : h il·f-.f f·l· :

30. 31. 32.

{1 .-f•ltf,9° 1 flh1':l·C'?"tr-1� 1 ,.b..l--'fhu'Jf.'i 1 (a{Lf..fl.;f.: "r'i"·f·:l-.: 1t.ec;: 1,1','¾.U·?": th'l•: AIll/Y.:1' = 1,1'..e.. = m°I = o"7.1A"r fl-} s 1.11. •• • • fl"lc.:1..: 17'/lll.j:f: ,,,... _ ?t I hrl•m.-J,(la,. : h(l.'1C: .-J:J!ulll't.·: 1;,11-'i= : ;JC: .('OJ�J.'.·�;�. f�'i' hhC: �{l_e.;,- t '''l c &,c:.i,:,- : .I;. 1 ti� : {L{l/;\ : ,V,'}- s ll,11 : 1'.,;)"•1·11 : J'l<;:�n.f,1' •' . · A11 : h�&tbf,1' f (�tic � 1.Uf;i;f: � : 1, : l',) f 1�" : i : f·f· •,f"l'l £ID :r · 1 h&. i:,·ll1.fl•"}"l , :,c = n:1-hhA = f-t•��t. = �m• ti (JPft : ''Q1'1.Cfl...1'..e..1''' f 1� : fif1li I fl"IC"L : 77lll.7{ : tp-... ii•f. : 1,c; I .-f•l1;J•f.'} ,rJI'<;: : f, • h::t:� d ' : f.H..u = +----re.,�,.,_• ;,."I. = �a,.tJJ:,., fi•llr = ;r&lllf! � 9°h1'.r.."f· = ��lD4 :s hi\,<', I• {l"IC'J. , s A h "'lill.'Jf I +--. ti' : r+m+(lm-"} I roo-� •T'l1'f.A'} �d,-� t .,..._ 'f:Jt;'l :_,e.(JDi\ :J: 0

33. 34. .' .

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° ° r h1 : : 9 'Im � : f,U1 ; • .u�. fll'i.�"f O'?t\� 'i"flD· : f : 9 ''f{•:J--A:: 36 (}(\&_: r,:c-v.T(D«: DDlPlir)-c : f,r,:.l�.: 37 .foZA. : ,,t :i-r-tf: t»·ll'r: �� (}t\(JlJ'f4-'i' , fl"-':-� f: 9"° = hl\f- = n ...,.. •1t\iw- = DDlPl:1. • ttf..'1� = r,n, : �•Jc1JP'•f:: i'ii'l'?i": 9.f.!: 38 O'lml\ = '',1,'?'' : n,A : A.Ol/f.'1''1° i hP.�� = 1 · .C.�.. : f,f•"l"1i 1 : ''111°1?' 1 f,11'?1' : 'if,"}{l'J° : lJ.1,'J° {� : ooc;1� : 'llD• : f �l1Jt: f-ll''i"A :: '''?A?i.. : flJ''I : f.'1';,1,: (Oh. i', lJ'1·fl: ,r1 <' ,. l'/. 1·1·: ( ' (l /\•: q,•• �:: fOJll J : f.:i;J1, : 'fl/(\,)• : '/lD•) : �I\ � = ,, _fl,�C:' : ('I•�. ,Ctl,C.f.�%(/i) 39 d'J,e.· : 1,'"iJ!...: ,11"1 : J-,f,lP �(l:,•'J°:: (l(D 1lf\«i•: (JD,:,,6bl : ,l1 °1 : 'I>�. g : OJ·{l A : O•J• {JlJ(\h•'J•OJ• : ODLP/.;J-c tJ! : Ul}r(l : 9'1}1"}f:,• : frf-'Ji>/ ., OJ"}lA. : 'Jh : '}' tflJf.. h,1 1- 'l°Y..-- t. : 1?i.. : 'i:?i-'J°: ,1·,PC•IA :: OF� P.f,m·A : l\f, : -: h1 : 1 · : A , �OJ(l�OJ· : ''flcJ,.e..90,)· : (D..l)�� : uo,,..,1.:,- : OD',:lf:'' : (lp� : l\f, : h1•�. r, 0 0 = m·A: ifln.J'..1. 1 ..e..,1.,-. i r-v.7. •1" = r,:cf.' = '',11ai '' i',f.f..il'r ''ft11<1 ti.e U f f : i?° ,"}l) 4' . : 1 ?..,, 'l l\°11\0J• : t\°1ll"l'OI/Cf'i : ,11°11 : . : 1lt'' : ,11. 01.. {l lf ft.UD•rC1°�: {'tJ1//irJD7 : "ft\0 :J·: 1,1' .V,t\W•: 'l'lC: ,n:J!: 'Im•: h.1�· : 1,1-f..: ;h'11: tJ'lf: i',f,1P�(l1•?0 :: f'fc?&o (lC: 7i1'f.Ct\.1'f..1': llt11,,-.:,..: f� 'JQ;l,(1)« : ° = 'I 1 ''f ,7 1 = 'l°1flw°:t"--'' foZ'l/\·:,-1- = ll t\ = nuPfi.ll't: n:,.. t,n";;: h ..-:J,c ,11 "1: h£11J••rt1l,c;. ."} : 'J°"}vw:f: ii/\{IDl\.f;J":fm•: 'Im·:;: h1''?.';,U : fP.'fl": (JJ•{}�: rt"h'? : l}J?,"}{l: 1,'i: A.OI/Y.": t--n•: h"}l).: ,l11'-: i',ll&..1\1,: '/(I}«: 40 o.A 1 flt\ ,1,01 = haiz...rllc:.,<;.1 = ? °1vw"f ro·il'r = 'i:f<o· r�"r1-. = ro·ti� i r,71"1 : ti,e,'}ll: rof.,'J° : A!DI/..e: ; I\ 'J°ti t\, : ilt\ : ,11,.. : i't "l· l1"Jo 'J° � ;J--1\:,, : ftJl//}{ID'}: -:ftt :r: f,'ft--;l ro -: J,"}f..tr'I: 'IW•: '';J1 '?'': t,f,f.. /t•'l° ::41 ll/\'J''}:," : �c?---:f· : i--,,1,',:: UD(lr(l(l,{1 : /\;1,'? : ;J--th : 1'd1 &. : mf,'l° :: t1'P1 = ;ri\1' cp:i ft\m· �<n• n:,,c..n = f,1·&.1.,<;.. ij:Cf-.":f":.1- = f.."1'1° = f,11 1 = ,,7.�uc:r rt.;1 ..:1..1 i'tu•'} = fl\m·1 = Oi'1 'P;e.: froflJm·'} ,n°l = I\Ol/lll Pr1•r;: t\°1•flt•l"1": ,,e11l1Atl:fcpt\ :: t\t1 : AOl/f.'1' : l,1Y..(Jll'r'i;l. : U·lr � f,P,q>:f'} : �C-� : "l h;J-- :l·l\ Ul/'rC,",)• : r�(l- : cp;,c,· : 1r:1,9° : lll\t\(D• � f� rf":J.'.: �C.(7: r01J.t11'i"m·: '',l1''l'': (]'if: P't•: l\f,: {l(\<PLUJ•/;\: 'lro·: fOJJ.A: ?°n1..r:,. UDflm:, . J'1il.&... ft"1.. = 't,J?,f../\.'l° m·A = ...,.. ,rcpr-:1:1 = -0:r. = 'l,1f..

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37.

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t\.,J'Cfl• : flt\UT/��T·tt·:1-: h(:t1c:,-..• "1'}�:0J•i9° : ·1·•1''1.e'r:l· : J!ft<D·i : rt.t.iti.e 2 ll.:,.: �,h,'i': : f.aofl11•tt\. :: �,11.u: t\f. : fl;J: : t\. '1t.<D• : e . ":i·t\. : {'',(lt.m• : 1,'l>X!,� l! {'tj:CJ: : (l,,y.:-,·.: 1,'P� � Iiixifi 1 (1\: 1t.: h): \'i','1>;!: : 1•··. fj[;- : ',;,1,:,. : ;JIL'1J : -3-��:: °tDD•1· : cp-.. :z : i\f.\.•l•OJ(l', z 'LIi. f fl�Cl:: (L,f·:f. : ('JTJif,fJ') : 11'P�-. ii Iflf:f;f:: 71: (h.: '1): f1,'l'�: 1'-.'l'C : �ff: 1 '1,:,t.:1·· : ;111,ll} ·i t;·Ei1 : °ttm:,. � 4,. .. i.>:i.•,; : OP't• : ll.e : 11'}P,.em•f.\. : ·f-f..C1° : /}ft ; (looatt.if z 'lif1xi?; =(1, , lb = i,) = \'�"r,11 = ,o,h..c = ,.,1°1 P''I = P'co,:,- = ,1·7i�A :: .v,;;,;:.,i,: f'i':C.f.•: P'?--,: 0'11/.LV<t•O;I.: 1.11.: ''h,11°1: flcl,c: 06',ll: /.Vf.\.lJ}'}: '11?,UD?-'J°'' \'Utlfl OJ• : ., {D• :: f,,! = i,t'l·l·Jr,1· = 01.: Yltm•·t : o�--,,,.1-.. ; m·ilrr � fl°lc1. = 7llt.� = 'I>'·. I%-J.% � r,1·1/l ffi••I•'} f/;\_ at/.f.•, : ''UD{D•ifliJ,9':}-.'': ( ondJf\6li),9':t·) : 1',.eov/lh-"l ·'J° :: ('0•f·'P'/$'..: t\.U1JJ!..·1 : fUJJ.fnnh'n•l':•1·i : "'11\;I. : ',lD• :: • n . •9 :.lf'I : ·<D : tlCti:t 1,Cil ? '."t\'1:l : Y-.°l'r•l:: , 11cri : J-,fl.t.111r1•r,:1=m·: 'rlD·: 'J°h'}f•l:9°: fl\1t.q:f-m• : {D•{l'}' : Ji(\UD{lt1'JO'J,)• : }'\f\ :: rJ''i'J° : Jrt7P,'}.�• : 1..ff. ·: (1,)1'1• I J-1�1P,�-_.,....,. : : hill?,: : I· /.P, l\{.IP ··1· : 1•P.V • m·'} .q:1= w1, ro1 lf''i' °l ,l : 1,'}J?.. Y.: : 1 : . \'·l•',v/ V fV1c : t\.OTJ : ·. ''·= {'Uf/./l<D·'}: ,..,,.. fl"lc:1.. : O?ilt.'ff: 1•··. ,:;. : f·l•,ncf>(lOr'} : '',)1d/'i: l),)1 A: tlh.·1·r-A r ,.,.

38.

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·I <,�(:f.:'9 : hhtt·n'• : firf, 2.""K9° a )lD• :: ('1'11 n:1.riiij; g t�.

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rtilf\9°: "1"1 : ODlPlrf: : h'/f,'?'f-l• : :,--9° uc:,- : �m· :: 'llr� : HOD'} = film· = n11°1°'lf i 01'fl.ti9" : u1el : i,1ti. • r'''IJ!,11'/'f:,.. ,, : "11°"f1 = '11 f: : ntr� : q<p� : nwm- : "11°1'4 : OD••l'fl'r]:,-- : ',OJ• :: 44 ftJCil·tf1 = h1C : r � rtr �a , n.Tr-A--,,r = �:,...Ja = '11F�-· = Olbl\ = ,"l,'11 = h+ti:-f-«. = rncil,f:,J'1 = f'/J!,tn/'i:,-C : ootSJ':t:1 : fqt\°1'£ : ij:C� : FA"l"} = h.e..{JIJ(l(l:l.._ : (l�t\ -: ooAti i lltnllJ;F:fm ◄ : m1n:f: ro•il,rt· f JfA = '/f,CJJ/'i:r:1:£1>·1 = 1''},�..h·f•t\•= /\+&..<f>f..f\:fro◄ : illblt i" : f'/J!,IP/'i� : ,·f•h-i:f·:l.._ : f '/,e"'l'f:,• : -:,:,l1;J:fa,·1" : 0

42. 43. 44.

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- 619 -

r�I

1r1,,11 1t1�1P..:i: • m•t'\19':1::f114 ' /\?°till, = ri�AOTJ�·- : �,� • a..., • OP't-. : "" : il/\OD'PA : fCD(l�:fro· I 'h.'i: (lODbttl?i 9° : ,n1 : OO'}'?p,:,.. : tt,+�: f!: CD-il"I': il/\"t1f(Dc-: ''il.1°l''s1 ilfl.°7.1\<D-: :PIA: :,.C1•9°: f{I ,,._:,. : nil+ff:,.. t flj::,..tft = r,1J»rf: : 11°2.o. r·1 : qoo:,-. : {IOcit· : rih'? : -- : D : : :, lD:,, C : h./\O f/\4-.n , V•I\• : uoc; : >,1f...OI/,: h'l�f,,'i ;r 11-0c:,,c:,,'i "": ftJ/;\ 1 .,CD- ,s '11-'ltJ : h.J.':C1° : f ,n·J•") : (I'}:,- : (Df..�t\ : ODODfl(t: nx Ja.'j: : blD"J(D• : ih"l : ,:JC : it/\ODil"IIPJ:,-- : (l.lf'} � f,tJ'} : dt°l : OD/lWtp : f°t:Fl\CD•: ll'P;Ei: 1\,1\ = ih°I : fl"'llD.flJ:,•: ,{l,fF: ovrri,.,: OD 11H11: fqt!\:: 52

51.

J;?r1" • ''f�cx·,: Pt.• ooi,,,�.o:,·r= 1.11, • hih"l = o+c = Oa\.lt 11 = .n.fr00�·9"': f"'tt\� {l'}OOt\hT 1 .,e.u • if,1 • 00'}1p;J•'f! , h1+Y. 1 'h"tf..a\.lt ":f: ..,.oP(){).fr' fllr61!' . V1C I h1+tl- : tJ•/r � (illttLtJ .: •1-P,.,e. th.?° 1 '1"Ca\.•f: : 'ht; , :(• (Ls hP,9"ll 1 ''�-�.tr..r� : &al& , 1'·li: • "-�flA.7i1 , r-r:--cn = h'>•t:c"I.P.">•1·ll , 1a,,�· = tt.&;'f,1;"1i1ll 1'' oc'lc�� /lof& • &aa,. 1 (1/,\ =· ttu <1uii1 • 'h =lb• 1,> = ..,,. = i1:Kri = .e,ool\t•��> = (',.,,-1 ,= .nil;, aim- r ht;;/.\ 1 {l>;��:,. 1 P'� :r lfJ/.\� :'h'}.t;.,e.1r1 • ttoohAht.\: f:J·l\00 = �lf)· '1�-;f 1 �fl>' 0 ftltJ'} I "1'1 I OO'}dJp;J•'f! I h'>tK· I ,l•C'l•9° I ''O"'it.119°'' I a\,(r>,J• : q,\01/ '}-'ii 1' 1-'l&T I h.f:C'Jv: 00100:,-: h.,e.1fJ?°rl hl\1, I O°IC't I "'iill."f,: ,,..... cJJt I f•tmcf'{la,. Th::1'�1 I K"d..� I .,e.001tl1:J:A :f9:1t , 'T'e4(lc• li'l,.Cfl.1.,_,. 1 ilttK",h-�:f-a- : t\(tmv-,1· = Jtil-i·ff:,•, ao/.\il I OD�'i! '1';; '161!' 1 I 1 fl>''i OPt\/t.Tl&?° • htLtJ I K"..t..'i!= .:.,c 1 'h1)l:J·,f·9° : OOW/ll11 fff. lJ '} '':'!1-'i! sq,(', t J hll��"'L • llT�:f'PI\Y. : t 01.t.{t.f& :f--f•ilwf·til1l\: hil"Tff:J•: OD,,,1.:,. _1''t.'¾. C'k f,r 1 � �U/.trfl I OD/t�lDT I OOQ;l.t'.'q I Y.}-)l'it'.f& I {lftOJLf'q ! fJ>'t. ��f.. f {I.;. I Rtfl.li: I (h�� I 1,0Dl\h:f:A) I fOOQJ.t'.q: g,',h.Cj: I 1,rF'iA ,: 1 �/.\11

5.2.

- �20 -

PUTTING TI-IE LEGAL CLOCK BACK?

T/1e Lalv a11cl its So1,1rces this_ Jo_11r11al ap��arecl _Pro�es_sor Vanderlinden's ''I11trod�c of iss11e last In 1 It 1s d1ff1cult t o exaggerate the merits Law. Etl11op1an of ces .• 0 to the Sour 0 f , l earned colleag11e's work, wl1ich co11stit11tes tl1e first and only survey of this 1 1 sources as are publisl1ed and readily cloc11111e11tar) s11ch Of pia. Etliio n in ·table, J1e seems to ]1ave on1itted only 011e. In addition to the collection of a 2 there also the by started gover11me11t, 1951 i11 rnentions, he wltich pv��lamations � ists a special col lectio11 of decrees a11d orclers, started by the government in the ::me year.3 This is rea!IY. a trifli11g_ an1end111e11t to Professor Va11clerlinden's survey, ,vJ1.icl1 is excellent 111 1ts researcl1 aspects. My colleagt1e's meritorious co11ce11 tra lio11 on tracing and collecting vario11s source-data (and meeting deadli11es for ,vork-con1pletio11) see111s to l1ave left him ,vith much too little time for a fla.wless formulation of the theoretical prentises ancl conclusions of his ¥lork, witl1 wl1icl1 formulations I beg, ,vith all respect, -to disagree, fully a,vare of n1y 11nfair advantage i11 ter111s of disposable leisure.

t�

t11e

I do not propose substantially to add to the enor1nous, controversial and partly futile doctrinal litera t11re concerned witl1 defining the meaning of such terms as "la\v" and its ''s011rces." Since Professor Vanderlinden surveys the ''sot1rces'' or "Jaw," he is in a less fortu1Jate position in tl1at he can avoid neitl1er a definitioti of these terms of refere11ce for l1is work, 11or definitions of terms cle11oti11g his subdivi sions of sources of law. The ad.eq11a.cy of tl1ese definitio11s, which constjt11te the theoretical foundatio11 of his survey, will be questioned belo\v.

:Niy learned colleague defines tfze !ctlv4 as ''t]1ose acts a11d i11stitutio11s the respect for w11ich is enforced by socially recognized organs in order to safeguard social col1esio11 and develop society." Tl1is definition rnay perl1aps satisfy a socio logist. It can l1ardly sa.tisfy a la\.vyer, wl10 would 11sually expect tl1e tern1 ''law'' ' e11forcea·b1e rules of conduct." The tem1s ''acts'' and to. denote, primarily, ' '' . . 1.nst1tut 1ons" are little helpf11l. An ''act'' need not be a rule, ,:vhile an instit11tio11 an)'\vay represents a b11ndle of r11les. As to tl1e social ''col1esjon'' or ''development'' purposes, they seen1 irreleva11t to a11y acceptable defi11ition of ''law." Wl1en Emperor Susneyos enacted enforceable rt1les wl1icl1, far from being concerned v1itl1 social cohesio n or "development," reflected l1is socially l1armful religio11s convictions, �v ere th�y _not "la\.v'' before they ,vere repealed? And i11 a 1noder11 system, \-Vith its c�nfl:ct1ng opinions as to what tends to pron1ote col1esion and development, �ho is to determin e ,vl1ether an ''act'' satisfies tl1is requirement for being called a Iavi"? Another criterion of tl1e above definition is acceptable for the past (before I. ih �an9erlinde n, J. Et/1. L_., voJ. 3 (1966), p. 227. [Hcrei11a[� er ci� ed as "V�nderlinde?."] _ s e pap . � er had JJrev1ously been publisl1ed as a mo11og1 aph for the Haile Sellass1e I Uruv er5ity Law Exhibition of Ja11uary, 196 6. � : � :nd : ind en, note 57 and accon1pa11ying text. _ e 1 peria 1 Ethiopian Government, Negarit Gaze/11, Decrees and Orclers, vol. I (Add'1s Ababa 1951). 4. Va�derlin den, p. 227.

- 621 -

JouRNAL oF Er1-rroPIAN �Aw - VoL. II.'.[ - No. 2

t cien suffi er that lo11g 110 i It ent. pres certain rules b tl1e for not � but 0) 196 tl1e e. at, rgans local ed ecogn1z or t�ibal lev el i� ly'' ''social (any) by ed � � en.forc � � ,, v1l C 3.,4 Code 1 Art o or Article 2 Pena v1rtue by d repeale � are � rules � � such �: l , Code. They can no more b_e called laws 1n Eth1op.1a, because any imposition of them can be ultin1ately resisted before state-recognized 01·gans. Even before defi11i11� the ''law," 1ny.colleagt1e defi11es _sot,Lrc�s of law as consist ing of ''any doctm1eotat1on, mostly wr1tte11 but also oral, which can add to ou 5 After tl1us giving the te1..m ''sources'' th; Ethiopia. law'' in of tl1e knowledge evidential meaning of ''documentatio11' he proceecls to a somewhat inconsistent classification of t��n1 into ''!�gal'' (leg �sht_i�11, c·ust�1�, case-law, leg�I science, legal documents)6 and non-legal ones (sc1e1t1f1c a11d l1terary works). It seems that a proper classification should stress th.e dif-fere11ce betwwen the sources productive of the law (facts producing it) and the <locun1enta.tions evidenci11g such production or the existence of its product, the law. Such documentation can be ''non-legal'' (e.g.. a travel-report) alth.011gh it bears m a ''legal'' sot1rce (e.g., on legislation by a drum-heralded proclamation, witnessed by a traveller). O.n the other hand, from the sources truly productive of the law, iormally and properly called sources of law (in contemporary Etmopia, primarily legislation) shol1ld be strictly distinguished sources of k11owledge abor,t the law, or Jf ''persuasive'' autl10.r:ity (in contemporary Ethiopia, case ''law," legal science a11d ,ometimes custom), which may or may not inspire the legislative and interpretative processes, but are hardly ''by themselves'' productive of the law. If, after some autiors, tl1ey 1nay be vagt1ely called ''material" or ''cognitive,"7 o.r ''secondary,"8 sources of law, at least tl1ey should be clearly distinguished from the aforementioned. ''formal'' or ''productive'' (or ''prim.ary,,) sources, or sot1rces of law se,istt �;tricto. The lack of such clear initial distinctions necessarily leads to the further flaws in my colleague's theoretical arguments and conclusions (see below). It does not pcvent, however, his detailed description of tbe various ''sou.rces'' of ''law'' (within his meaning of these terms) from being extremely useful to research scholars. Legslat ion

Before giving us a masterly historical outline of docun1ent,1ry evide11c e, �on legal and legal, for the legislative law-crtation in Ethiopia, from its n1odest ancient beginnings to the present day, Professor Vanderlinden defines legisI:itive e�a ctll!e nt as ''the formal expression of the will of the gover·ning persons or 1nstjtutions �n a given s.ociety in the exercise of their gcverning functions."9 In my humble v�e,v, this definition is inadeq·uate in that, even excluding tl1e judicial function, it provides no criterion for distinguishing between t:1e legislative and the executive one. Under this definition, an act for1nally expressing tbe Emperor's will that a given go,,ernor

5. Ibid. Is ''oral'' a metaphor? -ted · n · docurne be · 6· V . ander11n den, p. 228. Leg1slat,·1,on, custon, case-law, legal science, may he above. t f O . a ny but are not docun1e11ts. As :to legal ''doe•utnents," they may evidence , in tter us 7· Terms fam. �li to c ntinent l Ia.wyers. S!e the · b e discussi<?n of an�l 0¥11� ," � :�pico °, 3: � � S. Tedeschi, Sulla Gera.rch1 a delle fonti del d1-r11lto nel s1stema giuridi co J. Rt.h. Studies, (December 1966) . 8. A term farnilia, ir to :Anglo-Amer ican Ia�yers. 9. V�ndeFlinden, t p . 22S. 1

6.t:2 -

LAW AND ITS SOURCES

palace rnigl1t be called a legislative the at self hin 1 .·1n1. enactment to· Th resent ' is . de! plugged by St1bstituting ''lawbe may hole " :, loop making' �tJO nal ' o r govern1no ' A '' s _ion. o b c n t1; e t' ''f u t b _word . � the considerations the � � � fore _ e ed expos b , belo;. the no,v 1s /JI 111101 th1op1 a dral, E indee d almost uni·que, source i tio.n . 1n I eg ·sia . of 1aw' 1e rom 1st1 t f h f d l · · 1ngu e 1s a c ore (,1s n1en t1oned sources · of knowI edge ab011t se11Sll S trrcto the Ia,v). C1,sto1n

�

-- '"''·�-�--� ,--.._..�-- I ..._�:~p;._.. •.I��l:-; • -1 �;! .,Jl'_:J-.{�"..'\."':.al ,_� .-_::.; ,�� "'.\", '). ,.,.---;._, ..,, Custom ,vas, before. the recent codificatio11s, an i111portant source of Eth'1op1an • · . e e� 1ne d d·f· I 1n er l s Va ct1 sto . 111 as ,, tl1e set of social attittldes Wllicll, Jaw. Professor_ 11c in a gi,, en society, are cons1derecl part of the law and thus are enforced as such.II Even th �ugh we ma y a�ce�/· for 11011�defi11 ,�tional dis� ussio?s: th� h,:1bit ?f using "custom a s sl1ortha 11d for customary law, tl1e classical distinctive defini tion of, respectively, ct1ston1 an? . customa:y �a,v tl:rough the criteria of reJJetitio (wllich cr eates custon1) and op11110 r1ecess,tatls (1,,vl11cl1 makes custon1 Ia.w) wou]d perhaps have been preferable o n grot1r1ds of clarity. 12 Professor Vanderlinden ·s survey of the available docwnentary evidence of 13 is very illu1ninating ''1aws' ' custon 1ary and l1elpful to stttdents of this Ethiopian subject. 14 After his excellent summary of the evidential sot1rces of our knowledge of Ethiopian custorns, Professor Vanderli11den discusses the e11forceability of customary "law" in conte1nporary Etl1iopia 15 witl1 reference to civil law and to my o,-vn views as expressed i n tl1e J01tr11al of Etliiopiari Stttclies,1 6 wl1icl1 views are now reproduced and furtl1er developed in the JOLtr11al of Et/1iOJJia11. L alv . 17 After agreeing with all my ''major conclusio11s," my colleague disagrees witl1 my inference that the "repeals'' provision (Article 3347 Civil Cocle) "severely li1nits the field of legal application of custom i n Ethiopia." The adjective ''severely'' implies a judg ment of value, wl1icl1 is essentially relative. In its defence, I could tl1erefore simply ask him to cite a single African co1111try \Vhere tl1e legal applicability of c11stomary ·--

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Compare the discuss.ion of the definition of "law," above. Vanderlinden, p. 241. Compare Tedeschi, \Vork cited at note 7. Which \Ve shall co11tinue so to call (\.vitl1in quotation n1a.rks) for want of a better word, irrespective of the .repeals operated by A>fticle 3347 Civil Code. . The fol.lowing lapse is surely 11ni11ten·tio11al: on pag e 243 we read .that "tl1e only te�tative descrip tion of Ethiopian legal traditions as a wl1ole, both l��al and �.on-le�al, 1�, tba � of \Valker, published in 193.3." Indeed, 110,v ca� legal tradition� �e legal legal" ? This is tautology follo,vcd in the alternative, by a contradiction. A noth�� r object ion concerns tl1e words "E�ropcan-trained jurists hav e p�obably had a ten dency y rul. es ar om st cu to ng to scorn such folk expression of legal re1atioo. ri er ef (r " h' 1ps · s . . . E uropea!l ng . wro · ms see it , pre tion is a conten d ex ssed in proverbs· sec paere 0 243)• If this b an s er ov pr l ga le 'th wi li r a. Juris�s are, Just as or more than otl1ers, notono . ' • usly fami ll}ax,ms, many of whicl1 are rooted i11 old custom. 244: . . c·1v1.1 In othe r \vords ' the law-creative functio11 of custom. Yaoderlioclen, p. "A New Legislative Approach to Cus,ton1: the , RepeaI s, p rovision of tl1e Ethiopian Code of 1960," J. Et/1 L vol I (1963) pp. 57 et seq. . . ., . See q se et 5 42 p p . ) 65 9 (1 "Code and Custo1n in Etl1io1Jia," J. Et!,. ' Stud1es, 2 0 ,1 , vo1· 'J ' Custom to n o ti ' la e · a1so G. �rze novvi R , ' ness 1 u f se 0· '"'. Civil Code: its czu ian iop cz, Eth e "Th and Appli cability," I. Africa11 L., vol. 7 (1963), PP· 172 et seq. •

15 · 16,

•

- 623 -

Jou1iNAL o 'F ETIIIOPIAN LAW -

VoL. III - No. 2

l l go furt�er, how wi I pia. Ethio in than more icted restr been 11as ever, and rtiles _ _ respectfully submit tl1at his subsequent trg11ments 111 support of his position do not accurately (1) represent or (2) interpret Civjl Cod.e la. w . My colleag\1e seen1s_ to contradict �in1self where l1e s�ys that the ''validity'' of n1 arriage is determrned partly by tl1e c11ston1ary requ1re1nents although ''no marriage can be annulled [invalida�e�] o� custo1nary gr?unds." _He appea.rs to err in liis ,·ep1·esentatio11. that the only lim1ta:1on to the n1arr1age-part1es' free settlement of their respective rights an� dt1ties is tl1at provi�ed by Articl� 636 (duty of suppo.rt, etc.). Inclee.d, furtl1er lIDportant ma11datory rights and duties are enacted by Artie-le 640 (duty of coba. bitation · arid of sexual relations), 638 (see text), 639 (see text), 629 (duty of fidelity, which is 111andatory by virtue of adultery being a punishabl e offence under Article 618 Pe11a1 Code) 18 and, substantiall y though impliedly, Article 637. Professor Vanderli11den is apparently also wrong in saying that ''fa.mily arbiters'' are the only compet:e11t authority to pronounce divorce. By virtue of Article 336 the arbitra.tcrs' decisions are impugnable before the courts on certain grounds, which inclucb illegality (this term obviously comprises i11fringements of Code provisions). It is suggested that before forming an opinion, 011r readers simply read tl1e Code on tkese topics. My colleague appears also to err in his irzte1·p1·etatio11 of the Code law. His ''main objection'' to my a:nalysis is that I have ''neglected the very important pro visions'' of Article 3348. 19 This article and the subsequent ones deal with the ''intertemporal'' consequences of the sweeping ''repeals'' provision precedi.ng it (of Article 3347), while I have dealt prinarily witl1 the ''permanent'' effects of trus provision. In otl1er words, our conflict is imaginary. Give·n the challenge, however, 1 must observe that Professor Vanderli:nden's content.ions seem misguided even in the field of ''intertemporal'' ]aw. Artide 3348 implements the principle of non retroactivity of law , s known. to most R)manistic legal systems.'.!0 As to Article 3351 (1) read in conj11nction with Artic:e 3348(2), it is quite unnecessary to split hairs, since these texts are reasonably clear and do con1plete eac,h other.21 In sborth.and., pre-Cod.e legal conseqt1ence5 of situations like tutorship, marriage or ownership remain as acquired 11nder tl1e old la\v,22 but the post-Code effects of the same legal situation.s are as determined. by the new law. For instance, as from September 11, 1960, the legal d11ties of before-establ ished tutors a.re no more th ose prescribed by custon1, but those ordained by the Code (compare l�1st sentence of Article 3353). This principle suffers al1 exceptio11 i11 the case _ of_ contracts ( Article 3351(2) ), which exception is a13o ,videly admitted in Ron1an1st1c s�ste!ns, and is more appa·rent than real. �t is 1he simple co11seq_t1ence of t�e princip le called ''freedom of contract," whereby a contract's content is deter1n1ned by the

•

18 .

19. · · 20 Zl.

22.

.. '

· riage · "J\1ar · · r Buhagia See ·the ·,1nstruct1ve � W · enL1meratio, n of U1ese .na11datory 1n ·· · prov1s1ons ' Civ o. under ·tl1e Civil Code of Ethiopia," J. EJ.l1. L., vol. 1 (1963), p. 8?·. See also · �t. 6.31: a contract of marria.ge mus,t r.ei-fber derogate those provisions, n?r. pu!el! ch ). S1!llply refer to local ci,stoms (w11 icl1 the:efore obviously have r10 legal valzdit)' ·s u Vanderlinden, pp. 244�45. .is. ,, In See, e.g., a.ny of tl1e standard F.rench !l'eatises 011 the doctr1ne Of ''droit·s acqu stitute, · partici1lar, · see M. Planiol, Treatise 011 t/1- , Civil La1v (trans. c.ouisian a State Law In 1959), v0l. 1, Nos. 233-63. lncidentally "' they also express ·au approadt familiar to Romanistic legal 8Ystems. Whether ci1stom•ary or ether.

and

- 624-

LAW AND ITS SOURCES

. ( \rticle 1731(2) ), who can ''set aside'' any 11on-n1andatory provisions of partt:� pres ume d Tl1e \Vill o.� a11y pa:-ties to a pre-Code con ). 31(3 ) 1 e ? ( Articl _ tbe. l , pre-Code by law, 2 Just gover11ed as 1f this 3 bad been law 1t 11ave to as 24 As to those mandatory trac� w _ " ct. contra provisions wllicl1,· precisely, he 1'\v t t en 1n to t • · r1 11 \Vl rom · ' · · f b e1ng parties ff a .ected · by defects, they clo apply . at revent111g the 25 aim ) ) 1 5 3 3 2 . ( le ic rt ( A ts c contra 6 e d o preto 6 2 \V 's , ie n v e d _ in rl e �011traclual relations can. i �clude marriage In Professo r Vand prem1se a tl1en, as this pt1rsl1ant ), the to accept Article 335(2 we If 115 · to · reIat. · s h Id ot1 11ot b r1age ed rna gover11 by the Code but ?Y � __ � _ :. effe c ts • of · pre-Cod� f1�ld, 1s 1no1:;tly tl11s 111 customary. But the premise which, law, -Code e 1n o entered way ?Y of a11 �gree°1:en�, marriage is an hough t Al � . rong s w f:ero _ pu�poses (cohab1tat1on, sext1al relat1011, bringing up the child institution: i ts main 1re a11d a�e governed by n1a�datory provisions,21 nat etary non-propri a of are : ren) o� a_ propr1�l?ry na t ur� \Article 1675) a11d are while contracts a�e agreen1ents 1 per1n1ss1ve prov1s1011s.28 This 1s, both, the la\v on the b) antly predomin ooverne d by the co11rts. For instance, books, and, with fe\¥ excep tions, t he Ia\v as appliecl 29 than in dissolved otl1envise cannot be accordance with tl1e n1arriage a pre-Code Code. From his above-n1entioned contentions my colleague draws this conclusion: "If therefore custom js to be enforced, i t will have to be known, a11d in order to be kno\v11 it will l1ave to be studied." To a straigl1t-for\Vard reader of tl1e repeals provision ( Article 3347(1)) this statement 1n11st seem strange. Study of customs has intrinsic merits 30 \vllich 11eed not be jt1stified by asserting their enforceability. 31 Regarding t11e legislator's inten t in tl1is respect, I n1t1st stress that the expert drafter of the Code, init ially ''custon1-1ni11ded," ''was rallied to tl1e view of l1is Ethiopian councillors [i11 the Codification Com1nission] ,vho were u11animously hos tile to custom. "32 Ca.w, ''Lc1w'' In non-comn1on law cou11t.ries, case ''la\v," as a tenn, is a misnon1er, since judgments are not nor111ative (do 11ot create rules binding for the future), blit merely dispose of the specific cases at bar. Unfortunately, the Continental ter111s

23· Whether customary or other. ;1·· Con1par� Planiol, \vork cited at not e 20, No. 261. - · �. for instance, to pre -Code Iand-tent1re contracts (cf. Art. 2975). By way of extensive terpre�ation, A ticle 1709(2) may perl1aps also apply to them. � 26. anderlinden, r p. 245. 27· See above. �?- s to oblig_ations of a 1e proprietary nature incidentally arising i n connection with marriage, -�f y are_ easily g_ove�9ed by contr,aot Iav-1, either because tl1ey ar� part of tl1e "c?ntract" �ar ri�ge, wh1cl1 1s conditional upon marriage and precedes 1t, or else by virtue of . Arl!cle 1677. 29 unilateral repudiation (Art. 664). Tllis is ·without prejudice to , the controversed ·. ;;�bl:y ms of the personal status law of the Moslen1s. See below. . . . 30 ParticuiarJ 1n re \Vhe law of even or y, olog the y soci and s field y olog ethn of antl 1 logy ropo · ' the Ia\v expr ess · 31 . Com e Tede es code-incorporated custom. schi, work cited at n o te 7. 32 , Tran�I��ed from . . s/' An11a/es . l dans les etats afncam . Africa·ines,. (Dak R. David, "La refo nte du cocle civi ,. ar 1962), p. 6, al 4.

- 625 -

JOUI{NAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW -

VQL. I.II - No. 2

, Gi11 ·is1;r1,1.de11za (Italia11), Reclitssz,rechu,igJJ (Germ ), 11cl1 (F1·e ce z ider !tirisJJl't a o,·zeczr. iictttlO (Polish), etc., etc., seem to 11.ave 110 exact counterpart in Engl' h �), which _we n1ay therefor� conti11ue to use tl1e ''case _I��'' rnisnotner �possib ly �ith: quotation marks), provided · we are well aware of its non-norma tive cann ota.t·ion ra11te s11c . d G · h aware11ess, we can iii no11-common law countries. even use ' as a . . · a�101'� P.I1rase ''In the JU dg111e11.t� a Ione �s t � be found the figur� �f s�e�ch, M. PI ,, law 1n its l1v1ng forn1 (1.e., 1n its everyday 11011-norn1at1ve application).34 In �011tinental _systems lacki1 :g an ex l_)r �ss prol1ibition of jt1dicial rule-makin 35 the C1v1l Code, Fre11cl1 of the Art1cle 5 of non-normative characteg lines on the (as_ dj�tinguished fron1 legislation) . is accepted as evident.36 Th� of adjt1dication _ same 1s true of E tl11op1a, as clearly show!1 by the failure of an attempt to introduce a system of ''binding judicial precede11ts'' jn tl1is country.37 In view of such failure, and of what has �een said above about ''custom," my colleague's conten Revised Constitution38 ''the law," as used in the of the Article 110 that in tion . · '' ' s1ngu 1ar f orm, shouId mean a1so ''cust om, '' case- I aw,' or ''Iega I science'' seems to be open to question. Civil custom is not law except where ''otherwise expressly provided'' (Article 3347(1) )39 by legislation,. Pe11al custo1ns are completely obliter ated by tl1e principle of ''legality'' (precisely) formulated in Article 2 Penal Code. Case ''law'' js not law u11less and until the aborted system of ''binding judicial precedents'' is re-enacted. As to ''legal science," it has today, in spite of its useful ness, merely an educational and pers11asive fu11ction. Professor Vanderlinden's t11isconceptions in these respects see1n d. u e to his i11itial failure to distinguish sour ces of law se11su st,·icto fron1 sot1rces of knowledge about the law, to which latter sources case ''law," legal science and, in relevant Code areas,40 even custom pro perly belong. Tl1ey may have a great persuasive influence, bt1t they do not represent ''the law. ''41 Collecting data on old cases is of great value to the legal historian. As to recent or contemporary cases, they constitute the very lifeline of our Law School, which uses them to explain a11d illustrate the legislation in force. As with the study o·f custom, therefore, the study of judicial decisions has essential merits whicl1 need not be justified by assertions regarding their force as ''law." Just as contracts, they bind only the parties ( cf. Article 1952(1) ) ''as thot1gh they were law" ( cf. Article 1731(1) ). By a figure of speech, judicial decisions are tl1e law of the

33. Clearly and J,ogically contrasted with Recl1tsgebi1t1g. 34. See Vanderlinden, p. 246, note 83 and accompanying text. 35. The enactment of this article was dt1e to special historical reaso11s: See Planio l, work cited a.t note 20, No. 155. 36. On the arguments involved, see any standard treatise. bas 37. The r�leva�t Courts Proclamaition, 1962, Proc. No. 195, Neg. Gaz., ye3:r 22, no. 7Proc; _ been 1ndefin1tely suspended by the Courts (Amendn1ent) Proclfil!1� tion, 1963� Code N,o. 203, Neg. Gaz., year 23, no. 16, and finally superseded by the Civil Procedur of 1965. y t n i autbo other 38. P.roviding th.at judges, in the administration of jt1stice, '•st1bmit to no than that of the }aw." , for custom, . ,, , _ . . 39. J?us remark 1s without preJttdice to ,the v., 1der problem of so-called outlets discussed in my articles cited ,a,t notes 16 and 17. 40. Those representing incorporated custom. the For h 41. Perha�s fortunately, since there are conflicts within and betw een . t e!Il� · rence exceptz .onal cases where local customs are binding by way of express legis.lativ refe to tbem, see Krzeczunowicz, ''Code and Custom in Ethiopia,'' cited at note 17· ,

626

LAW AND ITS SOURCES 2 A 1 1d it lan ct. -t tl1e of is precisely the courts' freedom law the . not s, from the ,, " reced 11 t (or custom ") t11 t enab partie les ,, P th�m to develop the law's . . of � les _ : . t1t resort1i1g to the limited and sha ck witho esoteric tecllniques of ''distinguins tio lica app " . g. sl11n

Fetl1c1 Negast With respect to tl1e Fetl1a Ne,i]ctst, Profess�r Vanderliilde11•s statement that ne,,er promulga�ed as legislation, it was applied through was tex t e t oug h ?, out ''alth 43 se ms ,too st ong . The fi st sub- entence shotild be reformulated as � � � � the country· follows: "In spite of ,� title sugg� st 1 ve of k1 1 1gly legislation, tll ere is so far no tl1 e 1�etl1a Nega�t." As to tlle allegation tli at the of 1on rom u1ga t a of ce viden p _ e . , applie h N d was tl11oi1gl1or1t [en1pl!as1s aclded] the country," it lacks fet a eg ?st subst antiat1?1 1 and seen :s supported by ne1tl1er of the authorities to which my colleague himself refers 1 11 note 98. As a source of (la)')_ Ia,v. the Fetl1a Ne?�st has been re/Jlciced by the Penal Code of 1957 (see Article 2) a11cl the C1v1l Code of 1960 (see Article 3347). It partly remains, however, a s?urce of _knowledge about the law: i t is a persuasive authority for the pt1rpose of interpreti 1 1g such Code provisions as were inspired by it. Musli111 Law Muslin1 la\v is a product of religious science. Tl1e 1nodern tendency, even i 11 Muslim countries, is to enact u 1 1iforn1 lay legislation replacing tl1e ''religiot1 s'' Iaws. 44 Since the Christian Empire of Ethiopia has replaced even the Fetha Negast and 11as done a\-vay with tl1e temporal jurisdictio11 of its o\vn religious authorities, it could hardly be expected. formally to recognize, in its codes, tl1e existence of a sepa.rate body of law for privileged followers of another religio11. 45 I11deed, draft legislation to such effect seems to have been rejected by tl1e Codification Con11nis sion46 and, on the face of Article 3347( 1) Civil Cod.e, Muslim law can, theoretically, be viewed as unenforce,1bJe. In accordance, 11owever, wit11 tl1e traditio1 1 of tole rance, deep-rooted in Etl1iopia., a procedural proclamation establishing a separate jurisdiction of "Kadis a1 1d N·aibas Cou11cils''47 over certain personal status matters concernjng Moslems is still applied, and tl1is n1ay well continue until such time as the condjtion of tl1e cot1 ntry per1nits of a more effective t1niformization of the

42· Their legal reasons do not bind st1bsequent cou.rts even thoug�, in fact, ;tfiey ma�, ha�e this � great persuasive influence. Because of tl1e lower courts _fear of rev e_ rsal, _ infuence is especially strong in the case of Supren�e l�per1aI_ Court oplllions. The Supreme Court is nonetl1eless free to reverse its O\.Vn pnor views 1n response to a lower court's reasons. 43· Vande rlinden, p. 250. . ce ,, . eri� � of 44· Se for instance, J. � Islamic_ La\V the in s orm Ref nt ece "R , N. D. son der An Int� 1 and Co111parative L. Ouarterly, vol. 14 (1965 ), p. 353, 'Co�cernmg ne� legislation in Egyp� Syria, Turusia, Morocco, 1rak and Pakistan. ��e •e_arl1er Teforms i_n Turkey �� notorious.) Such reforms were discussed (with my part1c1pation) by the Section I, D, 1· 6)· ,, d Ar 196 psala Se C , �U Law ent 1h f e o rativ ompa 11gr natio b nal C le v l1 _Inter ess o 4S · ee tic an aw 1 e t e re befo .., also A.rticle 37 of tl1e Revised Constitutio11 on "equality 46. r leon ;·non-discrimination." re 4 7. Proc evant documents are not published. · No. 62 of 1944, Neg. Gaz., year 3, no. 9.

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Jom�NAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW -

VoL. III - No. 2

3347(1) Civil Co�e provides Article l1at w · witl1 . ce accordan in m e syst: leO'a,l . on . . e· . its . , that ''Mu si· face. It seems anyway a11 exaggeration t·o say, wz·rh48our ql-la z·tt·1cat1on law js. enforceable in n1any parts of tle cotintr �." . _Only �hat part of Sharia 1�� 49 1s still applied matters status personal to Moslem sub' . certain which reoards in spite � the swee J?i11� formulatio11 of. Arti�le 3347_ Civil Code, which article guards the basic principle of legal t1_11iorin1ty. Tl1�s seems. hardl� suffici ent full to support �y co;1eagt1e's con_tent:01 that Musl�m law 1n Ethiopia constitute� anotl1er area 1n wh1.cl1 the contr1but1.01 of legal science could be ''fund amental,, value to tl1e general legal practit ione�s of �carce wou]d be Indeed, sucl1 contribution · in th.is c.ountry (who are rat11er in need of Code-commentaries).50

�:�!�

Ca1.cl1.tsion

Professor Vanderlinden's work presents outstanding merits in· its major research aspect. But accepta11ce of his tl1eoretical premises regarding sources of Jaw and of his conclusions concen.ing, among others, the e.nforceability of customary ''law'' in Ethiopia and tl1e n1ea11ing of the \Vord ''law'' in Article 110 of the Revised Constitution51 wot1ld enjanger that legal certit11de which constituted the very purpo�e of the year-long labotrs of the Impe1·ial Codification Commission. Such putting of the legal clock back vould be incon1patible with the law on the books, wl1ich ca.11 be changed only. by legisla.tion.52 George Krzeczunowicz Faculty of Law, Haile Sellass.ie I University

48. Vanderlinden, p. 253. .. 49. Essentiallr, fa.mily and succession matter?: see K�dis a�d �aibas Councils �,ro� Iamatio.� , Art. 2, cited at note 47. The same a�t1cle provides, rn f111e, that the Na1bas Counci s jurisdiction may _be limited by an or-dir of t_he Mini�er of Justice. . be , 50. At. the end of his paper Profes�or Vanderlinden di_sct1sses legal d�ci1111e11ts, �hich defines �s "those documents which e,�rybody uses 1n tl1e col1rse of normal life ,vhen �cts h_av1ng legal consequences are per:,or.med." It wot1ld seem to .follo\v that. everybod fs m�urr1ng,. e.g., an extra-<:on�actt1�1 liLbili�y by_ pe�fo1;11�ng a normally to.ruou s_ �ctthe . ed ou:� t u�mg a legal docu.men,t, wl11le r1t1ngi pe�forn1 acts 1ur1clical ev1dencJng � his t · scope of everybody's "norn1al" l1fe are not legal docu1nents. I readily assume conno , tation is not _intended. . o . that th y 51. The context preceding the sub-se11tencc, ''they sl1bm1t to no othe.r authont � •ntl larf the Ia·w,': clearly shqws that this conititution a, l provisio11 h3:8,_ in co1!1lllon WI � l�tion: • formulations abroad (See M. Oapele�ti and J. C. Adams, ''Jud1c1al Review of, Le[i� 00 .), Europea.n An·�ecedents and Adapta;mom,'' f!a_rvar1 L._ Rev., vol. �9 (196�), P·. ess. oc 7 r a1 �ther ptLrpose than that of excluding administrative m,terfere1J<;e 1n the 1ucliciote P38 and -Its meaning should not be ''stretched'' ito cover other aims. See above, n · · accompanying text. . to · . . . hi11l e . l . der to ena� ?l. I h, a ve shown my manuscr1m or 1n to Vanderlind . Prciessor en g: .,ce, · J:" · · I r:tic e J.U • • al a -publish a . counter-,reply s.imull:aneousl! with rn.y reply to hi• s ong�n · · · coJJearoy ··. .in �h . e editors' night opinion, this sch>larly exchange must end so�ewhere, . : . • gue. s last word (see below) sha.11 be fhal. °' • • . · ·. "'

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- 63C-

·IC: °11: ti/\: ;1,ctJ: 'i�:1·,: 1,�liU•"}: f,l·f,l•1m•: rfi .-J·;: .. t\h: (ll\f,: � J : h 1c )•:: ,(l fJ:: f.C:'(:1), f:: °ii\':_.}: q9 ,t}rf•: 1,c;: hilf.."tlrl-: oo ..y..: lfODt;":,,: (}& ,..- , ): �(] u 9 "} CGb•}�: 9°1: 9'•"}: 1,'J..e.�O?-: /\rf't.m•: h1'1 1 �A·f ,71''/ : · ' 1611> 0. : ft,: -. h' , : (\tJV°l/l?;: 1, }f.�fll: .. V...ctJ tl m• J = {l: 1,&.:,,Pi/\u,:: 9"°'19°: h'J';I.: P. :J � { ' 1•·1·1: '/'1°'1: quo:J·,.-:1,: fTt\rtt}c;: f,)1L?: �"}il : ,,• .,.,n:1«..1: u n ,fl•?°: J t\ ' ' UD(lh r f:9° 10 f l } : 1.IL: t\�OllD•: U•l;:J�: rf {IOJ/(lll: <j f l fl . · " f' l : ,, f. ' :: /.1 -·1 fl :, 'PA · : . 1 .-191 1 i"l_:,.. r,,A--_r ,)1cl1 9° 1fJib: f · '" m.� = (1'}•1 1 Pt?J1 · "1?! h 00�t\ti:1·•1c; (lq1--: f n: r·hhA �,"},c;. r 1 : O& ,r : 1 f.ODtf 00 r 1 h : !lA J• : t\ilrf; Ol . /;}" '1° '� ltdlJ l f• : : iltli',.:1-r·A·Y: { � � V r:11"}: 9°1(,fw•l-- : h'i{lrO:: ,h· f· ';:J• : fCTl/••C'il&.A"lUJ• : fOD1.0Dtfm•: ,l1Vfir(l ¾ f,\01/.e: : t\t,-�.(l,:l:: )'-t__:1 -- r ·A ·.r : {lt\fl m· : h''l'l·O : �(D• :: O'' OD°l fl far '' : 'n.1�: ,f•(TPt\h·l·cD· : U·i\•: i'c?&one : h 7i1--'fn.:f.: {lf\fL· U: 1--.v,_e: ;{'r ,J!:,.: 00'?fl •C'(D•'' : (D•il'r : h"l'C't{o(IC : °iOD:J·:1-- : .. (l.,e m�- : ,f�� .. ,--q> A :: 11 • h7i 1·'f 'if.:1 . : h (l ,f·· .r f:1 • ;_) t-- f''I/ A{lOT/ 01/ '1 :;:ro •1 : u,fl ·1· : 9°h1y.Y..:f.."} : ,n:P�: �fl (::: 11'JJ?.'1: Tl?l,a(}C: n•ii" ·f--'i'n.:1 -..: {lfltf.U: 1�.V,J?,: fl��.:,..: (lq> 'i<D·: ,<',,--Co;J-- :t= m· : flllll�'P :fro•: fAOI/.�·: h'IA°1/\ •f--1«.. i ft\°1Y:: hAA: mll•(l'i' : flt1J9°: f·l.. m(l',: �ro-: l\ 0"/l\:I.: rmz..rncJ!: hA OD(lfl�?°:: 12 },CdJ'r: �ro·: h1Y.: om· 7,1-f.. '' 0"19'1'' {lflao(ltt-:1.. :J'l\:l· :1-c1--?°: flooht.. hC: f.,°fl\A:: O.. lf19° : nk:I. : f1t\7'"ll·"1--1 : hilrf• ff..-1;1 : hU·19°: hA/\ (l}•'r'f°:: U• fl rf•'1 ; 1..1L· i1'C : --1··( 1/\ro• : fmm-r.· : i'1 U•19'1 : fg� : i','}P,'}� : r��·,1, = ,o,,bc 4!•r(�:,-. = ( <l!'l'c r,,.,t- ::}f.. 1,c; ;;:f fl?t?-·1·: �C(l1--: cD·ll.'I': ti.e,n,J,(l. : rf•lfAfl 'PA:: 1, ',ll.U9u: ''/\1.f ·Lm·' f,\UIJ�• : },'})t1Pt,.{1,)•: },J.?,J. ��'91> 1 "flt\�: (\Ol1:J'm9° : i',{l:f;,t: ',(1J• :: 1,'t.�: ,,ro•',rf:9°: hlf�: fPt--: �-V...�f 9°: h1,�.. u: ,f}flro· : i',t\rf.. :J'OJOD•� 'I°:: '11C: "1 1 : l\'ll'l.U : 1,,,1,i:1:: n1,l: f..-J•(ltTJ:fm·: •1•C'l--9°: Oil ,7,·l·--)·: l\,e: {'•/•UD1JJlrl• : �OJ-: irflt\'PA :: 0"19°: lctq, : flf�ro-1 : ,,, ...,--;J--:1�ro-1 : (f,l, ,.. l·;J·•m.. : i',�� : t\--1--t-m· : ,f1 1f•fl : rf••fll\ {lflrl•?i&..W• : -�'C(l:,•: 1, "}.,e,. -0 11 ( : : · : 'JTJ,P•1f\ J/;\: '?A� : i,co•) (l•r'J.�>,J:: ,,V...;, 1°1.: li�fl·Oh· 0?.t\ 11,� Y.. c f. 1&.0)": �1C: {1��9°: t,1 o:,.. : (D•fl'r: f,1·,11'/ (l(D•7 : :1-;J,:1:,o .: l': ,,1f..lf 'I : .. ,,. OTJ'71i :: · : 'f , i:}" n·i (l(: : & ( TC' ;J l;J: a : '!"IC m· : --i1 J · · /.\ U lD· t : : l·;J ,,rf t\• fUCJ.. -1 . .. & ,J, 9° : 1,1f. : 1,l mf, : {l · �m f.."}) : ;,f:ll. tlrJ ( : .. ' �� : �-c I · h } .OJJ.l\ .. ,,1f 0.:1: : : f iOD : D·1 ./\I fCTl/ • �{D .. ; 'f.: Y:C :: • l ',{D : ''1.. •1\ : (\(De W·A: /\.lf..} : ve:1· A : f A : 1 1il 11 OJ' l-c; 0/l h: _eo f°7 : l --1 l:, "}ir : J { : �..: { : f 9 tiC c 19° hC flro : : oiz. c/>C �1<t cJ,m {JO• : heh TJ._ rO : 11 f,U t3 l ?,�: ,)1'10:-;.. : rai:i"111 : 'Jwa : roiA : � D· ::

,..=

= (JV ·r = �

n''

=. =

= rn.rx�i = rn.rt:ll!) =

n:,..

r,,..

r:"f, = rmz.h.-1--lr:," = c;:1:w·• == 10. 11. 12. 13.

- 63.1 --

. = , lD-ilT r1-l"fll: .. = ,h'-"111. , rtt, ot..:'f--v-A-.r = rf'i::,•"1 = -Otlhc - : : ll 9"9"}-f.1,� 11:fOJ- : "11 I Y:C:e-r•1'1 : (h.'} ilt·�7i c;-:f1) : ftJI/J.',OJJ IPC I -- 0..- --rofl', .,. : (l:J·· = I\Uo'fC : w1,,.,. F,,?/ll-- :: t\9'1'1/l,: '11f... : (lro•: '11.(!. : 1 °. .-1: : 0:11;,'l! : '1'1'9.° : l\,e t-1 f.. p;J-t\oP'tf.•, (nY: : : : hilh: 1,0:. m : +mfl'I 1 ;-.'l! = m(l1' = ltft\_<,:) : . (f1-)· = 00�l LPl+O-r : 1.tt : f..lil) "it1s._, : P't. = (i P ,,..+'l'e : t\OD 'b- : mf,'J° : i\/\ODP't,..:,.. :: OJf.,9 •••: h..-1-- : 0:\1\ : II"m•i/ -1· : ft4f.e..ca, : f,..-l'l\t\ :: 0}1-f.. U : n,t+.'l : 1'1-�q(lr .= l\lP/S:ldJ : ll'/°9°'1-� m«f, . .,l 1' : '11C : i\,e 011 lih;t. : ,,e:}�•f\.fA i fi (le:,.: iril·: fY...--c1..-f: : '¼I\CP/ : f1 .}1·1 - H·w• 19° : 1.rt : itf,oPflh1·•'J° :: 14 ,, 1-dJJtlJ : 1, 'I tl.lJ : ll'?'l°',,,f-..·f : 1,.r1�1�:fm• : 4'tpoi : f.1'-0 : J!, oP lPC ;-.tr : -0/\1' : t\onf..?°f..'I° : }\i :f i\ l\., 1 ? h, .�. u : llO'/llT : oo:J!l\-:f·1 : 01119° : f,nt--'l't--A :: 0··f-- Q;b01/ I, 9° : flt\,:J-0:J! : f°t'i"-i?- .: 'l?. 'I.' L':1- : 0·ii!:,."1 : 11 dt»C : ar {lT : y,1�/l• 1''1fr9° = 1'1-l).1-fl = t,ll1��= a11°-:f = iL lf). = y,:,,cc; = h,JLf£&9° = r : dldJ I OOl/.tDil',m-: nt!\A: lD·il'I' : ',�',, "} f,(ltq�: ('lt.1f,l·I.IJ·9°: n�:,,,1,: O - th,C : lD" il'I' : f°t 11-- : 'I� 'I T'1 : ?01/�fl m· : fm· A : Y:, ;J 1.9'1' : ,,-. &.ioiz. 'IT : f°tf11--1-- : frf--'P'P f, = m1'f1'} : ��1,:1- : fOJJ..m(t�- : ttil1?i� : X''};11 sP;f-: Oro(l�:,-- : ti AA: 11:F : ',m•) :: hT"} ;J··cr.m- : .:J,fl:J!, : Y:c�:t.. : hOIJ.! �.c10r : . ffbltul-- : i',·1e:.f : rth°l : itf:9" : 0''19 ° : f•tl\ faJ • ¾ fl''ouOJ(l.fm-'' • _... : 10·il: ck'PC: e: Or fl'I': f+flmlD": ho--/\... : frf--?i"/\: 9°i\t\,: cl!'l'C: i'f'A .--.-. ...... i ..... �lD·:f,U 9° : 4? 'I'C : '1 A'i" : aiz.fl:,.. : 0;J11:FTlD" : (D·• A : lD' il'P : It°l l\'£ : OJ'}·,;. ... .' r.'l\:t�'PA:: 'l;r: far : oo,n:,..t; : a1Yo:r?1:F:fro·"} : 1'1Jtil0100cl}:fm· : f,J1 ftLU : �CflT : ?tdtk : f,U1' : f'lA'i : forz.(1,1�1 : oP•fl-l· : fOI/.lDil�lD .. : � 'l'C : if@:& : 11:F : ',l& : IP/t\i: t ,la'l-- : oPf.ODl,f : (L',(l,{l : 1--AU : flf� : 'l1�l-, = itti'I'� = /\ooc;1c = ruA r,oc == 4>._ 'PC = irm:t ; irmti = ic; if� : ("17- : (l;J,fl:r : (I}«/;\_ : fl.?f'?if\- : i',f,1--/l·•'J° : 0� : f0'i.OJfl(j:flD• : 4>"-'rc»'f) : 04>--TC : jf@i : fi·m4>:t«T1' : fool1'1(lC : fDDJ!..;J1�'1 = f{llJl ��:,..: "l�;J--9''f1 : n11c11c: hoo<1J4�:f-l& : n'l'c: 9°19°: P'.e: fl\fm·9°== 1''1H.U : 1�fl'f : "11' : 04>..,'PC : jf�:4 : 1lril : 'l�TC : i : flllD'1: AV- : f(l)«/;\ : iloi:1- : itf fltJ,?,.:,•9° :;: f,IJ : t1°'l:,- : ;10 - ;: : 4''P°t: �c:e::i· : �(D• : f°tl\lD' = K-1il = d,"'lyfl. = n+lt4-4-'1:fro• = r;,,dJ = ,-,*qu14... = 1tf,1�\ro :.= 15 i11.. U : l\f,: T�'8(tC : f07!t�h?<·1· : fl0PKcl1'i::,-. : ,h0lC." : O�C.�: ° 1 1w7 00 , 'f = : tt.Y.. rPt.:,.. = 'J(D« :: :i:ic = r�trfl•)"m• = ;, ., = h., ,tu = 9 , f· = 111J� = m,,1

•

., .... .,.... r• "

n•li:f·'f'ii.'f :

14. 15.

.-. ,.. _..... ,...

oi,

1,'})ltJ f{\ID': uo..n:,. : n11-1111 : 1,'}_ll. 7.&il''l 'i ' fctrt.�'rllO•: {'�•1·,h: ' : 'h"}1'"7.e./l{D'J: 11"1.C I rll°I : +--. Ji : .e.u1-1- r d1"'11l I ,if,. J4j..f.\ ti n,1.u : ,h"'#1l • ODwl.:i• s Oh.:i"r-k.r 1 �,°I 1 ..�11:1! 1 f'Ff/..fJ!.C•t- : t)91:r. : (1&-l'a:flV" : {19"; . ilJJ!.C?-r f°7.l·tr:i•: ;J•O:Fm•'} 1(loo"-.'/.'?: 11;1: s .,:,: 1'1'){ -� 1,1',&tU: fll: ll9:' .,:, .. I h--1'.e..l.1 : n�I\: m)l,f{J}•',- I ,1�:,•,: h '11,fh(:: ,l1°1 : .P'(:: 'i�?.-9'' r J!,1 111r . ll'P/ll:11: ' hf,:J!A'J° ss f,U 1 ,h"'#•(l t f ;f•D'/��}•r..} ,f- l{)C ¾ (l hil'l>�;�}:," : 11,1·J'..�11'1:i:a, : �·1�· ,:: : .e.J!.1'i.-A == OtLtJ t. �� 1t1-.e.. 1 h1'-"·: 0"1/f,�'rl.m• 1 '},"}f.. 1 +---.7;l�f., ,1,,,>flt\: ,...,.. };J"l. fm.. }1:fl� 1 OD:,,"J.: dl°l"t: f.P'&. • tif-.�f.. s 01 •r«i,ta=t=a,.: f"'i.fl1�l1C 1 �a,.'' ti "'I 1 1I ' : I {l . : 'i(; mf,'J° : &.0Ja flA ti!fi 1 °'l.ilT h{TIJ1'1f : rl•°lflC r &.:J>P,."} r 111/l� t, fl ' 1'111Ir: 1,l·A: fm1'1:f\� 1 OD:,,&liJ. 1 "'1°11 1,m{,'ilA :s ll/llf.U: t1flA'i": t1"'l.ilT :h1'�' ttoi: 1 : +°lflC • 'h1')1.LK''J°: o;,11;1=:,:{J}c 1 {J}•;\ : a,.{ltp: J--t'}J.'..·: {l9°9u .,:,.: n.'iC·I t\,,\lD4.�� Oa>1'1:t\� • DDcp"J.: il1°l: ouwt:.:i•:tll:f\"7cpl.•(l:'J°"}'J°:9°h1-f·)·�!'!'il!'9° �•s p, 1 1 }' f�'J° 1 +°lfl� 1 'h1'-".�?..'J°: f L:J>J;'} . :{lou{lm+.:}l& ss lll\11.tJ: er·. jf.-:JC. � 1 ,:J;,r: . flA'i 1 °7.ilT I f Lf\7-T1': 'h"t,V.e..c�..: t..4>Y: I fOl/.(1111• : 1l!J! : oairc;:t·OJ.i f\.fm &.,rc I hf.l•A'J° 11 I

',lD•:

- t32 -

: 9'' : 1,t\(/P'rcf,,):1=m · : �m- :: r l'LlJ : � C(l1• : �ch &, : OJ'} : t\tJCh'r I z (IJ•1 •£D·: ·0, f,f•ODt\hi f U ,<; l � 1,, C'}: "1."l: 1 : ' :: ,1· ?" m �; :: t\ .. Dt\h:,.. : lbl\: hh�tit: �1C: t\(1,rf•: f·fODf_--: ,. fAOl/ ,,�""}: ,7,dJ: ro1 e0 -- : � 1 e £0•:: nt·LU : t,Cl, �,1-- : l\,e: r�:,-,,, : .-0,h.C'} : f, ;,: f: f,f• {lmlD· : , 1 :J 7, "1: ,fl :J: : '11•flf1• : •Ot\m• : T(�Jo(lC: n7i:-f·' in.: 1·• : /\i',1'10.!P:}-. : f(lm• ;11 i'C: : -" t: 9°tiC : .e.. �().m · : .. , ..c,,, ��o :J "t\:: OJ� -= hO,i• : l'fOD�' : O' 1 ., 11 0 :f-" }: �'IC : 1tur:m()'} : f i...f·it· : /l,t\ "f' : 'lt\P't\ffJ'i:f.. : OD'Jo �:fro•'} : t'� ° ,J•9° : i' 1l\1·'iu•9 1 f P't • : �f.�fo : fm«f,(l. :,. : 4>-.'rC : r : ;1,"l C. 'i' (11 l : </ . --• 'h h n = c. = ..,... :J :1 v,,:1: 'r c-:1-. ov 1v l:1.. = r n, '" {llJ 1 1 1, ,11·"''1'c = :tx t;· � �·,v,7.,0�• : w·ll}. rom•'l:1��-1 v--�:J"f:f .f,JD/\h;J"A 'h1.';.u : ft\• : : ,7,�'e�;1-:,!co•: CD·t'l�?J1 ·: 1-Pif..: 00 1/..0D/\ h;J·,fro·: m1'f ,f: n�c� ro1.mr,t7aJ· : (1,J,... 'l'C: ?:fill?: : O>·il'r : 'lil· ;I. : 'l"}P,"}S..• : n..-t•m(t�. : ?°h"} (-',f·1·· : )OJ• :: )1C : '?'} : �u : ,,e.:, ;J't : ri:-:f1 : t\ODCD(l'} : nc,,,,e,9°:ri,:,,: � n,,t·: JJ(JD.r..' -��:f, ,n:1: = f·l·n,nm·1 = P't\flJ1 09°1-9°: iloi:,. : t,.el\ r9" :: a ro· ,n 0 O? r : ::1 {JlJ'Pt\: l\f,: OP'�: 1/TC,"•1·: ?°h'}f,1·: f,IJ''i/A: 1\ ,, t.\OTJ .f:: A f 7":l'l1J«(llJlD• (1£1f/l\;l .: f1fl�• h·-1·"}9° : hil,,.l· ..rr:1. : Tl':tonc: n;11"1 : n'P'l!9'1': 1'11�: il/\lA ;J--A:: 16 �1C: "11: fl·I.U : �--,11.C,: : .. tJTJ�·: foY.m�·r1:1..: 9'"1 }11_e1:,..: ,,e u : ,fi;f-: ',ro· : ,nf\ _f'l°'iA:: t\(11/,,f,.--: fl,11 0}: 1..1Y..·: m:P01«1:,. : hl\,l\(D•: flt\: (l•fih'e: c;:(ll•(:: I\CTl/ {11Jt,.{11J� : ( l?J:1· ·: . . l\:'l"' (Ir : J!, 9: It A:: {1 ,11'? : i', 'P''! 9':.}".: I I "}.,{'._•:· /;\ °1 .,{'..· : {7Dm'i:,..: ..,f t\ n ,), : ( n t;:: :,.,,,: --fldb C: ro·il'r : ,f,'PUJl.. : n:1�'1°: '1,e1-:i;?°) : rl.1°1: V· lf : 'hilh"1·v.•t.. "l,fL : ..�lil : --{l;r : �lIJ· :: fll.U : -,.lC : 'l,<D·',,f•f-,:1. : {Jit.,)·�kf9'1 : lf�: fll\,t\ :.f.: U1(':1•: i'1 1f,;: ',lD• :: · ·'f ··: (l,l11: UD"} ' p-1,),: : h'}«f'7i": f I: m•{}'f': ''ch'? '' ·r (!1&o,)c 7i1 n.1 ? ftOIJ.t\OJ·: :J>{;\ : ll/\.(.11/.fl(n(EJ•: :,-c1--'l° : ncnc: : h� CO'PIA:: 17 J-11'10.m · : {JDl\fl: , nfl ''00°1a.�<1co•1'': 'h1' ..e.1c;: {l{llJt\h•1· -� h'i�C.R.·: ll�:,..: fou',l.Xl, : ,71 "1: P'C'};l,'}: f01J.en,f•f,\: l,'}�l}'',c,' : ''Oi't.;l·\'·A•w(J : ntt'P:l!·: (\(Dll]: ,11 "}: ·flA6liJ.'' : f 01.0(f\(V•: (t,'P:-1:1: f0t_rmf1Jro•: 9°hC: 11.:,.: f'111I n·i = rmA =&..:Pf.."= rpr,1 = f,7 1"11n·: },1�?(1.,: fl{IIJlf�-) ouir�-1 •r1Ai .r1·1'PA :: 18 l1�ll.U�-: "11l.':-:f.. : f P't• : ltf.';:i.: nAi: it'l,;J1C: 1A?,'P;f! <J>A:: UD{11J(\{l: fOUZ:1«l<D": Tft:J: : .v.,z,;,-:;..: fli't'P� : hlDflJ: ,11'?: {l{l --f•<pC: {l(t,ft : ,)10J : ODLP(.,)• : },1-Jt&.(:.t;. : J.?,1f..�. : lDf,9° : i'tJ!,1"-",-. : i,'}f.lf'J : �m-:: Ol1 'P)!-: l1m{l]OJ": ,11°1 .�c : norl;,611': '11C: {llJIJ.1/.•1· : 1\1.';. &.C�,: l\1Y-.OTJ,e1"P,,.: '1A7'·: �lD· r fl.ll'19°: f}'1 ,:J'tlD• '}: f{ltt,e: "- .:Pf: : (�'t;',f•) f01Jf&.Cn• : htf'i; fl(,\OT/f..• •j hllU: ,-,,J?,.9°: fl,f,(tm•: �cp. ;f i 1,1-�..rm·�:

.-n,- :

r�:,-,h :

��:r. :

viii ·= n f:

;;

= ,.,,..

= n,:,..

= ,.,

e..t..n.:

n•o:-f-'io.1.._: 0

n.'f· :

16. 17.

18.

- 633 -

li OD <t:. l,:.� : f,:y.. f\, : f, lf ,. �,.I¾.h·l· ii.. ' f "'l!il 1Y;Y: I Y.'} 11 ;b.. ·: _ f"'l 1�0�: ' : fW"J: ;,•..,: �;; :!I! ,'I° {\9 . •" e .. f.,.t\. t,J, . .?Cl : 9° 19 '1 = l}fi titi . :, h'I' . �lD' = fl"'li\ : = \ = .r = :,·v·A· .. t, ! l1aJ oo•i11r .. f,tf. .. = 'I° l\67'k'k J.1...111 11 = J!,t J • . .... ..... ,,,:11 : �· 0 11. h. '' +f:P1: f+(tm•_ : ',:Cf..--1•1: Oh1.K": f!: ro·11'r: ,1, 1'': h"?.i\w. : -;JC : A� : hf:C1n : 1,1�A��mt..:fm· : J'U"l\h:J A OP'&. : �J.1...�fu : J,,f,;J-· : l\f., : fL(l(l}c : ilf\OIJ."ftt�:,.. : d1°'l {l{IIJ{J,1,/.q f . -1 iln = >,hl\9° fl:f = fc1>1.1r:,... 1 = 9'1tih.9'1... = hODlXbl(L = = ;,., : ftl11/ f--r: 'hLA;Ji\V-:: lbl\: '/f,ff'/'i:i• = /\OJh,f·A: '11.�-r : l\lt:fe& : ''t\�: th'1'' f,'it.:far : H'} f; : f,1(}f,\ : 11 f-u: h·f : hA ...l"ht--hCh·9° :: 19 ,,,-1.u : u1c : . « : I\A : : hOI/ ft,J.. : (lc/>C: tU11: f1till\� : th"l : nV-19° OP'&.- l\f., = .,em ! 9°h"} y..-JJ9° : hU--1?11: ,hvt-0 : OlJ-Ot-t,."1-- : i',ilLI\� : ht!\{ID1,{\'19° : ., b°2.lP&,.(}rar : fhlll\9° : ,n1°1' : h--fttf�SJ);f:: : \1,-n;J'f! : Aff'/f.': h1t: t1 1 � = tJtj:A : 1-t1J.'..tJTJ.�m?-'i = f,U'I° = 'l..tlf1 = f�,{ll\'J° = ri:cf.' = fl..Y.l : ooc;c: f'hill\9°: "1"1: OP't,: l\f,: l\{ID'PI\• = (14! : 00l1,: 1'1.,e.. tr a;: 01/;\?t.. : nou ..-J,�ml : f f : 1 : : .,ar 01�"1'tl1, f,U9° : '111f.. 1-f, <J! f,ODill\t\ :: �1c: : == lf� . "11 : f'''OD"J{l..f(I}•'' : '}I\CP/ : fl1'1--V' : a;1P'--f: : 011-f•)' : OJ•i}tp : ,,f ft◄�•'} : f:lt"J : 9°'}f!ib1' : ,,f U·'t-1 : u,�:J--:fOJ·1 : i\UD'?I\?;' : --n:F : noulf� : i1h{lft 9°'}: :b"l: TA: flCT'/{\:,-.: h&\:f l,\ h·9°== f<t:;l"'th : --Od1>?-1': th'?: roi.r�n6'�: ooictalj:T : itllLl\1., : {IDlf'i:f-OJ· : ��9° : "Ji!\?;' : a;,o- == f 1-LtJ : 1"th-'t!: -�� (L 9°: OJf.. tLu,•: 1n�'i: flCT'/ 9°t,.:,...: .n t.:J--:1: : hil h•.r 1 �: ..f.' l{l: it Affi (l 4'9'1 :: 20

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TC'tone : h7i1''i'0.1' : 0..f.'C( l;r:fro• : fl{IDQ;bli1'9l:,: : (1D{l0D�1" = l\f, = f"'..,..,. = q:,-. : roY-.. : :XI\ = Olluo t\il = il I\flOJ• : -:,'--'?c = it o,.fl,-,..cpA bollJ:ftD4: :i--1--.f·1·: ('P'i9>:f.1: --,,.a;;.i"Jt.1'1:f'PA ): A1l�: 1,1 f.9°1lttm·= f tLIJ : Y:CflT : Rth&. : ili'�.:,,r·kf : iaai : iJf.'1--1--: '111:,:,�:,.. : "h 1f.lf� : f°t J'{lOD{l/,\ : .nil1-ff"1• : 1Ai'P&\ :: '111 : 1'1-f..OIJ..OD{l{\� : f,IJ : f°t.ftifllr: TC1 too� 1 .r.-co--t1'i : O+flf,9° : fl01t,..4:.:t, : •O;J: : fOl/..tn�ou•:t-1: ,l,;J'E : nT l�1'1°1': ll°t1'1:far: 01\f,: "7)a;'i:fro·: a;ro• :: 0"11\ : Oh·A: �°l'l°7: ACP/ Y: : h1�--: LD4il1' : OP' t.. : l\f,: ,atp I\• : .n,,fmt-'PC9°: : (--re!'&c,(lC: )l i ° : : : tJ fthl>f--0 : tflJY..'/°f..U?.f : f'''/.ff..Cil : flC OC l'I': ll�,t 1''io.1' aJf..tl : : f :: f A f f,l,°I 'P ) i't..:,' wkJ1 : dl °l : iJX."1•1 ' : f"'l.fo',"n flro« , ill\n.,:,•r·A·. .. ° °1 l\ = ? '61'--:f fiCJDc/r = fi\11 = iJLD4«J:,:1- : CT'/Pint--:f. } : 1,f,,,e.. 9 == .eu = CL ll'1 = 're' = tf� = nu,�� = OJ•l\T = t\OTJ,t1��ro- = fTt;•1•c; = r9"c�'c = ,:c:i:rr-l 00 il4-�:,-. : 9°19° : 9°n1.r:1•· : 'lA--f'Ji'i\•1'9° : �OC ==

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E O A N N INTRODUCTION TO T N O T E R R T H F U A HE SOURCES OF ETHIOPIAN LAW to th e Sot1rces of Ethiopian L e, "Introclt1ction In n1y· articl aw,,, publi. shed 1n ·1sst1e of tl1e J Ol11·11a/, l I expressed tl1e wish that the preceding peo 1e more e pe ta ge x adva11ta � ke would of tl1at I than u · prelimi ced nary e essay to f.urthe r develop ri . • · · 1., v I h · · te ecte 11eg f d . d 1v 1t l11s wid e experience 1 rath er rto · hith e in lega1 scie ,a · . . . n ce an d 1n 1 te 111 1n S) eg 1 p� a rt1 1 1 cu ar op , 1a 1 Pr ofessor Krzeczunowicz has fu � ! the Ethi lfi lled s lo£1r11c1! present tl1e 1sst1e.1n 111at \Vish Among �is reflections, son1e cleal witl1 th e wide field of jurisprudence (which field for obv1ot 1s reaso11s \Vas excluded fro1n tl1e ''I11troduction'') othe s 1'th th by the ''�ntr�duction," an d yet others with' the f�r specific field cov�red -:achin: , conseque11ces 1vvl11ch tl1at 1n?dest essay could ha ve on tl1e development of the Eth iopian legal system. Re[1d111g Professor Krzeczuno,vicz's comments, this author felt the need for. a few co�1pien:1entary re_marks in order to clarify some of the more important 1ssues \Vh1cl1 mig ht rema1n obsct1re to the reader. ]"he defi11itio11 of "larv'' a12d "J·oi,rces of lalv " As n1y colleague l1i111self notes, discussion of the defi11itions of "law" and "sources of law" l1as been ''enor1nous, controversial and partly futile."3 My intent is not to follo\V l1i1n onto such grou11d but 1nerely to u11derscore tl1e diversity of views that exists among legal scl1olars. On the qt1estion wl1ethe.r law consists of ''acts and institutions" or ''rltles," a sufficient nt1mber of botl1 co11ti11ental and Anglo-Saxon authors l1ave in recent years argued the i11adequacy of a definition of law exclusively built on the concept ofi rules.4 Sin1ilarly, the reference to the pt1rpose of law i n this author's definition would be considered irrelevant by some bt1t an essential element of the definition by otl1ers. 5 As to this at1ll1or's specific reference to the purpose of development, the term \Vas meant in tl1e broad sense of growtl1 and not in the somewhat narrow sense give11 to il in referring to tl1e so-called underdeveloped countries. In the former sense a11d \\1hen referring to society, i t is obviot1s that the word has an e�sentially st1bjective 111eaning and tl1a.t the conception of the n1eans to devel?P a given society ca11 vary greatly. Fi11ally, as n1y colleague states, no socially recognized organs otl1er tl1an tl1e state can toclay create or enforce law. The_ same was not true for earlier periods of Ethiopian history, l1owever. If we appl 1 ed to I. J. Eth. L., vol. 3 (1966), p. 255. ( JIere inafte.r cited as "Int�?duction."),, 2· � Eth. L., vol. 3 (1966) p. 621. (I-Iereinafter referred to as Comments. ) , 0 2 38- 4 1y 6 ), 19 s lle p xe p. � (B 4 oit dr dtt -eJ y l,, e tud e��-pl� k· Bekaert ' lntrocli1ctio1i a l'e 1 1 � �� · 1 s! • "169-7 I, a�� _306-33, with many ref erences to. contin�Ilta1 doctrines· see a so M e (Paris Une def1n1t1on dL1 droit," in Arclzives de P/11/oso phre dit p ro,.1 D;oit et flistoir intror ea cl d n a. t or sh ;t ts li , ([ea encan 64), 19 d ; or 5� , pp. 48 ff. r\s for Llewellyn ·and ,t he AmAllen, �9uctio xf (O ak g M in ,1 ,e 11 lv a L n to their theories can be found in C. K. pp. 41-48 All en, s a h • e su s k o o 5. On tb x te e se n io , k'thc_ f.unction of Ia\v as a11 element of its de-i f' n! 't l ·t-Book of Jurisprudence A ex \\or cited above at T note 4, pp. 27 ff; G. W. Paton, (Oxford 1964), pp. 21 ff.

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n tio ini a , t def ple tha m . exa e for ref , pia . d hio rre Et y tur on.ly to state cen th . een ··t f-our o . e th f Id f 1 w a. f .1e orr. r . many exclude acts sure for and inst·1tut1ons . would we organs, . 6 l. a g le ly d te b u o d n u e r a which s sot1rce the of the of ion definit law, the I must thank: to now Turning . part. of his comments to the exact definitio11 of ,,1 m �' colleague for devoting. some ega .. l and ''non-legal," def1n1t1ons wh.1ch 1·un·ted space prevented me from consi der· ples the exam from clear ion was it ment that ed ver, howe · in d, hope m is . y It ngl _ arti 1 e c • · 1 that ''legal'' mea.ns productive 01t: Iaw �.h"1 le ''non-l ega l'' means evidencing the la. _ ''formally a11d properly called sourc e :f As for conside-?ng legislati?n the only law ,."7 this aga1n reflects . v1ews which are shared ?Y �ome ?ut strongly contested by others. 8 The same 1s true of m/ colleague s discussion of tl1e meaiting of custom.9 Bu! this is alreadr too muc� on the _ su�ject of defi?itions. L�t me only emphasize that the obJect of the Introduction was to briefly describe, for the gene.ral reader, sources of Ethiopia11 lav spanning five to six centuries. Definitjons had to be found which were u.seful in that context, eve.n though they did not in all cases reflect the legal an.d political :heories of the last fifty years.lo Tlie sources of Ethiopian lcrrv

Let us now consider the Ethiopia1. law's sources before turning to watch �akers' problems and trying to set the clock on time. A first comment worth discussion concerns the relevance of cu:tom in contemporary Ethiopia. As pointed out in the ''Introduction," this is a fi�ld in which Professor Krzeczunowicz has been working for some years.11 In tre ''Introduction'' I noted only two points of disa.greement with the views of Pro1essor Krzeczunowicz. First, the number of outlets d.etai.led by Professor Krzeczunowicz in his principal essay on this subject did not seem to me to justify his conclusion that the field of ct1stom is severely or strictly limited.12 One can or cour�e argue about the 1neaning of words such as ''severely," but I would still maintfin my previously expressed view. Second, some important provisions o� the Civil Code, qualified as ''transitional'' bi-11 valid for the present tin1e, were neglected by my colleague in tl1e san1e essay, namely Articles 3348 and 3351. Tint they also provide (for the moment) an outlet for custom would be difficult to challenge and is in fact not challenged by 6- This . was_ men,tion�d i11 the l?,.troductio , p. 227. When deali11g with e:ithe.r com�aratir: or h1stoncal techniques, one 1s bound r1ot to adhere to terms of reference conceived a narrow way. 7. See C�ents, p. 622. .inent8 l 8· See �gain Bekaert, cited above at note 4, pp. 71 and references t. o coot 169doctnne. These pages are developed in Part _II of Profe�sor Bekae t's b ok. r � , custo ,, or in , 9· All standard text-books, but f. a . or few possibl e exceptions refer to ro re F �ch, _u,Ia coutu.i:ne :' :is a source of la.v. On the other ha�d, the te� '.' custoroa, ryu:ll : droit co.utu�er ; 1s generally a.ttruhed to native law or droit zndtgene 10 q •zinfyg :t part of_ Afnican, Ameni.c� or Asim l aw which was left in fore� by the. c�1on�h-o\V · r eties 18 the more a_ nu�take beciuse soci ed coloniz of modern studies �le;� s.,th�. t '! hey knew . custo m. 10. See · · ., ...m._�ar k in note 6 legISlatton, case-h,v OT legal science as ,vell as above 11. S ee the articles . . · : · 2 note . entioned in footnote 17 to the contribtttion o_i.ted a.bove � . nd in � e.e « a �- S the .clise ss n 6 the Ce.._m� menufs i e � that masterful aialysis in the Intrioduction, PP· 2 ' pp. u23-24.

i ,,

.,.r

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Tl-IE SOURCES OF ETI-IIOI>IAN

L,\W

indicates that this a11thor's construction of these als? he But e. agu . oIIe . 01Y. c re-r ead carefLtlly 111s much more sophisticated statem ded . Having isgu i • 5 1 · art1cl es hose lang1 1age ob,11011s·1Y· couI d _not· have been 11sed In an introduction for ( w ient n cannot l1elp feeling that the position stated in the ''Intro I c), publ i ral 1 tbe ¥ene" are comn1ents is 1 1 .111y conc11rrent. f duct10n and . . . d1sc11ss1on 1s whetl1er marriage is an institution, as �or poin t nd seco A or state coz,lc s, l be ow1c z a contract, as I sLiogested. The eczL1n Krz sor . . es f . Pro . favor of t. be ,,JS '' are that the agree1nent IS � of a non-proprietary nature uments 1n �� that it is gover11ed by mandatory provisio11s. 13 The co11nter-argLiments are as follows. Tlte Ethlopia11 Civil Code knows agree111ents of a non-proprietary nature whicJ1 tions. Fo_r i�st_anc�: one can agree not to reside u sh it li st ab in st _ ot n do y rl ea cl � still ed plac� (as lo11g_ as tl1_1s_ rs Just1!1ed by a legitimate ii1terest), spec1f1 t a _ to go or in I to engage i11 or not engag� 1r1 a certain act1v1ty (subJect to the same basic lin1ita t tion), or to dispose of one·s body after d eatl1. In each case tl1e purpose of the act can be, and i11 ma11y cases will be, of a non-proprietary nattire.14 Could we therefore conc1L1de that each of tl1ese agreemen ts leads to an instit11tio11? It seems tful that we coulcl . ub do hly hig • , The Civil Code also i11cludes n1a11y articles relati11g to ma.rriage which are foar from 111andatory but, on the contrary, are permissive within the general :framework ' of the la\v. (In tl1e same way, the pern1issive contractual provisio11s of the Code operate only within tl1e fra1nework fixed by the mandatory provisions limiting the parties' freedon1.) Tl1e example given in the ''I11troduction," and perl1aps tl1e best one as it departs so 111uch from tl1e traditional institutional framework in other legal systems, is Article 627(2), whicl1 allo\VS the spouses to determi11e personal relations in tl1e 1narriage contract. When this author stated Ll1,1t the only limita • tion on that freedom was imposed by Article 636, it was by wa.y of condensing things which are obvious at a first readi11g of the Code. The provisions of Articles 638, 639 and 640 (those whicl1 tl1e Code expressly forbids to be 111odified thro11gh the n1arriage co11tract) are b11t tl1e detailed expressio11 of the reqL1ire1nents of respect, support and assistance rne11tioned in Article 636. But tl1ese li1nits do not elin1inate tl1e fact that Article 627(2) has a disti11ctly contractual flavour which cannot be fou11d i11 tl1e syste111s where tl1e tl1eory of marriage-instit11tion has been developed. 15 In tl1is respect Professor KrzecZ11no\.vicz is pleading the law in the books and the la\.v in the courts, 11nfort11na-tely \Vith 110 references to any of these � ources, \Vbile this a11thor has 011ly looked at tl1e la\V in tl1e Code for the possible Justification of a caref11l ''cot1ld."

l.,

13 · Se� C mn1cn ts, p. 625. o 14· This point is underscored by Article 9 of the Code, vvl1ich puts sucl1 rigl1ts ''extra com n1 ercium." 15· In tb_at s:nse one cannot say in Etl1iopian ]av, tl1at the parties to a marriage are orzly nteri :s ng it by the \Vay of a11 agreen1en.t, but are con1plete]y. bound by the Cod� _as s�on �hey have entered tl1e ao-recn1e11t. This i1nJJressio11 is reinforced by a provision like Articl e 643, \Vhicl1 excludesOfrom the 1nand of fidelity. In that provisions tl1e duty atory ' · , · respect, the ref ce to the Penal Code 1nade by our co 11ea?ue �s open to d'1sct1ss1on. eren The Penal Code clearly decides tllat there will be no pro�eed1ngs 1n ,tl1e case \vhere. the se complai_n�ng has co11sent�d to tl1e adultery. Tl1us, if the contract of �a.rria.ge _ t!��des a prov1s1on allo\vinrr tl1e adultery o f one of tl1e spouses, the other one will have no grou nds of consented to it. As a result, mpla o c· l1as he a.s int law tJcnal u�der the om � e _ cannot doubt tl1at the JJrovisions o f Article 643 of tl1e Civil Code are purel)' _per1ss1ve.

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JIA1' LAVl - VOL. J ETHIO OF JOURNAL

III - No. 2

this time not , ntion conte Pertaining to customary . of point r e Anoth . · 1 · a w 1s ,..,h 1trators. � aut h h or b' a. r s _ � accepte d Provessor I(_r , con. cerns the ro�e �f fa.m1ly_ t zecz11. ly sun� to ers :ead read the his to Code _ ation invit on this opic, nowicz's a nd t1es are 1or1 tl1tl re er the oth t tha n tha nd fou I il e fam hav y here now arbit rators Wh ·i upon a d.1.vorce. Ar t·ICIe 736, 1e t·. o ed by my n �� c�lleague, refe o _ _ may dec de r to by ar 1adt ?een l1av t1ators ? under Arti � cases where_ dec1s1ons � � _ cle 122 and !u . be impugned in court b. se quent articl:s. The v_a�1d1t1 _of s1e]1 dec 1s.1ons _ ca� _by 6 i er nds ted und grou l1m1 ain Art cert 73 cle on ies part , d intereste but tllis prov1s1o . n . . . . . . . . ' sense th · e exc us1.ve p1·1mary Jurisd1ct1.on of the arb'1 t any modi does not · fy 1n · rators so far as d1vorce 1s concerned As to the enforceability of custorr as a reason for its study, 16 one could ar .,. that there are also other reasons, for �lie study of �us�om� However, this autro; would assert that from a la\.vyer _s �a.mt of �1ew this 1s the only reason fur its study. If custom ha.s n � l �gal s1gn1f1cance, 1� can be left to anthropologists and custo law (whether only It a� o yer la n: 1� 1s For the thers. � r: n�t incorporated ? 1n the Code) that It sl1ould be stud1ec. This 1s as true for Eth1op1a as for other countries. Professor Krzeczunowicz argues 1bout tl1e meaning which should be given to ''law'' in Article 110 of the Consti·t1tion. 17 This author asks the reader to go back to the ''Introdt1ction," where he will find expressed the ideas that case-law is ''non-nor111ative'' and that ''preemirence is always given in Ethiopia to enact ments originating in the exercise of Ieiislative power as representing the common will of the nation,''18 paints which are )nly stated in another way by my colleague. The only question to be decided is whether the judge can base his decisions on anything other than legislation. He o1 course may not base it on something i,1consiste,zt with legislation, but judges might enforce custom, precedents or even legal science if these do not conflict vitb the legislator's supreme will. The fact that no system of binding precedent has yet been introduced. is no decisive argum� nt that legislation should be the exclusi� ''source'' of law. Rather, the abortive atte.mpt to introduce such a system indicates that the Ethiopian legislator l1as not considered p recedent as distinct from ']aw'' in Article 110. ' Finally, to end these few examples of possible reinarks on my colleagues comments, I would like to consider the case of Muslim law. It has never been my co·ntention that there should be ''a sep,ra .te law for privileged followers of anot.her reli�ion." 19 I said only that Muslim lav is still er1forced in this country. No explaf nation seemed. necessary for this statement as it is obvious that the bulk 0 Muslim law still in force could be con:idered ;. possible part of still valid custo; and that, in any event, the existence of Muslim courts is sufficie nt evide nce_ of t � ro p 15 dy enforceability of such law. That this is considered a temporary reme

p . 625. ast �� ,See Comments, bis . l h ou · dem, p. 626. The·n he nearly thr tation . g is totallY � annuls tae effects of his argumen 1 1 t tnote the o l in ose f _ which_ he· states that •the fu•ndamental purp (S ), � � note, �ut t � 0 d · �ent . Y"e would 1n fac t concur ai t in b . reflected � mair1 ideas wih the wbJcb tence, n e s t e � ;uscussion _betwee n �s would still e xi...i:t on the basis of Art_icle 110, ftr�, sses e ,t b.e _idea that Judges mu,st d eci,Je ''in aco ord.ance with th le aw. s P 18· ·ee Int.J;oduct1 on., , p. 246A . 19 See €0.D}JiJjen:ts; p. 627.

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r' I

Tl-IE SOURCE OF ETHIOPIAN LAW

uction'' �as concerned only wi�h the present situation of r� "In t the the able; the En1p1re and. thu. s could not ignore Muslim law. As for 1n law of S th e . source . Code_ text b�oks � its importance is perfectly clear; this author i s ofi on ucti 20 Prod n. 1o ct t re a d1 th 1n ng ki or currently w

Tlze legal clock his essay Profe ssor _Krzeczt1nowicz comes to tlle problem of lines final the In back. On �l1e basis of t11e evi ?ence brought forward in ck cl legal the ? ting of put wh1cl1 . we have cl1scu�s ed the essential), he implies that this of ( ments com _ his ses a11d conclus1011s n1ay be endangering legal certitude, premi etical theor r's utho avhich would in this author' s t1nderstanding amolint to impeding Ethiopian legal � evelopment. I can11ot help f �eling tl1at he attributes excessive importance to n1y "Introduction'' and n1ore particularly to such 111atters of academic controversy as jurisprudential def•i11itions . On tl1e other 11an�, custo1� undeniably is still enfor ceable in this country. Professor Krzeczunow1cz h as indeed opened tl1e way to this conclusion. ..t\nd I tl1ink l1e would hin1se]f agree tl1at the pron1otion of the kno\vledge of cl1stom as it l1as beer1 defined in the ''Introduction" \Vi]l not impede the progress of Ethiopian law; if it would, one cot1ld not see the jl1stification for the development of institutio11s of learning and research that is now occurring througl1out the cot1ntry. Jacques Vanderlinden Fact1lty of Law, Haile Sellass ie I University

pian io th E e th in ly )i n a f 20· He has now in pre1Jaration a manual on the Jaw o f perso11.s a' l1 d Civil Code .

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REVIEW

1 of tlze Crirrzinal Morc1lit) TJ1e , Lc,w London, Oxford Univ I-I L. f\. Hart4 pp., Shs. 12/ 6. ersity 5 5 · ss, · l96 ' pre TlliS slin1 volume contai11 s the text of two le ctures ?. iven by Prof;,ssor H rt ersity of Jert1salen1 j 11 1964. Th Univ !l ew Hebr e first l ecture the Cha at nging R ty' e I I ·b·1 espo _ '' xpre · ns1 sses . co11c of e rn at the turn which t�e " Conceptions ' " libe ral . eme11t 111 v n1o E11gland reforn1 1 J as taken in connect1on with the law . cr1•roinal. Jaw p ro fessor Hart takes issue witl1 tl1e y. ·b·1·t I ns1 I res p0 o1n al crir sta11d of a leading of I W ootton, wh o ad vocates abolition of the mens 1.ea pr . . Lady er form ' re . -· ereq uisite . · v In her _ 1 · t he 111en_ta� state of a l1arn1-doer is releva i_ t y. 1 I1a b1 al pen to nt not to if l 1,1 � ity_ ( conv1cti?n), but onl y to tl1e decision of how detern1ini�g 111s pei1 al would_, a ccord1n�Iy, abol1sl1 tl1e defences of insanity an e l11m treat to d dimin. ity. p art1al ly agree ing,.p rof e ssor I-Iart too would i cons1'd er q uest·10ns shed respons1. b�l� only at the treat111er1 t stag'e, �nd would therefore Of mental ty irrespo11sibili . . .. a1so . abolj�h these preconv1ct1on_ pleas 111 defence a11 d 111i?gatio11. But lle is unwilling to sacr1 f1ce tl1e :11er1s rea requirement. as an elemen� wl1 1ch must be pro ved before con viction. In his_ scl1eme , only after 111tent or ne gligence were proved would a harm doer be 11eld l1ab�e !,o compul�?ry treatment, whether punitive or medical. Professor Hart fe�ls that his n1odera��- �efo:111 -�ould preserve t11e 111er1s rea principle from destruct1011 at the hands of strict l1ab1l1ty'' r eformers. Unfortt1n�tely, in l1is b�ief lecture Professor 11art was not able to spell out the \vorkings of his scl1eme. It 1s not cl ear how a n1ea11i11gful me11s rea can be proved in the case of a harm-doer whos e personality has bee11 disintegrated by mental disease. Professor Hart recognizes 2 this problen1, but does not offer any solution. 1n such cases, w11ere neither intent nor 11eglige11 ce can be sl1own becaus e the ham1doer lacked the capacity, for example, to u11derstand and appreciate his actions, shall \Ve set him free, or convict him anyway? For cases of "automatism," 3 which under the present law pose this sort of problem, Profe ssor Hart st1ggests that "the courts could be given powers in tl1 e case of such physically har1nful offences to order not\vitl1standing an acquittal a11y kind of medical treatment of [sic] super vision that seemed appropriate. "4 B11t, it m11st be asked. does not this solt1tion sim ply re-establish the very same liability which the author is opposing? Comp11lsory "treatment" or "supervision," ordered in connection \Vith a cri1ninal case (even if after a formal ''acquittal'') will, for the offender as well as the general public, carry the pain and stign1 a of a pt1nishment. It is to be hoped tl1a.t Professor Hart will offer solutions to this an� otl1�r his te c1a �r� �p st m� e on , e il wh an Me . rks g wo ackno\vled ed problemss in ft1tL1re ory the ity bil lia ict str of e tid 1 g i1 nc va ad e th la st icu art te defence , i11 this lecture, again

See B. Wootton, Crime ancl the Cri1ni11al Law (London 1963), pasSim. 5), p. 24• n. 1• . 6 19 n do on L ( lv La al i11 in1 Cr H. J__ A Ha•rt, The Morality of tl1 e "s1 cep· g in u d s a 1 . c1 . su r "Aut_omat.i.sm" refers to acts done while 1n an unc?nscious state the to rs fe re rt a H s 0 ' walking," temporary "black-outs," perl1aps hypnosis, etc . �rff� J·R· 523 ' in whic h a Case of Bratty v. Att. Ge11. for Northern Ireland ( 19 6 l ) man killed a girl, he claimed, in his sleep. 4· Hart, cited above at note 2, p. 21. 5. Id·· p. 24, n. 1. I. 2 · 3.

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JOURNAL 01• ETJ-IIOPI.A.N LA·w - VoL.

III - No. 2

6 m�ny and other England �-ountries. of law A.ltl1oug h ther e is crin1ii1al in the fr�at tha the argt1ment pl11Iosophy of Wootton's r u o· Lady cour ts in a p t appeal in g ''pre,,entive: not be should f n punitive," � law tl1at criminal prisons a.nd h spit s the l � that and from institution, t11e single point of view of prev 1 should meld into a 1 the harm-doer's mental sta�e at tl1e _tim.e_ of �1is a�t is not nearly so relevant :� ;; 1:1e�� state at the _later t1n1e of state_ 111t�rv�n_t10.11 a�d treatment, still the strict 1n�1v1dt1al for dangers �1berty. Regardless of what a� gr arr1es � liability theor� � _ connotation criminal co°:v1ct1on slior,,ld c�rry !n s01'?e ideal stat�, there is no doubt but that _at tl�e /J1·ese_nt. time the c�nnotat1on 1s dec1d�d_ly negative. So long as the ,, community views crlll11nal_ court treatr1e�1t a_s pun1�1ve rather than therapeutic, so long as to th� �ommuruty at large a prison 1s a pr1son and not a hospital-for so long must cnmmal la.w r �f o.rmers tale care to safeguard the individual's right not to be blamed where he 1s not blameworthy. The theory of strict liability im p,oses ''treatment," whic·h to the treated party at1d to the community is synonymous with ''punishment," and which therefore con11otes fault and blame, even in cases where no fault can be sl1own. To clisre5ard the safeguar, d of mens rea while a crimin,al conviction yet retains its negative stigmatic effects is to penalize innocent individuals unjustly. For this and other :easons cogently argued by Professor Hart, we should indeed be wary, with him, of this ''Brave New World." The second lecture, entitled ''The E 1forcement of Morality," reviews the great d.ebate on the proper scope and functiors of criminal law, which has been carried on with renewed vigour7 since the 1954 Wolfenden Committee Report in England, which reco.mmended the repeal of statutes penalizing adult consensual homosexual acts committed in private. The ''liberal'' reformers, whose position Hart traces historically from the views of Bentham and Mill, have been trying to establish the principle that the criminal law nust not be used to enforce the moral ju.dgments of dominant groups in society, but should only penalize behaviour which is objectively harmful to society or ind viduals in it. The ''conservative'' view, which traditionally has been espoused by the English judiciary, holds that it is entirely right and proper for society to U!e the criminal law to sustain and reinforce its rules of morality, even if the immortl conduct in question is not other\vise harmful to anyone. Professor Hart reviews the progress of the refor1ners in t heir attacks on laws which punish suicide, honosexual practices in private between con _ senting a.dults, and abortion, and analy�es the arguments in favor of and agru?st these refo1ms. He concludes, with the refo.nners, that harm, not mere moralit)', is the soundest guide for the legislator. In the final section of tl1is lecture Professo� Hart takes up again the problem of mei1s rec1, deploring the adoption of Holmes ''objective liability'' theory by the Engli:11 courts in the recent case of Director of

6. Although the law is not very c1�8:f 011 thi� point� _Ethiopi�'s Code of Petty Offe:: probably closely approacl1es a pos1t100 of strict l1ab1l1ty. Article 697 does clearly �eq l y P�-?of of mens rea in all ?ffences, but the. effect of that reqtLir�me nt may be ::at _ v1�ated by �ticle 700, which declares tlat ignorance of th_e Ia� is no defence. 'cle article were m,terpreted to_ 1!1ean that soneone accused ?f v!olat1ng, for �anipl �, �ent g g an 712 (Observance of Off1c1a/ Holida)1s) could not claim 1n defence his non teave ignor�nce of the regulations establishinB the h oliday in question, we 'Yould effective rule of strict liability. (Of cour;e Article 700 nlight not be so inter preted ) w · ' 7- St:e P. Devlin, The Enforcement of Mcrals (London 1965) and H. L. A. Ha rt, .La L.rberty and Morality (Stanford 1963).

\ (

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BOOK REVIE W

ecritio,,s l'. S111itl1. Tl1e ''objective . _ . hc Pub liability'' theory in s -:hat of strict liability, an o m e ways mbl � r o e fes f res or Hart o!'p ses both � on similar orou11cls. In this area, h e argues, there 1s too htt l e ,, moral ity �10 th e l aw. " A 1 th0 �gbh this book discusses its subject in the context of English law, the usl y of universal importanc v io are e s e. Problems of stric issu 8 a t li a b il it y b c , e e r tw im n n sh e in nd of ip a la l w a el n d m h o e ra l a n d r eligious views,9 are of g � � •��t nce to modern Eth rowiop_ia. Professor Hart's v 1ng i_mp a iews_ should rec ive serio in th t o e b r se y e t· us s tecl 1n the development of � _ con s1dera I on Eth1 op1an crun1nal law.

Stanley Z. Fisher Faculty of Law, I-Iaile Sellassie I Univers ity

8. See note 6, above. 9.· The Penal Code of 1957 d oes n� t • i•de, although it is a crime to empted 5 uic att sh · pu � instigat e or aid anot d Art 525 Pen. C. O_n th other hand, both co su he ic m r to m i it abortion (Art. 529) are ) -01 600 °(Arts te va pn in ity al x� se o '. co ua m an ns ho cl ad e1 ul � 1s t crime s in Ethiopia.

- 647 -

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c:f?TTC ! ....... ........ ........... ................................................···························525

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n7il--'.°o.:f, �c;e. • ri"t.TL!': oom1\f." = nh.:i--v-A-.r = 'i!Tm = 11th» C:

m°I ! .......................................................................................�...........................................491

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ilit : h.Tf-kf : fODfll : fl n'l�'l..(" : ,...�f-:f • 11"'1 mt; +c: (hfl\0:,•: 0"7t&-11JllJ:'f)• : ilt"l'l: f"7(lt;�,}-: HFo ::,r............425 fODg"th(i!: hill\ I VC-l· f n-:.f: h,A: lb t · ti : 'l°&.IL--t: }alj:: ,., � oq ri:,, A : 11-au�n1..t I· ............................................................................. .........................641 H : t,.,. 110fi:&.Hc • '1f'l = n.il • h.Tf-kf = ill\r-:t-�c1m- = fh..fl'.'11/. = tJf....,:,.. = 5 . . . .... . .. 1 ....... . ..... .. . f"'l..lf1 = vnil+��c = "*9° i ........................ . .................... .. ...... .. 7A 1 1:9°il: (L: l'b'l • Y'ili"�(l)c: h-'l�: fi"o,n: '¼OD:J--'I! s (IP°l /l66J. • il/l = Iiif2i = '¼ : 'J° 1 f,r9°tJC--r :. '¼oP-l• = f,t-{lm = • •••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••• • • • ••••••••• • ••••••• •••••• •• • ••••••••• • •••• ••••• • • ••••••••••••• •• •••••• •• •••••

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ii'l f.ClL'11''1 • )fnll, il/l : ''flt.Tf-tf : ,'h01 : 9°'Jf;6bl- : oP'?llf' 629 . ... . .. ... . f+ilm : i""1-"7t, : "711&,.tf :: .....................................•······................... ... . . 2 19 . · ... ..... fA_-l--V-A-f : m"I : 9°'l'6bT r OD01 flf I ....................· ·· ········...·....······.. ····· -648 -

TABLE OF CONTRIBUTIONS - VOLUME m _ AUTIIORS Na tur R oc, e al rces: S!a.te Owners:hi/J and Contr S., sel Ru s � an , ol Bem1 B ased the Revised of 130 Const1tz1tion . . . . . . . . . . . . Ol'l Article . . . . . . 555

Com111entary 011 tl1e La1-v of Agency-Repre A L. , rch , sentation in Chu · · · · · · · · · · · · • • • . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 303 Ethiopia •

Fisher, Stanley Z., Involuntary Confessiorz:, c1nd Article 35, Criminal Proce. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • dL're C ode ••• 330 •

S011ze Aspects of Ethio/Jia11 Arrest Law: The Eclectic Approach to • • • • - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • . . . 463 Coclificatio11 Re·viel11, H. L. A., Hart, The Moralif)1 of the Criminal Law . . .

645

Fraser, Ian S., Tl1e Acl,ninistrative Fra1ne1vork for Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 i11 Et/1iopia Krzeczunowicz, George, Tl1e La1v of Filiation. urider the Civil Code . . . T1,1r11irzg t/1e Legal Clock Back . . .

...

•••

.. .

•••

.. .

•••

. . . 511 ...

621

Means, Robert C., T/1e Co11s1tittltio11-al Right to Ji,dicial Review of Ad111i1zis trative Proceedings: Threslzold Q11estions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Paul, James C. N., .Tlzird A11nual Report From the Dean

•••

. . . 591

Vanderlinden, Jacq11es, A Further Note 011 an l11troduction to tJ1e Sources . . . . . . 635 ••• ••• •• ... ... •• • of Etl1iopian. LaH1 . . . •

A11 /11trod1-tction to tlze Sources of Ethiopian Law . . .

- 649 -

...

227

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== . . . . ... . . ...... . . . .. . . . . . . . . ... 609

flOD')'?P'T: fnilrf-P,f.C : ,,., ., : P'CiT : frf..tD(t). : "r>}r-•':f1 : 0<;: c� : a.:,-.: '"h1f.1'i: flT'/fr1• : (l,'h1 : UD'}'?F1· : frf--f.1 t... : -P'IAlfl1 • h�Oc1 : n. : 'P/.1rt :: ...... ...............,........................ ....................... ..151

fOO�dt� : ht\lt i �1- : �A : � : t'C:1· i H : 'l°t.f\.. ,t : }tlj: H : ht"'l.'iIA : �(IJc I h il;-J,1 il : f·Lf..' : &,il't: ::.. ......................... ........................641 ill\ : h.TV-kf : foof11 : "1'? : 1t ')Ji'}f..• : 1'P.V-:y. = 11"'1 m'i·+c : (hf/\OT: ()"7(J)c"Jt1J1·): ,'h�'}: f"'J(lt;P,1·: tlfo : hil;t-1 il : ft.(!" : I,, if' C :: ...........................................................................................................425 ill\: ''r>,,.1·V-kf: "1'?: '1°1fl'0-:f-: OJ'?O..f'': f,f·flm: rf"lilil,"'/ t: ""lilt..tf i h:q'hil : ii1f.Cil.1f.1 :: ..................................................................629

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n+&.'l'C- : 011.Y.-:f- : I\� : rlVJJ• .. : 'll\V-0-r'IT'i'" : 'i?'l''l'C 1 5 .._ A = n caq,� ,J C.. "JI: Iii\ = lblJ\ -I A ··················�······································,············ ·........................ 52 - I I == fAc..rf-"A- f : m"l : 9°1Um':-f : 00°10,,.(' � tt)fhil: q'}f..Cll.."}f.'} :: ........................192 1

hcTf-A-1 = lll\9°:J-1-C1(J)c : rJri.fl'r'"l : /Jf..•1:i• : f"'l.lf1 : rhflrf•P.

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0..'I.

P'.,

- 650 -

TABLE OF CONTRIBUTIONS - VOLUME

m -'11'I'LES

ve Frarnework for Economic Development in zist rat i ln1 ir c A The Eth iop ia, Fr . . S . • • • • • • • . . . . . I a'n . aser . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 of Law Age11cy-Represe ntation in Ethiopia, tl1e Ol'l ritary 11111e 0, c ;i .. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... W. L. Church

•••

303

Tlze co,,s tit11tio11al Riglzt t_o litclicial Revielv of Ad,ni,1 istrative Proceedings: T l1resl1olcl Qi1est1011�,;;, Robert C. Means . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .

175

•••

A Fiirtf1e r 1V?te on an lrztrod11ctiorz to t/1e So1,1rc·es of Et/1iopian Law, Jacques . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 635 Vanderlinden A,z J111rodz1ctiorz to t/1e S'o11rce,r, of Et/1iopian Law, Jacques Va·n.derlinden ... 227 Co11fessio11s a11d A rtic·le 35, Crirninal Procedure Code, Stanley Z. Fisher .. . . .. • • • . . . . . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

/,1 vo/u1itary

�

Tlie Lotti of Filiatio1z i111der tlze Civil Code, George Krzeczunowicz . . . . . .

511

Nat11ral Resot1rces: State Ott111ership and Control Based ori Article 130 of . . . . . . . .. 555 tlze Revised Co11stitution, Russel S. Berman .. . . . . f�evielv, H..L. A. l-J{1rt, The Jvlorality of t/1e Criminal Law, Stanle y Z. Fisher 645

S0111e Aspects of Etl1iopic11i Arrest Law: Tlze Eclectic A/Jproaclz to Codifi... . . . . . . • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 cation, Stanle.y Z. Fisher Tlzird A1111t1al Report from tire Dea11, James C. N. Pa11l

.. .

•

.. .

.. . 591

Tt1r1zir1g the Legal Cloe·!, Back, George Krzecz11nowicz ...

...

. .. 621

- 651 -

•

/\4-l{l•-1· : .,..J;r,-:.f

7(Dc6liJ. ::

(3'1 : fl A �9••) ::

(r) ;, 11;1= = oo�lil == n>,,.(111 = (r) '"" fOJJ.ilro·1 = f,(Tl)/l h:tA == AIP/f: : (r) th'?

'l�ll'l'i-1"

ft;:-rch : -OLh.C : "1'? : hODK"'i"+. : (lk:,-. : f�O�·- : ,"11.,?0Jc,..<'1 : tr1;J,9'l· I -: : : hou4'flA f4!9'1 {l(ll;J : h.01/f:ld/ : <Jf,'/° ra,f.1o : A��:,. : f+�"f: T'}:'f--: OOl/.1Pt-0>T: A"l�'P.: "1'?: ODIP/..1'·: rh;Jt&f,: rr�;r 9'1' : f,f-- &..m� : /\'}f.lf� ;_ I\OJf.k,J: : flnOJ-t-·li,; : Orot-7i : outihA: ill\°tt.ml(J)c : hchc: flil+cl'C : n-�.(r : f�:,..,.,. : 11m C : th'? : +t.�°t : nf,rf'}9° : f,7im,.7i : '?C8? ,,e : hti7i I ti"/ : � i' 11 : h6lb 19\ ,,,. r... d-,r = OD A 11 6- :: · ··········• ..............41 "'"' = (r) oP1"lP'T = '"" flP/H..?� :

0.-r : 11f,1 :

♦ • .. • • • • • • ... , . .. . .. . ................ ...... ... . . . . . . .. .. .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. ...... . . . . . .,

•••••••••

•

•••••••••

. .•

fl�C� : n,:,.. : {lflou;rf�

'i!C-'" = n,,r..:y-.: "7H;,� = n,:,. = f61J.{lmro•1- = 1lf,1, ,1.-,-.n�� = tiOD A'11"�T :- (louooc oocc;: l\00.fllJmC : P'A"l1- : ltl\TlD· ::-tt,r ll,a,. = out\fl = hti7i;: rnJtil = 1'.�'l = n--1--"'1 = tJTJt1;,� = l1:,... : ooAfl= (l6f!:'

::1 ..............- ...................... ........................................ .......... .................... .. ................... ························ ·34

hh.+�1-C : (f) th°l f°tftlD•'} : 9°ClifiJ. I (f) th'? :, °IFu:J' : (f) :tt°l f"t/\lD-'} : Ft. : (lift l1Jc/;\ °lYo;r : (f) a,.A f"tftl1Jc"} : ll(ll:J' : (lift) "lFu;r = (f) :tt°l f°t/\l1Jc'} : cf>lT : (ill\).

f,tPfth;tA :: f,ODr\h;tA :: f,Ol'fth;tA :: f,ooflh;tA =•

fiLPft- 1 r,oi� = 8711.f�>f = .:t.1K , r11c=e:c; = (};.Ttll.. f..7i1) = h'i I fu,t,i+?'f-:f : f..qt11f : +cf>'iP1'• f 71•fr>9° : ' lil\ f, I f,"Jll�: 5 .. .. z .. ...... .... .. ·· ······ . (l6Jl> . .. /A t -l· 1.,f p-' :: {l. f : OD ll : : O» q.,e I it1C: W-llT 1 : OD 0

"11lC1

"'/

0°19°:,.. : hf\oo (lm:,..

f"l1i lC • lll\FAIIJ1 : +cf.llJIIJt : (>.>;....-f'C) : f°l11C : f,"IQ� : "J�tl ti» = &T = +co 1 f'?11C = h4-..el = rm.'111 = 0011111 = '¼OD;t -'l! ' ft,� 1 11'C1f1 C'i: f'P,::J(Dc' J : '?9°l--: !A++Ofla,.: f"l-OC: h�f..'} -52 -

----" 9°"'l· : fA "l.. 4'01\lD· : f°1"'1C : h��"} : ,,l.. C � : l\° il l 1 �il : If�: 11:,.. : f ·• fr' : 1•0 'P ,m 0" •"} ' fl ; i.. �&. : ill\: tr�: �ar: 0°1/\:,.: (l : ,f .. l1 m· = 1 i il "J t l1J l1J :, tt ,,,.. .. .e.. .t� m- = h au+ A f l� A :,, ; f"l•flC: (lD1/.lD·: 7--'ll'b: nqoo,f:: OD�l?f: {}:J>9>:f: ° : 9 1: ftJ , f1 n..rw.• 1-: 'P; ,: Oauh,,,..A: ;f,hh/\i;: ' ,:,: l,\ : h1f...OIJ•rm : .-,.. • : P ,: -fl (J)• "}: tJ11(D(l"}: J'1t\f1,} -7lt\ 'J°: ?f ftotrl/f_, I f.,°7(}�: flf.,; J'1C : OJ•ll'f 1n• = ODP't.r DDA il (l� ....... · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · ·· ·· · · · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

rr = n

r,,,..

= n,:,.,

= ,_,

...........5 2

:J7,f1X-: (ilt\) ° t\ r 7.. ro··> .eoot\h;tA - '?Yn:J.. (r) ,n"l n,,t·(l•fl r) ;,, a, F = ,ro�lil : •n ) :i (r - '/f,01/'i--r cp.1 ft\w· r'lt,OIJ'i:,.. ;1 11:F = 11,11. c ma-i 4>.,.Tc:":f".. (111lPl:,..: t\.&.Cil : }',f.,7f f.\'r-{1'/ f.,OtJtj,), : P'Cl},}, : ODlPl:,..: .1•nfm-1 r&..�ov = flm· � ;111:Fm-1 = t\UJJ�lil = r01J..r<11cnro1t ct,t; :J.. = I\ n. r1, = hu�:,.. = 'l "PA 11J 'i :.1.. OD 111- = it" n :,.. if 'P1 "Jlf(lr: h"}"J�: OJCq, ¾ f.,'?ij�: {lf_, ! "},;J-f:: f.,ODCf OD/;\_{): (l6Ih:: 379 n.1-n:r w:11:,.. = r.-r•1, = r.�� = u 11:,-h,1--;,0..9':i5 : i', 1�: f'l°--1..: h1- f,.lf� 1 fl,'hf.,m:1,: fl\m· : °'l.il:,-: mf,'I° : 'lA 1 n,;,,fl:Fm·: m:,, :,. : lJ&.�.. --l ..: f;, tr: u,n,}..: m•ilT : (1 '1 �:: oo 'i 7,:: 1'11--f·: f.,,, :J-- m•"}= lJ il ,,.. It ft�ro•: f '1-., J·t: ..,... <J>'P °'l.: ti .e,: Cfl:J-- :rm·"} : t\OT/flUDt\fl : hil : OTJ;'f,l,fl : f/\flfro•9'1-,,..hft"11.'1 >i,A it•n-'t ¾ y_,oi 'l� = 'l.e i n '\f., �7i = Ji 1111m. • OD Ail fl'"J.b .................. 1 s

= =(

n�:,..,,, =

= =

,,,,tt..:r f1•,'¾.&.:J:m·1 : ro•A = t\.°17.J!.� = hr,:+�= t,ri,,...rr:,.. f"?.nmwA�: hH.tJ: <D·A: fOIJ...f11ro•: IJ';'f,'J°: �ro--r1--�.&.:i:: itq:,.. : mf,'/° : l,r,:,.. : fCP/.lf'I•:,• : (l.?J:f· : r·Loi�:,- 1 m·t\◄ : 1'1 �f.,i�,:,, : rarz.,,r"l�'": (lcf!: 9° h"}f.. )·:}if.,f,.t\9°-t\it;'f,OD: it�?°: ,,rAY..l(l: A� � 1,c;mc:P1 i 07--J.;.&.:r: IA�: t\"'1 ..�'l"l : n.-,,f...l1lD·: ffl4/;\. :

,,. ,,h •,: \c llb ,,.•;,.,, A.� {l •• fll 0--r<..c A O �• 1 •1,..._,.

'1-1:f tL : (ill\) :: ar cfl = (r) if1"? roittw-1111l:,..: (ill\) rt11:r = uo ;1-- w

····················· ····················· ····· ······ ·..··. ...........................................

418

= f.,ODtth:tA ==

: h : A ' it >l : fOJ .ft A1 V h : ;J--lD OD .. f�Jl;J-- : OD(D(lf_.-- : W�'J° : 54 3 ... .... .... .... ... ... .... .... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... .... ... ....... -:;J rf (t Jt � i f, n 7 = >. /\ m = ?° tt n f it f. Jai�- = (r) ,)1'1

rm..,_,11 = DD11111 r1t1c = ro•flrr =

1 y:,..

ct,)· = flY.&.'im· = .rt\li:Pi:f.. = :°".

1CL : ODP 'tf = . C A . A 4> ;t O 'l' : ilf, -0 : f'?•OC : hti... �'1 : f,h .''/•fl: OD1f1

- 653 -

fOIJ..l\.lD' : h(:n·c : (1001p�,f: = fill'?= hChC : ��tr1 : a1i1t..� : r -?i ll°9° : 0 : ',a ll 1P/ f., * _f.'?fl� : flf, I fh.1C : "'i�l1l 1--�f, : f a>-ll'I': 111. • oopl,f: 0.7': onAll • 061." :: .. ············· ... ········ ······· ··················• •52

f}ifC : 1--Jf O'lt"hC : th'1 : flf\oochP1·· = on\lt- f,l- : f> f-om-1· = DDIPl;r'f! : -0 . = f,'rt- :f'PA== = = ,t-& 1J.'1•1 1?. u= now th'1Pl- 1 fli'tfc - tt'J° l:r'I! : th'1P1-- : ODIPl.:,.. • ''f i',�1·,·'' Of.,'l ,,. f: : f"7.:J "' tD<1'm•= t -i= ro·A= ODlPl:,..= Oi'tf.,C?'Tl\'}'i= n�r.:11= l\f,= "'I {/IJH If1 = ., ro· -1 '?r·' :,.= 00ta;'i= fl, fl-o:f'1° , hti"Ii 1 � 'I''I' = fn..Tf-k.r= i'tfC= 001 11: 1 00 Ail= (l6!h :: ..................... ....................... ...............68

n.,,.,.. ntt. rorz...r�c,,.,ro,.;

c n

fh.t-.e : il'J°'J°',:,•-h:} I\&, -,:,.. : ,� : ili\ODtr'}

e&A= Y.-- c1:c = ri't1>;.; = 011 , = ;'Jl\&..'l:1, = f01J.cr1i1 = -- f irf''l'f'\1•!}:7 : }\;:q: : )Pi},f•� : : OJ111: (Df,9°: f°t,.f /lcpC :' i'tf,ODi\h:,••9°--,"l�'"' :,.. : o0ta,1'i : ibit01.._'J° ¾ hti"li ifh.:i -r•kf:

nn.t-i =

o'l+�

'\.. oc : ODq,,1 0... ¾ OD A IhI : Ih� I-b - :.: I >..

fl l

ro.:P =

t,\

00111•0 = '11"'1001:•

...... . . ............ .............. .............................. .... .... ...... ......... 68

O'l'?Y:= "'" = 4>"'PC= if!! (!!) tPlPl:,..= n,f'�m�n:,..= -=1>1 = ftr :,. : 7i +tn·i.. : rof.,'J° : f+hlPl!J:-r: lJ:PfP-,,.1--: f<PJ.1001::,. : 01°1.l!-= ch'?= r'Pc= ito ..... .,.. = n>i, '?1L1f�OJ" = K"ch..lj: = i1�,�oof\h,1·w· = -. : I ;J : n+11rn:,. 'P '1f,IF1' On.°1C'i:w,: � ch -� : l\f,: 'll,",t-1/\ f10.flD''} : 'P;J: {looh.-l (l OIJ••flDtn«T : 'P,:J : RlD' Ah: �014-qft!,'J°: 7ih01Plf., i f,:1/'1�: 'lf, I fi',1 C: ro· il'P: 1ll : oopt,.f: n.:,.: oo/;\{l: (l61,,.., :: .........................................................................................52

=· n:i--nnA :

11 /;\

n lP/,'j :. {f) flPt.T� : �P,f, FAllJ'l

fn rP t'i= flPt-+'1= ,,.,.P,y_, frPt.+i'f:f= 0,1,1c= --r1o1t� 1-·r: hFt.: frt- (lt;{l+ro·: flPt.i--7/'�: n'lA: {lODlf)·= - . 9°h, f:,C : hlF'i'i': ft,fto".f'J°: hPt-: r+ro1.t;..:,--: 11-•t.+'lf-:f: ti"I: -- ?fl- : ODOJ f., 1'1T'PIA= f°7..A= -Of.,'} : (L(lP x ,. e 1iro• l\1Pt.i = il • 'If:: flhlP/,',: (11Pt,i·V>".f·: ooi]h/,\ : f+�ltlJJ«: hCti(:: flho•tt;: OrPt.+�= 1--Pr.e= Pc _e-= f\oo;--r:,--= _e;=I\A:�-f(l,t.= aitit.,A = nhl\= 'i---ntti ·• .e"l'l�= 'lf., 1 r�'i..e..'J°fl,= rr1& .. , OIJ111c= oPb\il= (1611'

■-

••

=Per.-=

IPj��nc:

• 'O O O • o o o • ,0 O t O ♦ O O o O • o o ♦ • o O O o o o ♦ • o • • I O O O O I O. 0 o o o o o ' ' • o • • • 0 • • • O O O • • • • 0 O • O • • 0 • • O O o • 0 I ♦ 0 o I o o I • o• • • o o I • f o o O • o O •• O O o O • • • • o • • • •

h.il+ P.1..C : (f) ch'? ::

Ioo O • 0 O O • I O O" o o

II oo

O,"fa'?= P'A."11 : 'llA +llm : llt\1P&\llJ1' : f+lln1 : :,-1'1 f1f I . : ch't- h."}Y.• : f,f'OJ(l'i : FA"11r : n,�t\f., : fl"'IH;Ji : fb, f: : }tt, h+c= 00Y.--fl= fl.(lmW" = hH. u--: P'IA"11 : foo'ibb1.= ir'llJJ111 = t\"'ll l+l\t\<i: : f'?IA: 1·'1'1?- : ill\ : IF'i I IT'/1 9° : 1\.1\ : 'lt\P'A llJ'l • ltlJL&.h+� : il 9° 9° : t r'i= rl&-(tc , f,tJ1 : oo(lt\•1 = :'f--'1'.Jf11 : ,. UQ•tJQ<,; : 'n�Tf,\'JP :: itf ll,W- = OD(\(I I blt li i f}tJ;. il : ,

,_ 654 -

•••••• .. , ••

, -.$1.

/ll;J',:. : {l,:,• :

. h 'l , .i'tfl : ,..,,., :

111

00Ail:

{l'"J.h:: ..............·· ··· · ··· ··· · ···· · · · · · · · · · ···················· 34

rf--"; : 1--�_e ! &. f t; lP : V't f f, . P&. rf·'1: 'i Jr f ) 1 V't : 1--�.e t flll/.1\m•'): J?,ODl\h;tA :: J't ,,fC : (f) 'l·I ' 1'1f.• : (f) ,h"l ;; flll/../\lD·') : .eoul\h;tA: :

t,f.�: (ill\) 111/ill.� 'i�'r,I, : (f) ·O,I,,.(: : ,71"1 : P''l : P'(;'}r} ! f°2.t\m..1 : J?,OD/\h;J"/;\ :: OJ1 Y:/\7i:: {f) OD:PliliJ,: ,1,'?'i: fm"}:l!l\i1: ou<}6,.J. : ,),"l: P''l: Fc:q:,.. (lf,tf;J·• : ODW�J?:." : <D.e'J° : OD :J--mt} ! fl</! : f(f', : fa> ')j! f;\ t){l : : f 1 tt ,11c 1 flP/.. · ll<D• � h1 J?:." = nm· : ou-o :,.. : ta.e'it.m• : ' �,ri r 0 ·. m.e'J° : ·1·c:� : llOT/ 1·� -1• : fl.A : f/bl\ : (lm• : fV''lm•') : "IA f : .. {llJ/o ). : ,n,,e9:: ,7,1i: fWll: Wf.,9°: ffll: 'h1f.V'',: ',ar-f{l t\m.: 1'-10t.7i: 1,(1•1:;J·· :: ... .................................................................................. ... ..3-11 . .

:: (ilfl ) 'Pll ·r'i' : 1.,�:1-- =

(D•t\'}

(r) ,71'? = f'P.Ll\m-·; = f.,ODflh;.tA

flflOD/l 'P<D'r

10 :J-- :

(r) (D•l,\ flT'lflW·') : J?,tJDflh;.tA ::

arc{l = (iltt)

�-tf IL1 : ft OT/�l.il : fD?..,tc•(l : h (l �-ffl·tro· : &..&.7i : ',(D•: flT'lfA : nil : flTl/.. <l>C{lro·: �-•11·1,ro··} : floY.. •cJ'm{JDm•c; : 'h'}J;.&.Cil ll,,1.. = fllTl lmf.,<l 'm·: (llD• : fl h·A : 'lm· : ·l·htt OJJ.t1i'1,A i't•fl.,';. � f-"1'1� : ,1.e :;_ 01\.e'l·li ,,11-om o0 Afl

(I�::········· ········ ············ ·················· ···········•······••\••··· ........ ········· ···················· ............................. 18

,.•ft-L'}: ODf\lD'P'i: o n?f'c ., l''ilf1f : ll�c..�-- : n..."i· : Ol {llJt\h:,- : "1.f,: : '1J?,lf'}O•)" f11•1 : t..ft· / ■,.•ftLm·'): /\.,fl(Irtp: (D/!, 'J°: ll.7ic: ,e:fl\A :: .eif��: "ICiP/ f, :

■

h A7i

•

�P./ I •.,

,J ,h • .rm Ah "" 1 b •• C..;,-" • ru.,. t,\ 11 •• 1A6n,

.................... ............ ...................................................

P 't-11 f·t : '¼f.,� :,.

,.l: : -,.if It \\ h il h K 1 iC6 : Oi '1° l '1°1 : /fl -'i: : ", : � lf'f : f.rl'lll<D· : lTl 1 ?. : : n �1C Oort! �?° : m �lo � .. -& · f,,. : � O : :,,n_ l f : m·i : fi..(l ft� +- / il mt--rrc: h�.�8 J' : f(T(IY�'l A�',:,--1 : flJ1 .& ..'rC'i': f<l?9°: �;J : • : il·J C6 Oit } A : : :J' )• t\(1 h f fOTJ. H, : x -,.,, 1· : -1·1 °11IA?i' lf'r " . ,,l· = fL{lmm· = iif, m m· P. : � ;,' -;1, ',:, O,J!, : o�� = 0.1 s,u : 9°1'1° : .. ·41 .. ..... · .. · .. · :: 611' (l : 1 {l (ID A ;J-I>/ i :;: A "li '1 h t : l :}-:. 9'1-.e,if OD�"ii : �Cd'/J!, �

- 655 -

f,Cir? = (ilt\) ortllm·-�t = f..oof\h:rt\ :: r t;:-rth = (f) 11t1t.c : c1,"I = P'., pcq:,. f,Jf;r : (0) l\f, : v•hT : hl\"'iil',lt:,m'} :e: t\� = (f) {IIJ:,,liliJ. = ,n"1 'i = fm 'l j!l\ � = ODq>li1i: ;,, "I = P''I = P'c'¼:,-. f67..l\ CD''} : f,{IIJ.t\h;t A 1"�L:/! fL,f•(l-0: (f) ih°l t fOl/.t\tD4'} : f,o>t\h;tA:: "Jfo;r I (f) dt°l

OD«

f: (f) +"l{}c>�

fn1� = 'lt\1-->;1, 001-11,n = mfl:J>lD4 {}f\ao:,,ln· = rh1-f-r = f+H;, : h'l�tr'I t 'lt\1-->;{!.: fn1A"lt\�:,.: 'I';, : l\.mf:P: i'tY,1'1 (Dc9°:: 'lt\1-->;_e = lDiJd..: f{IIJ")(l:,,.: h1f..tr'I : m O:J'(Dc: on:J!A. : f,'fCfl;t-A:: :r f..(l: �A., ltlJ• I J!,01 {}1 : q_e ! fi.:J,{\ l· : l-tvt I OD/A il: (l�:: ....... ...............................................� .......... ...... ....................................................... .................................................................61

mfl.41lD' = "'lill� = h'l�.f+c-0: �c� = n,,J: = o.fHlD' = ltftf>c,a=

ftf>l.: 1'1f..tr'I I '11\1--J;f,: mO:.l'llr: f\(lmw·: '11A'?tt :,S: 'P;, : lt.f.h�A: m•tr'} : Ol/�lil: _e·:,�1\/;\ :: ;rf.(l : -� A'llttJ• t .f.'?'1�: 'l.f. i fl+ t\1' : ti VI t oo/;\il: (I� :: ................................................................................. - . 61 0

9°C65/»: (f) "1'? I

t\;J"Cft."'1 : fOOODl'J' : ao,(l:'J• : r01J.7i'l' : tDf,9° : fOl/.t\tDT : tt,e 1-.t\9°-hi--'P'P�:f:: , ,.�1-: t\YCI\IP/ I fOOODl'J': oP1}-r: ftrt fh+c = m1,r , fOI/. if'r : c&/A � ,n1 = m'l'c,· = 1-:1>t--): : hll = If� = 'P ;J : f t\,(J)c'/°:: +hfb: 1-0l: pf\(L I f,°1'1�: (]f, I il1llJrf:: {DI,\ 413 . .. . I Ah : AQ"h ... . . ........ . 00 f.-.llQI C,,-Pao ....... . . . . . �l.11 .................................................... ······· 7 11--1»-- ==

P'&.. : (ill\) (Ir/;\ t\l�9°9°: tr'I : t\htif.bC : 1.H» : f"'l.'P'P fl,.:,..: fP' Ir : m-lA: IL'i c = Y,l-1\A == fP't- = w•A = f t\Ot = r·n1,,r:,-- = "-·* l'P'i" = ft\Ot = , = 9°h1fT: i\f,:J�f.il: n.+c: h'-,t-: 1-h-i," tL�t , " l f'i :: IA P: P OO/,\(l I f,�{)� : {)f, ! if fl.t,. :. :-("J� t- OD/Ail: 06f!' :: ················ ..•···········409 fA04! = 9°h"J f:,S: h.P't-ar: f+(lt;O,f•: lPt-1-�: l-tl>f: /L,,f1� = r 1 .e- 'l'PIA:: IDf!1% : '¼: 9°: fmllJar: f;,,-, : ti�A: "7ll; m4!f: ,,...TC : U : i\w�+�m- : fOi\m : oo-O,r: f,(lllJA:: f(l«t«fl t«: 9 2 1 · ,:�1: "1�,f)�: f)_e. ! ;,if(JJc : (l�: HC-f. 1 OD/Ail: (ltif.b:: ··········· ······•"'"' ···· - ffi@ -

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- 6.58 -

•

INDEX TO CASES R·EPO RTED (Vol. Ill) Page W E A V L I T A "R 1 S I JN 1 1' 'lD r E:r erci se of power by l1� 1�-atttl1orized incli,,tcli,1 al. r spec1f tcally delegated to tlle Directo . . Legislative powe . r · O f M ]11· 111 a lone, and un1c 1pal 1 e b y 1s d e ex er: "' b · ay n : i1ot by anyone else, w 1 ty hether acting on 111s beh a l f or 11ot - A YALEW MELESSE v M S DI A AD AB AB . OF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • UNCIP f\LITY •• •• ••• 38 Labo r,r Relatio11s Board, litrisciictio,1 of SEE LA.BOUR RELATIONS ADOPTION SEE PERSONS, LAW 01: A N D CUSTOMAR Y LAW 1/R CARRIAGE r SEE C01v1MERCIAL LAW BAIL1l1ENT, PROOF 01-, SEE CIVIL PROCEDURE CIVIL CODE SEE CUSTOMARY LAW 1

•

CIVIL /JROCEDU.RE Bai/111ent, Proof of Ordinary bailmen t must be proved i n writjng - testimony of \.Vitnesses may n?t be accepted to. prove st11n of n1oney exceeding five ht1ndred Ethiop1a11 dollars -- ALEMAYEI-IU fIAILE v. KINDO MEKESH Chilot - TEKLE !vllKAEL AB DI v. ESTATE OF BELA YNESH AZBTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... Prescription vV11ere the prescription period h,1d rt1n before the enactment of the Civil Code, tl1e clai1n is not revived by ,tl1e Code, - where the prescription period had 11ot rt1n, tl1e longer prescription period is used, whether it js that of t11e former Jaw or of tl1e Civil Code - TIGIST FISSEHA v. BERI-IANU ABA GOSSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COivfERCIAL LAW Air Carria,qe - C/1arter At5ree1ne11t The princi p]es relating to the cl1artering of ships as provided in the Maritime Code, have ge11erally been accepted with respect in the cl1ar tering of aircrafrt - pt1rsL1an.t to such principles, the quality of "carrier" goes witl1 the power and cor1trol exercised over aircraft and crew in terms of charter-contract. NEGIST MAKONNEN et al. v. ETHIO PIAN AIRLINES, INC. et al. . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · Books of A ccou11t. Whether it was arbitrary for the tax authority to_ rej�ct � tax pay�r s book of accou11t in deter1ni11ing his income tax 11ab1l1ty 1s a qtiestion of fact - SHALOM SHALOMAY v. THE INLAND REVENUE DEPARTMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · ·· · · · · · · · ·· · Charter A greeme11.1 - E.,1:e1111Jtio11 fro111, Liability E�emptions fro111 1 iabiJity insertecl i n a charter contract. cannot a ffect th ird party claima11t - NEGIST MAKONEN et al. v. ETHIOPIAN AIRL INES, INC. et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·. . ..

- 659 -

5 25

406

Jnven.torJ' Valuations . . . . Com. c., Art. 84(�), requires_ that 1nvento:1es be value _d on the basis of current m.arket prices and not on t11e ba�s of cost price - SH ALOM SHALOMAY v. THE INLAND REVENUE DEPARTMENT • • • CONSTITUTIONAL LAW Adn-iinistrative Action The Director of _ the Municip�lity may or·der the demolition of any building erected 1n contravention of Art. 4 of Proc. No. 91 of 1947 • th.e order must be issued to the owner of the building - AyALEW MELESSE v. MUNICIPALITY OF ADDIS ABABA ... ... ... . .. Judicial Review of Municipal Orders review and to control Municipal o r. ders are subject of courts - AYA . LEW MELESSE v. MUNICIPALITY OF ADDIS ABABA • • CONTRACT OF EMPLOYMENT SEE OBLIGATIONS, LAW OF CONTRACT, VARIATION OF SEE OBLIGATIONS, LAW OF CUSTOMARY LAW Legal Situation Created P,·ior to Code Where an adoption and donation created a valid legal situation under customa.ry law, the Civil Code is not applicable except as to the future relations between the adopter and the adopted - YISHAMOUSH GIRM.AY v. KASSA RETTA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. ... DISSOLUTION OF RELIGIOUS MARRIAGE SEE PERSONS, LAW OF DISTURBA.NCE OF POSSESSION SEE PENAL LAW AND PROCEDURE DONATIONS SEE OBLIGATIONS, LAW OF EARNEST SEE OBLIGATIONS, LAW OF ELECTORAL LAW SEE OBLIGATION, LAW OF ••

••

38 38

GUARANTEE

SEE OBLIGATIONS, LAW OF JOINT WILL SEE SUCCESSIONS, LAW OF JUDICIAL REVIEW SEE CONSTITUTIONAL LAW LABOUR RELATIONS lurisdiction Where the Labour Relations Board finds that one en1ployee was dismissed because of his membership in a labot1r union and that other employees who were dismissed are entitled to compensation from the employer, the dispute between the employer and his employees a� to the employees' dismissal is a labour dispute and the Labour Relations Beaind has jarisdiction to hear the case - SERA MIKAEL BRICK FAC , TORY v. THE ASSOCIATION OF DEMISSE ESHETE ··· ··· - 660 --

PERTY PRO 1L T MA��{ PERSONS, LAW OF L /'.1C1,UA C�NTR , IO�S (}BLIGAT Bai/111ent , p, oof of "£!RE � E C O R P IL IV C E SE 1i 0 t1 1a r a f o V 1 1r r o F i, Coiitrac A contract made i11_ � for1�1. is varie� __i11 �l1e same forn1 _ where the _princip�l contract. 1s 111 �r1t1ng, 1nod1f1cat1011 �a� t� be in writing and oral evidence not adm1ssable to prove n1od1f1cation _ BAYESSA JAMMO v. ASSEFA WOLDE GIORGIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ..

Page

401

Do11atio1z A donation is a co_ntr�ct wl1�reby tl :e dot: or gives some of his property or assumes ar1 obl1ga_t1on _ w1tl1 tl1e_ 111te11t1011 of gratifiying the donee _ donation causa 1nort1s 1s a donat1on to be carried into effect on the death of the do11or and is subject to provisions regarding wills _ . .. . . . .. . . .. HAILU BAGDASARIAN ,,. ALMAZ Afv1BA YE

369

Ear11est A person receivi11g ear11est tipon entering into a contract may cancel the contract on repaying dot1ble tl1e arnount received - no specific per formance available to tl1e other party - TEWABECH INQUOSELA SSIE et. al. v. WODAJO YIMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .

377

Electoral Law The right to stand for election to Parliament cannot be sold or made an obj ect of transactio11 - a contract i1npeding the right of any of the contracto rs to stand for election to Parliament is unlawful and im moral and, tl1erefore, of 110 effect - TEKLE GEBRE SELLASSIE v. SEBHATU \VOLDEMARIAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .

416

£111ployn1e11t Con tract An employee dismissed witl1ot1t adequate cat1se is entitled to co1npensa tion - Legal Notice No. 302 of .1964 gives eznployees greater rights than they l1ad u11der Civil Code Articles 2573 and 2574 - YESUBARA JOSOPIE v. GASHA W BEZA ZERFlJ . . . ... . . . . . . . . .

Contract of employmenl exists irrespective of duration of employment - compensatio11 is reqt1ired botl1 for unjustified termination of a co ntract of emplo),me11t and for u.njustified failt1re to renew a contract of employment - KIDANE TEMELSO v. SHEBIRU GEGNIE

Guarantee Where a person agrees that if a debt is not paid his property given as security may be sold; he is a joint debtor and not a simple guarantor - BISRAT WOLDE .HANNA v. FITAW RARI GESSESSE MA-

KONNEN

.. .

...

. ..

.. .

...

.. .

Hiring Intellectual Work �here a client's file is closed due to the advocate's absence, the client Is _not liable to pay any fiee for service _ the advocate must compensate clie nt for any loss st1stained by the client - TADESSE DILNESA U v. BEKELETCH KASSA . .. . . . . . . . . . · · · · · · · · · · · · S RQ

661 -

411

348

p�o�ce !o ocu�ents f�ils te .Page �lth�ugh ordered advoca � th. e . Where . to t 1ed iust1f 1s 1n cl1e11 in term b1s t, ating the co.ntract do so by the cour · .h · ice · rendered. - TADESSE without compensat1on for t. e serv DIL . A . H S . . . S C . . . \ . , T . E K L E .. . .. • • • NESSAHOU v . BEK 65 E R U D E C O R P D N A W A L L PENA Criminal proceedi�g 11_1ay b� successfully institut�d for deprivatio n of possession when with 1�tent1�n to procure a p�o�1t or be�efi t th.e actor encroaches on or oc�up1es private la11ds �r bu1ld1ngs_ which is the pro perty o.f another, or 1n any other manner interferes with the property or quiet possession of another - BELETE ABERASH'S PETITION 358 JJER.SONS, LAW OF •••

Adoption, Condition for

Adva.ntages to the adopted child are major considerations - nationality of the adoptee does not prevent a, contract of adoption . . . IN THE MATTER OF THE ADOPTIO�- OF A MINOR CHILD, GUNA-

WORK

...

. ..

.. .

. .. . . .

...

. ..

...

I • •

I • e

I • I

422

Dissolution of Religious Mar,·iage

A valid religious marriage cannot ·)e dissolved by the provisions of the Civil Code - petition for divorce nust be referred to religious authori ties who have jurisdiction for dis;olution of such marriage - SHE WAN GIZAW INGIDA WORQ v. NIGATU YIMER ... ... ...

390

M'arital Property

The survivin.g spouse does 11ot have to institute court proceedings to receive common marital propert) from a person who has taken its possession without valid title -- TEKLE MIKAEL ABDI v. ESTATE .. . ... .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. · sH AZBTE OF BE.LAYNE

PRE.SCRIPT/ON SEE CIVIL PROCEDURE PROPERTY Disturbance of Possession

Deprivation of possession is not necessarily a criminal offence - BE LETE ABERASH'S PETITION . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . · · · · · · · ·

358

SUCCESSIONS Wills, Action for Nullity An a€tion to contest a will must be brot1ght by tl1e person who contests

the validity of the will - TEKLE M l .KAEL ABDI v. ESTAT E OF · · · · · · · · · · . · . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . BELAYNESH AZBTE

Will� Amendment and Revoca,tion A will may be revoked and amenced by the testator unilaterally witb· · 48 RETT

out court action - YISHAMOUSH GIRM AY v. KASSA

Wills, Form of

Where the contracts of an instrum�nt lea,ve no doubt that its object �s an :tdQption an.d donation inter vjyos, the fact that the instrument 18 · �esi�a:tea a ''will'' has no legal effu;t - YISHAMOUS H G !R.MAy v. . . .. KAS-SA. REITA

...

.. .

. . . . ..

- 662 -

. ..

...

. ..

.. .

•

. . Wills, Joint 1nake their will by one and the sa·me . 11s pe rso era l sev I� ins trument no of be shal l effe ct -- HAILU BAGDASARI suc11 l- 115trtin1e11l AN YE AMBA · · · · · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. v. ALMAZ • ON ATJ 7·AX 1 zs ctior Dedu ;I I' Dedtictions for losses, depreciatio11, and employees salaries _ SHA THE INLAND REVENUE DEPARTMENT v. OMAY SI-IAL LOM Deterini,iaJion of Tax by Esti111atio1i Where the Tax Appeal Co111111ission ascertains that the auditor for the tax autliorit)' l1as di�regarde� tl1e tax.pa.yer's ?ooks oE accounts because the value l1ad been !nflated, 1 t sl1ould determine the actual value of tl1e inventory on a basis of current n1arket value at the end of a year _ SHALOM SHALOMAY v. THE INLAN-D REVENUE DEPART'• • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • • • • • • • •• 1J_j .,.lYA"CNT •

WILLS SEE SUCCESSSIONS, LA \V OF

- 663 -

•

Page

369

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506 507 507 494,507 495 495

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1933 1934 1935

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374,376

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2 91

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2/1935

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156 162 59

258/1955 302/1957

52 29,30

49/1956

112/1940

215/1946

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T ABL.E OF LAWS CI'l'ED

(Vol. Ill) REVISED CONSTirfiJTION OF E TIIIOPIA Arti cle

28 30 31 33 34 36 37 38

41 43

45 46 47 51

Page

Article

238 238 238 239 563,565 238 238 123,238 179,627

54 61

627

185 185 175,184,185,186,187 188.190,191,560,563 I 85.560,563 , . 185 185 185 336,476,477,478,481 484,487,488,489 330

65 69 70 88 89 90 92 92

110

115 118 122 126 130

Page

185 185 175,475 188,189,190 123,125 123 238 238 238 238

238 123 176,18 l ,246,626,628,638 143 143 175,176,177,179,181 182,183,190,478,560 477 55 l ,553,554,555,557 558,559,560,561,562 563,565,566,567,570

CIVIL CODE OF 1960 9 10 11

146 148-51

154 157 280 286

336

358 571 577 579 606 607-20 623 624 627 629 631 632

636

637 4 75 475 519 519 520 305 513 30 4 25

637 40 638 639

640

643 650 651 662

663-95 664

666 668

624 372

669-71

390 244,396

396 244 397 244,390,393,397

244

244,245,637

624

245 244,624,637

671

684

686

689

721 722 723-37 736 739

740 741-45

- 669 -

624

637 637 637 637 371 371 394,395,396 336 625 397

397,398

397 394,397,398 371 371 371,372 514 638 396 638

512 512 512

Article

743 744

745 746-47

750 752

753 754 755 756 757 756 759 762 764

765 768 769 70 769 72 770 771 772 773 74 774 777 778-81 780 782 783

786 785-87 788 789

790 796 796 806 806 803 808 810 844 850 858

859

937 947 973 996

1114 1115

111, tlt27-l9

Page

513,518 513 513 512,514

A1·ticle

Page

1140

568

1145 49 1151

1149

1152

515

515 515 515

516,523 516 512,517 517 512.518 512 512,523 518 519 516 519 519 520 523 519 521 520 519 521,513 514 514 514 514 514 513 517 514 422 423 518 518 370,371 371 369,370,371,373 48,515 28 371 25,28 25 48,51 48,51 48,51 314 ,

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569

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348,350 626 475 475 330.475 ,

475 330,475

348,349,350,33 l, 353 484 484 468 569 520 74

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304,314 304,306,315

Article

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2222

2222-23 2223 2230 2232

224

2248-52 2252 2253 2257-65 2264 2427

Page

Article

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304

304 309 372

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CIVIL PROCEDURE CODE OF 1965 15

5 32 35

359

COMMERCIAL CODE OF 1960 36 305 84 304 214 304

359

304 58,60 304

PENAL CODE OF 1957

2 27 49

622,626,627 479

64 74 76

360 475 475

488

484

216 300

411

412 414 416 417 - 671 -

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529 557 558 580 589 600-01 618 630

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467 467

475 483 475,487,489 488

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646

CRIMINAL PROCEDURE CODE OF 19,1

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