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An Introduction to Labour Developments in Ethiopia . . Georg Graf Yon B_audissin . .

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Prosecuting Criminal Offences Punishable Only Upon 'Private Complaint •• ,. · Philippe Graven ,

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Nationa:lity, Domic�le and the _Perso�al Law in_ Ethiop� ESE , r- .

R R t: · Robert Allen Sedler � (I · .,..(;��

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CURRENT ISSUES Civil Code Articles 758-761 ;: Side Issue

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- 11 -

HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY'S Remarks to the First- Graduating Class of 'the EXTENSION PROGRAM at the FACULTY OF LAW HAILE SELLASSIE I UNIVERSITY .

November 24, 1964 · '

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We are indeed pleased to congratulate tl1is class wJ10 have today received Certificates in law from the u· niversity - and to the teachers who have made your accomplishment · possible by planning, organizing and carrying out of this pioneer project.

You may rightly take great pride in your accomplishment, just as We do.

The administratio11 of justice, in a modern state, dema11ds well trained qualified persons at every level. Th_e introduction of the codes and the revised Constitution of Ethiopia, a_s well as other legislation continuously coming from Parliament and the Go�ernme11t, has dramatically changed Etlliopia's legal system. The law of the Empire is now modern, co111plex a11d scie11tific in the sense that it has· been prepared by experts after careful study. The administration of the law of the Empire increasingly demands · · highly trained persons. ' In a real sense the development of tl1e natiori depe11ds upon the development of our legal institutions.

The proper administration of justice requires a research for truth, therefore, the judicial function requires highly selected men. Judges shall be chosen from among those · who studied la\V, and who sacrifice their personal interests to their duties.

An advocate who discharges his duty honestly is a ju·dge� So the need for persons trained in law is obvious. · Thus We are pleased to learn thaf others are following hard upon the footsteps of the number of Ethiopian lawyers holding this class. We a.re pleased to .know that soon _ a university degree in law will be virtually doubled.

We are especially pleased to see that so many judges and other civil servants and advocates a.re taking time to continue their education even as the) continue to perform their regular daily duties.

Education is an ongoing task. The obligation to in1prove oneself does not cease simply because one has a regular job. This is certainly t.rue for those who work in the administration of law and in legal counselling. We would urge that these persons must do all they can to improve, continuously, their professional capacities through further study.

Members of this graduating class: by sacrificing your time you have advanced yourselves and the nation. · We are confident that the qualification you have earned today will be recognized within the legal profession. We believe it should. We believe, too, that the professional attainment to be achieved by other students now studying law in other programs of the Law School must be recognized.

Ethiopia needs a modern legal profession just as she needs the modern legal system she is building. The one can.not exist without tl1e other.

You - all of you who a.re taking University training i11 law - are l1elping in the task of building a profession. · _I congratulate you. I co11g r· atulate this class: take pride in what_ you have done by servin g with continuing zeal and loyalty tl1e Law of Our Empire.

Complete text as reported in the �thiopian Herald, November -25, 1964. ed .

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·co.RRIGENDJJM · Page .vii The fol,Iowing ·.nam· es should' be added to the list of those

who ha,ve consented. to. be. Patrons __ of the Journal of Ethiopian Law: Ato Gebre Gebre Giorgis Ato M•akonnen Wolde Mariam

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PATRONS OF THE JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW The Jour11al of Ethiopian Law was inaugu.rated by His Imperial Majesty Haile Sellassie I in tl1e summer of 1964 as an important step in the development of Ethiopia's lega.l system. Subsequently, the Board of Editors of the Journal has invited those who are i11terested i n the coutinuatio11 and expansion of the Law Journal's activities to express their support by - b,ecoming Patrons of the Journal. The following persons l1ave become Patrons of tl1e Jot1rnal of Ethiopian Law: H.E. Afenegus Kitaw Yitateku

H.B. Tsebafi Taezaz Aklilu Habte Wolde

Ho11. Ato Basl1ahe Belaye11el1

H.E. Bit,voded Asfeha Woldemicael

Hon. Blatta Matifts Hiletwork

H.E. Ato Mammo Tadesse

H· on. Ato Hagos Tewolde Medl1i11

H.E. Col. Leghesse Wolde Hanna H.E. Ato Seyoum Haregot

Hon. Blatta Haile Walde Kidan

H.E. Ato .Assefa Gebre Mariam

Hon. Dr. William Bubagiar

H.B. Deja. Berhane Meske I Wo Ide Sellassie

I Hon. Ato Negussie Fitawake

H.B. Ato Ketemma Abebe Hon. Lt. Girma Wolde Giorgis

'

Ato Abate Wondemagegnehu

Ato Assefa Mataife.tnia

Ato Aberra Jembere

Ato Ats1h:el1Ja ?an1ai

Ato Adarra Fran�ois

Dejazmatcl1 Eekele Beyene

Ato Adenew Haile Michael

Ato Bekele Demisste

Ato Adenew Kidane

Ato Bekele Gebre Amelak

Ato Admasse Gessesse

Ato Bekele Habte Michael

Dr. Maurice J. Aelion

. Ato Bekele Nadi

Lt. Col. Ahn1ed Aminu

Ato Bekele Tesfaye

Sheik Ahmed Osman

Ato Belatchew Asrat

Ato Aklil11 Atlabatchew

Ato Belay Mengesha

Ato Aklilu Bete Mariam

Ato Belete Wolde Sellassie

Ato Ali M. S. Berbatu

Woz. Beleyu Work Gebre Meske I

Ato Amanuel Amdemichael

Ato Berhane Kefle Mariam

Ato Amare Degefe

Lt. Col. Berhane Woldeyes

Ato Amede Lemma

Mr. Russell Berman

Mrs. Marica Arvanitopoulo

Ato Bulcl1a Demeksa

Ato Asfeha Kahsai

Lt. Col. Dama Zeng Egzer

Ato Assefa Liban

Mr. G. N. Debbas

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•

•

- Vll -

Lt. Col. Mel1erete Gebre Selan1

Ato Desta Geb1·u.

Ato Endale Wolde Micael Ato Endale Mengesha Ato Eshete Berhane

Ato Me11gesl1a Walde A ma11uel Ato Mesfin Berl1e Ato Mesfin Fa11ta

Ato Eyassu Gebre Hawariat

Ato Mewail Mebratu

Dr. Eyob Gebrecristos

Ato Michael Fasil

Mr. Stanley Z. Fisher

Ato Muhamud N11rl1u Sai11

Ato Gebreyesus Haile Mariam

Ato Mulugeta Berihun

Kego. Geta Gebre Hanna Kitaw

Ato Mulugeta Wolde Giorgis

Bashai Gebre Meske! Zeilo

Ato Nabiye Leoul Kifle

Balambarass Gemeda Urgessa

Ato Negash Yifru

Ato Getachew Asfaw

Ato Negga Tessema

Ato Getachew Kibret

Ato Nirayo Esayas

Ato Goytom Beyen

Kegnazmatcl1 Nuridine Zaye11u

Dr. Philippe Graven

Mr. Donald E. Paradis

Dr. Saba Habachy

Mr. James C.N. Pa11l

Ato Haile Leoul Habte Giorgis

Mr. Ken11etl1 R. Redde11

Ato Haile Sellassie Awl1latchew

Mr. Arakel Sakadjia11

Capt. Hailu Arsede

Scott and Scott, Attorneys at La�'

Ato Hailu Sl1enqute

Mr. Robert A. Sedler

Mr. G. Hamawi

Ato Tadesse Tekle Giorgis

Mr. N. Hamawi

Ato Tefera Degefe

Dejazmatch Idris Lejam

Ato Tefera Metiku

Ato Kanaa Guma

Ato Tefferi Berhane

Ato Kassa Beyene Ato Kebede Gebre Mariam

Ato Tefferi Le: mma Kegnazmatcl1 Tegegne I-Ia besl1

Ato Kebede Kelel

Ato Tereffe Gessesse

Mr. Michael Kindred .

.

Dr. Stanley Kirkor Ato Legesse Abebe Ato Lemma Wolde Semayat Dr. Marcello Lombardi Mr. Steven Lqwenstein Ato Makon.nen Tessema:

Fitawra,ri Tesfa M·arian1 Sebl1at Ato Tesfa Zion Eyass11 Ato Tesfaye Dubale Ato Tesfaye Kebede Ato Teshome Gebre Mariam Balambarass Teshome Getaw Ato Teshome Haile Mariam • ••

- Vlll -

Ato Tessema Goshu

M,r. Fiank .D. Winston

•

Balambarass Tessema Wondameneh

Ato Welde -Amanuel Wolde Mariam

Ato Tessema Wolde Yohannes

Ato Wolde Leoul Seyoum

Mr. Michael Topping_

Ato Weldu Berhe·

Ato Tsegaye Tefferi

A.to Woube Woldeyes

Dr. Jacques P.M. Vanderlinden

'

Ato Wakgira Bonsa

Ato Yeshewa Work Hailu '

Ato Yilma Hailt1

Anyone desiring to become a Patron of the Journal of Ethiopian Law should notify the Journal of Ethiopian Law, The' Faculty of Law, Hai1le Sellassie I University, · · 0.

Box 1176, Addis Ababa.

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JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW Published twice annually at the Faculty of La,v of Haile Sellassie I University In co-operation with the Ministry of Justice (to be cited as: II J. ETH. L.)

EDlTORIA.L BOARD Justice Belatchew .Asrat, Chair·ma11 Dr. Philippe Grave.n

Ato Nirayo Esayas

Dean James C.N. Paul

Professor Kenneth Redden

Ato Negga Tessem.a

M· r. Steven Lowe11stej11 .EDITORIAL STAPF

EditoliS St.even Lo,velilstei ,n - Kelilltilet[.1 Re<iltd61il Editor for Administration Stanley Z. Fisher Editor for Court Reports l\1icl1ael Kindred Press Editor Nor1na11 Singer Associate Editors Abiyu Geleta Alexandra Hamawi Nabiyelul K.ifle Selamu Bekele Please address correspondence to the Editors, Journal of Ethiopian Lav.,, Box 1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia - Xt -

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TABLE OF CONT'ENTS ' .

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Page Statement by His Imperial Majesty ...

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Patrons· of the Journal of Etl1iopian Law

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Table of �ases Reported

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Case Reports ...

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Articles: An Introduction· to Labour Developments in E�lt:iopia •

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by Georg Graf Jron Baudissin

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Prosecuting Criminal Offences Punishable Only Upon Private Complaint

by Philippe Graven

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Nationality, Domicile and the Personal I:.,aw in Ethiopia

I

.by . Robert Allen Sedler _

Current Issues:

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Civil Code Articles 758-761; Side Issues

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39

h (J)c&. (r) : 1°�'i' : fl/\P'A"11 : "'h'i : f>tllti'Jllti : hcfl'}.<1 t f,'?fl� : flf, I }l��A (111,fi&,.,f; : <t:P',,. :· OD Ail : (161}» :: (ftj:Tth : •flth.C : f,°1'11 : 4>"-'PC : {!7L;,,jff?;/21 : q. '/°.) ..................

32

>t,.t'fiC'1A: h .. 1if.t..'Jll: n.l1ll: :1-�Jt'J°l: h·fl1.f: l\..0•i:,--s:: ,,e"l'l�: 11.e1 1-0l : av ll'PA : ,t-tJ lb 1 OD All : (l6J}» :: (flj:Tth : --Oth.C : f,°1'11 : [t,P'ov&-- :] '�'r C: j/').j. : '}. 9°.) ..................

9

iillh.1 : O..O..f1 � ,e.°1'11: fl.e ! �lt-0 : r:.°lll:J,f..• : l,'i : o.Aci! : iitic:-;�.°l .f'J I on All : fl61h:: (ffi::,",11: •fldt>C: [1 °1f..•:] .e'?fl1: <f>...'rC: ji7t:,nif(:ji/').%: '}. 'J°.)

25

Hf'i- : lt·flf-1\ 1 f,'?'11 : 'lf,:;: ro_e.11� : m·flfli- : ntl'/'li� i (TVAll : (ltiJ.b :: (f<t:-rth: 1lth.C: f,°lfl�: 4>ic.. : liif.,ni\i1f!/-ii ,.. _...,_....,. ....,..,... : '}.'J°.) . ....................................

43

P..."'Ltl t : ti c.»;f: t f,'?fl�: q_e I h.:rll�: r:.ti!f! i OD All : (l 6Lb :: (ftj::,..,1, : •flth.l: : .e01fl� : ,,, . .TC: l!if.,1,/i'fit/'1.i : q. 'J°.) ........................

19

=

=

11 'i:1-�ar : � Cf.• : {1. 'T:: •

titi'°'T : (t(l,;r : lt 'ittl'/ � h'17i I {'IPJ/J1:1'i : fOD'J°lP':,•: ,,.,,Ol'T: "'l..tll,f: C I ov All : 061h :: (f<t:Tth : •fl,h.e : �1e: <f>--'l�c : lif.(ft/!{Q : q. 'J°.) ....................................

=

=

=

55

+'i1 roe:,, = ,-,..fl>t : ltODAti1-- 1 r�,,: me:,, il"1(l-: ,1,:f''POI/. == (ftj:Tth : 1lth.C: �1C : ,,,..,re : ifi/'1.1 : '}. 9°.) ........... ............................... 68 •t-�t.... : °llflD• i >t00Ati1-- 1 OJf,tf�: ant; 1 --1--:l''POIJ.. :: . (ftj:Tth: •fldhe: .,.,c: <r''PC: rf'!}Q/,29.: '}.

r.) ..........................................

lb-:,-... 'fi.. h.. hcTr« k! f f,°lfl�: •l.e I ,.<'1e: (J)cll'r : "l{l.: oup•t,.C': 0. :,_.. ¾ (ID All : (I61b :: (ftj:Tth: --Odhe: [f'J°lf: :] ',1C: 4>-..,rc: r;/9.9. : '}. 'J°.) ........................

(J)c(l.: lD/,\,J!: .P'f\(I.: ('1&--1·1"'11') 1 >ton Ati1, I tiLilOJ•: lDAJ!: ?a..&;.:,, : (f...;f111PJ:f) 1· r,,,1...il:i-c.· = fO-A;, = >tar&.� = 11r-= OD All : fl61h (ftj:+th: -flth.e: ',1C: 4>--'re: i;/9.� : '}. 9°.) ......................................................

==

- XIV -

s.

75

61

� �

50

TABLE OF CASES REPORTED Supreme Imperial Court

Croce, D01nenico v. ltalo Focaccia (Civil Appeal No. 1112/56 E.C.) _

•••

•••

•••

•••

Page •••

Highway Autl1ority and Eska11iski1 Co. v..Mebratu Fissil1a (Civil Appeal No. 1665/56 E.C.) _ •

•

I

•

I

I

Makonne11 Woldeyes v. The Pt1blic Prosecutor ...

(Criminal Appeal No. 335/54 E.C.) Neddi Haile v. Tl1e Advocate General (Criminal Appeal No. 522/55 E.C.)

••

•

•

•

I

•• •

•

•

•

■

e ■

•••

•

••

e ■

•

•••

•••

•• •

•

••

...

•

I

••

• ••

Sissian, ·vasken v. Jacob Fogstad and Sylvia Vacharchgian (Civil Appeal No. 1271/56 E.C.) . . . . .. .. . ... ...

. .. ...

. . . . . . . .. 37

•••

•••

•••

••• •••

•••

•

•••

•••

•••

• •

•

••

•• •

• • r

...

... . . .

.. . . . .

7 42

. . . 29:

Universal Insurance Agents Trading Co. Ltd. v. Gilhebre Me, skel TeWe .. . ... . .. ... ... ... .. . . . .

(Civil Appeal (Asmara) No. 90/56 E.C.)

Zeyenu Abdella v. Wobeayel1u Semahegne ( Civil Appeal No. 1792/56 E.C.) . .. ...

I

23

�§

. ..

.. .

. . . .. . 48

...

...

...

High Court

H.V.A. Ethiopia v. The Inland Revenue Department (Civil Case No. 20/54 E.C.) ... . . . . .. . .. . ..

• e I

• e I

...

66

S.A.C.A.F.E.T., Societa' A11onima v. The Ministry of State Domains arld Mines ( Civil Case No. 178/54 E.C.) . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .. ... . .. 60 0\ Teff e ra Ghizaw v.

Men11a Bekelech 1.l /.

(Civil Case No. 339 /54 E.C.)

f

••

•

••

•

•

••

•

••

•••

Tenag11e Work Abdi v. Yejote Work Legesse (Civil Case No. 202/56 E.C.) ... . . . . . . . . . ...

•• •

•••

••

••

•••

.. .

. ..

...

. . . .. .

.. .

. . . 73

•

•

Woube Wolde Selassie, Grazmatcl1 v. Dejazmatcl1 Kefelew Wolde Tsadik (Civil Case No. 70/54 E.C.) .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . ..

- xv -

•••

.. .

81

54

..

•

'

•

',

'

•

•

• •

f"thTf\c-r = OP'tr : -&il:i- =

.,,,�-:f = 011,'J° = T-�f"l-

i

ntt.:i-f"A-f =

��IP •

�'lJP,r· : on'J°IP':,. = m:i»I\Y, : �C..(' : 11:'fw'i: h�yt'f : t;:C..(' : f1,f,'f : fTlD(l). ;

,

'i:fa,. :: fOOI/C�ro•: �C..(': 001,.n�: (hkifA:) Mtt1i'I: h1t1'11l.1tf(l)c: +K:-fl' � f,'l�A. :: lll\'ltLU'J° : 01't,,rf"A-fa,.f'}t; : 0lD46£b : n1C : �,7f-.J"- = anijtf_. ; lri!ft t: ,t-m(l�-1- : T-�f"T t OOOI/C�'i : Oh't°ll\.11;;: : 1t-il¼ : A� : A, = AA1"1��� : ou��:f(l)c'J 01/ilT'PA hilLl\-i. = .,(De ,= 1-l'ltLU'l° = nil,,,..,rf,r.l- n1,;. = t11� = fTTG1o{IOc : hf,f..f\c'J° :: 1'1'}�'}�. : �C..(' : lr(l•'}: f;rl\ : tl1119° : :,,fp 1 (il&

=

=

=

7f8f : ootihA: ill\ : P'l. : 'l'l?a'i: ill\ : OD�l.ifOJ•: OJ•lt�: il'J°'J°'I:,.:

nil :: hH.

119° : Oil,t-+C : O?'ilT : 1-.�v-l-: lD4il'I' : fT(lffi•T : �CP..1' : n.e,'J°t') : 11�61iL: ltl\1i� i Oh'lilT�: .e,9°6: fTf\fa,. = hilTff:,.: f.e,'J°/J: 1lA.61iL : �c�·.'}: ,t-h

=

=

;,:,.fr> noa,c;;:'J° fih't°lfl.119° =

+1tc: = 1,1"1A == •

-1-

REPORTS The following are twelve cases decided by the Supren1e Imperial and the Hjgh Courts of Ethiopia. Tl1e Aml1aric judgment is official and al\vays precedes tl1e English. It is im­ portant to note that in tl1ose cases heard before mixed bencl1es of both Ethiopian and foreign judges, separate opinions are written in Amharic and in Englisl1. These opinions are not translations of one another, but are independent judgments based upon common agreen1ent among the judges as to the principles and :fi11al outcon1e ot' each case. I11. addi­ tion, dissents from the majority decisions are published in three of tl1e cases immediately after the majority opituons in Amharic and i11 English.

-2-

'

•

fm1'1:lt.� : CTD:,,61. • ih°I - O:fA ..,,.��:,. • lll\.ODOJ!.A -''fa;l..f • ,f•°lflC •'' foitilar -rC�9° - flD"}1:fl� I CTD:,,"J. I ih°I I 1t1'+K' I �ffj'i is

1

1't w,;J1C 1

fm1'1:il� 1 OD:,,"!• ,n°I • ,-,.,� • ,-,.,co+ - fhll • D"JODAh:J! • 11c11c ss

flt-fctll, �>t, fli }ar • 1,°l'l�, q_e 1 1tart. • 1a�'iar s OJ!.1'11 • OD"/1,;J--,,e,o+ • m:,,:,., h4.'1: • f flar"}, OD h.'i' • h+X""'"Iil"fi. 1 (LA • 4.-r I fl4.-r • ,,e,OD11J. 1 f}Olar"} s OD h.'i • 161!',f I O..,,., 6C"ar , CTD h.'i' 1 arllT s f}O�-r"} 1 y,{l:,-, c'l9>l-- s flCTD°IJ!.� • hfi:..,,.�ar 1 'i!CX" 1 o.+ s Om11:il� • CTD:,,� 1 ih.°I • 1t1'+K" 1 �fti'i s (I) ODIP�T t Ohfl.(" s TA..... ��:, .: (lar 1 1.("ll'fiA 1 1)fto I o.e,°lfl� 1 q,,e I l\.,e, 1 L.(.J!. o+ ss llilllU9° • 1,«1'1� , +lo IS

}llr

arl})_ I - h'i!..,,.�ar I fi:C� 1 o.:,- • -'1'4'..,,.� r .,ar • (LA I fLlJ!.m- 1 Kl.+ si i ! 1tm-t.., 1-�'iar s OJ!."}11 • OO"/,,e,;J--,,e,o+ = m:,,+ • CTDh.'i'1 • CTD:,,1.9° • f:fA..,,.��:,. • mil,- , IS

I I flt"}.(" I (lm- : il"LH.llr I hW,ODI\ l '1'11\:fm- I {l(ta l P'C I f"i1�") I (ljJJ';f I {1..,,./lf 1 -'1'1:t'cf: I 1'1�m11:,, • f"'l.m.,e,:,, • (L111' • Oli1+K" • �ftti • (i) OD,.,,�:, . • .eu • (lar • ''ih.,e,m+1 • Aoumo:t- • ft7J..f 1 ..,,.dJ{}C •'' ,,e'i l'PA If th h.qu';f 1 .,C(al• ·I f hllrC"Tl\1 s }:(?1l- s 1''i • ilih1f11, f"7.f1il"l� • f'T 7ihc'1& s }:(9>l-- s fa;l..f • ..,,."lflC • fl\:f.ar = 9°lti\. • 'i:far :1

f I 'lilo:Lf . • 01't1cf>K' 1 �f?!i • (i) 'i!l-- 1 ODIPl-r 1 ''A� •'' ,f•dJ{}C I f"'l.'illD- s {l(l- s 01\4.}T • iloit1�, 11:J!, .,m- 1 ll9°'1h. • Jrt1.(", llih1f11 • f"'l.f1il«1A, f➔•7ihc'1& • }:( • o..,,.7ihcti&m- • arll-T • l\�-r I ........4.&9>l-- I 01\k ' 1'"}1.11., ss § I fhll : '"/ODAh:J!: o .....n ... � • 1\1, 1 hc'l- • f"7.m�hCO-r1 • 9°n11:i• • '1AHlHl I ll11rA • .,OJ- IS

=

rile

c� n.Y.. :

=

= q. 9° == �?f-:Y.. i- tt.&.. 11--P ;1, Y-..(l = uc 11,i i "'' P-r = " = "'' = 10 '1° : flthij... ;J--f.(l : +n" : 'Lf-C'Lil :s _eu : .e"l'l� : flhtj: /l-h-i·C : t-f tIJc : tj:C� : (1,r : O-r-1'C : l;f�§/:tt : fiD1Y:A : �1C : 1'C : li : 4>1 : !v..r.22 = q. 'J°. rhti� = o,,.h(l(lfi:,, = ro11.A I Onft. = 1t_e = o+m4>(lO:,. = tt.1 t?i : �f.�l : (r) o+ov ODJPl;'f- t 1'4-+� : �(Dc : 11� : f ro(l�ro-"} : (l)•i) �c; : OO'J°il,} : q{/IJ:,. : 1'il�:,. : 1'1-'t«f'"I : f&..lf.(J)c't : tj:C� : · Ooo :J>m'I° : f«f' lO : .e"l'l'>i . : �(J)c s: '.

�tt.f

f

"n,,.wc :

r:

.e'?'I� : 'I.¢ : flhtj:rf'� : �c� : (1:,. : fr,.h(l(lro• : on..:,•r-A-.. m1y:"c;: : OD�ff}, : O'fY-1'C : l;f?ti : r,,.(JD"h,f•ro•"} J O:fA+��,r : f(l(J)c : on"Jf.A : lD"} f-A : wc,f--hA : O"'l/\-1• : �(De :: .e,"J'I� : 'If. : O+h(l(lfi-r : ro"}Y:A : 1'4--i·� : 1 = = fl'l'--1'C = f+LlY-o:i?;ft;·i "&'i r o'l°il:ii �OD:,.

1'il�-1· =

= ..,..,�,,-.

=

= :,,"I:,.

- 3 --

'}i'�il: 'i'"-'l'C: (t) 'll.'}f-: +ont\n,,.,--l&' l f/\,1\l&''}: (laJ•: t11.e�:l'": ro,,e'I° =�m.c;: :i• : }\ 1Jtf"C.'1 : fu:Lf: . t\ODm(l:t, : hilt.1\1. : tp'}:J cf: : tDf,'J° : l\ i : i',il.l·'Pf/1 'T°lq't- : fOl/.�f il1f.."f-tJJ•'} : °lJ!o:J• : {)f,t_�9° : cJ,C,fi',t\'i : ;J,llJrf-; : l\..ll11flJ.1..'fl ;I.. : .e1qA : (ltTIJ(l:,•: ',lD•:: f,"lq�'J°: f4 lfilD": fltl.V· : �CY;.·: I\J!, : i,w•:: 1

1

=

= = =

.eoiq� = f,t•qt\n:rsiu s,nn11:i• = (o) n'i:..,-- �m- = lj:C.(" = e1:,. = f-."lq� = fli1 {l,f--h(l(lflT : OJ'}lA : 'P'f,,.,...;;: : ',(D·• : -flit� : f &.. lf.fl:,- : f1cl! : 1PJ{lt._� : tif1�: ',CD• 1 (t\) f,°l'l1 = qi = f•f--h(l(l(l)•: fli','}cJ>�.. = l;ft.j "fi·lf i n'i:rf •'i-lD• = �C J.1..' {1:,- : .eoiq1 : 'ii'} : (l'}}t.{l = ''1""''l'C : (g) f,J--ucfthrf--(D•'} : CD'}lA : wC..f--hA QA: 'Pti- +�: ill\Y-l1tD•: O,'h°l: Ott-A: ,f ..l){l,f•i't A I {,11) fl'}},.{l : 'l'"''PC: f,f,on · l\h,t--cn,: A�: 'P'},,4 4:: r1--1t1..'li:: i�1�.e1'l1: Cl�: qt\: ovh..'i: 'I:{ : '\f.,: ti,e . .

1 r = 1i , trJ.. .r = P'� :fcn•'} = n:fA,.,..�'I:,.. = floiz. w.; = ,,, h. 'l°l-,; 'Ic(t-:,· ; n t\,ft-o:-f.9° = ,f,U'}: fan(lt\: fU:,.. ,,f: J-'-'t.. : Ohl\:fm•: (1911": l\f,: ',CD·: tlOt/t\:l ..: 'IOJ·::

=

1

1-11 {t : }1. '}f,. OlJ. J' {l lP, (D• : TI {j:rl" �UJ•: � C,,(',.'-: (L:i• : (1cf,l {l t\ :,� : OI/ {tl�l,'' : 9"°ilnc: fl;J1m{JJ«: 9n·'l:r: .e01(}�: qi: n,ar,f--{l·{t: ',�: on"p}.'} ¾ .,,,,(L: I�: cf>'}: ---·-riiv-,f: �- '/". _e01q�: '1�: cf,··'l'C: 6135: f"ti'la>•'}: htJJ•,f·fl«ll: e��: h '}f_.',(} t.tj' � hO�"{t : l"t (1 fl : iil'fil : Q(\-oOCL :,,C : C4':,-. l" cJ:> {Lrf: : {l Ol/cqt\ : (l ;1-. l 1 0 ilf.•{l.:,..: (lq:,...: h?-11: 1f-.Ul/: (l_p"}: l1cn.e.&..,t:: h 1/,.{111 ll}(D• : 'r'l'?-: 9956 h i} : iiA{t'P1"} : hl&',Y. tp> n. A : ;J t• : 1' '},,e_,.,...;J (,Q, c,· : {l f·LU'I° : 9"h'}.,r :,.. : "iiA{1 'P1�-: W·ll'l' : f', (l?,:,-C : y,{t:,, : (19'1: : av qo;1--:1:cn•"} '� fli'\lD""f,(t(l, : UJc{ltp : f', {le',_:,... : (l?J:f: °11: fqo:,..: tt.e.;i: fAf..t.(l'l:fro·: on1i�-"} t _eoiq1: q�: hm· ..f,fl•(l•"}: ht\/\: hro·rf--fl·il: :\/\: m;J: -flt\'>: _ea,�: lllt'l(lC: OO!Lt-cn«: SJ"h"}f:,- : ou"} 11;. = n:t,m. = f1P/J!,:J-- .e = 7,1 ..e. = ., nc 1 .e"l'l� = '1� = n&.:,-- = &,,,: = rui1if..cn«1 h cn«.Y.. fi•il: /\ ua q,f-.'I°: c'l.'l°ti C t hUL"}1�-: ro.e. : cf>�: (lttA: tTI/_(',.--1'_"I::'}'i: hw,,.y. ctn•: 4''l':J""(D•'}: or. 11 Y:: .e1-1 : hoiz.on "}CD•: "iiAil'P1'} : ooh.'-; : ;Jlr : OD_:JQ;l, 1:'} : 'llD· :: 0.,P(l, : dl"l-- : ,.fcf>t..{lro• : hcnc : .e"l'l� : q� : OD "}1.i;,'} : O!I.lr : . : 'Lit: hk�: roiz..1i..e.ro«'}: 1',ar ,f--fl il : i\o.e1: {l,,'}•hhA: {ltTI/J!,;t-f,(1:,..

7i�'fT: lief>1.·0tJ"11· = -Ot\1> = hcn-1-0·0•1 t1 iiAll<r11 = on c.· = :it� = n"'l;itJJ, ...,: ., n "iiA{t 'P1..,._ : ro·il'l' : f'lfl?-:,.. : y,{t:,.. : 0911' : f'l°•I::,. : fl.e"1'11 : '1� : TA,t·'7ii'J;'f, : 'IflC : (l "'l i\ :,. : 'I m· :: OD

.

=

=

n..

4

=

nttu = n,eoi'11 = �CY:= n,:,- = hil,.rfr:,... i n�ir1--'1cn• = r,:c,.e, = ft:,, .eoiq::t; = q�'}: 'l''I•-t·i1: ',CD·: c'l�A: lD·lt�: fl(lll1fl:,•: '11C: "ll\?;: f1i'I: {14!: Ol/ill�: cf'C(ll\:J't!\:: r.e"l 'l1: 'l�: m(l:J>: '\ "}�c/>t.{1-- :,--: ti enc i 'J°{tne>:i:: roc c'lh?-·1·: :J>A: 1':J't-1: fl\flrr9°: ho 0 '}1�.. : /\.e: fl0'l.'i"'lco«: O!Lt-: {Jll11 "'¾--: rf--o"�'f 1 flf..'},fl: /\Ul/f:,.. : fi"'l.e:J!Afl:,•: 1.1-L ¾ hcnY.&.:i•: fOIJ.011 11Jw -- "}: ooh..',": ltf,et;: "1.eo:!t\hrr I hkT : roili..e..cn•"} : onh,'i' : {ltro:,,_e..'}° : roY.7i4'P.Y-'J° : ovh.'i' : ., 91: : TA'T�'i': 'l'4-+�: ur."fa �-: hflll�'l'C'J° I ilftl·LU: h'i:,,- -;;:(De : �C,,(',.'-: (l,,r: .eoi'11 = 'li1 = '1'4-:,- = n"ti'I = r:i:A..,-�.,:,- = cn1iA = tp ...,.,. ;;: = �ro- = o.A = rm(l .,OJ• : (D•l)� : :,-t, ti"�: ', (D• ::

r,eoiq�: qi: mfl:J>�: flh4 lfl••:,--: r.e01 '1�: OI/ODAl1:J!: f,"Jfl:t: qi: frf•h (l(ltD• : fl�'l'C : �iii : (l"f'ovt\h•t-m• : ,'h°l : flmcr'\/\lD• : (L1\'} J htj:rf-i1cn« : I I �c1.· = n,:,.. = fl4>"-'PC = �!ti• fl"}tt,il = 'r'l'c = (!!) n+ODt\hrf-- m· • cr"1:i-1 = norz..f n,o,,e.;.: m1lA 1 'P4-+;;:: f�l1(Dc: h/\1'111: �cn•: c'l./\-: +ht-nl'PA:: J!,lJ1: I ODP{u\w• , w'l)!A , hil , n.+c-o , +htiif. , ru:,.1 , +"lll'r , f"'l.fil1J':Y.w- = 1

1

-4-

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· SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. I A MAKONNEN WOLDEYES v. THE PUBLIC PROSECUTOR Crimi11al Ap.peal No. 335/54 E.C. Pe11al law - - Negligent hornicide - - ''Special professio11al duty'' construed - - Art. 526 P. C. Criminal Proced1Lre - - Contents of Cl1arge.

On appeal fron1 a judgment of tl1e High. Court convicting appellant, a bus driver, for aggravated negligent homicide under Art. 526 (2) when he overtook another vehicle without proper visibility, caus­ ing a collision in which three persons in an oncoming automobile were killed.

Held: Conviction and sentence revised, since no aggravation was charged or proved.

1. It is negligent conduct to overtake another vehicle without proper visibility.

2. A person has a ''professional duty to safeguard life'' under Art. 526 (2) P.C. when his job requites special care to safeguard persons whose physical integrity is temporarily under his care; doctors, nurses, pilots of airplanes, and drivers of public vehicles are examples of persons with such a professional duty.

3. A professional owes a ''special'' duty within the meaning of Art. 526 (2) P.C. only to fnose fer whom h.e is responsible; the ''special'' duty owed by a driver of a public vehicle thus extends only to the passengers in the vehicle.

4. A charge under Art. 526 (2) P.C. that does not specify that the defendant is being charged with aggravation is defective.

Guenbot 6, 1952 E.C. (May 13, 1960 G.C.); Justices: Afenegus Taddessa Mengesha, Dr. W. Buhagiar, Ato Taddesse Tekle Giorgis: - The appellant was charged before the High Court with the offence of homicide by negligence, p-qnishable under Article 526 of the Penal Code; he was found guilty, convicted and sentenced to the maximum period of imprisonment of :five years under the second paragraph of Article 526, under which the. offence of homicide by negligence is aggravated where the homicide is caused by a person who has a special professional duty to safeguard life. This is an appeal from the judgment of the High Court.

Tl1e grounds of appeal are (a) that there was no sufficient evidence on which the High Court could convict, (b) that the High Court was wrong in law in convicting the appellant under paragraph (2) of Article 5,76 when the charge referred only to Article 526, and ( c) that the second paragraph of Article 526 is not applicable to the appellant (a driver of a bus) but is applicable only to doctors, nurses, etc. who carry out their duties in a negligent way.

The facts as found by the High Court are as follow: the appellant is a bus driver by profession; on Nehasse 11, 1953 E.C., the appellant was driving Bus No. AA 6135 and at the 126th km. on the road from Alaba Kulite to Addis Ababa; at about 15 minutes after midday, he came into collision with a car Volkswagen No. 9956 coming from the opposite direction; and as a result of this collision, the three passengers in the Volks­ wagen were killed. There were no fatal accidents amongst the passengers in the bus driven - 7-

JOURNAL OF ETIDOPIAN LAW - VOL.

11 - No. 1

by tl1e appella11t. The appellant was driving l1is bus bell.ind a11otl1er n1o!or-v� �c!�, \Vl1ich ,x.,as so111e distance i11 front a11d wb.icl1 was ca11sing lots of dust ren.der1ng v.1s1b1l1ty very poor. The appellant was trying to overtake the other 1notor-vehicle, and i °: doi11g so, ,:ve11t partly 011 tl1e ,vrong side of the road; at this tin1e tl1e Volkswage11, wluch was 0 1 1 the proper side of the road, collided witl1 the bus driven by tl1e appella11t. The allegation of the prosec11tio11 is that the appella11t was 1 1eglige11t i11 tryi11g to overtake the otl1er 1notor­ vebicle whe11 the visibility was poor as a result of the dust, and that the cause of deat h of tl1e three passengers in tl1e Volkswagen is dt1e directly to tl1e appellant's negligence.

In the opi1lio11 of this Co11rt, there was suffi.cie11t a11d clear evidence 011 \Vhicl1 the Higl1 Court could con1e to the conclusion it did. There is no co11tradiction amongst the witnesses, as the appella11t s11bmitted. Tl1ere can be no question that it is very 11egligent for a driver to try to overtake another car when he has not a proJJer Iook-011t of on coming traffic due to the dust. The High Court was, tl1erefore, right in :findi11g that the appellant was negligent.

Tl1e appellant submitted. tl1at tl1e I-ligh Co11rt was wro11g in co11victi11g the appellant u11der the provisions of tl1e second paragraph of Article 526 when tl1e cl1arge referred generally to Article 526. It is essential in cri1111 1 1al cases that the acc11sed sl1011Id know wl1at charge l1e is asked to meet; in the prese11t case the cl1arge does not allege that the ap]Jellaut was, at tl1e time of tl1e offe11ce, acti11g in a special professional capacity. The first and second para.grapl1s of Article 526 deal with tl1e sa1ne offence, tl1at is, homicide by 11egligence, bt1t the second paragra1Jh contains an aggravati11g elen1ent wl1icl1 st1bjects the offe11der to a 1-ugher p11nishn1ent. The accused sl1ould k11ow whetl1er the prosecution is cl1arging hi,n Vi1ith the aggravation a11d wl1e11 the prosect1tion i11tends to do so, n1e11tion tl1ereof should be n1ade in tl1e cl1arge. 111 tltls respect, tl1e cl1arge is defective, but for reaso11s that will be given later, the defective cl1arge l1as not i11 the prese11t case led to a nuscarriage of justice.

The appellant s11bmitted as another ground of appeal tl1at tl1e second paragrapl1 of Article 526 applies to doctors and 1111rses who carry ot1t their dt1ties in a negligent man11er and does not apply to the appellant, the driver of a bus. The second paragrapl1 of Article 526 provides for a l1igher punish.ment where the negligent l101nicide l1as bee11 caused by a person who 11as a special professional duty to safeguard life. On reading this paragrapl1, the persons who first come to one's 1nind as havi11g a special professional d11ty to safeg11ard life are doctors and nurses; bt1t tl1e said l)aragraph does not 1in1it tl1e ·responsibility to doctors and 11urses; the word ''professional'' is used in tl1e \vide sense a11d applies to persons whose job requires special care to safeguard tl1e life of persons whose physical integrity is temporarily t1nder their care. Tl1e word ''professio11al'' applies to persons like tl1e pilots of an airplane, bus dri,1ers, and drivers of other p11blic veh.icles.

The duty of such persons is not, however, towards a11y person i11 tl1e world.; tl1e duty of such professional persons is specially towards those perso11s for whom tl1ey are res­ ponsible, st1ch as passengers in an. airplane or passengers in a bus; s11ch professional persons do not o,ve a special duty towards pedestrians; tl1e duty to pedestria11s or otl1er perso11s not in the public vehicle is a ge11eral d11ty, not a SJJecial duty. Tl111s in tl1e preser1t case the appellant owed a special professional d11ty to tl1e passengers i11 l1is bus, bt1 t owed only a general duty towards others outside tl1e b11s, su.ch a.s the perso11s i11 tl1e Volkswagen. :For these· reaso11s the appellant shot1ld have been found guilty of an offe11ce under Article 526 (1) of the Penal Code, and he is hereby convicted u11der tl1at provision. As to sentence, this Court considers that th.is is a very seriot1s· offence with serio1 1 s consequences and the m a. x.imum p11nisl1ment under the first paragraph of Article 526 sho11ld be inflicted and the appellant is sentenced to simple imprisonment for tlu·ee years. 111 tllis sense, tl1e appeaJ is allowed, a11d the jt1dgme11t of tl1e High Court is varied accordi 11 gly. ·

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'lllr I t:1:c1.. : ILTC I h1f,: �fu : '11C : fl��-: 1'.,�<PJ.hh.l1rC:�: h'RllJmC: av i'thl¥°: ti : 4',: Iv.Y.ti= q • 'I° 1 h?°.lirf:: 1•= (lq:,. : 1 rf't{ /,\: (l_'li, { nt-- i't: �9°mW· : 1o�c,· � {'(lt\,�(l}• : 4>11o'f'C : 62309 f i � : OD h.. q: hr,� : (l.lif: { Ol1 {:\{l: (l�m-,: 1,fth',: {lfth.t\,rl: : 16/!'•f--1· * n,111: 'h°l?-q: h� : l\f, : 1'•�rl• : i'tl\�l(ln:,. l n°2.tt-tc : t:J:· c,: : l\f, : till : {tt\cf'l(l(l:1. 1 (lj> J(Jr : tt+7i, : nttA : OD'f't,.r : {ll\ntt:,- : mf. : h02.tl-t, : i'11C : uv"fi,.c;:. : {tft ;r w«f,! h(l•: ..,.. if'7itt ht;rCY:: ;J/r: ilfth�;J: fh.,if..t-,il: {D•/,\: . <'�l'lm •,:· f,°lfl�: fl�,: (fi'lc ,if.t-1-il: h·fl,f) +h'17i: Off'/f:l°l: "-'l'lllll;I'.: i1fl: (RJ'r ' tf: Y..c{l:,-: ill\Acf>ln! fhtj:rf--'1m•: 'i=C.t!": n,:,-: (loi1 1f1•fi: <l>"•'J'C: if�:t/i·1: Ot\,ttn:,-. ftUDAil (llilil..w· = r1--�:,-.= tilt= rh.:,-. ..nc = 1620 ,,,);.nr,::A = ill\&. l.e..o:,- -i _eu : _e,°lfl:,; : cl>lll :: --C : r <PJ.{l f

t ftlD· :

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b! .... {l{JDA{l : {l[J;lm•c,·: Of,°lfl� : fl� : ootihA : fih .,?'P. : a1�:J-- : OJf,9° : oi,·7.',:,-. : ill\ lb/\! f,°lfl�: fl�: ill\f. l(lw• : hf..;J : ll"ll\t{. 'li:t· /lmr� hJ!..1flw•'J° 1

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I I .e,°1 fl� : fl�: {lft : h,.TC : t:rCJ.'..• : 1,"}.P,.ht--hc:t\:,..: OJf.,,9": f..°1'1°= 1,,Jtqoa,:,-":,-. = roiz.A = t,,�-:;.. = tt9°9°'1:,- = wf;'J° = cp(l:,-c,· = hA (lm(l)c'J° ;:

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il..,. 'it1 : fl ODAil: (llilil.(I}« : ,nO:P : n ,.,,..�� /\:,.. : f..·fl� l1 1 UIJ.il+C : h.1·· c : t:f-Cf: : flf..l..(lll)c : hf..;J : 9'°ti1!i:t· l f, 0lfl� : fl�: h1Jtht-hc/\:,--: J!..1fl'PA: fl.AV° i {lov/,\{l: (llJ,1.(1}•: 04'"r;r: hf..;J : .r f..l..(lll)c1: °2.ili"C : t,:f.Cf:1 : h(a : lt.f!ilt.CJ.'..• : f,°l'l� : (}� : /\CPJ.il+c : t,:fCJ.'..· : h1Jtht•tlC : fO'/..•fil'lY:f..(1)-c : ,n°l : f /\'J° :: .e oifl:1 : '1�: ltil&.1\7.. : 1i·'i : f'lim• : 1,,Y.."fa'I -: n.t>,.1fl ;;:m, = il'J° : "fi·'i : h01}Ail : (lat..w•: ;Jt-: f,h&-tit: : 1,1:{ = 04' 'P;f' : uoh(lil : 1,"}f../bt\n-r : t-(l" : fh.,if.t-,n• : w•A : ,.f1ill�A:: J!.U'J° , t'"'l.f{ll-'IOJ- • fh."}'if•?"}'{I: h•fl"}',.f'"}' : OD-fl:,• : (IODm r1--(lm = 'lw• := {lODlilil,lif'9'° = aoAil = {l[J;lro• = /\m4'lt:fm• = r1 °1f: : ;,1°1 : '1 >-..'f'£'?1..: j;fif� �- �f?fi : 1,C," : ?;f ift I (l,.e,°7(}� : l} ��: h..10:t-,il: llrA: il'lflm· : nOIJ.. ll,1--c: t,:fCJ.'..•: ootihA : ill\ °t0V /\ ll+ ll}• : ODr{l :,-C'i· : °1�:J-- : r,,..,. .,rOIJ /\ tirf: : h"}:{ I UoAil : (l at,.ll)c: h.e°lfl� : '1�: l\f,:: Ocf> r;r: /\ODmf:,, : f/\W•"} : uv-0:,--: i\fUD/\tirf:9'° ,: r�i:t·d1 : rfl,h.C : ,li°l : 'r-'J'C : .....ea.;,1bf:t:b1 ..- .......- ... : UV Ail : (lQJ,.ll)c: n.·m�il9'° l f.U : }\"}cl>� : ·l·t..�°1.. : roiz..1i'lro· : fl f,°l'l�: fl��: {lUD/,\{l : (l(J;l,.OJ•: ontahA : 9'11 : o.e'I:,- : °l,�'1:,--: (l.'iC : uv'p )·1 : h I\ ill.J;.9" :: (I}« :

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fl{lttfr : ftJlJ/,\{l : f°7..hi•/\ll)c : 'J(l)c r-

(1'1,1.(l)c : n1Cl.!I> : f'111l.Olir = UDhl\h.C' : 0061!7� :

�! fl1°1f:: "1°1 : {l.,,....'J'C: :&£it% : UDlPlT ¾ J?,°lfl1 : fl�: flPJ..l\rf• C: t,:f-Cf:: f'f':,,00•: tT1'1'1!: '1°°1tLT: h1f..UD'p�: UDffi"} I,��:,.: f f..l(t 0-r : uv Ail: (lQ;},.(l)c: · {1 "1°1: 'h.") n«t-1il ' :· 111fl(l)c: (l(l)c : l\f...: - 10 -

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nil = tt1+c11 , T-Pi-r= ff..l(ln�·= ro11= .e'?'l'1= 'l�1= ttODn (lil = .el-1\A== h.1 n:·t.. 1il= 1{lro-= n"7.. f..e. c(lro-= 1;,,..v,·:,.. = rh.1'if. t-.1il : (l"1.,ro-: ll�l\k�-r : +mf4!: 1'1..e."7.1i1': ll"'/19°: 1111:: r ;J--- m+ : �ro- 1 § 1 h ..1'if.t-.1il : '10.ro-: "7.il"l"C: t:rC1:: m.,e.: h'J&-.:fro-: ilft1i.';.. t f,'?fl� = fl�= nilt:ftD-= 1''?c ++n,r• tt+lnfl:rro- nil = oo Ail : ODilm-r: i1..e.oi-i'l:fro-: '?lA?i": �ID- I

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ll1°11:: ,'h'? : nn.14>7' : i!ir?; ; .e'?'l� : fl�: h.1'if.&-.1il : hf:&-. ..ro-: ? l\..e..l(ltD-: 7-...v,:,. .: lilt: hoon&.A: �K: f"1..1i�ro- i +1°�1D-: Iiltro-"}: Oil .9°9°�:,-C: m,e.9°: fl<j:C1:: 1,1,'Lh<j:fttD-: J1 Amr+ : 1'1 ..e.1i� : i,fl;J: : �ro-- 1 or>fAil: {l6Q..ro-: tiltm•1: Oil9°9°�:,..: .e-?'I�: fl�: 1'.1,'Lh<j:ftro-: fl..(!.,f}P,(1: m_e�:,.. : ilftn.AhLfttD•: nil: h:,,c !1..A I Y,ntD-9°: 01°11:: ;,,'?: 04>--TC: ifir5: _.,..,... .... : fi'..e..'JL : �ro- I Q 1 oo/,\il= (lm.tD- n.e'?fl��= fl� l\,e.= f+lntD- nil= "1.?�= ttoo 1i �: {l<j:-rdt s 11"1.C: ih'? : 'l'""TC: j'if.ih?iftli 1 1"'il : 'I>-- • (/i) ; (g) 1 lr) r1-..e..1,.= �ro- 1 .eu9°= •r-Tc= "'119°= (Lro-= n,,.1·1ho /,\'i : OHFo : f"7f,'J'llD•1: 11/.\?i"'?'i: h0'/'?1:,-C: 1'1-'t;r'J!:: f,t-.,e.. �,,,, : �ID-::

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· fl'?&-.: +-,..: ntt-/,\: f+lfltD-"}: ncnc: hooouCOD&--1'1: OkT : ft4>l0W-: f.'?'I� : fl.OJ{}'} : f"7.'1'ltD- : 6lb11T : 9°1 : 1'1..e..li� : .onlP.-r : filL/.\;JIA 1: 'P'i'tD- : Tf4:= h.1'if.t-.1il : f'J'ltD-: "7..il'TC: t;J!Cf: : {lOD/,\{l : (l(J;l.aJ-: Q.iillt: il,-r'i : llh'111:- : l\f, : ill\..e..l(lfl-r: �P,:,C t OD/,\il: (liJ;l.tIJ-: fh.1'if.t-.'}il : tD-/A : (1"1,.W•1 : O+T;r : fttJiJ)l (lil : foY..'fA : 001i1·: ttoo1i) .1: OD OJ(l') : �ro-::

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ll.f,"lfl� : fl�'i : 0"'1.il+C: t:rCY: : ootahA : ilftn...e..;, : 'Pil:,-Cc; : fh.'Jif. t..'}il : W-/A : f+..e.l1 : ttoo1i� : 01i·ft,,�9°: OJ'l'i1' : lltf'/.\ : n.A+ti..e..9° :: htL l19° : 01\f, : "7.il"1-C : t:J!CY: : Oh.11f.&-.1il : ro-tt-: oowl:,.. t Of,'?'l� : fl� : 1\1,: f ftar') : footJ(lil : 0011:,..: ftoo/,\il= (lQJ.ro-: 00'/il+l\ft'i=: frohttro- : ttoo 1i). : f+lO : "'lill'!f : fft9° :: hH.ll : {ll\.f, : frf•'Jftft.:,-C') : ��: �'l�l-: ltl;J'IT1 t 01''?1:: ,11'?: ilfth.,.'Jif. 1 (l{J;l.w•: f+m+fl·-r1: ir: 1-Virb t..1il: Or/.\: flOD/.\il: ......... ,,_. __. h'firi ........ ..- or-. t EVir5:: �.-. ..- ....._ },'}OD C9°C :: 1 ''7--P,:,-C: f.,e..l(l (l{J;l.CD•'}: ')l\k�:, .. : ft'i'IC P-·TC: .... ifirb: fh.17f.&-.1il: ...... ,,... ..n:,..= Y'il,,.1-�= m11= n..11f.t--"til= n1flw- (tw- I\Y, n�c.e: n,:,.. m.r,9°= nil 9°9°�-r: Tf4:: til\..e.l'l : Ocf'C I h.11f.t..1il: (l{J;l.OJ•: 001\k�:,-C: n..emf:,,9°:'' 0111/fl:,.. : _e..,e..�'?;J/.\ :: Y,l19° : f"'lfillP.1 1 h�f·Lll : >ft.ti:,.. : ih;J� : 1i-�;r9'l-: t"tA+t.KQDc: h.17f.&-.1il: (ltJJ.OJ•: 001\k�:,..: h.f,mf:,,9°: 111/fl:,-1: �ro-: 1'.'}� 1 �P,:,.. : f..(!.l(lO:,-C : y,(l,f•� : lD11 : O+T;r : h.11f.lr-1il : (ltJJ.ro-'} : h(t : f?--P. �1 : tilt : ftoomf:,� : .f,1--1\A. : "711.--�1' : n. .ef..ttl/° :: 7--.v,:,.. : ff..l(lO� : Y'il+� : lD'I'}: 1\.1·--P,.-f:: tilt: fOIJ..f'11lD· i h.1'if.t--1il: f'l'llD·1': (ltD• : h(t: O(l•: T't--:," : �P.--1:1': f .,e..l(lO:t- : ooli�-'} : O�C1:: lil;J'Jm : m_e.r ·: h.11f.t--1il : f'JflW- : (lar : ,r�.. ,J:'} : h 1/°'f : f?--P,,f:'} : tilt : /\.OD Ail : (lQJ..tD• : ftoonLA : (L.il °70T/'i ¾ h.17f.t--'}il : {liJJ.W-9°: h.1n-&--1il : O'l'llD· : om• : 0011:,- : ,,..,,..tJ,f- :

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- 11 -

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' 0'11�.. : a, .fl'I' = 1111, : hfl·1: f,t-hl\h" : o.li't : OJf.,'/° : il9°9°'1"1:i : (l..'l> OA : h.1if.t.-1il : (lQJ.(Dc : (101\k'l:,� : t\.mf:,, : f.,-:,�1\/,\ �1C: °11 = on A ll = 0'1:l..m•: h.1if.t.-1il: f1 ()ro•'}: °t il'l'C: t:FCS:1: h(a = l\f.lOOJ· = 1"-P.T = i'1Tk : anp �1: hl\ill?.9° :: 'h1-'tf OJ·9° : OIJ.ll,f·C : t:FCS: : fonhl\h/\.. 1: =.. 1\1'1..10: -. &.1il = (lma, llO"l/ili-1\/\� hAP..l10J•'/° 'h'l1·LtJ = , 1,;,'C = 1i·',:J ?Jl- ti�,. ?too• : it.1if.t.'}il: ()QJ.(Dc: llcl>'l':J--: 1--.v,:,.. : l\f..l(l{l-} : {\UGl,\{l : ilmw-: fr P,:,, : tit'\ : "auh&./,\ : Of\&, : t\.1i1: '1,f.,l-A'J° :: OD/Ail: (l£iliLlD": l\i'L17f..t-.'}{t : (lQJ. OJ•: /\1"-PairJ: : 11 lt : 'I'..r <f: : (1 OI/:,, l,(1 : ,(1,- ¾ au/,\ {t: (l mlD·: 0 I\&.. : au•fi1: nl\O-r = OOl/1\:,• = .. <>4'ln(Dc= ncnc = n,1t·1• = ovwl:r- = f /\OJ•= 1i.. 'i = i'11\1·r'lw•?11==

==

=

on,n:,..

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tf>"•'l'C : ifi!"i. .J 1'1.-ll : 1>-- • (f) lll\ : lD11.A : '11C : ill\ 0?., 'i1C : flf·f.U : 1--P.f,: ,f.. &.?U i CJ.. : ll l\Ali'l t '}i'l... ll: ,,,._. (6)1: -O;r: 'h1onl9°t.-l\1 I hl\hll: 1'100 t.C: 1h,(l: 'l>---TC: ( l!) 0.c.·1c : ''1'-P,:'f-- : ff,.l(l(l."f--: 0111: no/\&..,,:,. : f°t.rcJ, C(l(l)c'}: f�T,11: ,(1,h.C: till: UDt: /\OD'p'}: it.1'if«t.1ll: (lQJ.OJ•: firl''Pq'fla,..: :J> A: f.,�'i A t' ' (1 OI/ I\-r: J!, F..'l'?;J A:: �tJ9°: OI//\:,-.: 1'-P,:,..: ff.l(l (1:,-.: Y' il1-�: OJ11: l\°tf4'C0(l)c: hil: h.1'if«lr 1ll: l11 ()(l)c: (l(l)c: {t'J° t h,_17i"·t.1il: om.m•: Ohf\-: ,t-mt: "fi.'i: f\onht,hC: f"'l.l·A: on"'fi�1: llh.1n·t- 1ll: ro•A: lD"il'r: i\11D'P'PA = y,:fl\ A = 07":,. = ,,(l)c f..tJ']° ""-"J- 1c = n .111 rit.1n-t.1ll = (lbLl_ (l)c'}: foohf\h/,\ : OD1}."f• : fDIJ.,nn:,, : ',OJ•: 1'1�: ¾ 1»..P.T: ff.l(!(l:,, : Y'il--t·f: m1'}: i\f..l(lll:'f-- : T·P.T: t,,. 1n•lr1ll : f'J()(l)c'}: (l(l)c : OAC:.. : (tffr>) l14>'l':J" : h..1if..t.1ll : (lat.OJ•'}: I\ODh(l{l : f.,":/--1\ A : 0 7(\•·I: : il.f.,�l\'J° :: f H.U : ,. i't�il : <l>"-'l"'C: <JD'}t.il: fi,tr.L1,07t: f°tf illPi1 :- il..1'if..t.1ll: (lal_ro•: h.17i'·t.1ll: 01 llro•: (lOJ•: il'J°: tiAli'I : f14>C -1 /\'J°ltlb: 1'1..1n•&•1il: 01()(1}«: (lOJ•: I\J!,: -,,.� T : .(' �l(lOJ•1 : Y'lli·i1 : lD1'}: l14''1';J· : (\QDTI(lll: fOI/J!,"fA : OD'p�,. : ',ro•:: fit..1if..�1ll : (I)•/A: (l)c m,:,. : .(' /\(l)c : (1 (�'I';J· : flh.1'if«t.1ll : (lal..lD•'i': i'l..1fr' t..

1ll : fl'J ()ro.. : (l(l)c : outih A : ',(l)c ::

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4>--'l'C : i!itt 1 1h,ll : cf>"- • (ti) 1'-Pi:,• : l\.(-'..l(l(17' : (l(l)c : 04>J!.'J°:,•'IT: ilt\ooh&.A: n.Y-'1·1ai : ''1'-P,:,. /\f.l(ln:,- = Y'il,t� = m11 = il..1if..t.1il {laJ.(l)c = ll°th�l\(l)c : h.Vftr : Jt..'1-0 : An : tiltro•'}: 'hilh..hij:/\W": ..eal il ¾ h,1o•t.1ll : (lQJ.OJ• : h,.'}?fct.'}ll : /\1()(l)c : (lro• : tilt : hJ!,hlj:l\tD•'l° : '' l1°7t\:,•: J!,11A?tA :: J!,tJ'J° : Ol//\:,C: 7-.P,:,« : t\f..l(l(l,)• : Y'll"f-�i:: m1'}: (llj:C..(!•: n,:,-. : lDf.,'I° : ll il'/°9° 'IT: it.1'if..t-1il : ft1()(l)c : (l(l)c : h..1'if«t.1il : (lal.ro•: f'II/�hlj:A : h11'1 f il.ilcr "' f:'l° : /\Y,ll,t-�(l)c : lD1'} : f1�P,irf:'} : tilt : th_l},(1 : ovtJ&.t\ : .C'/\(1,), : t\OD fl� : 'Jar ftLv-'1° f:1:J'1, = t11:J'l! = olt-O = 111\J!, ill\ = «r'l'C ii-ire= ,. .......- ..-� n:J..+--f•(Dc: 1: Y'ili· Olt-0 : (IIJfPl:,.. : it.1n•t..'}il : (l�OJ•: f1"-P.-r.1: tilt : flJI/.hlj:/,\ : n11 . "' �(I)«: lD'J'}: Ol/'? f:,•: fOl],1()lD•'}: f'}"-P,:,•: tilt : fcl>f,'J°T',:,•: OD1},).:: /\OD(O (1� : firl•f.'11'1 : ',ro• ::

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lli•fJ;10I/ t'J° : f A ll = (l�ro-: mfl:J> ¼ flj::,•,11 : •Od1■C1: tit'? = <I>"-. ... . lift6: ,n�!LA:: 11',-ll: <l>'•'l'C: (6) 000"'/C�ro-: fllj:."f•,11 : 1ld1■C: t11'? : firf-lJ'l tl'i: 'hCOl/irf;']° : n1,1'?t\.1fi1 : ij:."f•dt : ,(1,h.C: ,)1'? : llC"'l."f· : fllj:t!\ : fi--wllf : au•fi�'}: DD11H-O: f..'1(): 'IOC � .

1 ' J!,tJ : tJ>'-'l'C ilt\DDP,l'?: {l }h.•ll: .,, .. (ti) (l.f..'11'? t ''il.'}f:: (l(l)c : htJ2,lJJ I I (l'JOJ•: i,P, : fn�.('m•'}: f:Cif1: DDTILA: f°1.,'J()OJc: n.1i1 t i,P,(l)c'}: (lro,,t\-: t "' fhLt\ : h1f. fi'I I hC(l• : :Jt• : i,P,(l)c'}: 'h·}Jthij:/\ °lYo:J-- : lli\' l:,: OJ.. : (l?J-,f: � 11

- 12 -

:

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- 14 -

SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Asmara Div. UNIVERSAL INSURANCE AGENTS TRADING CO. LTD. v. GHEBRE MESKEL TEKLE Civil Appeal No. 90/56 E. C. •

Extra-contractz,.al liability - - /11s11rer - - Direct liability to injured perso,z - - Arts. 685, 687, and 688 Conz. C. Unjust enricl,ment.

Contractral obligation - - Subrogation - - Art. 2161 Civ. C.

On ·appeal from a High Court judgment by default in favour of the plaintiff in a personal injury action brought directly against the insurer of the person who caused the injury.

Held: Judgment reversed.

1. Art. 685 Com. C. does not mean that an injured third party may claim compensation ditectl¥ from the lia.bility insurer of the person who caused the injury. In order to claim directly from the insuter:, the injured third party must, first, establish by court proceedings or admission o.f the insured person th.at the injury resulted from the fault of the latter, and second, show that the liability insur:er participated in the proceedings on behalf of the insured or has accepted an amicable settlement of the case.

2. Art. 687 (2) Com. C. safeguards the interests of the liability insurer by enabling him to represent the insured and raise defences. This does not entitle the injured third party to by-pass the insured and sue the liability insurer directly.

3. Art. 2161 Civ. C. does not entitle an injured third party to claim compensation directly fr@m the liability insurer, since the latter is not jointly liable with the insured person who caused the injury.

4. Even though the insured person who caused an injury is not subject to service of process by local courts and· h.as done nothing to compensate the victim, the latter has no ''unjust enric.hment'' claim against the liability insurer; to allow such a claim without having judicially established the victim's right against the person who caused the injury would annul the insurance contract between the latter and the liability rnsurer.

Guenbot 7, 1956 E.C. (May 14, 1964 G.C.); Justices: Ato· Negus_ sie Fitawake, Dr. Gayatano Lattila, Dr. Giari.carlo Pollera: - The circumstances whlch gave rise to this t appeal, briefly stated, are as follows: At 8 :30 p.m. on September ,1, 1962, Mr. Richard Cooper was driving a car, Lie. No. 62309, on Ras Desta Damtew · Street, when he collided with the respondent, who was riding a bicycle, thereby i11juring hlm on the right leg and arm. An action was brought against Mr. Cooper, and a summons was issued a11d sent to the Kagnew Station for service o·n him; it was learned, ho'!Vever, that he had left for tl1e u·.s.A. 'The complaint was then amended to substitute as defendant the ·present appellant, an insurance con1pany by which Mr. Cooper was insured against accidents. Summons was issued arid served upon the company, the present appellant, but the appellant failed to appear. Tl1e Higl1 Court, therefore, gave judgment by default, ordering the appellant to pay $1620 compensatio.n to the respondent.

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JOURNAL OF .ET.t-IlOPIAN LAW - VOL.

II - No. 1

The appeal was lodged against tl1is j11dg1ne11t. ed riz a be m. y .m as ina Sll lo nt fol lla pe ap tl1e ws: by d tte n1i sub al pe ap of ds 11n gro 1e Tl t en nd e po tl1 d res d, a1: a11 nt lla pe ap there- , tl1e 1 ee1 t\v be sts exi ip 1 sl on ati rel No al 1. leg t s l1a tl1a nt ed. ide t1rr acc occ tl1e for ity bil 11si po res 110 1 ve I1a can t 1 e, for t e appellan d har e11t Ric res rep to CoOJ)er in 11 atio riz l1o a11t or ent eem agr 110 1t has 2. Appella1 a11y litigatio11.

3. 111 spite of tl1e advice of the letter from Kagnew Statio11 to tl1e advocate for the appellant that in an actio11 arisi11g from an accident the appella11t m11st re1Jrese11t Ricl1ard Cooper, there is no law tl1at requires the a1Jpellant to repr�sent �in1 in any litigatio11 un less tl1e respo11dent has first sued and obtained a j11dgment against Ricl1ard Cooper, tl1e J)erson wl10 caused the injL1ry.

Tl1e terms of tl1e co11tract of i11s11ra11ce are clear that appella11t l1as the rigl1t to direct the defence of tl1e i11sured against tl1e responde11t, had it co11sidered this necessary, but that it n1ay 11ot be sued directly. Tl1is sl1ows tl1at the provisio11 is to safeguard tl1e interests of the i11sura11ce comr>any.

4. A11d lastly, respondent l1as referred to Articles 685, 687, and 688 of the Com­ mercial Code. These provisions co11cer11 tl1e rigl1ts a11d duties that exist between tl1e appel­ lant and the insured, Mr. Cooper; they do not entitle the respon.de11t to sue the appellant directly. Respondent l1as also referred to Article 2161 of tl1e Civil Code, but l1e failed to sl1ow the relationsl1ip tl1at m11st exist between the appellant and the res1Jo11dent before tl1js Article co11ld apply. ·The reply submitted by the advocate for the respo11dent may be summarize d as follows: I. In accordance witl1. Article 687 of tl1e Commercial Code, the appellant is a guardia11 of tl1e i11terests of Mr. Cooper, and, therefore, to claim compensation for injury do11e to him by a11 insured person, the respondent may sue tl1e appella11t; tl1at the i11surer is liable for compe11sation for an injury ca11sed by the beneficiary is kno\vn by all.

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2. Since Mr. Cooper has go11e back to his country, appellant n1ust reply to the com· plaint brought against it as a s11bstitute for Mr. Cooper. : 3. Appellant wo11Id be exempted fron1 payi11g compensation in accordance with ln1 Article 685 of the Con1mercial Code for irljury done by an·ins11red person 011ly if tl1e in· an jured person does not claim compe11sation, eitl1er amicably or judicially. Respo11de nt asked appella11t amicably to pay l1im the compensatio11, but because a1Jpella11t would lio not pay, he l1as brought this action. This is in co11formity with Article 688 of the Con1' fio: mercial Code. th 4. �he a�tio11 b�ought by tl1e responde11t against the appella11t is lawful a11d is i& an conformity \V1th Article 2161 (1) (2) (3) of the Civil Code. Thls Article is intendec Ra} to prevent u11just e11richme11t by various devices and desig11s. �n . Before commenting on !he argument_s s�bmitted by botli parties, we shoiild identif! in• the issue that ha� to �e dec1d.ed. Tl1e pr1nC1pal question is wl1etller the respondent ma_} _ claim comp�nsat1on directly from the appellant, an insurer, for damages done to h1 1 No body and bicycle by Mr. R. Cooper, a11 i11s11red _person. &eQ1 Neither of the parties denies that a contract of insurance against accidents w a' �� entered into by the appellant and Mr. Cooper. � Qd

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UNIVERSAL INSURANCE V. GH:EBRE. MESKEL TEKLE

No evid �nc� has bee11 produced to p1·ove tl1at Mr. Cooper l1as subrogated the res­ pondent to his rights of st1ing the appellant as provided for i11 tl1e contract of insura11ce.

Havin ?. establisl1ed tl1e above-me11tio11ed majo1· poi11ts, let t1s proceed to examine those prov1s1011s of tl1e Con1111ercial Code tl1a.t l1ave bee11 referred to by the respondent, i.e., Article 685, 687, 688.

Co11cer1ti11g tl1e liability of tl1e i11surer, Article 685 J)rovides: ''The insurer vvho in­ sured a liability for clamages sl1a11· not pay co111pe11satio11 t1ntil a clai111 is n1ade against the i11sured perso11 with a ,,iew to amicable or judicial settleme11t. '' Tllis mea11s that tl1e i11surer can11ot be liable u11til tl1ese requiren1e11ts are fulfilled; it does not mean that the injt1red tllird part)' n1ay cl�1i111 compe11satio11 directly from tl1e insurer.

In order tl1at a11 inju1·ed tl1ird party 1nay claim compensatio11 fro1n an insurer, he must establisl1, first of all, eitl1er by cot1rt proceedi11gs or by the admission of the insured person, that the injt1ry 1·esulted fron1 a fat1lt of the latte r , and secondly, show that the i11st1rer participated i11. tl1e judicial proceedi11gs 011 bel1alf of the insured person or, in tl1e case of amicable settleme11t, that the i11surer l1as accepted tl1e settlement. !11 this case, tl1e respondent has not st1ed Mr. Cooper, tl1e i11sured, and established that the injury resulted from l1is fault. Mr. Cooper l1as 11ot subrogated the insurer by assigning to him the directio11 of llis defence. Unless these requirements are fulfilled, the insurer may 11ot be held liable to pay compe11sation directly to tl1e injured party, the respondent. We ca11 find 110 basis iI1 law fo1· tl1e propositio11 tl1at the insurer becomes liable to pay compensation by tl1e mere fact tl1at the 1·espondent l1as asked him to pay.

Article 687 (2) of the Commercial Code ap_plies to criminal proceedings; it does not apply to this case. We sl1all, tl1erefore, proceed to exami11e Article 687 (1). Concerning the direction of a case, it provides: ''Provisio11s may be made to the effect that the insurer shall have tl1e diI·ection of any civil case origu1ating from a claim brought by the injured p · arty.'' This mea11s that in a co11tract of i11sura11ce, provision may be made to enable insurer to represe11t the insured person in a case instituted by the injured party. a provisio11 safegt1a1·ds tl1e i11terests of tl1e insurer by providing him with a right to defences, but it does not e11title the i11.jured third party to by-pass the insured person sue the i11s·urer directly. Tl1e provisio11 of this subsection. i1nplies also that the may 11ot institute proceedings in his own 11ame to claim compensation for injury to the insured by a tllird party; it ca11 make a claim only i11 the name and 011 behalf the insured person. A co11tract of i11s11ra11ce has direct effect 01tly between tl1e and the Article 688 (1) of th.e Co1mnercial Code gives priority of J)ayment to tl1e co111pe11sa­ tion of tl1e injured third party by providing: ''No inst1red person shall received compe11sa­ tion until the tllird party i11jured has been paid to the extent of tl1e amou11t insured.''

T•his means that wl1ere the insurer l1as to pay on behalf of the insurecl -perso11, follo,ving an amicable or judicial settlement, l1e mt1st first and foren1ost pay tl1e con1pensatio11 p _ ayable to the injured tllird party. Tl1is provisio11 is i11.te11ded to give priority to tl1e com­ pensation payable to the i11jured tlu1·d party; the i11s11rer ha·s to pay the compe11satio11 in accordance with tl1e JJrovisions of Article 685, as explained above.

The advocate for tl1e defe11da11t has referred also to Article 2161 of tl1e Civil Code.

No Paragraph 3 appears in tl1e Amharic text of tl1at A1·ticle, a11.d by virtue of the Corri­ genda, Paragraph 3 is deleted fro111 the Englisl1 text� Co11cer1ung subrogation, Paragrapl1 I provides: ''A person wl10 has paid the wl1ole debt althot1gl1 l1e is 11ot bound finally to bea1· more tha11 a part tl1ereof sl1all be e11titled to recover from tl1ose liable witl1 l1im.''

And Paragraph 2 J)rovides: ''For the purpose of such recove.rY: lie shall oe subrogated - 17 -

JOURNAL OF ,ETI-IIOPIAN' LAW - VOL.

II - No. 1

to tlie victin.1 's clain1." Tl1ese provisions entitle 011e \Vl10 pays tl1e wl1ole debt to reco\'er from those liable witl1 I1in1. For exan1ple, 0 11e who pays tl1e_ whole ?f. tl1e compensation tl1at ca11 be claimed fron1 the driver and tl1e owner of a vehicle for 111Jury cattsed by tl1e driver can recover from tl1e driver, a11d 0 11e who pays the wl1ole of a debt for wl1icl1 several persons a.re liable can recover fro1n tl1e otl1er debtor�. Tl1ey do not � 11ti�le tl1e irljured _ tl1ird party to clain1 compensatio11 directly fro1n tl1e 111s11rer.. Tl1e _ obl1gat101: that arises from a co11tract of insura11ce arises solely from tl1e legal relat1 011sh1p tl1at exists between tl1e insurer a 11d the insured. It is tl1e ins11red perso11 hin1self wl10 is responsible for the extra-co 1 1tractual liability tl1at he i11curs. However, since he is insured against accide 11ts, the insurer pays tl1e compe11sation o.n bel1alf of tl1e insured; l1e may pay willi11gly, but if he does not, tl1e i11sured has tl1e rigl1t to proceed against l1im i11 court. But tl1e responde11t, a tl1ird pa.rty, may 11ot sue the insurer as if the latter were joi 11tly liable with the i11s1 1red.

As a matter of fact, the i 1 1sured could cause an injury u11der circ1 1msta 1 1ces tl1at \Vo11ld n1ake it outside of the scope of the contract of i11sura11ce and exempt tl1e i11surer from liability. He11ce, tl1e obligation of the i 11surer to\\1ards tl1e ins11 red, and tl1at of tl1e i11s11red towards tl1e irljured 1Jerso11, the respo11dent, are connected i 1 1 such a way tl1at tl1ey 111ust be establisl1ed i 11 a particular step-by-step way. No direct legal relationship l1as been created between tl1e j11s1trer and tl1 e i1tjured perso11, tl1e res1Jonde11t. Tl1e rigl1ts of the i11surer, includ.i11g tl1e rigl1t to direct the defe11ce against tl1e respondent, are based 011 sub­ rogation to, or assig1m1ent of, the rigl1ts of the i11sured. Si1nilarly, tl1e rigl1t of tl1e respondent to clain1 compe 1 1satio11 for tl1e injury do 11e to l1im by an insured person res·ults from tl1e legal relatio11ship tl1at exists between tl1e respondent a 1 1d tl1e insured person.

It is obvious tl1at wl1etl1er the insurer l1as to pay tl1e con1pe11sation for a 11 injury done by an insured perso11 depe11ds on tl1e legal relatio 11sl1ip that exists between tl1e two.

Two letters i11 wl1ich the Legal Department of Kagnew Statio11 a11d the ap1Jellant correspo1 1ded regarding tl1 e injury cattsed by Mr. Cooper l1ave bee 1 1 prodt1ced as evidence.

They merely show that. the Legal Departme11t of Kagnew Station advised tl1e appella11t that he 011gl1t to pay tl1e co1npe11sation because Mr. Cooper \Vas insured witl1 him; tl1ey show neither an assig11me11t of the rigl1ts of the ins1 1red to tl1e injured person 11.or an undertaki11g of tl1e ins11rer to pay the compe11sation. Hence, we fi11d tl1e t\vo letters to be of 110 value as evidence in this case.

Although l1e l1ad a contract of insurance witl1 the appella11t, Mr. Cooper l1in1self remains the one directly responsible for the damage st1ffered by tl1e respo11de11t. However, he went home witl1 out being sued and without having arra11ged witl1 tl1e a�1pella 1 1t to pay tl1e con1pe11satio 11 to the respondent. Tl1e responde11t, knowi11g that Mr. Cooper had incurred a civil liability, should l1ave taken the necessary steps to preve11t hin1 from going 011t of tl1e country before the case was settled, but l1e did notl1ing of tl1e ki 11 d. Wl1en he bro11gl1 t his action, it was after Mr. Cooper l1ad go11e home. Realizi 1 1g tl1at tl1e sum­ mo11s could not be served upon hin1, l1e made the claim directly t1po 1 1 tl1e appella 1 1t. But he ·did not establish that the appellant l1ad. any legal relationship witl1 tl1e respo11dent or any obligation toward him.

Since Mr. Cooper l1ad an insurance policy and still went away witl1out doi11g a11y­ thing for the respondent to compensate for the i11jury tl1at he caused lu 1 11, it m,:1y appear that the insurer has obtained an unjust enricl1ment, but to pern1it tl1e responde 1 1t to sue the appella.nt without having judicially establisl1ed his right agai11st Mr. Cooper vvould annul the contract of insurance between the appellant and Mr. Cooper.

Considering that Articles 685, 687, and 688 of the Comn1ercial Code and Article 2161 of the Civil Code and the opinion expressed above give no rigl1t to tlie respondent to sue the appellant directly, and considering that the contract of insurance concer11s onlY - 18 -

UNIVERSAL INSURANCE V. GI-IEBRE MESKEL TEKLE

the legal relatio11ship between tl1e appella11t and Mr. Cooper, and co11sidering that Mr. Cooper neithe1· subrogated nor assig11ed to tl1e respo11de11t l1is right to claim from the appellant, a11d consideri11g tl1at tl1e respo11de11t has 110 right to sue the appellant without havi11g previously jt1dicially establisl1ed l1is rigl1ts agai11st Mr. Cooper, we reverse the judg·ment rendered by tl1e Fiigl1 Court. . .

We order eacl1 party to bear tl1e costs of tl1e proceedi11gs in tl1is Court.

A copy of tlus jt1dg111e11t sl1all be sent to tl1e execution officer.

Judgme11t is given on Gtte11bot 7, 1956 E.C., i11 tl1e prese11ce of both parties.

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SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. 6 DOMENICO CROCE v. ITALO FOCACCIA Civil Appeal No. 1112/56 E. C. Contractual obligatio11s - - Written evidence - - Conclusive effect - - Oral evidence - - Inadmissibility - Art. 1734 Civ. C.

On appeal from an order of the High Court admitting extraneous evidence to prove that the inten­ tion of the parties was that a.n unequivocal letter of acceptance of· accounts should constitute a settlement· of accounts.

Held: Order of the High Court quashed.

1. According to Arts. 2005 and 2006 Civ. C., a written instrument is conclusive evidence of the agree­ m.ent therein contained, and its meaning cannot be altered by extraneous evidence.

2. Where an instrument is clearly a letter of acceptance of accounts, Art. 1734 Civ. C., which pro­ vides that common intention shall be sought where there is ambiguity in a contract, is inapplicable.

3. Communications by the parties to the drafter of a document cannot affect the clear language · of the document.

4. It must be presumed that a settlement .of accounts would have been mentioned in a later letter in which one party declares that he accepts the other's statement of the accounts.

Guenbot 14, 1956 E.C. (May 22; 1964 G.C.); Justices: Mr. G. Debbas, Grazmatch Tessemma Negede, Ato Tsaggai Tefferi: - This is an appeal against an order of the High Court (First Commercial Division) dated 12/8/56 in C.C. No. 913/55, whereby ex­ traneous evidence was allowed to prove facts which the High Court considered had been left out of a written instrument produced as Exhibit D/1 before the High Court.

In order to understand the sense of this appeal, we will summarize the case. Appel­ lant left for Italy and left a general power of attorney to his employee, the responde11t.

On the appellant's return from Italy, he asked his employee to account for the period of his absence and of respondent's administration; an accountant, Nicolas Bova, was chosen by the respondent to make accounts; Bova received documents from the respon­ de11t and based his accounts on the respondent's documents, as he testified before the 1-Iigh Court. He found there was a balance due by the responde11t to the appellant, amounting to E.$65,912.80. That was what we could understand from the records of the High Court; but we refrain from goi11g into the merits of tl1e case. On his return from Italy, the appellant wanted to revoke the general power of attorney whlcl1 he had given the respondent; and in hls letter of revocation dated July I, 1963, i11 Italian, addressed to the respondent, the appellant made it clear tl1at he was completely satisfied with the v1ork done by the respondent d11ring his absence in Italy, tl1at he had looked at the accounts (prendere visione) and that he accepted those accounts f t1lly as from the period - 23 -

J·ouRNAL OF

Er1-1roPIAN LA w - VoL. II - No. 1

betwee11 A JJril 1, 1962 a11d J1111e 30, 1963. 111 tl1e seco11d paragraJ )l1 of tl1at letter, the appel­ la11t revoked tl1e po\ver of attor11e)' of. tl1e resJJOndent. A1Jpare11tly, wl1e11 tl1e ap1Jellant clain1ed the balance discovered by the accou11ta11t Bova in favo11r of tl1e appella11t, payable by responde11t, tJ1e latter reft1sed to pay, clai111ing that tl1e letter i11 Italia11 dated July I, 1963, was a ''letter of settleme11t'' a11d tl1at notlung could be dt1e to Croce. Wl1.ereupo11, Croce went to court. The High Cot1rt saw tl1e letter i11 question; a11d in. its order dated J 2/8/56, under appeal l1ere, it clearly stated. tl1at t11is letter cot1ld t111der 110 circt1msta11ce be considered to be a complete state111e11t as to any settle111e11t or agree1nen.t reacl1ed be­ tween tl1e parties. Tl1e Higl1 Court said ''It does 11ot say a11ytlur1g abo11t a11y possible settlement betwee11 t]1e parties . accordi11g to the acceJ Jted accou11ts....'' A11d tl1ereupo11 it allowed extraneous evidence of Advocate Y0]1annes Prota, vvho drafted tl1e said letter: to testify as to whether he had any k11owledge of a11y additio11al facts fron1 tl1e parties them.selves. Wl1erefore this ap1Jeal.

We cannot possibly share tl1e opinion of tl1e Ifigl1 Court regarding this extraneous evidence. It certai11ly is not admissible, because wl1atever Mr. Prota wot1ld say ,vill not and ca11not possibly cl1ange tl1e se11se of tl1is letter in Italia11 (Exl1. D/1), which we sav, and wl1ich is in no way ambiguous. Tl1is letter is clearly a letter of acceptance of accot1nts but is not a letter of settleme11t of accot1nts. If there sl1ot1ld be any docun1ent. to prove that Foca.ccia paid Croce the amount dt1e by Focaccia, tl1en let t]1e respondent produce that document. A writte11 instrt11nent, accordi11g to Articles 2005 and 2006 of the Civil Code, is conclusive evidence, a11d no extraneo11s e,1idence ca11 alter its mea1u11g, especially when it is so clear and beyo11d the least sl1adow of �Lmbiguity. Article 1734 of the Civil Code provides tJ1at tJ1e com1non inte11tio11 sl1all be so11ght only \Vhen there is ambiguity in a contract; a11d tl1ere is certainly no an1biguity i11 tl1is letter. Ato Gila, advocate for the respondent, admitted in his reply tl1at tl1e witness, wl1ose evide11ce we do 11ot accept, cannot possibly say what ,vas in tl1e n1inds of tl1e parties w11en he drafted that letter. What the parties may ha,1e told Ato Yohannes Prota before drafting the letter i11 questio11 can­ not affect the sense of the said doct1ment; and if there had been ,1ny settlement in casl1, or otherwise, tl1en Ato Yohannes would n.ot have failed to mentio11 it in tl1e letter he drafted.

In view of the foregoi11g, and particularly of the fact tl1at there is no a·mbig·uity i11 Exhibit D/1, no extraneous evidence can. be ad1nitted.

It is important to emphasize tl1at if we allow extraneo11s evide11ce agai11st a writte11 instrt1ment, which the law considers as concl11sive, then litigation would l1ave no e11d in the courts of law.

·u 11der the circumsta11ces, we allow tl1is appeal a11d quash the order of tl1e l-1igl1 Cot1rt

dated 12/8/56 E.C., but only i11sofar as tl1e l1earing of evide11.ce of Yol1an11es Prota is concerned.

We order that a copy of tlus order be in1mediately served. 011 tl1e Higl1 Court, to abide by it and to give judgment as it deems appropria.te on the b,1sis of evide11ce before i t or any additional legally admissible evidence it 111ay deem pro1Jer. Tl1is order is give11 by majority of the Presidi11g Justice a11d Jt1stice Tsaggai Tefferi.

Our brother, Justice Grazmatcb Tessemn1a Negede disse11ted and disn1issed t]1e a.J)peal for reasons detailed in his mi11ority opinion.

Given and delivered i11 ope11 court this 14t11 day of Guer1bot, 1956 E.C., in tl1e presence of both parties' attorneys.

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DOMENICO CROCE V. lTALO FOCACClA

Grazn1atcl1 Tesse1nma Negede, J., disse11ti11g: - I disagree "'itl1 tl1e order give11 in this case. This was a case where the appella11t-plaintiff's claim against the respondent arises from an alleged embezzlement by tl1e respondent at the time he was working i11 a.ppellant's garage. This was 11ot a case in wl1ich a part11ersl1jp was alleged to exist.

111 a letter from the appella11t to tl1e respondent dated Jt1ly 1, 1963, tl1e appellant said that he had looked over tl1e accot1.nts of t]1e garage for the period from April I, 1963 , to_ June 3?, 1963, and tl1at l1e was ft1lly satisfied a11d J1ad accer>ted th.e accot1nts. At tl1e trial of this case the ap_pellant � called a wit11ess in ]us favor. TJ1e witness testified that he did some acco11nting for tl1e respo11dent a11d that· 11e I1ad never facilitated any contractual negotiations between the parties. In ttrrn, tl1e respo11det1t moved in. tl1e trial court to call a person to testify wl10 l1ad acted as a11 arbitrator for tl1e settle.me11t of the accounts. Th.e name of the alleged arbitrator is Ato Yohannes Prota. The Court accepted the motion and ordered that Ato Yohan11es be called before the Court to explain the relation between the pa.rties. When a witness is called to testify in favor of the plaintiff, it is not proper to deprive the defendant of the right to i11t.roduce evidence and thus to force hlm to lose his case.

Moreover, the High Court's i11tentio11 was to learn about the case in depth by calling the witness, and a decision was never taken to disprove a written agreement by challenging it by oral evidence. The fear that if Ato Yohannes were allowed to testify the written evide·nce would be void is groundless.

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Article 2002 of the Civil Code, cited by the respondent, provides that it is permissible to hear evidence on a point in dispute between parties to a contract. What is m@re, where a trial court thinks it best to call witnesses in order to know the case brought bef©F.e iit in depth, it is not proper for the appellate court, even where the power of such court over the court of first instance is taken for granted, to interfere in the proceeding of a trial to the extent of directing and ordering the trial court as to which points it should decide without seeking further evidence and which it should decide by seeking further evidence.

The reason for this is th.at, after the case has been through the trial court and a.n appeal is brought over the case, the decision of the trial court may be reversed on a point where such a cou.rt has improperly proceeded or judged. If we are to speculate as to the intention of a lower court, it will be equal to hearing appeals over the conscience and intention of the j11dges in a lower court. In thls Court, we have already upheld the decision of the High Court in 111 re KEMIL, Supreme In1perial Court C.A. No. 1088/56 E.C., where the High Court had admitted oral evidence to challenge the validity of a written instrument. Therefore, if we now refuse the petition of the respondent where the appellant's witness has already been heard in court, we would deprive him of his right. If the trial court were to err in admitting such evidence, we should consider this point later when tl1e entire case is appealed. At this early stage, however, it seems to me improper to interfere with the work of the trial co11rt and order it to give a judgment the way we want. For all these reasons, I dissent.

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SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. 6 VASKEN SISSIAN v. JACOB FOGSTAD a11d SYLVIA. VACHARCHGIAN Civil Appeal N·o. 1271/ 56 E.C. Co111pa11y law - - Disso/1.1tio11 - - Liqi,idatio11 procec/11re - - Co111111ercial register - Protectio11 of credi­ tors - - Si1,spe11sion of e.-xec11tio11.

On appeal from a judgment of the Higl1 Court ordering the formal liquidation of a compa.ny dissolved . shareholders and appointing a liquidator. by 1ts Held: • Judgment affirn1ed.

1. Where all the shareholders of a company have agreed on its dissolution, tl1e company must be fonnally liquidated, so that all creditors may be notified a.nd given opportunity to present their claims against the company.

2. Liquidation involves the discharge of a// liabilities of the company and the subsequent distribu­ tion of the remaining assets among the associates according to law.

3. Until formal liquidation has occurred, the Ministry of Commerce and Industry will not erase the name of the company from the commercial register.

4. Since the purpose of formal liquidation is the protection of the creditors of the company, all debts claimed from the company must be temporarily stayed until the final appointment of a liquidator.

Hamle 15, 1956 E.C. (July 21, 1964 O.C.); Justices: Mr. G. Debbas, Grazmatch Tessemma Negede, Ato Tsaggai Tefferi: - This is an appeal against the judgment of the High Co11rt (First Commercial Division ), dated Miazia 21, 1956, in C.C. No. 171/56, whereby the formal liquidation of the con1pany ''FOGSTAD & VASKEN CO. LTD." was ordered, and a liquidator in the pe1·so11 of Mr. E. Salole was appointed and vested with the powers a11d duties of a liquidator under the Com.mercial Code, subject of course to Mr. Salole accepting tl1e appointment.

This is certainly one of the most interesting appeals we have had this year, as it deals solely witl1 questio11s of law as to the necessity of liquidatio11 of a company and tl1e difference betwee11 the dissolution of a company and its liquidation ...

The appellant and tl1e respo11dents were shareholders _ i11 equal shares in the company ''FOGSTAD & VASK.EN CO. LTD." Due to endless disputes, a Board of Arbitrators was seized with the matter and pronounced its award on May 18, 1962, providing for the splitting and the winding up of the company. Subsequent to the award, an Extra­ ordinary General Meeting of the company was held; it provided for the dissolution of the company. The shareholders originally agreed to appoint Mr. E. Salole as liquidato1·.

The appellant apparently disregarded tl1e provisions of the law regarding liquidation of the company, and thus the responde11ts were compelled to petition the Higl1 Court for an order to enjoin tl1e appellant to appoi11t a liquidator, or alternatively, to l1ave a - 29 -

JoUR.NAL OF ETfIIOPIAN LAw - VoL.

II - No. I

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liquidator a1Jpointed by the Court itself. The High Court gra11te� tl1 e petitio1 1 a11d ordered forn1a1 Iiq11idation i11 accordance witl1 tl1e law. Wl1erefore tl11 s appeal....

Tlie facts are 110t disputed. A compa1 1y was for1ned betwee11 the appella11t a!1 d the respo11de1 1ts, i11 \Vhich tl1ose tl1ree perso11 s were tl1 e 011ly s�1arel1 olders. Endless d1 sp11tes bet\veen the sl1arel1 olders were subnlitted to a Eoard of Arbitrators 11nder a term of refe r­ ence \vhicl1 was fi11ally a1nended on Ja11 t1ary 31, 1962. The object of tl1 e an1ended Sl1b1 nissio11 vv1as clearly to dissolve tl1e con1 pa1 1y, each sl1a.rel1older taking a share of the asset s a11 d ass111 11i11 g a share of tl1e liabilities. Tl1e shareholders l1ad. agreed to s_plit up the com­ pa11 y on tl1e above basis and tl1e award i11 fact decided 011 a schen1e as to l1ow tl1is sl1ould be do11e bet\veer1 the sharel1olders, so that eacl1 sl1arel1 older could conti1111e his busines s i1 1divid11ally.

01 1 tl1e • day tl1e a\vard was pronou11ced, an Extraordinary Ge11eral Meeting of tl1e compa1 1y ,vas l1eld and it was resolved as follows:To cease operatio11 s of tl1e Fogstad and Vaske11 Co. Ltd. a11 d \Vi11d 11p . tl1e con11 Jany. ·2. Pe11di11g tl1 e wir1di11g tlIJ of· tl1e co111 pa11 y; tl1e _parties divide tl1e assets a11 d assun1e 1 tl1 e liabilities i11 accordance witl1 tl1e Award of 18 May 1962.

1.

· e forwarded 3. A copy of tl1e resolL1tio11 and a COJJY of the Arbitratio11 Award is to b to the Mi_11istry of Com111erce. a11 d I11d11stry, witl1 a req11est of advice as to the best . n1 a11ner of irnplementi11g the wi11di11 g up.

Regardi11g tl1 e a.bove poi11t No. 3, tl1e Ministry of Commerce and Ind11stry re­ comme11 ded t]1at a liquidator be appoi11ted to \Vi11d 11 p tl1e compa1 1y (See Mi11istry's letter N·o. 196/4/55 addressed to tl1e co11 1pany and advisi11 g ,,for1nal liquidatio11 by appoiJ1ti11g a liq11idator \Vl10 sl1all be i11 cl1 a.rge of tl1e assets a .nd liabilities of the company'' and Mi11is­ try's letter No. 1218/4/56 addressed to the same compa11y a11d notifyi11g it tl1 at its 11an1e has 11 ot peen pancelled frq1 n the register for_ tl1e simple reason that no liquidator had been appoi11ted for liquidatio11 ).

In additio11 to tl1ose two letters of tl1e 1',1i11istry of Con1merce a11d Industry aski11g f. or appointment of a liquidator according to law, we l1ave seen tl1e copy of the resolu­ tions of the Extraordinary Ge11eral lvleeting of 18 May 1962, wl1 ereby all tl1ree sl1 areholders, iitcluding appell,111 t, resolved to ''cease operation of Fogstad & V::1sken Co. Ltd. a11d wi11d up the co1·npany." Tl1e tl11·ee sharel1 olders ]1ave signed tl1e resolt1tio11s of the Extraordinary Ge11eral Meeting. We consider it, u11der the circumstances, as pure loss of time to continue argui11 g this appeal. How cot1ld tl1is appella11 t co111 e before tbis Court, whe11 J1e l1as bound llimself 'by tl1e fina.l resolutio11s to ''\1/i11 d 11 1) tl1 e co111 pa1 1y."

Tl1e appellant's argume11ts ca11not be better s11mmarized tl1a11 they were i11 tl1 e English versio11 of tl1e judg1 11e11t of the Higl1 Court: ''There is nothing to liquidate as tl1e con1 1)·any was liquidated two years ago, a11d the petitioners, i.e. respondents, have received tl1eir s]1ares of the assets and their sl1 ares of t11 e liabilities.'' From the argl1me11 ts of t11e appel· la11 t, it seems tl1at . l1e l1as 110 idea what dissolutio1 1 1neans a11 d. wl1at the diflerence is between dissolution and formal liquidation of a compa11y. Vasken Sissian is satisfied to say that l1e chose for lumself some creditors of the con1 J)a11y wl1ose debts I1e vlould _pay a11d tl1at l1e took his share of the assets; a1 1d tl1at would be all, according to l1im, 1vir. Vaske1 1 possibly forgot tl1at liquidation involves m11cl1 more tha1 1 assu1 ni1 1g so111e liabilities: there is involved tl1e discl1arge of a// liabilities of tl1e co1npany and tl1e subse· quent distri�ution of tJ1 e remainder - whatever it might be - among the part1 1ers or associates according to law. As was stressed in tl1e judgine11t u1 1der appeal, altho11gb the company has been dissolved, it survives as an entity until the dissol11tion is completed

- 30 -

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VASKEN SISSIAN V. JACOB FOGSTAD AND SYLVIA VACHARCHGlAN

for purposes of the liqt1idation of tl1e con1pany's affairs. There could easily be additional creditors or differe11t amounts due to the creditors, and this is brot1ght to the notice of tl1e liquidator by tl1e interested creditor as soon as the liquidator makes the press advertise­ me11ts accordi11g to law. Tl1at the 11ame of a creditor l1as not bee11 included i11 Sissia11's list or tl1at a11 amount listed is i11correct does i1ot necessarily make the creditor lose his rights; neither does it absolve tl1e parties of tl1eir obligations. That is why a liquidation is necessary and \.Vl1y eve11 tl1e Mi11istry of Con1merce i11sists on it. Tl1at is why the name of a con1pany is 11ever struck off the commercial register u11less and t1ntil a liqt1idator l1as been appointed a11cl l1a.s liquidated all according to tl1e tern1s of tl1e law. If the parties have not included all creditors or all amot111ts due to tl1e1n, a11d d.id not co11sider pe11ding cases, that list is of 110 valt1e as to final obligations and does 11ot and ca1111ot liberate the . pa.rties fro1n their fi11al obligatio11s for tl1e surplt1s or remaining balance to be paid by the company.

111 this particular case, at tl1e time of the dissolution of tl1e co111pany, there were pending tax appeals before tl1e Tax Appeal Commission, and sucl1 appeals resulted in the company already dissolved being condem11ed to amounts mucl1 l1igher than foreseen

by Fogstad and Vasken a11d stated in the list of creditors. Would that n1ean that Fogstad alone or Vasken alone should meet tl1ose obligations? Certainly 11ot; the company it­ self shall meet those obligations through the appoint111ent of a liquidator who will care for the assets and liabilities of the company and then officially notify the Ministry of Commerce and Industry to cancel the company's name.

In the present case, as well as in all similar liquidation cases, there are various assets

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and various liabilities; tl1e sl1areholders cannot decide to divide the assets among them­ selves before the creditors have been fully satisfied; until all creditors have been satisfied, the assets of the company ren1ain the property of the co·mpany, and the creditors may levy execution on them.

In view of the foregoing, it is clear that the agreement to dissolve the company mu.st necessarily be followed by a liquidation and that was the aim of the resolution of the Extraordinary General Meeting of May 18, 1962. Therefore, there must ce,rtainly be a formal liquidation under a liquidator .

We therefore dismiss this appeal and confirm the judgment of tl1e High Court. But whereas tl1e liquidator appointed by the Higl1 Court may eve11tually accept or refuse the said appointment, all debts claimed from tl1e company must 11ecessarily be stayed, temporarily, until a liquidator is finally appointed.

The appellant shall pay the respo11de11t E.$300 as costs.

A copy of this judgment shall be served on the High Court for execution.

Given and delivered in ope11 court this 15th day of Hamle, 1956, in the presence of both parties' lawyers.

Grazmatcl1 Tessemma Negede, J., disse11ti11g: - I dissent from tl1e majority opinion in this case. It cannot be right to say that liquidation should take place agai11 after 011e has said tl1at the agreeme11t of the general assembly of the compa11y in regard to the dissolution and winding-up of the company shall have force and effect and that tl1e distribt1tion of the assets of the company in accordance witl1 the agree1ne11t shall be valid.*

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r. (*Ed. note: The Amharic version of the majority opi11ion vvas vvritten by Ato Tsaggai Tefferi, ;· J., and differs from the English version, which was \vritten by �1r. G. Debbas, J., in that is ex­ _plicitly states that the agreen1ent of dissolution a11d distribution of assets pursuant thereto are vaii ! lid .

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JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

11 - No. 1

The majority declares tl1at the dissolt1tio11 of the con1pa11y a11d tl1e distribt1tion of its assets is valid and shall have for�e �11d effect. A l_iq11idator :was apl?ointed by tl1e High Court after tl1e co1n1Ja11y 11ad bee11 l1qt11dated accord111g to tl1e 1nstrt1ct1011s of tl1e Ministry of Com111erce and Indt1stry contained i11 a letter dated Megabit 11, 1957 E.C., Ref. No 1946/56, only because tl1e dissolt1tion of' tl1e co1upa11y was 11ot JJ11blisJ1ed. i11 ,1 11ewspa1)et: as is required by law. In sucl1 a. case, i11stead of saying tl1,1t tl1e liqt1idatio11 sl1all take place agair1, it would be better to say tl1at, tl1e creditors of tl1e co1npa11y, if there are any, shall be 11otified thro11gl1 the newspaper to a.ppear before co11rt.

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- 36 -

'

SUPREME IMPERIAL COURT Div. IA HIGHWAY AUTHORITY and ESKANISKA CO. v. MEBRATU FISSIHA Civil Appeal No. 1665/56 Constitutional law - - Expropriation - - Procedure - - Right of appeal - - Natural resources - - Due process of law - - Arts. 5 ( d) and 10 Proc. No. 115/51 - - Arts. 43 and 44 Rev. Const.

Civil proced,,re - - Notice - â&#x20AC;˘ Substitution of parties.

On appeal from an order of the High Court enjoining petitioner, a government agency, from quauy. mg stone from respondent's land.

Held: Injunction order cancelled and continuatien of quarrying ordered.

1. Where a person does work on behalf of another person, and where the latter aecepts the request of the former to defend or to appeal a suit in connection with such work, the Court will saBstitJ.U& the tatter for the former as a party to the suit.

2. Under all circumstances, the Court Procedure Rules require that befoie a coul\t oitten is giv.en, the defendant be informed and given an opportunity to answer the complaint against him.

3. Proceedings authorized by Proc. No. 115 of 1951 do not violate Arts. 43 and 44 Rev. Const.

4. The quarrying of stone by a government agency from a person's land in accordance with a pre­ cedur.e established by a proclamation does not violate the provisions of the Constitution establishing stricter procedures for expropriation.

Nehasse 6, 1956 E.C. (August 11, 1964 G.C.); Justices: Afenegus Kitaw Yitateku, Ato Tilahun Yimeru, Ato Wolde Amanuel: -The respondent, Col. Mebratu Fissiha, sued Eskaniska Co. on Hamle 13, 1956 E.C. In his complaint in the High Court, he stated that Eskaniska Co. was, without any legal right, quarrying stone from his land.

On this same day, Ramie 13, 1956 E.C., Col. Mebratu Fissiha submitted an affidavit verifying that the land where the work was being done belonged to him and requesting that an injuction be given to stop Eskaniska Co. from quarrying any stone from his land.

The order given by the High Court on Hamle 15, 1956 E.C. stated: ''Considering the affidavit given by Col. Mebratu Fissiha, we l1ave ordered tl1at the defendant Eskaniska Co. shall not quarry any stone from the land found in Shashamene and belonging to the plaintiff until thls Court gives a11y other order."

The Highway Authority appealed to this Court against this order.

A copy of the appeal petition was se11t to Col. Mebratu Fissiha, who then appeared in this Court and gave his answer on Hamle 23, 1956 E.C. - 37 -

JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN

LA\'' -

VOL.

II - No. 1

Eskao.iska Co. also subn1itted to this Cot1rt that, since the company is quarrying sto11e for the t1se of the High\¥ay Authority, tl1e appropriate party to I1a 11dle any court case in this con11ectio11 is the Higl1way Autl1ority.

Tl1e Highway Authority also stated tl1at, since the compa11y i� worki11g. for it, it s11ould be tl1e Highway Autl1ority tl1at explai11s to tl1e Co11rt tl1e 111appropr1ateness of Col. Mebratu's request.

This Court, after considering that the Higl1 Cot1rt, ·wl1en it issued its order, neither informed tl1e defenda11t by sendi11g it a copy of the order 11or fixed a time for tl1e defendant to appear, sent the case back and ordered the Higl1 Cot1rt to give its final decision before Nehasse 5, 1956 E.C. It also set Nehasse 6, 1956 E.C. as tl1e date to reviev-i' the matter i11 this CoL1rt. On tl1at day the attorney for the Imperial .Higl1way Authority \Vas present, bt1t Col. Mebratu Fissiha was not present.

Tl1e Court, after studying the claims of both sides, gave the follo\ving decision. Tl1e High Court should not have give11 ar1 injunction to stop tl1e \Vork before notifyi11g the defe11dant arid givi11g him sufficient time to prepare l1is defence. Accordingly, on Ham1e 27, 1956 E.C., this Court ordered the High Court to hear tl1e parties ancl give its final decision before Nehasse 5, 1956 E.C. Because this order was not follo\ved , the Imperial Higl1way Autl1orit)' has applied today for the ca11cellation of tl1e order of the High Court.

Co11sid.erj11g t11at the Higl1way Al1thority has accepted the request of the Eskaniska Co. to be substitt1ted as defendant and k11owing tl1at the \VOrk is being done for the High­ way Authority, tl1e Court has agreed to substitute the Highway Autl1ority for Eska11iska Co. and to consider the dispute as being between the respondent, Col. Mebratu Fissil1a, · · and the appellant Highway Authority.

The case 111ust be considered under Proc. No. 115/51 by which the Imperial Higl1way Authority was establisl1ed. The most relevant sectio11s of tl1e Proclamation for tl1is case are Articles 5 (d) and 10.

Article 10 states that, as indicated in Article 5 (d) of the Proclamatio11, the rigl1t given to the H'ighway At1thority to e11ter i11to or to take a11y private land a11d r11ake it government property is not subject to revie\v or reconsideration by any cot1rt.

If a perso11 is 11ot satisfied with tl1e compensation assessed by tl1e Higl1way Authority in respect of tl1e value of I1ouses, crops, gardens a11d otl1er immovables on tl1e land, or wants the allotment of the compensation amo11g tl1ose l1aving an interest in the land to to be re-examined, he can apply to tl1e .Awradja Court ha,1 ing jurisdiction on tl1e land or to tl1e High Court.

As Article 5 (d) of tl1e Proclamation states, the l-1ig1 1way At1thority sl1ot1ld 1nake an estimate a11d make it known to tl1e interested party.

If the interested party disagrees with suc]1 estin1ate, l1e ca11 ap1)ly to tl1e i\wradja or the High Court and assert his right. Court consideratio11 is reqltired 01tly to that extent.

Since the High Court gave tl1e order i11 violation of tl1is provision a11d o:f tl1e Co11rt Pro­ cedure Rules, we find that the order was inappropriate . . In answe: to the contention of the Highway At1tl1ority, Col.. Mebratt1 Fissil1a I1as relied on Articles 43 and 44 of the Revised Constitution.

- 38 -

•

HIGHWAY AUTHORITY AND EsKANISKA

Co.

V. MEBRATU FISSIHA

Article 43 states tl1at a person shall 11ot be deprived of his property without due process of law.:!( Any act done in accordance with the Proclamation of 1951 indicated above cannot be considered as not done in accorda11ce with tl1e law.

Article 44 is concerned with ex_propriation. Also considering this, it is done accord­ ing to the Proclamation of 1951. In general, the p11rpose of the Proclamation of 1951 is to benefit society. He11ce, any decision made under it may sacrifice the interest of an individt1al to that of the society.

Moreover, the order given by the I-ligl1 Court violates the Court Procedure Rules.

While the Co11rt Procedt1re Rules req11ire that, under all circumstances, before a co11rt order is given, the defendant should be informed and given an _opportunity to answer tl1e complaint against hi1n, the Higl1 Court neither summoned the defendant nor set a later time for a 11earing. All this is contrary to the Court Procedure Rules, and this Court holds that the order given on Hamle 15, 1956 E.C. violates the Court Procedure Rules.

On the basis of all these reasons, since the order of the High Court given Hamle 15, 1956 E.C. violates the law, we have declared it null and void. · We have cancelled the injunction given to stop the work of Eskaniska Co. and the Highway Authority, and have ordered that the quarrying continue.

To have this order executed, a copy of the order shall be sent 1!o ShashameRe Wared.a Cot1rt. This order shall not bar Col. Mebratu Fissiha from bringing an action in cmnnee­ tion with the compensation to be given.

The High Court, apart from considering the issue of compe·nsatien, foes itr@t hM1;e any authority to consider this case further, since this Coart b:as given tiJtts 01rde-ir B@il 1?€1 delay road construction. Therefore, a copy of this order is to be sen1! to the fflgh Ce'UiJJt. * Translator's note: A literal translation of the Amharic, however, is: ''No one shall be d�:riv.ed of his property except in accordance with the /au,.''

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SUPREME IIvfPERIAL COURT Div. 6 NEDDI HAILE v. TI-IE ADVOCATE GENERAL Criminal Appeal No. 522/55 E.C. Cri111i11al procedure - - Private co11'lplaint - - Reconciliatio11 - - fVithdra1val of co111p/aint.

Perra! la1v- - Defences - - Mitigatio11 of sente11ce - - Reconci/iatio,i--Blood 111or1ey--Arts. 217 anr/221 P.C.

On appeal from the I-:ligh Court's judgment of conviction for cold-blooded murder and sentence of fifteen years imprisonment, the appellant based his clain1 for release on tl1e fact tl1at l1e had con1pen­ sated and reconciled with the relatives of the deceased.

Hele/: Conviction affim1ed.

I. \Vhereas it may well have been, under the old Penal Code of 1930, that a 111t1rderer could escape penal liability for l1is act by tl1e payment of blood money, l1e cannot do so under the ne\v Penal Code of 1957.

2. Art. 221 of tl1e Penal Code of 1957 applies 011.ly to crin1es pt1nisbable t1pon private complaint as defined in Art. 217, and a prosecution for cold-blooded n1urder does not depend on a private complaint.

3. Reconciliation with the relatives of the deceased may, in a 1nt1rder prosect1tion, be taken as an extenuating circumstance in fixing the sentence.

Maskaram 21, 1957 E.C. (Septen1ber 30, 1964 G.C.); Jt1stices: Ivir. G. Debbas, Ato Haile Aman, Grazmatcl1 Tessemmi1 Negede: - Tl1is is a11 appeal agai11st tl1e jt1clgn1e11t and sente11ce of tl1e Higl1 Court (1st criminal divisio11) i n Cr. C. No. 220/52, \Vhereby the appellant was fot1nd guilty of n1urder and, i11 vie�1 of extenu,1ti 1 1g circt1msta11ces, was sente11ced to fifteen years' imprisonme1 1t only.

Tl1e main ground of appeal is that the appellant 11.as settled a111icably a11d reco11ciled with tl1e relatives of the deceased, and that having conseqt1e11tly paid them blood 111oney and given then1 a piece of la11d for reconciliatio11, 11.e sl1011ld no\,, be released fron1 jail.

TI1at is the only argume11t of the appella11t. 011 tl1e otl1er l1an.d, l1e admits his cold-blooded murder, tl111s supporting two eye-wit11esses \vl10 testified ag::1i11st hi 1n, and he does 11ot attack the :finding of tl1e High Court to tl1e effect tl1at l1e was gtiilty of murder.

Ato Negga for the Attorney General stro11gly objected to tl1e release of tl1e appel· lant, as the reconciliation that intervened betwee 1 1 llim a11d tL1e relatives of tl1e deceased cannot be the basis for such release. He said tl1at altl1ot1gl1 tl1e appella11t cotild. have bad a cl1ance for release after payment of blood mo 1 1ey t111der the old Penal Code, he ca1111ot under tl1e new Pei1al Code of 1957. Article 221 of the Pe11al Code of 1957, cited by tl1e appellant, applies only in cases of crimes punisl1able upo11 private complai11t, as defi.11ed in Article 217 of the Penal Code, while a prosecutio11 for murder does 11ot depe11d 011 a private complaint. Under the circt1mstances, Ato Negga asked tl1e Co11rt to dismiss the appeal a11d confirm the sentence of tl1e Higl1 Court.

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I

NEDD! HAILE V. THE ADVOCATE GENERAL

The appellant, 11evertheless, begged for reco11sideration of his fifteen years' imprison­ ment, because he reconciled with the relatives of the deceased and gave them a piece of land.

The Court finds no way ot1t but to agree with the opinion of Ato Negga. Article 221 of the Penal Code applies 011ly in cases of c1·imes pl1nishable upon private complaint; and this is a cold-blooded n1urder for which the prosecution does not depe·nd on a private complaint as defu1ed in Article 217 of the Pe11al Code. Consequently, Article 221 is in­ applicable and rejected by the Court. It may well be that appellant could have had a chance under the old Penal Code; bt1t it is no longer in existence.

Upon reconsidering the period of imprisonmet1t imposed on the appellant by the High Court, we wish to draw the attention of the appellant to the fact that he escaped the death sentence; the High Court considered l1is reconciliation and his youth as extenuating circtunstances. We cai1not see that the High Court was too firm with the appellant. The penalty it imposed was rather light; but si11ce the respondent asked for its cunfirmation and did not appeal, we simply confirm it.

The appeal is therefore rejected, and the fifteen years' imprisonment of the High Court are hereby confir1ned.

The High Court and Prison Au·thorities are to be notified in Amharic.

Given and delivered in open Court this 21st day of Maskaram, 1957 �.C.� i41 �l'e presence of appellant in person and Ato Negga fo.r the tesfonden.t.

I.

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- 47 -

--

SUPREivlE li\!lPERIAL co·ur{ r Div. IA .

ZEYENU ABDELLA v. WOBEA YEHU SEfV1A1:fEGNE Civil Appeal No. 1792/56 E.C. Co11tractual ob/igarions - - Loa11 - - Interest - - Usury - - Contract of antichresis - - Re11ts anc/ profirs - .

Aris. 2479, 3059-3083, 3080, 3117, 3121, and 3124 Civ. C.

I

C11sto111ar_y /au, - - Antichresis.

The 1-ligh Court gave judgn1ent in favor of tl1e lender under a loan agree111e11t \vitl1 a contract of anti­ chresis appended; it had been sti1Julated that the borro\ver ,.vould retain the ho11se covered by the con­ tract of antichresis and JJay rent of E$300 in the place of interest. On appeal, tl1e borrower argued that to give effect lo this stipulatio11 would allow an evasion of the usury rules, ,vhicl1 are in1perative, and that, therefore, the stip11'ation should not be enforced.

Held:

Judgn1ent reversed.

1. A contract of antichresis is a contract, subsidiary to a loan, by whicl1 the lender takes certain property of the borrower as security and receives tl1e use, rents, fruits, or profits from the property in the place of interest.

2. .A... contract bet\veen a Ie11der and a borrov,er by \-Vl1icl1 the borrower agrees to pay rent for his o\vn JJroperty shall not be deen1ed to be a contract of antichresis.

3. If a person enjoys tl1e fruits of a11 im1novable sect1red to hi1n under a contract of anticliresis, it replaces the interest to be fJaid on the loaned 1noney and n1eans that the borrower should not pay interest; !f the lender gets money by letting the in1movable, J1owever, and particularly by letting sucl1 in1111ovable to the borrower, l1e cannot collect 11ncler tl1e guise of antichresis more interest tl1an is pern1.itted by ]a\V.

Ter 29, 1957 E.C. (Februi1ry 6, 1965 G.C.); Justices: Afe11egus Kitaw Yitateku1 Bala.mbaras Tessen1a Wo11demencl1, Ato Taddesse Tekle Giorgis: - Responde11t and appellant entered ir1to a loan co11tract by \vay of a \vritte11 agreeme11t sig11ed 011 Maskaran1 I, I 955 E.C. The lender a11d tl1e borrower e11tered into a contract of anticl1resis i11 res­ pect of tl1e loa11 . Tl1e responde11t claimed tl1e st1m of £$6000, wl1icl1 sl1 e loa11ed to the a1Jpella11t, a11d also the amount of the rent for tl1e hotise in accorda11ce witl1 tl1e co11tract of anticl1resis bet\vee11. tl1e two parties.

Article 3117 of tl1e Civil Code, defining tl1e term ''antichresis'', states: ''A contr act of a .ntic11resis is a co11tract whereby tl1e debtor un.dertakes to deliver an irn111ovable to J1is creditor as a security for the performa11ce of his obligations.''

The lender, Woizero \Vobeayehu, demands tl1at, sir1ce tl1e borrower l1as hin1self taken i n lease the house wluch l1e u11dertook to deliver tinder the co11tract of �lnticl1ersis, he pay her the rent for the 11ouse instead of tl1e interest on th.e money loaned. Article 3 of tl1e contract provides: ''I, the debtor, 11ave t1ndertaken to pay the rent of tl1e hou se, being the sum of E$300, whicl1 I have delivered to the ler1der under tl1e contract.''

- 48 --

r

. ZEYENU ABDELLA V. WOBEAYEHU ·SEMAHEGNB

To this the appellant has answered that he, the borrower, must not pay in the. guise of a cont:act of antichresis more money in cash than that allowed by law. He has argued that the interest must be· only that amount permitted by law.

The High Court held that it is impossible to amend the terms of the contract and therefore, _the borrower, Zeyenu Abdella, according to the contract, must pay to the lende; the rent instead of the interest.

From this decision the defendant appealed.

Article 3121 provides: (1) The person having created the antichresis shall deliver the immovable and its accessories to the creditor or such other person as has been specified in the contract.

(2) The antichresis shall have the same effects as a mortgage until such delivery has taken place or after the immovable has been returned to the person having created the antichresis.

Article 3124 provides : (1) The creditor under the contract of antichresis shall pay no rent to the pers0n having created the antichresis.

(2) The use the creditor makes of the immovable and the fruits and pFofits he deltl�es: therefrom shall replace the interest on the claim.

(3) Any provision whereby the creditor is entitled to interest in additien te s11eh use, fruits and profits shall be of no effect.

In our customary law, antichresis meant for the lender of m<1ln:ey to take an:<:lJ use the crops from the land of the borrower in place ofi the interest 0n the l©aned maney,, or for the lender to take the house of the borrower and live in it. Article 3124 of the Civil Code is in accord with our customary law.

If a person takes in possession an immovable under a contract of antichresis and lives in it, exploits it, or uses it, such person should not pay rent to the owner of the im­ movable. If a person enjoys the fruits of the immovable secured to him under a contract of antichresis, it replaces the interest to be paid on the loaned money and means that the borrower should not pay interest; it does not mean that if the lender gets money by letting the immovable, and particularly by letting such immovable to the borrower, he can collect interest more than that per111itted by law under the guise of a contract of antichresis.

The provision in Article 3124, Paragraph 1, which says ''The creditor under the contract of antichresis shall pay no rent to the person having created the antichresis'', is clearly talking about the immovable delivered to the lender and used by the lender and is not talking about an immovable that he hilnself does not use. Article 3121, Para­ graph 2, of the Civil Code says, ''The anticl1resis shall have the s�me effects as a mortgage until such delivery has taken place or after the immovable has been returned to the person having created the antichresis' '. This is referring us to Article 3059-3083 of the Civil Code.

Article 3080 of the Civil Code states that the rent on mortgaged property is at the rate of interest provided by law. In general, it is proliibited to create a mortgage in. order to pay more than the legal interest rate.

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JOURNAL. OF ETHIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

II - No. 1

The le11der wl10 takes delivery of the in1movable of a11ticl1resis_ a11d use_ s it for llimse]f shall not pay re11t to .t11e owner. Tl1e profit he derives from the tlung a11d its use shall be dee111ed interest 011 his claim. A c-011tract ma.de betwee11 a lender and a borrower by wl1ich tl1e borrower agrees to pay re11t for his own property shall not be dee111ed to be a contract . of antichresis. Were this allowed, it would amount to ma.king a contract i11 order to collect interest i11 excess of the rate pen11itted by law and this wot1ld per1rrit tl1e le11der to circ11m­ vent the ma11datory provision of the law.

Tl1e tern1s of the contract clearly sl1ow that the contract e11tered into betwee11 the appellant and respondent is a contract of loa11.

Article 2479 of tl1e Ci\1il Code provides that, by agreeme11t of the parties, the rate of i11terest may be 12 per cent. But wl1ere tl1e parties do not stipt1late any rate, it shall be 9 per ce11t, a11d where it is agreed in excess of 12 per cent, it shall be only 9 per ce11t.

The lender may not directly or i11directly contrave11e st1cl1 a rule n1ade for tl1e pro­ tection of the p11blic. If it were 11ot so, the rttle tl1at states tl1at no interest sl1all be collected above the legal interest \Vould be mea11ingless.

For all tl1e above reaso11s we reverse tl1e judgn1eut of t11e Higl1 Court a11d decide tl1at the appella11t borrower, Zeyenu Abdella, shall pay to the responde11t lender, \Voizero Wobe,1yehu Sen1al1eg11e, 9 per cent interest a11d 11ot tl1e rent o f. l1is own I101tse, wl1ich is £$300 per montl1, as interest. Tllis is the opinion of the n1ajority. Tl1e nlinority would affu~n1. the judgme11t of tl1e Higl1 Court.

Ato Taddesse ·Tekle Giorgis, J., dissenting:- I dissent fron1 tl1e majority opinion in this case for tl1e reaso11s detailed below.

A contract of lease of a house and a contract of a.nticl1resis \Vere entered into by the parties on Maskaran1 1, 1955 E.C. Art. 1731 of tl1e Civil Code states that the provisio11s of a co11tract lawfully for111ed shall be bi11ding on the parties as though they \Vere la,v.

Beca11se tl1e parties have freely entered into tl1e contract of antic11resis, no one sl1ould i11 any way vary the provisions of the contract. Article 3124, st1b-section 011e, states that the creditor \Vl10 is in J)ossessio11 of i1nmovable property under a contract of anticl1eresis shall pay no re11t or payme11t for agricultural prod11cts to the person wl10 has transferred the property under the co11tract of antichresis.

Tl1e majority opi1iio11 decided that if the creditor u11der a co11tract of a11ticl1resis lives in the house deli\1ered to him under a11tichresis he shall not pay rent to tl1e o\v11er of tl1e house. But if the creditor leases the house, the re11t sl1all be co11sidered as interest.

It is my position tl1at it should not make any difference \Vhetl1er tl1e creditor under a11ti­ cl1resis himself lives in a house delivered to him or leases such a l1ouse to someone else.

Mqreover, si11ce t11e debtor tinder the antichresis in tllis case is �t busin.essn1an ,vho knows his losses and profits best, it was witl1 fui1 knowledge that l1e e11tered i11to tl1e con­ tract of antichresis a11d then rented the house which l1e d.elivered u11der the anticl1resis.

The decision, theref ore, that tl1e rent of tl1e house under the antic11resis co11tract shall be deeded to be an interest payme11t 011 tl1e loan for whicl1 tl1e a11ticl1resis contract was entered was not proper. I .wo11ld affirm the decisio11 of tl1e High Court. .

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- 53 -

HIGH COURT Addis Ababa, Com. Div. No. 2 GRAZMATCH WOUBE WOLDE SELASSIE v.

DEJAZ:tv1ATCH KEFELEW WOLDE TSADIK, i11 l1is capacity as Governor of Teg ulet and Bulga Awradja Gezat Civil Case No. 70/54 E.C. Co11stitutio1z - - Independence of the judiciarJ' - - Executive or adnzinistrative interference - - Judicial declaration of nullitJ' of acts of interference - - Art. 110 Rev. Const.

Respondent in his capacity as Governor issued an order to the President of an Awradja Court direct­ ing him to turn over land to a party witl1 wl1om petitioner was engaged in litigation as to tl1e question of ownership. Tl1e land was conveyed to tl1at party pursuant to the order and petitioner filed t11e present suit in tl1e I-ligh Court against tl1e Governor to have his above order declared null and void.

Held: Relief granted. Order of Governor declared null and void.

1.

Art. 110 Rev. Const. guarantees tl1e independence of tl1e Judiciary.

2. Any action of the executive or administrative authorities which interferes with the independence of the J11diciary \Viii be declared null and void.

3. Judges sl1ould disregard unconstitutional interference with their constitutional prerogatives and adjudicate disputes solely in accordance wit11 tl1e law.

Megabit 10, 1954 E.C. (March 19, 1962 G.C.); Jt1dges: Dr. W. Buhagiar, Ato Josef Tekle Mikael, Ato Mekonnen Getal1u11: - Tlus is a JJetjtion by the petitioner in w11ich lie prays for a declaratjon that the order N¡o. 598417 dated Megabit 21, 1953 E.C. given at Debra Berl1an by tl1e respondent in his above mentioned official capacity is null and void.

The facts, wlucl1 are not denied by tl1e respondent, are as follows: By proper civil proceedings instituted by tl1e present petitioner, the present petitjoner was given possession of a plot of land in 1938 E.C., and from that time until 1944 E.C. he remained in possessio11 a11d enjoyed tl1e benefits of that plot of land. In 'I 944 E.C. a certain Ato Kiltu. Balcl1a re-entered in possession of tl1at la11d, wl1eret1pon t11e present petitioner caused criminal proceedings to be instit11ted agai11st him, in the Awradja Court, in File No. 51/51. Tl1e A\vradja Court gave judgment on I-Ia1nle 9, 1951 E.C. (Exh. P/2); in the course of the trial it was proved tl1at Ato Kiltu Balcha, the accused, had acquired possession of tl1e said plot of land by order of a certain judge, Grazmatcl1 Asfaw, and for this reason the Court held that the accused co11ld not be liable. In the judgm.ent tl1e Court added a rider to tl1e effect that, with regard to the rigl1t on tl1e land, the parties could take the necessary action for execution in accordance with the previous judgment, that is, the judgment of 1938 E.C. (Exh. P/4).

GRAZ. WOUBE WOLDE SELASSIE V. DEJAZ. KEFELEW WOLDE TSADIK

Fro� this jt1�gment of the Awradja Court, tl1e prese11t petitioner lodged a11 appeal to the H1gl1 Cotirt 1n Addis Ababa, that is, Crimi11al Case No. 696/51. By j11dgm.ent deliver­ ed 011 Sene 17, 1952 E.C., tl1e High Cou1·t dis.missed the appeal holding that Ato K.iltu Balcl1a could not be guilty of any crin1e beca11se tl1e t1se of the la11d had been given to llim by a jud�e; tl1e Court also added that the case of the appellant, Grazmatch Woube Wolde Selassie, was one of a civil 11att1re; tl1e judgme11t of tl1e Awradja Court was confirmed.

Relying 011 this jt1dgme11t, t11e present petitio11er lodged a11 application to the Awradja Court of Tegt1let a11d Bulga requestin.g that the judgment of 1938 E.C. be· e· xect1ted in the sense that lie get tl1e possessio11 of tl1e land in question. Tlus application was granted_ and an order for exect1tio11 was iss11ed, as a result of wl1ich tl1e presei1t petitioner re-ac­ quired possessio11 of tl1e land.

On tl1is cl1a11ge of possessio11 of la11d, Ato Kiltu Balcha lodged a petition to the High Cot1rt in tl1e former ap_peal file No. 696/51, i11 whicl1 he alleged that one Ato Taddesse Medift1, togetl1er ,vitl1 Ato Demissie Bedane, had transferred tl1e land from his possession to· the present petitio11er and that this was done with the intention of harming hlni, he having l1ad possession of this land for a long time. The High Court rejected the applica­ tion, reserving to tl1e applicant, Ato K.iltu Balcha, his right to file a civil or criminal case against the Deputy Governor, Ato Taddesse-Medifu, before the appro_priate court (Exh. P/5).

It seems that Ato Kiltu Balcha did not avail himself of judicial proceedings, but preferred to appeal to the administrative authorities, and as a resulit of his compfai •nl1 s"" the present respondent in his capacity of Governor issuecl. th'e ordeF N@. 5-i-8411/ �D Megabit 21, 1953 E.C. (Exh. P/3) addressed to the President of Teg�let ancl �ridga Jtqa:�a Court ordering him to hand over the property in question to ''tllte jud�me: E:t oirediiit@;JI''' : Ato K.iltu Balcha with all mesne profits from the hands of the ''iillegal possess@r'' wJ�I the understanding that any one who claimed a right to the pro·perty ·should have tfu.e iright to file a civil case.

As a result of this Order, the land was· transferred again to Ato Kiltu Balclila.

Now as stated above the respondent does not deny such facts; his defence is that after the criminal case, what the present petitioner should have done is to file a civil case against Ato Kiltu Balcha for the recovery of the possession of the land. ,

.

This Court cannot refrain from remarking that the whole matter regarding this plot of land has been clouded in its various stages by proced11ral irregularities, culminating in the Order now being challenged. Whatever procedural irregularities tl1ere may have been on the part of the cot1rts, the Order of the respondent in this capacity as Governo1· dated Megabit 21, 1953, E.C. is a clear interfe.rence with the independence of the J11diciary and against A.rticle 110 of the Constitution. Such an order is beyond the powers of a Governor or any other administrative authority and is null and void; indeed, tl1e President of the Awradja Court to whom it was addressed should I1ave completely disregarded it and left it to the parties _concerned, that is, the present petitioner an4 Ato ,K.iltu B�lcha, to challenge the validity of execution granted· previo11sly in favour of the present petitioner · ·· i11 a proper court of law.

For the abo�e reasons, the petition is successful and the· Orde1· issued by tl1e res­ pondent under No. 598417 dated Megabit 21, 1953 E.C., ·is hereby declared null · and· void. the· petitioner.

The respondent shall pay court fees accordi11g to receipt and costs to , · of E$100. ,

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+Tito'!°= hDDAtil- = /\1tu = flh+ln(D« = iJ'/aoAh:F = J!;it, = .e.1i'lm- = u1ff, (lOD,hl\.: f+ouf\.: IP/ODAh:J! t llTC: li':i:: +1: ...iiJr'1o ................: q. 'J°. f+�L: h:PC{l t ..-- .... {ID/Ail: (l 6fr(D«: Oh11:: lt'1°1T: (D«itT: 1'1)tfl'l?: rflflo: fKLflT: IP/il:J-mcttf: ilI\Jrt ii1f.af... (1J« : 1'1-)t;r11:t\:'f-: nJrtii:f\\f,: :'f-1'If 111: 1')t (lm (1J« : rflflo : ilfl Jrt on fl h+ t �Cf:: (1rf:9°: JrtooAta:f: 'l°flo: f+llllD•'t: iJ'/(lll/;\h:F: ++1lflo I �Cf:: f1rf: = i\,I\. :,..ilf11 = taA(tm(D« n+c= ooAil= (lfi£bm•= OTC= �e 1ur'10= ............... q. ..... ..... = +1 = ... : 1lflo : OTC: ?:9 'J°. t\JrtDDAti:t:: fKL(D« : f...-0�(1: hooLKo»-: 1'1)t'k.f, . ... ... : "11: Itt!.2§ = q. '/°. h11:: T1'1f11 = (tT:J:A ::

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J,, : 11. :'f· .t\ �& f+ t.1 h:,,cn � fl.,f:1: 1'1�.l\:,, : .., ..flt\ t f1i : }1 �··l·f·7'00 � :: h1i•1 : , : J ;'f· " lD lfl {l ,f• fl 1CD'i'l!'I ;t-:fw•: (L.. ·f:"}: t\D1l lllh"fl: f -: , 11 n i'1 { = 'i & = ,f: · cr " f. · m o :J fb : 1'. · A w l n 1 "-ODA ti'f: n D? f,n :,, = 9°n;.r:,. = .rcf> 1;) . , fi,f·ftmm 1 : lt. h� h : ft\ t,. , • : h� : h• lD h fllP/ : (l: 'C : � till · : u fit �1 .<1: h·'l1 -· 'O : heh? rf : : t\ "� (l t.l "O ,1 • "} : � ,�.

1 �' �.t\ 1,1 : " f:1 (L, : T IPl t1'Jllm14>4!f : OD C!l,/,\ :: llhti7i'i : (l,t-hti7i : (lf(lh•l\ :flD· : fcJ,l ()lD• : nchc I ,1,,1 �· ;:J-.m• : h11.u : (11\f, : 'h1f..,f'tllttlar : 1J.'i I hti7i : (lOD{lhl9° : § : 4'1' : Illf!i§ : '}. '/°. frl• �&. : m·A ·t 'f>"''rC: 2167 t- h1f.�: hti7i: IP/lll� fr,-.()flro•;: ffb,} : ht..e,: m·/,\: i'1 :,,cn ¾ hti7i: (lOJttJ(l.ti: hf..'l'lf,.= l\f,: fUCJ.1"f(D•: o, :,.: onflht.9'1: iii: cJ,"}: 1iJ\iijl:: '}. 'I°. Y:lll ; t\h1Y: : '}OD:,- -f h,J·hti7i : on JPt,,r : n,:,. : r 1 ;,,nt.. fro• ���� �-"} : f01,.1A'/i': CD•/,\: 'Im·:: cf>'rt\�9° : hti7i: ll'rC: t� : cf 1: 1 Iii!2!! = q. n<f,...'rC= 4731/3181/54 -f h+hti7i UDJ-»t.r = r1:i• !"l··�&.ft1,1: F-..rfl� n. ; 1i·t\ +� hti7i D? ill� r,,-.()t\ro·1 1i:,,en : .,..h .. ti7i 0°JP t,r = ct:i• : (lm« /,\ : 'r'rC : en:;1,lir�i : (ltit,.f, : t\hti"li : h·fl1f : f(lmro« : (l.r)•; t\',;Jfo?J'f: 'l°tiC: fl.1�: f?t·mt.:'f·: OT/.til,,l:C: fl'r;l''1°"1·: ?!"?:: <1'1: IJifjQ: '}. 9° f (l<f""'f1C: 1310/8/868/17: frf,�&.t\T1: tJT/ff"lf: DDlJ.ll:r: }1 �• 1iJ\iijo C1 i 11--1:"} : 'rC: iii ,.... : cf,"} : .,....., _ ,.._ ..... : '}. 9°: X.·lil l t\61'hti7i: ODJPt,f : n,:,. : h1 >11c filltirfl: ..f1/t f�&.t\1•: oo"fi�1 = fOl/�fODt\t,:,-: �(D« :: 0 :

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,,,..hti7i = 00Ptf n>:,-., nhch� = ft\l1Jc1 = CL·1· nti n- = (CL--1:1 =) 1t1>',.fl� = rtt11n-n:,-: 9"°h1'fr)•: fi.rf:: fl'l,;Jfo?J-:f-: 'l°hC: (1:,.: llt\rf'(lm: a,m• �- ftJ-LU·9°: .. f,f.°l&.7/1,\: .-(lfto: ,rcJ,lfllD•: J-111!-a�m•: +hti7i: "7ill'1f: cJ,C(l: il"}{llJt\h"r�' 1 r !' n11c11� ,, t\ar1 a.:,- ffti = n: f,f--(lm : OD'li �1,; � (ltt,tim·9° : ottA t\OD1f"lrfl: itf111: '"n1Jt.ool-- I· f(l;rlD•: ll4-;'J•: +t\tJ,f· ¾ o-i,1·c: t1t,a,.: ·l·'1A1' ¾ 1,1Jt.K'i:I\Tm«: f°t1A'/i": ',(D•: },1>'( .J rf•hti7i: ODJPt.r : n,:,-: i,1P,011fthrf•OJ•} flhil:f\l,,e: (l;rro«'}: t\',,;Jfo?J'f: 'J°hC: n,:,,: l,'tJ;.fillti(l•: .(1A;:J..t11·1•: OlJll'i" \ I1 , TlD•1 : 'rylf"lfm« : fl°IA'!t' : !ill};/,\ ::

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HIGH COURT Addis Ababa, Com. Div. No. 2 S.A.C.A.F.E.T., SOCIETA' ANONIMA v.

THE MINISTRY OF STATE DOMAINS AND MINES Civil Case No. 178/54 E.C. Constitutio11 - - Property - - Expropriation - - Rights which are c': pable of expropriatiot1 - - Procedure for expropriation - - Arts. 44, 88, 89, 90 Rev. Const. - - Art. 1461 C1v. C. l

In an action for injunction, tl1e petitioner claimed that termination notice sent by tl1e respondent under their lease agreement was insufficient in that the notice required was not given and the termination was not for ''government use'' as required by the lease; similarly that expropriation proceedings under Art. 1461 Civ. C. were not properly instituted, so that the respondent cannot now claim that an expro­ priation was intended.

Held:

Permanent injunction granted.

1. The Civil Code provisions setting fortl1 the procedure for expropriation constitute the special expropriation law referred to in Art. 44 Rev. Const.

2. If the government wishes to expropriate a person's rights under a lease, it must follow the pro­ cedures set down in tl1e Civil Code, which contains the special expropriation law enacted pursuant to Art. 44 Rev. Const.

3. A simple letter from the Minister of Pen to the Ministry of State Domains to the effect that pre111ises should be earmarked for a certain purpose, with no mention of an existing lease, does not amount to a ministerial order to breach the lease, as is required by Art. 44 Rev. Const. and by the Civil Code.

I

Megabit 13, 1954 E.C. (March 22, 1962 G.C.); Judges: Dr. W. Buhagiar, Ato Josef Tekle Mikael, Ato Mekonnen Getahun: - In his statement of claim, the plaintiff com· pany stated that there was an agreement of lease entered into between that co mpany and the defendant Ministry for premises to be used as a worksl1op at M·exico Square for a period of one yea.r ending on Maskaram 30, 1955. This agreement is evidenced by Contract of Lease No. 2167 (Exh. P/1). The plaintiff also stated that by letter dated T�� 22, 1954, No. 4731/3181/54, (Exh. P/2), the defendant Ministry requested the plaintifl company to vacate the said premises by Ter 30, 1954. It is submitted by tl1e plaintiff c?m· 1 / which, ent, 1 the vacate to request such premises is contrary to the lease agreen parry that in clause 3, stipulates that in case the premises are required for Gover1zment i,se, the er· oft e purpos be to is notified company least at two months in advance for the plaintiff s tate er furth and lease over handing s the the minating premises. The plaintiff company en not � have the fact at the from t pr�visions of clause 3 of the agreement that apart � ed quir re are the to notice regards as be given, the purpose for which the premises followed are n?t ''for Governm�nt use''; in fact, the letter of Ter 22, 1954 clearly states th!t �h � 10 1 s bm s assigned been the the to �av� s u Chamber of Commerce; according to prem.Ises 1 · l1e n rtl of the pla1nt1ff company the Chamber of Commerce is not a Government Depa t i5 i n nt the above, premised defenda M rY the plaintiff company prayed that the Having - 60-

S.A.C.A.F.E.T., SOCIETA' ANONIMA V. Tl-IE MINISTRY OF STATE DOMAINS & MINES

1954, request o taking 30, the over the premises on Ter � be enjoined from proceeding with _ and also prayed for a declaration that the notice (Exh. P/2) is contrary to the terms of the agreement and therefore null and void.

By interlocutory order dated Ter 29, 1954, this Court prohibited the defendant Mi1ris­ try from proceeding with the eviction until further Order of Court.

By the defence, dated Yekatit 26, 1954, the defendant Ministry did not deny the facts as alleged in the statement of claim or any of the documents produced by the plaintiff company, but, the defence stated, the order for the taking over of the said premises for use as a Chamber of Commerce was given by His Excellency the Minister of Pen; and in support of this there was submitted a letter from that Ministry to the Vice Minister of the Imperial .State Domains dated November 3, 1961, Ref. No. 1310/8/868/17, (Exh. D/1). Furthermore, it was submitted in the defence that it is possible to take over the said premises under the provisions of Article 1461 of the Civil Code. Now as regards the letter from the Ministry of Pen, this amounts to a direction that the premises in ques­ tion be earmarked for the Cha.mber of Commerce; it is not an order for the immediate possession of the premises; furthermore, nothing is stated therein regarding the present existing lease in favour of the plaintiff company; such letter therefore cannot amount to an order to the defendant Ministry to breach the agreement existing in favour of the plaintiff company.

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As regards the submission of the defendant Ministry that the lease could be taken over under the provisions of Article 1461 of the Civil Code, it is true that under the Civil Code the competent authority may take action to expropriate land and that under Article 1461 expropriation proceedings may be used for terminating a contract of lease prior to the agreed term, but the Civil Code lays down a definite procedure for expropriation,.

This procedure, as laid down in the Civil Code, is the special expropriation law enacted in accordance with Articles 88, 89, or 90 of the Revised Constitution, pursuant to Article 44 of that Constitution. In the present case, no expropriation proceedings have been taken in accordance with Article 44 of the Constitution or the articles of the Civil Code; it cannot, therefore, be said that there has been any expropriation, since if there had been, such expropriation would have been against the Constitution.

For the above reasons, the Court holds that article 3 of the lease agreement (Exh. P/1) has not been followed by the defendant Ministry in that, even if the premises in ques­ tion were required for Government use, a notice o� two months is _required under article 3 for the termination of the lease and the evacuation of the premises, and therefore the notice given by the defendant Ministry by letter dated Ter 22, 1954 (Exh. P/2) is illegal and of no effect.

The defendant Ministry shall pay the plaintiff company court fees according to receipt and costs of E$100.

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I-IIGH COURT Addis Ababa, Com. Div. No. 2 H.V.A. ETHIOPIA v. THE INLAND. REVENUE DEPARTM: ENT

Civil Case �o. 20/54 E.C. Taxatio11 - - Jnco,ne tax - - Deductio11s - - Tra 1el e)::penses - - Writte,z agree111e11t - - Revenue expendi­ tures - - Capital e.--.:penditures - - Repairs - - Art. 59 u1co111e Tax Decree of 1956 (Decree No. 19/56) - - Arts. ? (a), 7 (b), 7 (f), and 8 (e) Leg. Not. No. 2:5/58.

On appeal from a decision of the Tax Appea: Committee denying deductions fron1 income for pur­ poses of taxation (1) for traveljng expenses of foreign experts traveling to a,nd fron1 Ethiopia in con nection witl1 the appellants' concern, on the ground that tl1e appellants' concern had no written agreement \vitb fue experts in respect of sucl1 expenses, and (2) for expenses for repairs of maclunery, etc., on the ground that the repairs were usable for a long term and therefore constituted capital expenditure, wltich is not deductible.

Held: Decision on the first point reversed and tl1e matter referred back to tl1e Con1mittee to exan1ine appellants' docume.nts to see whetl1er, as a n1atter :>f fact, the expenses were inct1rred for tl1e alleged pur­ pose; decision on the second point reversed and the expenditures ruled deductible.

1. No written agreement between a concern and expert personnel is required to establish that ex­ penses were incurred by tl1e concern for such personnel under Arts. 7 (b) and 7 (f) of Leg. Not. No. 215/58.

2. Capital expenditure, within the meaning cf Art. 8 (e) of Leg. Not. No. 215/58, is an expenditure that is made once a,nd for all and that brin_gs into existence a,n asset or advantage for the enduring benefit of the trade or business, while a revenue expenditure is one whicl1 will recur year by year.

3. Where expenses incurred i11 the trade or tusiness do not bring any new capital, but are only in• tended to maintain existing capital, such as repairs of machinery, ,vhether or not usable for several years, such expenses constitute revenue expenditure and not capital expenditure.

(Ed. Note: The Income Tax Decree, 1956, Dec No. 19/56, and tl1e Incon1e Tax Regulations, 1958, Leg. Not. No. 215/58, have been repealed and replaced, respectively, by the Income Tax Proclamation, 1961, Proc. No. 173/61, and the Incon1e Tax Regulatiors, 1962, Leg. Not. No. 258/62. The law ren1ains subs· tantially the same, however, Arts. 7 (a), 7 (b) and 8 (e) of Leg. Not. No. 215 are tl1e san1e as Arts. 16 (a}.

16 (b) and 17 (b) (v) of L.eg. Not. No. 258. Art. 7 �f) of Leg. Not. No. 215 does not appear in Leg. Not, No. 258, but is substantially the same as Art. 16 of Proc. No. 173. Witl1 regard to expenses for professional personnel, Leg. Not. No. 258 added a new provisbn in Art. 16 (e).)

Megabit 20, 1954 E.C. (March 29, 1962 G.C.); Judges: Dr. W. Bul1agiar, Ato Josef Tekle Mikael, Ato Mekonnen Getal1un: - This is an appeal tinder Article 59 of the I11co·me Tax Decree.of 19�6 (Decree No. 19 of 1956) fro111 two points in ,l decision o� the n1 1t an � 1• Tax Appeal Committee given on September 4, 1961. Tl1ese two points concer11 n ig fore of of E$97,538, . which tl1e appella11ts allege was incurred as traveli11g ex1Je11ses d an n, r conce experts travelmg to and from Ethiopia in connection with tlie appella11ts' nses e exp as an item of E$122,769.50, which the appelJants allege was inctirred by them the of nd grou of a cu:rent natt1re such as milling �olls, repairing maclunery, etc. The a� p to nt appeal �s that t �e Tax Appeal_ Com_m1ttee erred in law in assessing the appella 1 2 o.

N tax on items which are ded,uct1ble under Article 7 (b) and 7 (f) of Legal Notice -66 -

H.V.A. ETIIlOPIA

V.

THE ·HIGI-ILAND REVENUE ·DEPARTMENT

of_ 1958 and als_o e �red in !a 'Y in the inte �pretation and application of article 8 (e) of the, said Lega � Notice 1n t�at 1t 1nc�uded ordinary general expenses as ''capital expenditure, _a!ld th11s included amounts which sho11ld have been deducted for purposes of taxation. ,

Now with regard to the iten1 of £$97,538, tl1e Tax Appeal Committee considered tl1at tl1ese expense� could not be deducted 011 the grou11d that, as the auditor pointed out, there were 110 written ag·reements concerning these expe·nses, tl1at is, expenses for air pas�ag�s �or expert � i11 t �e service of the appellant compa11y who traveled to and from Etluop�a 1n _ c?unectio11 w1tl1 the work of the con1pany. In the decision of the Tax Appeal ComIDittee 1t 1s stated that that Committee asked tl1e appellants wl1ether there was any agree­ ment abo11t s11ch expenses and the appellants replied that there were only yerbal agree­ ments; the Committee went on to state that ta.king into consideration the fact that for st1ch au enterprise as tl1e Wonji Sugar Factory to have only verbal agreements was un­ reasonable, the expenses should be subject to taxation. In the opinion of this Court, this is a poor a11d untenable argument. As a matter of fact, there is nothing in law which re­ quires agree1nents of this nature to be in writing. Furthermore, it is well known that an enterprise of the scale of tl1e Wonji Sugar Factory has its rules and regulations governing the terms of service of their employees, and in fact, appellants showed the Co·urt such regulations of the appellant company. There l1as also been shown to the Court various applications to the Mi11istry of Interior regarding entry visas for the employees of the company in respect of whom such traveling expenses were incurred. It seems that the appellants have sufficient documentary evide11ce to show that these expenses were in fact incurred for their expert employees, who in turn are necessary for the _production of the income. This Court is, however, concerned only with a point of law and as a matte·r of law this Court holds that no written agreeme11t is required to establish that the expenses were incurred for the purpose alleged. On this point, therefore, the ruling of the Tax Appeal Committee is quashed as being legally untenable, and the matter is referred back to the Tax Appeal Committee to examine any documents the appellants have to satisfy the Committee that the expenses were incurred for expert personnel.

With regard to the second point, that is, the item of E$122,769.50, there can be no question that under Article 8 (e) of Legal Notice No. 215, capital expenditure is 11ot de­ ductible for purposes of assessing tax. The argument in this case is whether appellants' above-mentioned expenditures were capital expendit·ures or other expenditures 11nder Article 7 (a) or Article 7 (f) of the said Legal Notice. The Tax Appeal Committee held that they were capital expenditure (except for an amount of £$3,120); the Tax Appeal Committee based itself on the opinion given by the auditor who suggested that the said years in terms of depreciation because expenses should be written off in a number these were expenses made 011 goods a!1d o� repair� of� large scale, usable for a lo?g term; the auditor also mentio11ed that during his exaID1nat1011 he was told by the engineers of the factory that the said goods could be 11sed for a num�er of � ears. It is q_t1ite clear from the decision of the Tax Appeal Committee that that Comm1� tee did n� t cons1de� such _ expenses as being expenses incurred in improvement and alterations as laid do"':n 1n Article 8. (e) of Legal Notice No. 215. Their decision was based so! ely on the �uggest1on of the auditor that the repairs were usable for a_ 1011g term � her_e 1s no question, therefore, �hat these : . expe1ises were expenses for repairs. The dist11� ct1on between capital expe11d1tur� a1;1, d revenue expenditure is of great importance. V� riou� tests may _be suggest� d for_ this dis­ tinctio11, but substantially the disti11ction lies 1n tl1�s, tl� at cap� tal expenditure 1s an ex­ penditure that is made once and for all and tl1at brmgs into e�1stence a11 asset or. an a�­ vantage for the ei1during benefit of tl1e trade or b11siness, w]� 1le reve11ue expe� ditur� 1s one whicli will recur year by year. Now there ca_n be no question that any repru�s wruch are carried out on machinery in a trade or business are an advantage to the t1ade but

or

- 67 ·- -

JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

II · No. 1

tl1ey are not sucl1 as britzg into existe,1ce an asset or a11 ad·vantage; tl1e asset \.Vas there alrea.dy, and·the repairs have the effect of enabling such asset to co11ti11ue to bri11g income to the business, with more efficient working. In otl1er words, where expenses incurred in tl1e trade or business do not bri11g a11y new capital (st1cl1 as tl1e complete renewal of a buildi11g) but are only intended to maintai11 existi11g capital, they are revenue expenditure 11ot capital expenditure. For these reasons, the Cot1rt l1olds that the Tax Appeal Co111mitte� was wrong in law in deciding that tl1e expe11ses of E$122,769.50 were capital expenditure reverses tl1eir decision on this point, a11d decides tl1at s11cl1 expenses are ded11ctible u11de; Article 7 (a) and (f).

The r�spondent shall pay half tl1e court fees, accordi11g to receipt, a11d costs of E$50 to the appellant.

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- 72 -

HIGH COURT Addis Ababa, Com. Div. TENAGNE WORKE ABDI v. YEJOTE WORKE LEGESSE Civil Case No. 202/56 E.C. Successions - - Representation - - Fa111ily property - - Paterna paternis m�terna maternis - - Usujructuary rigl1t - - Arts. 550, 551, 842, 843, 849, and 842-856 Civ. C. Statutory interpretation.

In response to a petition by the mother of the deceased for a declaration of her successional rights, the half-brother of the deceased objected that the property in question was family property from the paternal line and., therefore, should devolve upon him as the representative of his father rather than upon the deceased's mother.

Held:

Objection sustained.

1. Where the deceased is not survived by a descendant, his father and mother shall be called to his succession and each shall receive half of the inheritance.

2. A predeceased father shall be represented by his descendants.

The rule paterna paternis materna niaternis, which is contained in Art. 849 Civ. C., provides an exception to the general successional rules in the case of immovable property that has devolved without interruption to the second degree (generation), and later degrees, from the person who fi.rst acquired it.

3.

4. Property that is subject to the rule pater,za paternis niaterna maternis shall not be transferred

from the paternal line of the family to the maternal, or vice versa.

5. In the absence of an heir in either the paternal line or the maternal line, the rationale for the rule

may disappear, together with its legal effect.

6. The person who would be entitled to the property if it were not ''family property'' is still entitled to a usufructuary interest in it.

7. It is a principle of statutory interpretation that every word of the law is to be construed in such

a way as to_ have a meaning.

Hedar 15, 1957 E.C. (December 24, 1964 G.C.); Judges: Ato Belatchew Asrat, Ato Mekonnen Getal1un, Blatta Yishack Tefferi: - W oz. Tenagne Worke Abdi petitioned the Court to declare her right to the estate of her son, Kaleab Legesse, wl10 died intestate without a descendant.

In reply to notice given in a newspaper, the deceased's half-brother, Ato Yejote Worke Legesse, appeared and filed an objection that the inheritance should devolve 011 him and 11ot on the petitioner. The ground for his objection is that the immovables constituting tl1e succession are family property derived from the paternal line of the de­ ceased's fa1nily, and cannot, therefore, be assigned to tl1e maternal line.

It is conceded t]1at the deceased was tl1e son of tl1e petitioner and Ato Legesse Worke

- 73 -

JOURNAL OF ETJ·IIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

II · No. 1

.

E. 6 t 195 tl1a 1, tl1e property a azi Mi of n itio pet 11er i11 ted sta � Ingida. Tl1e petitio11er 1 • he at df a11 gr l na ter pa 's ed as ce e d. e m tl1 fro ed of the deceased is deriv 6 -85 of the Civjl Code.

842 s ic]e Art by ed er11 gov are n sio ces st1c te Questions of intesta er aiid m.other shall be fath llis 1t, da1 cen des a by d vive sur 11ot is ed eas dec Where the called to rus st1ccessio11. Tl1e father a11d motlier sl1all eacl1 receive a half of tl1e in11eritance.

The predeceased fatl1er shall be represented by l1is desce:1dants. Tl1e respond ent is the so11 of Ato Legesse Worke and can, tl1erefore, represe11t l11s father: Hence Woz. Te11 agne Worke • Abdi and Ato Yejote Worke Legesse are tl1e persons e11t1tled to the deceased's st1ccess1011.

T11e objection that tl1e deceased's property deriving from tl1e paternal li11e sl1ould 11ot be assig11ed to tl1e petitioner rais<;s a J)roblem. Article 849 lays dow11 tl1e rule ''paterna paternis materna maternis. '' It is evident tl1at tl1e rationale for the rule is to prevent tlie tra11sfer of in1movable property outside natt1ral relations. In the abse11ce of an l1eir in eitl1er tl1e paternal lu1e or tl1e mater11al li11e, the ratio11ale for the rule n1ay disappear, together witl1 its legal effect.

Before tl1e rule ''pater11a pate.rnis n1aterna maternis'' · ca.11 be put i11to effect, one has to determine wl1at is ''family property or family la11d.'' The law does 11ot define these terms u11eqL1ivocally.

Article 849 (3) states: ''Tl1e rules laid down i11 sub-articles (1) and (2) shall apply up to tl1e seco11d degree so tl1at i1umovable property deriving by donation or succession from the gra11dpatemal line be 1101 assigned to an heir of the gra11dmaternal and vice versa.''

The p11rase ''shall apply up to the second degree'' does 11ot seen1 to be related to the J)receding articles and, therefore, the co11cept is not clear.

Degree of relationsl1ip is governed by Articles 550 and 551. ''Tl1e seco11d degree" n1entioned i11 Article 849 (3) refers to Articles 550 and 551; it does not refer to '·first relationship'' and ''second relatio11ship'' as they are 11sed i n Articles 842 and 843. "First relationsl1iJJ '' in Article 842 includes children, grandchildren and any other descendants, vv hile ''the first degree'' (ger1eration) includes only parents and cl1ildren. ''Tl1e second degree'' (generation) includes grandparents, parents, and cl1ildren.

Is ''the second degree'' mentioned in Article 849 (3) to be counted from the deceased or from ascendants toward tl1e deceased? Jf there is immovable property deriving from a great-great-grandfather and if we count tl1e ''degree'' up fron1 the deceased, the property becomes ''fanlily property'' when it is traced back to tl1e grandfather, but ceases to be ''farnily property'' upon passing to the deceased's father a11d to tl1e deceased l1imself. I If tl1e degree is cou11ted toward the deceased, it means tl1at tl1e property shall be co11sidered ''family p�o�erty'' _at tl1e second generation from the first owner of the property. As sta�d above, this 1s not 1n accordance with the spirit of tl1e law. T]1e familial nature of an im­ �ever weakens; it strengthens the longer it is handed down tlirough the gen��a­ ovable � 3l 1li fa01 the t1ons. To interpret ''tl1e second degree'' (generation) i 11 a sense that weakens 11ature of property upon the passing of an additional ger1eration wotild be to deviate fron1 ( tl1e spirit of tl1e law.

The p�rase ''shall apply up to the second degree'' must be given effect. Every wo rd of the law 1s �onstrued to have � meaning. If it appears to be meartingless at first, it mus� ?e constru�d 1n such a way that 1t has a meaning. This is one of the principles of stat utor) 1nterpretat1on. / - 74 -

TEFERRA GHIZAW V. MENNA BEKELECfl

In our opinion, ''the second degree'' (generation) referred to can l1ave meaning within the spirit of the section where it helps to determine what is ''family property.''

According to this construction, an immovable is ''family property'' when it passes from tl1e first owner to the first degree (generation) and tl1en from there on to the second degree (generation). It can.not be co11sidered ''family property'' 11pon acquisition by the first owner, nor 11pon devolution on tl1e first degree (generation). As soon as the second d.egree (generation) receives the property by succession or do11ation, it becomes ''family property."

From then on, Article 849 (I) and (2) can apply. The rule ''paterna paternis mater11a maternis'' therefore applies to immovable property that has devolved without i11terrup­ tion to the second degree (generatio11), and later degrees, from tl1e person ,vho first acquired it.

The immovable property of Kaleab Legesse derives from his grandfather through his father and, in light of our discussion, is ''family property.'' As such it ca.nnot be assigned to the deceased's mother, the petitioner. Tl1e petitioner would have been entitled to half the property if it were not ''family property'' derived from the paternal line. Sl1e is still e11titled to the rights reserved under Article 850 (1 ).

Effective upon the death of the deceased, tl1e ownership over the immovable property of the deceased must devolve upon Ato Yejote Worke Legesse, while the petitioner keeps her usufr·uctuary right to one half of such property.

The parties shall defray tl1eir own costs.

The execution officer shall be instructed to execute the decision accordingly.

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I - 80 -

HIGH COURT Addis Ababa, Com. Div. TEFFERA GHIZAW v. MENNA B'EKELECH Civil Case No. 339/54 E.C. Adoptio,1 - - Ci1sto1r1ary la»1 - - .For111alities req11ired - - '' Ye,nar lij."

On the rem�nd for retrial fron1 the Supreme ImperJal Court of an appeal taken to contest the High Court's d �larat1on th�! petitioner is to succeed to his sister's intestate estate over one claiming to be both th.e godchild (yemar l1J) and a secretly adopted child of the deceased.

Re/cl: For petitioner.

1. Altpough the relationship of ''yemar lij'' creates intimacy, it does not create the legal rights of an adopted child, s·uch as the right to succession.

2. To create adoptive filiation under customary law, a formality is reqt1ired to clearly show the desire and consent of both parties to bring about such a bond of fi.liation.

3. A legally binding adoption cannot be said to exist when it is concluded secretly, because the seereey itself throws doubt upon the desire and intention to adopt and notice is not given to interested petsons.

Ter 21, 1957 E.C. (January 29, 1965 G.C.); 1·udges: Ato Belatchew Asrat, Ato Mekonnen Getahu11, Blatta Yisl1ack Tefferi: - This file was opened by the petitioner's request tl1at thls Court declare l1is rigl1t of succession to the inheritance of his sister, Woz. Bekelech Ghiza�,, wl10 died intestate witl1out leaving bel1ind a descendant. After bearing several objections to the petition, tl1is Cot1rt decided on Yekatit 25, 1955 E.C. that the petitioner alone is entitled to the successio11.

Out of· the persons whose objections were rejected, Woz. Menna appealed, and i11 its decision of Te.r 15, 1956 E.C. the St1pre111e In1_perial Cot1rt, in its appeal file No. 984/55, remanded the case for retrial with a directive that the High Court should find ot1t wl1ether the appellant was ''Yemar lij'' =:c to the deceased according to custom.

Pursuant to the directive from the Supreme Court, we l1ave heard witnesses called

by Waz. Menna to sl1ow that she is ''Ye1nar lij''. Tl1e petitioner's witnesses were also l1eard.

The Court has rejected· as irreleva11t the respo11dent's request to st1bmit evidence to sl1ow that she was reared and given in ma.rriage by the deceased.

We have studied whetl1er Woz. Men11a is an adopted child accordi11g to custom or n1 erely a ''Yen1 ar lij'' of the deceased. Woz. Menna 's first witness was Woz. Sirgute Wolde Jol1annes. She testified that tl1e deceased was Woz. Men11a's godmother, that guests were invited to a baptismal banquet arranged by tl1e deceased, that tl1e decease� wa11ted to * Translator's note: Literally means ''honey child''. It is used intercl1angeably with ''yetut lij'' which literally means ''breast child.'' ''Yemar abat'' and ''yetut abat'' respectively mean ''honey father'' and ''breast father.''

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adopt tl1e cl1ild secretly, and tl1at t.he deceased gave Woz. !Vfe11r1a a gift of_dresses a11d declar­ ed tl1at sl1e would bring l1er tip witl1 nulk and l1011ey like }1er ow,1 _cl11ld. "Y� reasonably believe tl1at tlus wit11ess, \vho is tl1e. respo11 dent's 111other would be 1n a J)os1t1on to know tl1e 111 atter best. Her testi111 ony to the effect that tl1e deceased wa11 ted to adopt tl1e res­ po11de11t secretly is decisive in tl1e isst1e under consideratio11.

Woz. Sirgute's testimo11y regarding tl1e secret adoptio11 was i11 corulict witl1 that of the 3rd, 4th, and 5tl1 witnesses, wl10 stated that tl1e adoptio11 w,1s 1nade i11 public. This Court gives weight to the testimony of tl1e first witness, wl10 \Vas more directl)1 in,10Ived i11 the event - wl1ether it was adoption or otl1erw.ise.

Tl1e respo11dent's witnesses stated tl1at Woz. Me11na was adopted. by Woz. Bekelech and l1er ht1sband. Tl1is 1nea11s that \Voz. Bekelecl1 and her l111sba11d secretly made the respor1dent their adopted cl1ild.

Tl1e custom in tl1is cou11try requires a special formality to give an outsider a status of a cl1ild witl1 all filial rig}1ts and obligatio11s, i11clt1ding a rigl1 t of s11ccessio11. When the formal procedure is follo\ved, tl1ere is 110 disti11ctio11 for a11y purpose between a 11 atural cl1jld a11d...=t11 adopted cluld.

AdOJ)tio11 is widely k110,vn and pr,1ctised a11 1011g the Galla's wl10 call it ''gudifecha''. ,t\mong the Ainl1 aras tl1ere is a practice k11ow11 as ''Yemar lij'' or ''yetut lij'', whicl1 may l1ave a differe11t legal effect tl1 a11 ''gudifecl1a. '' A ''gudifecl1 a'' child is considered for all social and legal pttrposes to be ,1 cliild of tl1e adoJ)ter, whereas for ''Yen1 ar lij'' to be legally considered as a 11atur,1l cl1ild, a11 eXJ)licit and 1111eq11ivocal forn1al procedure must be followed.

To create adoptive filiatio11 , ct1sto1n requires a formality tl1at can clearly sho\v the desire and consent of botl1 parties to bring about sucl1 a bond of filiatio11. Tl1ere is no rule wl1ereby tl1e details of st1cl1 11ecessary forn1alities are specifically set forth. The ex.is­ te11 ce of adoptive fi.liatio11 can be decided 011.ly fro1n tl1e circt1msta11ces of an individual case. Tl1ere is, however, 011.e basic ge11eral pri11ciple tl1at l1 olds trtte. This pri11ciple requires that, even if tl1e detail of its applicatio11 varies, tl1ere n1u.st always be a special forn1ality for tl1e creatio11 of au adoptive 'filiation. Tl1is for1nality distin.gt1isl1es a11 adopted cl1ild, who has th.e bo11d of filiation \¥itl1 the adOJ)ting family and \Vl10 for all legal p11rposes is deemed a natural cluld of tl1e adOJ)ter, fro111 anotl1er wl10 may be no111 inally and casually referred to as 011e's own ''child'' witl1out any bo11d of filiation.

I

For a bond of filiatio11 to exist tl1rougl1 adoption, it is esse11tial t]1 at a special for1nality be undergone publicly \Vithout reservation. Since the child le,1ves I1is family of origin to joi11 tl1e family of adoptior1, botl1 families must know about tl1e adoption. A bond of filiatio11 has legal effects and, tl1erefore, should 11ot be kept secret, especially when 1 secretl y, by a contract of iiliatio1 adoption.

If tl1e adopter reated wants to cre(1te adoJJtive � 1t becomes doubtful whether l1e has a full desire a11d intentio11 to adopt tl1e cl1ild at all.

If tl1e adoption is made OJ)enly, that gives interested perso11s an opportu11ity to kno,v of tl1e situatio11 a11d raise any legitimate objectio11s. If, for insta11ce, a perso11 other th�n I a natural parent of the child wa11ts to give l1is co11sent with a view to bi11d a n1i11or ch�Id l in ad �ptive filiatio11 with a third person, the nat11ral parents do not }iave an opportunity se, ca a such to obJect to _tl1� arrangen:ient where the contract is secretly concluded. In 110 legally b1nd1ng adoption ca11 be said to exist. t, ous r es As stated above, an adopted cliild leaves his original family. Botl1 famili tl1erefore, be aware of tl1e situation.

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l,

TEFERRA GI-IIZA\V

V. M.ENNA BEKELECH

Even if tl1ere are no detailed a11d specific formalities for adoption, the general pri11. c1ple !h3:t sorne formality must be openly perfor111ed seems to be a recogrrized and accept­ ed pr111c1ple. The person adopted ·m11st be know11 as a11 adopted cl1ild, not 011ly to tl1e adopter, but also to other people. Otl1erwise tl1e forn1ality of adoption misses its legal as well as social p11rpose.

Whetl1er tl1e ·for1nalit)' for adoptio11 l1as bee11 dt1ly and ope11ly followed i11 order to cre�t � adoptive filiatio11 ca11 be know11 only from tl1e particular acts perforn1ed. Tl1e formal1t1es used n1ay vary 1'ron1 one locality to a11otl1er. Nevertl1eless, all l1ave as a com111on factor tl1e req11i1·eme11t tl1at tl1e adopter .n1ust 1)erfor111 a special forn1al act to un­ equivocally sho\V llis i11.te11tion a11d co11.se11t to n1ake a person l1is adopted child. Tl1e cl1ild or, whe1·e he is a 1ni11or, l1is parents acting 011 l1is bel1alf 1nust also perfor·m a formal act to clea1·ly sl1ow their conse11 t a11d desire to be bo1111d. 111 tl1e abse11ce of s11cl1 formalities, it is 11ot possible to k11ow whetl1er or not tl1ere was an inte11tion to create a legal bond of adoptive filiation.

In one localit)', for adoptive filiatio11 to exist the adopter must prepa1·e a banqt1et and i11vite guests to declare llis intention to adopt a cllild. 111 ,111other locality, tJ1e formality is f11lfilled where tl1e adopter takes a11 oatl1 before a priest vowing that he \.Vill take and for all purposes treat tl1e cl1ild as his own. It is possible tl1at otl1er customs n1ay have still otl1er types of for111alities for creating adoptive filiation.

There is anotl1er situatio11 wl1ere people bri11 g up tl1eir godchildren referring to thetn as ''sons'' or ''da11gl1ters." Tl1is does 11ot, l1owever, give to godchildren the status of natu.ral or adoptive cluldre11. It does not give the right of succession. The godfather may make a legacy in favo11r of l1is godcllild, bt1t \.Vl1ere tl1e godfatl1er dies \.vithout leaving a legacy, tl1e godcl1ild ca11not claim any right to succeed. If that were not tl1e case, ma11y people would have refrair1ed fron1 l1 aving godcl1ildre11. ,,·Yemar lij'' is i11tet1ded to create a close tie bet\.vee11 an outsider artd a fainily whe1·e the outsider who is made ''ye1nar lij'' is looked upon with favo11r by the family wl10 is taking Jlin1 in. The relatio11sllip creates intimacy a11d close con11ection wl1ereby eacl1 party shares i11 tl1 e sorrow a11d ha1)pi11ess of tl1e other. It does not, l1owever, cre,1te a legal right to be a men1ber of the family. ''Yemar lij'' may get a legacy, bl1t the testator is not ltnder any obligatio11 to make a legacy i11 favour of l1is ''yemar lij. '' Wl1ere ''ye1nar abat'' dies intestate, ''yemar lij'' cannot clain1 any right of succession. If tl1at were not the case, ma·ny would have refrained fro1n 11 aving ''yemar lij''. People would also l1ave avoided bringing up cl1ildren of their friends.

A godfatl1er or ''yemar abat'' (or ''yetut abat'') can adopt his godchild or ''yemar lij'' (or ''yetut lij'') by performing the necessary legal formality. We will novv try to relate these general observations to the case at ha11d.

It is establisl1ecl that Woz. Ivie1111a is the godcl1ild of Waz. Bekelecl1, tl1at she was :• brought up by Waz. Bekelech, and that Waz. B�kelecl1 is "W_oz. Me11na's a1111t._ 'V-(e l1ave � not, however, found tl1e requireme11t of a for.mal1ty of adoption fulfilled. Even If It could ) be l1eld that tl1e formality was performed, tl1e fact tl1at it was perforn1ed secretly wo11ld :- be suffi.cie11t to make t11e performa11ce invalid. Waz. Bekelech did 11ot under oatl1, in , accordance with customary law, u11equivocally declare that she would for all p·urposes ;:. take Woz. Men11a as her child. A priest gave a be11ediction after the e11d of the feast pre­ pared for tl1e baptismal occasion, but this is a ct1st_omary pr�ctice tl1at takes place at any meal and ca1111ot, tl1erefore, be taken as a special for1nal1ty. The fact tl1at Woz. • Bekelech brought up her godchild cannot by itself give tl1e godchild filial stat11s.

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VOL. II - No. 1

We are of the opiuio11 tl1at Woz. Me1111a's witnesses were 111isle� b;' the fact tl1at Woz Me1111a was brot1ght U}J by Woz. Bekelecl1, \Vl10 was at tl1e s,lrne t1n1e l1er god111otl,er.

\VI1e11 it .is alleged that Woz. Bekelech and l1er l111sba�d adopted \Voz. Me11 11a, we fail to t111dersta11d wl1y Woz. Me1111a did not ,1ssu111e the f,11111ly' 11an1e of Woz. Eekelech's I1usba11d.

E�e11 withot1t considering tl1e testimony of p�titioner's \Vitnesses, we fo11 nd tllat tl1e ev1de11ce of the responde11t, a1Jart fro1n sl1ow111g tl1at tl1e res1Jo11dent \Vas \Voz Beke �ech's godchild, does 11ot s.l10\\' tl1�t the res1Jo11de11t was, acco�·di11g t� custon1ary _ pr �ct1ces, Woz. Bekelecl1'� ado1Jted child. We, tl1erefore, decl,1re i:l1e pet1t101 1er legal _ _ l1e1� of Woz. Bekelech, and as such, all pro1Je:t y tl1at tl1e deceased 111l1er1ted fron1 Azage _ Ghizaw E11dalema\\, sl1all devolve on tl1e pet1t1011er.

The respot1dent sl1all pay the petitio11er $200 in court costs IJlus rein1burseme,1t of expe11ses i11curred for petitio11er's witnesses.

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ARTICLES AN INTRODUCTION TO LABOUR DEVELOPMENTS IN ETHIOPIA •

by Ge org Graf von Baudissin L . ab our Advisor, Ethiopiap. G o vernment I. The Background to Labour Policy .

Etl1iopia is pa.rticularly fav oured by its ge o graphical position, climate, and agraria� _ and mineral wealth. It has, on tl1e Red Sea, tw o medium-sized p orts suitable for modern import and e�port (Massa,va and Assab) and furtl1er access t o the sea through Djib o uti.

Road and rail provide sufficient c ommunicati on between the coast and the interior. The modern aviati on services of Ethi opian Air Lines link tl1e capital and other cities witlil Kenya in the s o uth, Aden t o the east, Lag os in West Africa, and t o the no rth, Western Europe. The g o od rainfall and m oderate highland situati on at an average distance of approximately 1,000 km. fr om the equator means that agriculture, stock-raising ana forestry are p ossible thr o ugh o ut this Empire of over a million square kil ometers, with the excepti o n of a few l o w-lying valleys. Accordingly, ab o ut 90 per cent of-the estimated 20 milli on population have rema.ined on the land and in the rural occupati ons. This d oes not amot1nt t o o verp opulati on.

As Ethi opia m�dei-nises its traditi o nal agricultural method�, it may well beco·me an African grana.ry; but at pr�sent its exp orts are modest. H9wever, agricultu·re is o nly one part of the potential wealth. Great treasures lie below the surface, expl oited on a · small scale, but m ostly either just disc overed or no t even. expl ored.

Aware of their country's :great econ omic res ources, and of nature's gener osity, the inhabitants have at no time been under any particµlar pressure to improve their methods of w o tjc and s o raise the ge�eral level of pr oductivitY,_m ore than seemed . . necessary in order to satisfy their needs -· which �ere small. The relative. immunity fr om disturbance by external influences, quarrels or c o nquests, may also have c ontributed to this self-suffi­ ciency and satisfaction with inherited concliti ons which have l ong prevailed. S o for many years Ethi o pia lacked the natural motives for a rapid development similar t o that which has carried many c o untries in the northern hemisphere to industrialisati on and world trade; and even today the c o untry is only entering the' ep och of econ omics and technol ogy. .

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Until re�ntly, therefore, labo ur, in the modern serise, a_nd everything c onnected · with it was an idea which national its ·way int o the c onsci ousness. The find still t o · had .

• • • Revised Constitution of Ethiopia of 19�5, the one n ow operative, d oes not even mention s speak It ers. ote wh ole chapt ''labour'' ' to which C o nstituti o ns in o ther. co untries dev . . only once of ''occupation''. Also in public affairs, there !s n o ministry or o ther statutory ? ody dealing specially with lab o ur questi ons, alth ough 1n the last few years a st_art has inevitably been made in such fields as placement and the settlement ·-. of lab o ur d1sput�s.

The increasing imp ortance o f manp o wer f or· devel o pment of the country's econ on1y and ,

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LA w - VoL. II - No. I

resources was only recognised reluctantly and by degrees; bu t finally the inevi table con ­ 1 1 clt1sions were draw . o 11 lon g provide ti cep ex the on nts me n1o fe� a nd o t d by spe st It may be of in tere the province of Eritrea. Apart from its position along tl1e Red Sea, t�1at. section of the country is far less gener ously e11dowed witl1 ,vorldly goods tha n Ethiopia _prop er. But Eritrea ,vas a color 1ial area for ma11y years; after.t_he $��and �or�d War 1t was given e P�\vers in several a special statu s, simil�r to. that of a t1nit in a. Federation, ,v1th leg1slat1v _ fields inclt1ding laboiir law. Nof until the end of I �62 was it full y . integrated into tl1e Empire of Ethio pia.I Co nsequently, tl1ere are still labou r regulat101 1s effective in Eritrea going back to 1922, tho ugl1 tl1ey 11ave qeen r.evised and c o ns?lidated i11 the Eritrean Employme11t Act of 1958 ..That measure; until ftirtl 1er notice, pro vides tl1e statt1tory basis f o r a regio11al labo11r administration, some minimum conditions of ,vork and even a slight degree of labour protecti<?I?-·� O�_ tl1e \vl1ole, 11: ow�ver, tl1ese provisions have not been strikingly successful; the labour administratio n is· a relatively modest set-up which may be adjusted to the general s tandards achieved in tl1e rest of tl1e Ernpire at tl1e moment.

Tl1e .efforts made by the Etl1iopian GoverQ111ent to l�ar1 1 from sucl1 experience in building u p its own labour legislatio:µ and admiriis�ratio_n in or<;ler t o avoid the mistakes wl1ich stem from using f9reign patterns, wjll be described i11 d11e course. ..

Tl1e ind ustrialrsation wh1ch gradually occurred d11rin.g the post-war years affected almost·· exclus1vely a. fe,v of the more important cities, sucl1 as Addis Ababa and Dire.

Dawa. ·"Besides a:· number o f large establishments oper·ated.by pu'blic authorities, industrial -µndertakings' and con1me'tcial ·firms sprang up in the cities and in ·some r1iral districts, . ah ever-increasin.g dem and for a11 · kinds of manpower.. Cotton mjlls, tobacco cre·ati11g · · pla1i'tatio11s, breweries, cement works a11d other i11stallatio ns were established and sugar . . .. . ' and �ow inclu de a number of 11nd.ertakings employing thousands of workers, won 1en as well as n1en. Many ne\v indt1strial establisl1ments are b·eing p11ilt or have bee11 pla11ned.

Furthermore, con 1 merce is expanding, tl 1e n11mber of retail establishments bas risen con­ siderably, and Go mmunications and t�avel have.ii:iter.i.sified ,vith . all tl1e ancillary services and employments. inv.olved. · Altl1011gl1 .nq statistical d�ta . a .re available, tl1e total number of persons employed outside the traditio p.al rural . occu pations must .be over 200,000 and is n o ticeably i11creasing. . . .. . ·. Tl1is ind. ustri�I . gr.owtl1 brought. the. Governm�nt _ up against tl1e. problen1s which, to some e�tent, e.very natiqn mlist f�ce . as soon a. s i11dt1sti-{alisati o n begins. It }vas Eth. io­ pja's secular intr. ove. rsion which so lpng deferred the epcount�r ,vith the age of tecl1110Iogy and. m'1;de tl1e problems more complex wl1en the event occt1rred. An.additional ha.ndicap was the. f�ct that tl1e i11dustriaJisation confined itself maip.ly t9 a few centres instea<! of · . spreading . throughout the C01:}ntry. .

The primary problems before ·the Et11 · iopi an Gov ernm ent ere: w .

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·· (I) How to redu�e the unem:ploymen t which had arisen in tl1e big ci ties, or at leas t to prevent its. . . further 1nc�ease; i·

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How to establish labo11r-man�gemen t . relatious which. would be appropriate _to ·-both present and future .. undertakings - indust.rial or other-and ensure stability, :'7ithou.t hampering ..economic. development, and at the same time mee t t�e grow1�g •n:eeds .of the wag�-earning class•; · . . ..

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1.'. ·By. Ordet ·No. ·.21- '6f Js· ·· '.November. 1962:: 1

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2.·· The '£rifrea11 Gazeltej··Supp:· No: 5;· 23 May· t958. : .. ·:

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AN INTRODUCTION· TO LABOUR :DEVELOPMENT IN ETffiOPIA

(3) How to produce an efficient indigenous work force which would be as inde­ pendent as possible of .foreign advisers and assista.nce. .

�l three questi �ns_ �rose, by themselves so to speak, out of the unusually sudden trans1t1on . from a pr1m1t1ve secluded economy to the modern eco.nomic forms of the technological age. These, once tl1ought out and brougl1t nearer to solution, led to many other problems, mostly long-term, whicl1 ought to have bee11 taken into account from the beginning.. Tl1is second category incltides problems of workers' l1ealtl1 and safety, general education, vocational training, and social security.

The Ethio_pian Constitt1tion of 1955 provided a reasonably satisfactory framework for !lie transmission of such ideas. All Etlliopians have equal civil rights and equal pro­ tect10� t1nder t?e law. Freedom of movement and assembly also are e·nsured to everyone. _ 's r1gl1t to choose his occt1pation freely and to joi11 associations can only be The c1t1zen restricted by legislation. There is a general right of petition to the Emperor.

Other sources of policy are as follows: (I) The Slavery Abolition Proclamation No. 22, 1942; (2) The Factories Proclamation of 1944, an enabling measru·e under which the Minister of Commerce and Industry can issue regulations with respect to labour protection in factories. No use has yet been made, however, of that power to issue subsidiary legislation; (3) The Civil Code Proclamation of 1960. As in some European countries, in addi­ tion to the general rules regarding employment, this includes a number of minimun1 labour stan.da1·ds. Particularly, Chapter XVI of the Civil Code lays down provisions on the conclusion of individual contracts of employment an.d collective agreements, the general contents and character of the employment relations.hip, the grounds for and effects of te1·mination, holidays, absence and sickness pay. Other clauses deal with the employers' obligations in coru1ection with employment accidents or occupational diseases. Another chapter (Ill) contains provisions on associations which were to tak.e on some importance when employers' organisations and trade unions came to be established; (4) A few other relevant provisions were to be found in various special laws; '

(5) Customary law is also of some importance.

II. The Approach to Modern Labour Legislation In the above circumstances, anyone who contemplated building up a realistic and integrated body of labour legislation and creating, as far as possible, linified macllin:ry for its application and supervision, had to work ot1t a. concrete programme and specrfic principles for the purpose.

The first step could only consist of basic research, si11ce practically n? relevant docu­ mentation or statistical material was on hand. Apart from a thorougl1 111ventory of the e_ x.isting stat11tory provisions, a comparison was made with the syste s of l bo11r legi la­ � � � t1on adopted j 11 various other developing nations and so1;1 1e of �he 1ndustr1al co tr1es. _ � The Conventions and Recommendations of the International Labour Orgarusat�o11 (I. L.O.) were also examined. But all this was riot enough; ·just as· important were effective - 103 -

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' working conditio11s ' labour-manageme11t relations and otl1er similar matters economic and . 1u d.ing Eritrea. .

Extensiv e as they existed in the more important parts of the co�11try, inc investigation 1011g jour11eys, visits to various enterprises, and man y co11fere11ces we all a11 indis�ensable prelude to legislation wl:ich, with all �t!e �egard for internation:� standards, l1ad to be shaped to meet tl1e special needs of Etlu�pia. �uch a survey could of cot1rse only cover the 111ost i1nporta11t places and undertak111gs JD. the first i11st ance but it seemed to produce a sufficiently complete picture of the general situatio 11. Its result� confirmed the urgency of measures regarding the employment market, managementlabour relations, and the wide field of vocatio11al training.

The Government then set up a small inter-ministerial grot1p of experts whicJ 1 was to review the results of the survey described above and �onver:t i� into proposals for legislation and organisation. In thls connection the following pr1nc1ples gradually emerged:

j

(I) All labour matters throughout the country should be l1a11dled by one central authority (ministry) ,:vitl1 appropriate regio11al and local machinery;

(2) This responsibility should, however, not extend to civil servants 3 or the armed forces;

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(3) Employees of government a11d otl1er pt1blic commercial and indt1strial t111der­ taki11gs should, as a rule, be treated on the san1e footing as employees of private undertaki11gs; (4) Tl1e legislation and orga1J..isation shot1ld be progressive but realistic; in this connection, regard must be given to probable budgetary resot1rces in future years and to the ct1rrent level of traini11g of administrative officials;

(5) Item (4) must be taken into account in particular when establishi11g future labour authorities (en1ployment offices and other services);

(6) In view of the urgency of certain tasks, a start should be made ,vith a law on employment administration and a11other on labour relations; 011ly subsequently should protective provisions, minin1um conditions of work a11d vocational training programmes be tackled - not to mention social insurance plans; (7) The laws must be easy to understand but detailed enougl1 to keep doubts about interpretation down to a minimum; if for tec]1nical reasons tl1e statutory pro­ visions themselves could not fully satisfy tl1e marked popular need for specific translation of legal principles into practical rt1les, a competent minister sl1ould be empo\vered as far as necessary to isst1e st1bsidiary regt1lations.

ID. Organisational Questions

Among the many factors that contributed to implementation of the above p� o­ gramme, st1�ce it to �en�i�n the pioneer spirit a,nd sense of co-operation �ith whi ch the foundat1ons of Ethlop1a s future l�bour and social structure were established. . .

There was a long debate as to the proper place for a central labour authority in 0e machinery of government. The various Ethiopian statutes on organisation and jurisdic· 3. Central Personnel Agency and Public Service Ord.er No. 23, of 1961, Negarit Gazet a, 21st �ea!; No. 3, 20 October 1961, and Amending Order No. 28 of 1962 Negarit Gazeta, 22nd Year� N · pp. 33 et seq.

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tion, particularly the Definition of Powers Order, No. 1, of 1943, had failed to make any particula1· ministry responsible for labot1r matters. In practice several initial steps towards organisation had been taken to cover the most urgent needs: tl1ere was a place­ ment office under the Addis Ababa Mu11icipality; there was a semi-official Disputes Board in the Mi,1tistry of Commerce and Ind11stry that shared tl1e fu11ction of settlement witl1 an a�visory office i11 tl1e Ministry of Justice; i11 co11nection witl1 price control and related funct1011s there was a sm_a ll office for matt�rs of labour protection in the Ministry of Com­ merce and Ind11stry, wl1ich originally was also the official co11tact with the I.L.O. To give this latter Ministry gener�l comp_etence for labour regt1lation seemed at first sight nat11ral, b_ut this i9ea was fi11ally rejected because the Ministry had its own basic function, not entirely identical witl1 that of solving labour problems; and also becat1se it was 1·es­ ponsible, as employer, for a i;i11mbyr of state-qw11ed t1ndertakings.

With tl1e importance of labour problems still only gradually emerging, the establish­ me11t of an independent ministry was thought premature and also unjustified on th.e grounds of cost. Consideration was long give11 .to the inclusion of a labour department or board in the Prime Minister's Office, where the various particular interests i11volved might have been co-ordinated but this solution seemed too cumbersome. Finally it was decided to place responsibility with the Ministry of National Community Development, which already handled some more or less related matters such as social welfare, ruraJ devt?lopment and co-operatives. As became still more evident at a later stage, this was a sound decision and at some point it will no doubt be formally reflected and con.firmed by an addition to the Ministry's present statutory terms of reference. 4 Accordingly, the central authority for labour a.ffairs was organised under the Minister of National Com­ munity Development, with the Vice-Minister and the Head of the Depa,rtment of Labour "' consisting of, bt1t under current review: •

1st Division:

2nd Division: Central Public Employment Office

• •

Labour Standards •

•

Manpower Section.

Labou,r Exchange Section.

Foreigners' Section.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Legal and International S�ction. (b) . Labour R.elatiqns Section.

(C). Labour . Prot�ction Section.

•

•

•

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Below this central establishment (in which the ·disputes qrgan, the Labour Relations Board of Addis Ababa, has a sp�cial indep�ndent position) come the regional �nd local employment offices. These :have alrec1:dy been ·set up iri Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, 6 Asmara, Massawa Keren and Agordat, arid ·others· wilI. gr adually follow in a flexible· way until a network of the Labour Department's. �gencies covers the whole of Ethiopia. .

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This· structure is presented mainly in the Public Employment Administration Order of 19626 and to a minor extent in. the Labour Relatiops Decree of 1962. 7 ·Both measures ar:e so framed tna·t in ·the· future the m · achiriecy_ cari. be extended_ by administrative action or, in certain .cases, by . sub�idiary ·· legisl�tion. . . . .. . ..

4·: 5.

6.

7.

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· ·. · Order No. 15, of 1957. · · · Public Employment Regulations 'No. 1,-Negarit Gazeta, 22nd Year; No: 5, of 10 December 1962 Negarit Gazeta, 21st Year, No. 18, of 5 September 1962.

Ibid, pp. 136 et seq. Promulgated, after adoption by Parlian1ent, as a Proclamation, No. 210 of 1963, Negarit Gazeta, 23rd Year, No. 3, of 1 November 1963.

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IV. Contents of the Legislation

It seems advisable here to exainine tl1e further contents of tl1ose two laws m ore closely.

1. The main objectives of the Public Employment Admi1tistration_ Order of are to mobilise the cou11try's manpower reserves for gener�I econo1n1c develop 1962 ment to improve the workers' level of performance, a_nd. to provide eac� one with a job correspondi11g to his wisl1es and abilities. Tl1e pr1nc1ples of free cl1o!ce _of occupatio n by tl1e worker and volunta.ry engagement by the employer are fully 1na1nta1n ed: the Gov­ ernn1ent merely offers its good services with a view to placen1e11t, i.e., the services of the Public Employment Administration set up by the Order a11d described in Part III of the present article. In ad.dition tl1e Administration is required: (a)

(b) (c) (d) (e)

(f)

to study a11d observe the employment situation in Ethiopia and to compile statistics upon it; to make proposals for the improverne11t of tl1e employment situation; to advise tl1e public, and especially young persons, regarding cl1oice of vocation and vocational training; to co-operate in an advisory capacity in public and private economic planning; to propose action to prevent rural exodus; to maintai11 registers of persons seeking employment and of vacant posts.

A further fu11ction of tl1e Public Employment Adn1inistration is to issue, in all appro­ priate cases, work permits to foreign 11ationals. The basic principles for the general policy in that difficult field are established by Articles 15 and 17 of the Public Employment Order of 1962, which accordingly reflect the constitutional concept t]1at tl1e rigl1t to engage in any occupation is limited to Etl1iopian subjects and employment of others needs the Go­ ver11n1ent's SJJecial permission (see Article 389 (3) of the Civil Code). The recent Legal Notice, called Foreign Nationals Employment Regulations of 1964, 8 }1as defined more closely the terms under which the En1ployn1ent Administration shall grant \\1ork permits to foreig11 11ation.als or refuse to do so in the future. That Legal Notice is prin1arily design­ ed to reco11cile the obvio11s need for employing more Ethiopian nationals in the country's profit-making enterprises and to raise their skills correspondingly, with the expectation tl1at certain important future investments from abroad cannot be easily obtained \Vitl1out sufficient .flexibility on tl1e Ethiopian side as regards reasonable concessions, with respect to the employment of foreign. experts, technicians, etc., at least during the first period of establishment. The Regulations require by a number of provisions the training of Ethiopians \Vho may replace such foreign staff in due time.

The wl1ole idea behind those efforts made by the Public Employment Adn1ini strati on is to contribute to the raising of economic standards and thus to help the general en1ploy· me11t situation. As another n1eans to that end, the Administration has started to prepare a manpower survey in Ethiopia which is to cover, step-by-step, the wl1ole working popu _la· tion of the country and to. disclose essentia� details of such things as age, sex, and sk1U J �1 of tl1e �orkers. Together with other dat�, this m�nI_Jower survey is designed to lay a s oucia s any as r o as matters such for well on occupational oundat tra,i ung f and guidance as 1 security sy�t�m w�ich might be establi�hed after � number of years. The Public Eroplo6· 1s. blen { pro opes be Adm1n1strat1on to advised on various sorts of employment ment � DJr and Ababa Advisory Employment Committees as already established in Addis the 8.

Negarit Gazeta, 23rd Year, August 31, 1964.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO LABOUR DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Dawa_by Legal Notice No·. 267, of 1962. They have a tri-partite character which provides for equal representation of eniployer and worker elements.

•

2-. The development of stable labour-,nanagement relations is the object of the second th� Labour Relations Proclamation of 1963, which was enacted by a large majo­ �easure, .1n �arl1ament .. It deals i11 particular with tl1e following problems, which had been rity only touched on in the Constitution or other legislation: ( a)

Formation of employers' associations and labour unions. Under the current law of associatio11, wllich is fou11d in the Civil Code, either party may organise freely and combine in federations. 011 tl1e labour side there are organisations of two kinds: the ''plant u11ion'', whicl1 may be formed in any establishment having more than 50 employees, and tl1e ''general union'' for employees of smaller undertakings and for specialists. Orga11isations 011 either side are em­ powered to protect and develop the economic, social a11d moral interests of their members and to negotiate with the other party on labour conditions on a collective basis. On that legal basis, more than fifty labour unions, pre­ dominantly with a plant-union status, have been established and registered in the course of the last two years. Membership is estimated to be over 30,000.

Employers created the Federation of Ethiopian Employers i11 March, 1964.

All unions are co-operating under the Confederation of Ethiopian Labour Unions, (C.E.L.U.) which was founded one year earlier.

(b)

The Act stresses free and voluntary collective bargaining as the mai.n method of determining working conditions. The Government restricts intervention on its own part to exceptional circumstances, although the Ministe·r of National Community D . evelopment may fix minimum conditions of work where necessary.

Unfair labour practices by employers or workers, carefully defined in the Pro­ clamation, are prohibited. The principle of co-operation is stressed in the in­ tere.st of sound national economic development, and a ''peaceful attitude'' is made an obligation of both sides. The organisations must abstain from political activity. Unfair practices can be brought before the Labour Rela­ tions Board whi.ch, after consideration, may prohibit a particular practice and enforce its decision, if necessary, by recourse to otl1er authorities. In certa.in circumsta·nces of this character, an organisation can be dissolved by judicial order -(d) . The Labour· Relations Board has another much more important ·function: · either party - and -tl1e . Minister of National Community Development can call it in to settle a collective labour dispute. The Board is tl1en required first of all to attempt to settle the dispute by agreement. Only when all attempts tcr do this have failed may it arbitrate. The award, from which an appeal may be made to the Suprem� Court on questions of law only; is enforceable in the same way as a court judgment and any person failing to comply with it may be pt1nished. An importa.nt clause is that which provides for a ''cooling-off'' period of 60 days from submission of a dispute to _the Board: during this time any strike or lock-011t would pe 11nlawful. Many important items of the pr? ­ . cedure under which the Board acts are written into the Proclamat1on and will be· supplemented by Standing Orders now in the course of preparation. (e) Unlike collective disputes, individual labour disputes remain a mat�er for t�e ordinary courts of law. This differential treatment may cause difficulty 1n (c)

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VoJJ. II - No. I

e ar cl or un i1dersto_ od. isu m ly r1t ue eq fr ed de in is 11 io ct i11 st di e _ practice, a11d tl1 em t se ye to l1av� �rr1ved. t no es d t 11r co ur bo la � r la gu re a up 11g tti Tl1e time for se a es t l1e M1_m�ter of at s n io � at n1 � la oc P � � 11s tio la Re 11r bo La e � tl1 , Accordi11gly ns r io ou vis lab di f 1 th \V1 t e11 n tl1e l1s ab est 1m: ? e tl1 r e fo ing rrf ''a all Justice sl1 _ . s ct r tlt of employ ment. co al du v1 di 1n of t � ou ng isi ar s se ca th \Vi al de ' to ts' co11r ing ell s . d. con� iliation un ari co a s ide pr nt tm par D ur bo ?� La the ce cti IJra � 111 � _ _ ve . as ct.1 ll lle we co as disputes service for those wl10 desire it 1n 111div1dual e a tak to decision on such n tio tra nis mi ad t tha in ted ves r we but tl1�re is 110 po cases.

It is of course a far cry fron1 the first two legislative measures to a . complete labour code, if a labour code ca11 ever be co11sidered complete. AnJ',vay, further important labour legislation is already in preparation or is being planned.

As described under Part I herein, the Civil Code Proclan1ation l1as establisl1ed certain n1ore or less general pri11ciples on contracts of employment, includi11g certain minimum provisions on safety and healtl1 of workers as well as related labour standards in Ethiopia.

It is obvious tl1 at sucl1 general principles or 111inimal 11eed not 011.ly regular review and, 1 if j11stified by tl1e ge11eral growtl1 of the economic output of the country, gradual in1prove­ n1ent, b11t also a n1achj11ery adequate to control or even ensure implementation of such types of labour standards in the various undertakings. As developments have shown, tl1e in1portant fields of labour protection and inspection ,:vere placed, u11like in other d.evelopi11g cou11tries, relatively low 011 the legislators' priority list, because employment problems and labo11r-management relations seen1ed n1ore urgent. B11t the time has come to finalize several related legal projects wl1ich should e11s11re introduction of more ad­ vanced labour standards, with a special e1nphasis on health and safety of the employees in ind.ustry a.11d trad.e, and the establisl1ment of a labo11r inspectio11 service able to move in and help to enforce any legal arrangement in the various undertakings. Regarding the latter, a first step ,:vas made by the Legislature on December 4, 1964, when the Labour Inspection Order, 1964, was promulgated. 9 As anotl1er project for legislation, solutions will have to be worked out before long to improve tl1e cou11try's vocational system including such matters as apprenticeship, adult workers education, etc. Such legislation will have to follow essentially Ethiopia's needs, as tl1ey result fron1 tl1e economic development and tl1e kind a11d structure of future it1dustrial, commercial or other enterprises. Legislation has, therefore, to wait until the manpower survey presently u11derway and otl1er statistical bases necessary for thorough plan11i11g have bee11 terminated a11d evaluated.

At about tl1 � same time it may be possible to reflect on and, if appropriate, to in­ . �roduce fully or 1n part _ a s �s !em _ of social se.curity which might include unemploym�nt 1nsuranc �, old-age o� d1sab1l1ty insurance, sickness insurance, etc., for the Ethiopian workers 1n a way wluch could cover the specific needs of this country. Again, however, da � actual not y of on careful deal studies but also a great such a _ progr �m pre-supposes ! _ . of _ various kinds which are the 1nd1spensable prerequisites of any realistic planning 1n this area.

V. Relations with the International Labour Organisation (I.L.O.)

and 3 192 since as belonged to the Internation�l Ethiopia Labour Orga.nisation � . ian Ital the as 1s thus one of its oldest members. Partly because of historical events such 9.

.

Order No. 37 of 1964, Negarit Gazeta, 24th Year N , o. 4. .

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IN

ETHIOPIA

occupation a!1d partly because more active exercise of its membership was hampered by the peculiar . character of its own development, this country remained largely aloof from I.L.O. �ffa1rs for many years. The conditions for proper representation at the annual Conference 1n Geneva were not fulfilled, although Government representatives could have been sent, as representative employers' and workers' associations did not yet exist.

For this reason alone it is not at all surprising tl1at Ethiopia's role in the international labour sc_ene long ren1ained a very modest 011e. Tl1is passivity was reflected in the absence of Ethiopia's name from the list of co11ntries wl1ich l1ad ratified I.L.O. Conventions and similar matters.

Membership in an organisation ca11 only have life and reality if it involves mutual give and take. The Internatio11al Labour Organisatio11 made that possible for the develop­ ing countries when it evolved its many programmes for tech11ical assistance after the Se cond World War. In exchange for. their contributions, those countries were offered a generous equivalent, of which Ethiopia took advantage on various occasions. The as­ sistance began in the early summer of 1960 with a survey of the possibilities of vocational rehabilitation of the disabled and an investigation of the social security field. This has been followed by missions of long-term experts, in these fields, in workers' education and in clerical training. Later several Ethiopian officials were sent to special I.L.O. courses in Europe and Africa. Useful regular contacts developed, not only with headquarters in Geneva, but also with the I.L.O. African Field Offices at Lagos and in Dar-es-Salaam.

Many comments on Ethiopian draft laws and regulations were sent from Geneva. Invita­ tions came from Dar-es-Salaa.m to short courses for labour officials, to be attended mainly by future inspectors. For over ten months an I.L.0. expert has been working in Addis Ababa on the establishment of employment offices and the planning of a manpower survey. Further programmes of these and similar kinds are in preparation. Moreove·r, as a result of developments in Ethiopia, the Natio11 has begun to realise the pa.rt which it ought to play in I.L.O. activities. At the 46th Annual Conference in 1962 it was still pnly represented by two Government representatives acting as observers; employers' and workers' representatives were still lacking, as the Labour Relations Proclamation _had not yet been issued, and so the formation of employers' associations and trade unions were not yet possible. At the 47tl1 Session of the Conference in June 1963, for the first time in the long history of its membership, Ethiopia was represented by a full, though small, tripartite delegation led by the Minister of National Community Development.

The Conference heard a speech by the Minister on questions of principle i11 which he was able to mention what had been achieved, to outline the main features of plans for further action, and to inform the Session of the ratification of the four following I.L.O. Conventions: (I) Right of Association (Agriculture), 1921 (No. 11); (2) Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to organise, 1948 (No. 87); (3) Employment Service, 1948 (No. 88); (4) Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining, 1949, (No. 98).

Those ratifications which mean a legal obligation of member states to implement the standards established by those conventio11s, will no dou?t soon be followed by others. _ Members of the Ethiopian delegation were selected to sit on several comm1ttees, and . an Ethiopia n is now a deputy member of the Goverrung Body.

The Conference provided an opportunity for contact with the various divisions of the International Labour Office and discussion of ft1rtl1er developments a11d techD:1_ cal details; all this will pave the way for closer co-operation i11 the future. Amo11g other things - 109 -

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od �e go 1:1a t beS the ld cou delays Whi ch Jia 1ioJ Etl lch wlt by t ou d rke a metl1od was wo s�on of nu O Sltb I.L. tlie o . Co11 ventions rd rega in � s year of ber num � a had occurred for . es iti or tl1 au l na tio na nt ete mp co e th 11s to tio 1da 1e1 d an Recomn A start has now bee11 made witl1 tl1e i11struments adopted in 1�_61 a 11d 1962, and those of 1960 and 1963 are to con1e next. So that these matters may be actively IJursued, a special­ ist has been appointed in the Dep�rt�ent of Labour �o �aridle I.L_. (?. relat�ons o nly, fron1 the regular payment of contr1but1ons to the appl1cat1on of tra1rung proJec ts. Thi year tl1is official will spend several weeks in Geneva f �r �n on-the-spot briefin g on al� disti11ctive features of tl1e International Labour Orgarusat1on.

The Decen1ber 1964 meeti11g of the Second African Regio11al Conference of the International Labour Organisation in Addis Ababa's famous Africa Hall ,:vas opened by �he E1nperor of Etl1iopia. Addressing the a�tending deleg�tes from n1ore tl1an thirty _ _ workers Afr1ca11 countries - governn1ental, employers and representations - His Im­ perial Majesty stated, inter alia:

l

'' Africa today sta11ds jn a serious need of ,1 balanced socio-econo1nic developn1ent whicl1 will assure tl1at equitable distribution of i11come whicl1 will enable· the Africa11 people to attai11 and maintain a fair standard of living. The resources both pl1ysical and 11un1ar1, wl1ic}1 sucl1 developn1ent n1ust build exist, a.nd it is ou� task and our challenge to fi11d. the ways a11d means of en1JJloyi11g tl1ose resources so that our stated. goals may be obtained."

It is i11 tl1is SJJirit tl1at tl1e present Article was written as a possible mea11s to inforn1 � growing 11�m·ber of interested people on wl1at has been achieved or remai11s to be done 1n order to 1111pleme11t tl1e general targets of Etl1iopian labour policy.

i

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-)-1 = 'IOJ• == 9°19° = Oro1:!l\� = (ID:,,6liJ.: m"I = P''I:, P'Co:,. = ro•il'I': OY'il...,..� = (l'tml1r = n+l\,e = f+flmlD- = :,,'P = 'l.e'ic9° i "'lill]f(Dc: n:,,� : +�c:. : ,...Pi } �' }: l\01/fT : P'AflJ' : i\l\W• : �Cf: : n,:,. : 1'1�.f-Cfl(Dc: f,f.l.,:JA :: f,IJ'J° : fD?.lPilD· : 0W1:!l\� : oo:,,tili], : ch."I : P''l : P'Co:,.C : P"- : lif2 : (g) ODWlT I f'?A : hti7i = nil : f4>l00T : ro1:l'!A : &.fl· : tifl•'} : h1�.h;t-..-t-A : P'AllJ"} ilt\+flm(Dc = on 1i �'}: l\"'I l.,:J'l'I' : h1�.lP.W• : ',(De :: 11

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OtLU = "&'I :1' = l\.4>C"fi : f"'/.-:fl\m• : 'I' f 4: ·t "1 ilt.]f m• = ch."I : hilh'ltm-: ti (l•"} : l\on h :t-+ A : 'l A&.l\'1 0:,. : "& 'I;J-w : 11· i\• : n"IYo;J� : hii J..i\1. : on 1i �"} : (g) n+m ',tD•:: Oli.lJ'}: "Z.tL: (la>'}ll\�: OD:PtiliJ»: ,)1"1: P''I: P'Co:,-: ,,,...: �(lro-: {IDfP l.:,..: /\+OJ;�: h 0'l.i\hm•: m-ti�: :,,�: ,:Jlr: +ff,tl: 1,"}}tf.C(lro-: (/Df..l"I = l\.'f cn:,.. = 'Im• -1 ro,eil = ...,-n�� = Omf4> = 1.1·1, = 11:F = l\.omro- = 'Im- 1 . .. = t!\n n ,,, _ = �2 = (1) ,eoiq� = 1,,...e.oi+c,,n n:,.. o,ea;:,- = f,tJ = OIJi\:i: = 'I'r<tro• "&'i : 0.'1� : OT/{\:,-: 'Im- :: 9°"}9° : ;,,,-: ill\tl.lJ: O"IA'P: 'lf,'i"'JC'J° : non,rOD tf: f+'l'll.lD• : fhlP&•C: If .. �: l\.'-.�9° : f,'J(}A:: ih'1: hilh'ltlD«: 04! : "'Iii t.1,: fl\9°: O"'li\-l- : h'1f:: 1.lt: f\ovnflil: L:f>f.?f: hl\on"&�'}: '1/A{ll: nil: ti�ou -1 +n��: +'l"IC:T9°: 1i'I : ltf,'l'll.lD-: tJ(l«"} : fi.<f''l' A: f,IJ"}'} : flJA: fOIJ..f tiil-0: 1...�_e: l\.1i1': hf,ifA9°:: ,._��: h'1-'tlJ: h'li'l ; .rf'O��: fi.m<f''J°O (}f,m4'9°0-l-9°: ti(l«"}: onh:J-w.rf'A: {l�ODO-r: 1.tL: f{\: h"}P.:f: 'l'f4:: "'lllt.1,m- '}: i\+O�f,: OJ'J'}: fonflm:'f-: hiPlrC: DD"}'lf:: fi.flODf:: m:f>OI/.: ',W- :,

�r:

=

=

:,..r:

it,i\(Dc: 'P!<k : f."l'l° t "'lilt.ilD- , h+om(Dc: O�i\ : f"IA : hlt7i " An : fih°l: hllhllt: o,e'I:,..: 00-0:,..: f,'il.lIJ«: ro,e'J°: hf,'it.m-: h1f.1i1: f°'l.f\c&: ',ro- :: f lD"}:!l\� : oo:,,filiJ, : ih"I : P''I : P'Co:,. : P"- : ?if2r : (�) ODIPl.T = iL'i lW-: Y,-:fi\A : f°'l.f fl�: hil..,•ff:,-: fi.1�'1° 1 h"}J;"}f:: ..,,oiqc:-:fi; : O+i\f,9°: o Ohll: J'tft,J=;J.. : lt��fL},r: 0"7.fil�llJ: ro1,:A = "'.e"Jl'>: O�l\ ar = o_e}:,-: w"JJ!A = hll s ih°l = 1illhCJ� : flee: ar,(lt,,7{": f/l9°: O"'//l,)•: hfl·'> : f,f,oo: 1'1-f."Jl} ., fl,t-fl�f; s w1 1: �/\: oo,flrf:'J : fnrJ.f{lh-OCO:'f·: 0011.r.-: }'t/lar 1: �fl-: °11\'I!: h{l : l\D'/�t,,,o, 1if;":fA'J° ¾ }"JC s °l'J I Ow1J!l\� • {1D�tfli},CD4 : ih°I: P'} : P'CD:'f- : h14'K" 1 �!! : (g) ODtPt,,:,-: ih°l : .hllhll6W• : hfl-i: /lOD°l'f•T : fll\ooctfl1 .. : f,°ICJ� : .h�C(l : ,n°l= J't{l hCJ 6lD· : h{l: /lD'/�t,,,O: 1'1�;1'11111\:,•: l\11'/{l.e.t,,°l: {1D')-1f:: l'tl\m • :: ftLU : of,'1:1, = f,°ICJ� = foY.w(lf.ar: ,,._�_e = Ohchc: �en = n.wfl'> , �c.- s f,°l'l;:.1, /lD'/ r:,. : FA«Ji = 1\/lar = �c.r.· = tt:,. = ll/l"Jl} : o.e°l'l1-:. = :i•'h•111 = ootPt,,:'f• = ,n°l = 1tlll1'l&ar = ,f·ht. he": ,1 .. w{l'i : f'i!C�.: f,"J(}� : (l_oollJ ; ,"l,°l : 1tlll1'l&a r : hCh"r-1 : ?ti�<f>'l'A : i\llttar : �C.f: : o>:,.: ao:,,t,,11: 1if;'iCfl;l·9°:: 9°h1.f,f:9°: .h'>f:: 7-.P,_e: 1t1.e.·: �C�: 11·1-: Ott.far : P' AllJ"I· : n·/l:1.. : 1..11.: fl.ff,: (}floo;r�: ',ar:: 11 "'lllt,,1far: foYJ.(lmlD·: hfl·: f.f,ODlD•: flOcf!: '7'/{lt,,'jf: 1t/l{TD17•)-: O"Jl} 1 "Llf.: ·fl�: ll/l : {ll\,l·&.?.ooro•: w;iA : o_e'I:,-- = 't'CllJfu = l'\!iC: .el.-A: .e·Jl'i'A == O tLU'> : 1.. tL = ,"l,°l = 1illhll&a r : OWill\� : oo:,,66]. : ,.,,°I : P'} : P'CD:,-: 0.,... � lif!r: (f.i) ODtPt,,:,, : (lrf"Q;\.D'/6: f"7.,f •h-: h(t :f•'J : h"'/4'l11: fdl/..f°lf.lD•: }1C : f/l9°:: •fi..'i 9°: OILU'> : "l.tl. 1 fl'J°l\• : W'>J!ll0:J: : Ohll: i'tft "P7 : }'t:,,t.n_ i,:1- : fnrJ..f{l-,,m, : oo"fli : 1',l\(}:flD· 1: {l l\lLU i f°IA : _ hll : ll/ldl/..cf'Cfl•'l:far : 1-.P, r-:1-: f"7.flmlD4 : «?llt,,1f : flllJ?°: fdl/...r"JY..· = ro_e,r = raiwll'> = oo fl'> = f/lo:,..r ,, «?ll:'f· i ,n°l = hllh'l&m- : f'?t\ : h... 7i : 1,1-f."7.h"l·l\m•: /lODh(lil : 1,1.l;.iJ"t\ : /l.J.�Y.,-{\:,- : .e:t·A : .e1i'i"A 1= ft'J°'lt'\, : Owi}:ll'i: : ooq,66], : /1,°l : -,,... : ?.;f©P. : (ji) (oil(l : lll\•f• .e.t,,1 � ��f:: f.hllA : ,,._J.>:/l:'f•): 0.rf·"l'l�- : it&.�?.9° : :,,llJ,f: : "',.eh-OY.· : l1 (t : fi,J•mD'/6 : hll : O w1�/l� : <flJ�6l>l : ,'h, : ,,,... : ?;f�f.: (E) (n:-f/,\•f•�',;I.: 9°h1.r:,..: lll\"1.f.l1· 1 ftttiA 1 .,..P,,f•:f:>.: �Ol/.,l\m·: W')-�{\o:;:ar"): l\U:h l'lll: J,i� :1·-A: •1fl:1- 1 ',ro• ,, '11C: °11 : fl°IA�· = ll.:J•w;i, 1 fOl/.t\Or! 9°1'1°: f,J•(l,nar: 11'/llt..�1 {l,r6Ll:.D'/6 I {}"7.,f·h· : lD"}i/r':f.: /lODh(lll : f01J.f{l":{•A : ()f,"Jl19:' I O ro1lt\o:;: : 00:",:: I ,"l,°l ' P''I , P'co:,. = ,,,... = !if.Ii:: (f) aotPt.:,. = n,1·m«1& = fl"7.•t-l1• = h.-.�. = h ll I llD'/:P t,,,o , ..e:1·11.A :s 1

")1', ·)

0

- 117 -

{l.l\: n'1'l{ttD4 : <;::CY:: f1:'f•: 01J'/°l'l': 7-.,:.e, 1 'f°'}'/° : ti� ·: m •ilrr: 'lf.1q: 0th'?: 1'1 {l.hfJt : P'AflJ'}: h;e.: tfl/'ltf:'f•: --1·10.. = .e,avftl\A =· 'f°ti"}!. --l:?0 = Oh{l: nf11::J--: f01f..14'lt.'l'{l.: m'}j!A: f1--&.Kav0-r: (l:J": hm?t1Jt: (l 11�: 7.clt: ( fm _ : ;,,'? : P''I : FCo:,-: ,r.. : �fl : f ,rJD� h;tA) ! � •-tdU · : h�t\: 1ll\�: : � P 1 A fo l'l' 0,,, .: K'ri: tJ(l.: ftJl/..{ltfl/fl:,•: <;::CY:: n.-r: v'f° • ' t1J • lla1°1 i'ti'l.h 'lt: f:,--flmm·: "fl·Li: It.I\: 04''1':J·: l\'?A: hlt."li: 0..Tl\ll£i:: il.Y..<;,:11,: "fi•'l;J,,: f,t...'l't•A:: {l.l\H..U: th°l: h{l.hfJtm·: Ol/{ll�: fltJl/..{l'l'flT : 7.IL: l,lfeprm - : l\f, ., ..'lfJlD• : l\f,.Y..: ll:1A'l': foi"liA: 1'•Pr�: f:,--�m·: <;::CY:: {1:'f•: l\.:J--f,: h1�01f 'Im·: {t'lA: flPf.f{l.n,�,: 'llD·:: f,U'l°: TC1-.'l°: flH..U-- : titj:A : ,)10/ : q,.,.: ?.j§ : (Ii) f--t--.e.:1&. : 'Im«:: '/°n1.f'rf:'l° : "1'1 : i'thhflt : 1---Pr� 'J : ll0£/f:,-- : P'AllJ1: ltl\m•: <;::C�·: 11:,-: fOl/hl�m·'J: :,,�: h1-'tAti : (l.f{l?Y:�-; illlll2 .frm•: r11 H--0: (.IIJm'} : P'AtrJ'}: 11:": lt.f,111': flhlt.7i'i: 01--hlt.n·: h1i;.U•9°: Ocl fllb : '?tf·r: Ott-A: fl.. :rf,'l° I 7---Pr�'}: l\Ol/fT: P'AflJ'}: fl\m•'}: lj:C�--: n,:,..: llf,1•: flan '1l\'I': Q;L 'I°£!': i,'}Jtfil:r (D• :,, : ', (De :: 111-f·•: <;::CY:: f1,f':.f : {lit '1'1 : l\f, : P'All)'}: '11\:fm•: --Z..li. 1 7"-P,�: {lf:,-C�m-: <;::CY:: 07.:'f·: OD:J"fT: i,'}�<PJ..'icn:,--: fODtD(l�: P'AflJ'}'i: 11\k',.:'f•: fcl1'1: i't {l.h()tlD4: •{1:r: oo1J'}: hl\11:,•::

=

(.ID:,161i),

1

n..

lD•

fiP/{l.l�: 01' 11':,. : m·m+ 1 fd/A : hlt.7i : mf ,'l° : mh..l\• = (lm'})!l\�: : ,bdJ : P''l : P'Co:,- : tJv . : �% : n--1•ou{\h,rm· : ODlP /..•r 1 001/ltl>T m• : (D•{l.'r 1'flf.,f· : 01'•'1/\.ml\.:,- : �CY:: fLT: ncn�'} : f'?A : l1'17i : l\.'1'1:1,l"fi: 12 h1�:. }:A : �m• =� f°IA : l1lt7i : fti{l. : Ol/{JDAh:J:m«'} : '111.;Jl: 11:\I\ : fhflc: 1'-�f, : (ltD'}ll\.�: onq, lw}, : "1°1: P'�: r1co:,.: On1'1'1-·:;.. : bf'I - f'lf: (l,f•1 13 wl :,-: f., oo IrA : DI/ fl:,.. = 'I lD4 :: (l-� ti n oi .r I\. mm· : h1�(l[L :rfro· = i""

=

(.ID:,,tiliJ,

f'l:1�

(.ID

- 118 -

1

1+ti:,,iln:i«s,o = �,.,,= tt1i1 f'1A= hti7i =- ilt\Of..tt-= 11'1= "19°C!'= '11-'lhil sf,&.. "'f:t\;J-A :: m'}lt\� : OD�tili}, : tftdJ: P''I : P'COT : ,,,._: lif2!! : (r) 14 f,U'}'}: ILff.C"l : fOI/f,1't\11Jc 1 i'htiiti: A9f:: (L"fi'}: 11:f- : ',(De :: (ftLV-: n'i=A: ih'1: ,,,.. : lif:l?; : (/i) (V) f,DDt\h:tA):: hl\1, = fi'1t\�11Jc : th.i';J : Om1l"-� : oo�tili}, : thd/ : P''I: P'COT : h,r-: =1 .,,._: ?it: IIJcil'I': O"IA: h'17i: f+ln: fnil : �t: ;,t.: roi�..t\il: hf,f..t\9° hf1,f:;J- 1 nncn� : IIJcil'I': ..,,. h'17i : fhOf..: ro'}:e:A: (11, 1:l'1-: (Ll;J1'1' ¾ f ,n'1: hllhl}t(Dc : fl"'l'.TlD•9° : f..l;f : tL .r.r,s,o : on:Ff\•1 : f°t1A'I' : ',(De :: f,U9° : 01/l\T= n.,,._= ?i!! = (ti) ODwl:,•= n.-1.. m4,(lro-= (II/ill�= m•il'I' = hi'1t\mm·= f'l(l= rori..111 = 9°'1ll,= r"IA= nil= t\1PJ1+ b'l�= w1iA = (l.. 1� = """:,.. 2 r '11-'l: A: fi'(tmro-: Om1lt\�:: 011�6liJ,: th"l : 4>°': jf�!! : (Oll,I\: (l1IJc: ti+il: u-0:i-: th"l: O"'lf,'4:,,f..m•: 1i·'l;r: Ol1ffi4'9°): ODIPl:,..: t\onn(lil: li-li: tit\!

OtiCti� : (Dcil'I': f,U: '1f,"fi1: +C·f--: 1._��: fl,irfl',:1-: flouli�: "'/ill�: +1 15 0 �T: nro11."� : (JD�6li]. : chd/ : ,,,.. : if@ : f 'lf il+llJ: (l.,., : ',(De:: --

.,(De==""·"=

f,U9°: (l.li'} : fl"'l'iTW-9°: "fj.',;J--: th"l: nilh'ltlIJc: +1:'l°: f,U'}: oro--t: 0.1i1: �(!': 04!: IP/ill�: ft\9°: 'lAt\4>&9°: 'IOC: 'lt\: ,,,..1'C: fOD n(l(tc = FAai1 = '"n1f..1'i= ht1t"l nilh'lt tt_eODt\il9°== nm"l nilb'lt= :J>A= {IIJzPl:,.. = nil = fL/1,9° = f°1.1't\(J)c nncn� = �u = fi'111IJc = ro1iA = o_e.,:,.. = O"lA: nil: nltrf:;J--: lL+Cirfl: f"'lf,1'11IJc: "fl.ti°: 00011.-J: • ih'1: h.ilh'ltm-: {la>1lt\�: OD�� : ch"l : P''I : P'COT : ,,,._: �§ : (�} ODV-'l:,..: f"IA: h'17i : 'h1Jtf14'ti:,,il : O?ill;f : fOI/1,{l'J'O� : m1lA : "fl.ti°: (l.1� : 11:J! = 'Im- :: ill\ tltJ : ,f>--: iii,: ...... ,,.. : 0'1A'I': Qf,'i1C9° t n11:: 1.lt: f"IA : h'17i : '11-'lf1+lt:,,il: 01/fll� : hi'(lm : m1ltt- : fl°lA : h'17i : nlt-1:;J-- : ft.1+'1+il : f"'lf,1'11IJc : ou"}i � : 'hilllA;J--ro+ : 1:lil : ih°l: nilh'lt : 1-ouA(t: ft.1'1: h.f,1'11IJc9° : O"'I flT : O.+l1n9° : f°'lifA : 'Im- s:

"°'":,..: = = 1

14

15

=

ill\ = t;:,)·th = 11,1t.c = fil'l = hll , "h'i = f°IA = 1tn.•1::I' = hll = "11,.,_,,)· 1 f�:,•,n = �c�· , Yl\�c�- , nt..:,.. : �1a : {ll\OD/,\4,:,, 1 n�c�: �1a : {11\0Dl&ilJ:,.. i (fm1j!I\�: : OD�6Ti}. : ;,,°I : P'� : P'COr"f· : Jt14'i.'": �Y.:1% - j;fjjj) : h'\.e, : Orf"&•: .,_...: %,: f;J..,f,,t•e&1 : .e,oof\h�t\:: fm1j!I\�: ao:,,6Ti}.: m°I: P'� : P'COT: 4>"-: �t: ,-,,°I: hilh'lte&: h'l�·: m1)!A I nhch-r : e&il'f': "h1�:,..: "h1..e.i"&.mG = 09°1: ooAh = l\.fe&:,, = 'h1..e.oi":i:A = 1t.e1A'f'9°" {ll\fttJ: f,"h°I = hilh'lt: m11: 0"1'i:fe&9°: Ohll: J't(L•J:;1--: h:,'&-0.: ODIJ..1cf:tl}4'll: hil I e&il'f': mh.A: ODi\h : l\.'icn:,-: �e& s• �u : ..e.°l'l° = fl.1i1 = flT'1.e:1•A = )e& == lll\H.U = rrr = �t = 1,,f•G�'ln9° 1 :,..hhA= hli � ; f°IA : hll , ,f"*C{ll : fD7..,f,0De&: ,-,,°I : Jtilh'lt : l\m:,'i\i\ : ;,,11-0 : 'f':,,9° : (l,A I l\.h;I' +l\e&: fD7..1'l: m11.A: n.1'1 = 11·11� ! · �c�· = 0.,1:: 0&-(1•: t.:J,�• = m.e,9° = OJ't�_Ail".'f- = flttJ 1 o.e,�:,..: m11.A: nhch-r = aril'f' = n.11\'f' = l\"1,f,9° = 00:FA = .eirc:n:l'A == .e_u = I\. 111 = \1°1..1'le&= (l,f·ft.e,9°: ,...P.�1 : hoY• .,<1\1l& : �c�-: 0,:,-: P'/.\'fJ1 : O'\.e I rli � : m1j!ftorf": 1\9°/}t\, : <f>.�'l° : f c�GOe&: \1m1;€.A : hit : OmGPr : �c�·: n.:,-: l\,;J'J!,: fOJJ.l.-A: '11.(>:: {le&: 011:,. : f I\ : ,'h°I : ODm<f>9° 1 1i·'i ,. o�.I\ : nhch.;.: m•il'f' = lOmGPr = �c.� = n.:,.. = l\,:J--.e = f°1..1'1e& = \1t\,rfi�:,. 1 h{l : n�'i = n.1'ai, i'tlP&-�· = n,-1.u = aoAh = lll\ i� = �m- :,

- 119 -

{/IJ

ai, f

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1 o ':t=llOtD4 : J-ifL,f:;I' : ftf4>C1l : till: ilt\01/J!,4>C-O' : · -o ,f• : : U1e1" : i'1.f,'J7,9° :: ',a>•:: ,f-unftl}J!, : f.."}{l':,f : °11 : J'i{llf�lD•1 : 'Lit flt\,{\ "" ;J = i't:,,t• fl.,:,. : r''11..f i'lhittrc; = fLi: : n it 1: 9°h 1,r 1: 9° 9°19° : w11. rr, = "lA C101/'i':flD·9° : m!l:D'f.. : f 01..filhil(l• : ,f•{lt\lD• : flt\ �'I° : (Jllt;:t,w•r : m1�eA : 9°'}9° : hi\J!, : (L ;I--J!, : f"lA: (lro« : ov,n:,-1 : fd1.,',i1 : "fi·'f : 0..1�9'° � ID1lA: f &..ion : (lllJ4: lj.�: C1'�i\k'1T: uomf:,JI: f'1t'fCfl:,-: t\m1't\t\lD• : OTJ��n�'e: ).(!' : 'l':,,9° : (L(]/;\ : (lon"fl). : ',ro•:: C1Ittf.2§: '¼: 9°: ftt.. :i•r-kf: m11.ll�: {JD:,l'�: ,1,°l: P''l: Fco:1-.: f,f•f.

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1

PROSECUTING CRIMINAL OFFENCES PUN·ISHABLE ONLY UPON PRIVATE COMPLAINT

by Pl1ilippe Grave11 Ministry of Jt1stice 1 of tl1e Ethiopia11 Penal Code of 1957 states that ''the purpose of criminal A.\rticle . to la\V 1s enst1re order, peace a .nd tl1e security of the State and its inhabitants for the public­ �ood.'' The Code acl1ie_ �es_ this purpose �y laying down prohibitions from actin.g or obliga t1ons to act whene�er 1t 1s �n �l1e general 111terest that one should act or refrain from acting. :'7hosoever comID1ts a cr1mi11al offence by disregarding these prohibitions or obligations 1s answerable, therefore, to tl1e community. Hence the principle that criminal offences are prosecuted and punished, on behalf of the public, by the State acting as th.e agent of the citizens. There are offences, however, which do not jeopardize the order, peace and security of the State and its inhabitants but are contrary solely to the rights of a given individual. Tl1ese are offences of a purely private or personal character, the effect of which does not extend beyond tl1e individual thereby injured. In such cases, the State, thou.gh it is generally responsible for instituting criminal proceedings whether or not the victim or the offence agrees thereto, will not carry out this duty unless the victim indicates ,fRrmatively that be wants the offender to be prosecuted.

The prior consent of the injured party is required, firstly, because public interests are not at stake as the offence does not enda.nger the society at large: :tnd secondly, be­ cause the institution of proceedings, against the will of the injured party, might ofteo be more harmful to him than the commission of the offence, for it might draw the atten­ tion of society to certain facts, such as his spouse's unfaithfulness or his child's dishonesty, which are precisely what he does not want known publicly. In these situ.ations, th.e insti­ tution of criminal proceedings is conditional upon a complaint first being made by the individual concerned. 1 Where he makes a request to this effect, the State then acts, not on behalf of the public, but as the custodian of his rights for the purpose of prosecution and punishment insofar as this is possible. This raises two questions: which are these offences so punishable on complaint and what are tl1e effects of such a complaint being made.

The Penal Code does not specifically set out a complete list of offences punishable only on complaint and Article 217 confines itself to making reference to the Special Part of the Code or any otl1er law defining ''offences of a predominantly natt1re whicl1 cannot be prosecuted except 11pon a formal accusation or request, or a complaint in the strict se11se of the term, of the aggrieved party or those claiming under him.''

Many provisions in the Special Part of the Penal Code prescribe that ''Whosoever ... is punishable, o11 complaint, with.... " These are Articles 388 (2) (destruction of docun1ents belong ing to a relative); 407 (breach of professional secrecy); 409 (disclosure of scientific, I. The word ''con1plaint'' as used in the Penal and Criminal rocedure Codes 1 ans a r qu st, by he _ �7 � � � _ ,: _ injured party or those having rights from him, which is �n essent1�l condition � et� mg _ 1n motion the public prosecution'' (Article 216 of the Penal Code). This �ompla1nt n1u�t b7 df1�tingu1sl1ed fro 11 an ''accusation'' which may be made by anyone. and whicl1, like a � on1pla1_nt, � s 1n _the nature <?f an information'' (ibid.), but, unlike a complaint, is ''i:nerely_ the occasion s etting 10 f!10�1on the public prosecution'' (ibid.). TI1is distinction is clearly macle 1n Articles 11 and 13 of _ the Crun1nal Proce_du;; Code dealing respectively with ''accusation in general'' and ,, offe. nces punishable on complaint

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VOL. W A L N IA P IO J-I T E JOURNAL OF

II - No. 1

1 ry .no t i n aggravati11 g circ n jt i t1l . ilf w .t1.ad e secrets) ,. 539 (I ) (comm .

1 1 o . um · • or 111 dt1str1al · 552. .(i 11 t·imi'dat1o (assat1lt) · ' · ' 544 · ; ) ce 1 ei lig eg n): 1 1 by ed us ca ry ju irt on 11 1 om (c ) ct r (3 3 ; 54 s) sta11ce 2 s s O ec 1 er o1 1 w ); p of on 56 t� ) va ri ep (d � � (I 5 � 55 ); ce ra sg di or 1 1 io . at 1s _ freedom t worl<), 57 _ 553 (tl1r�at of acct of ll� ri � i (v 1e t1 of � ola­ n � tio la io (v 0 _ 57 ); ild ch a g 1 ti1 1c (asce11dant abd1 1 at all offei ces aga inst tl g 111 ? rI sc re (p 7 58 the � . tion of tJ,e pri,,acy of corresJJO n.de11 ce); 11 d J8) , 59� (sex 6 27 6, 25 s le 1 rt A , er e, ,v 11 � ual e, � _; l1011011r are pu1tisJ1 able on co1nplai11t; se ? : . oi1 cti du 2 (se 61 �, 6 ( 59 1 11decent , ss) tre dis 1n n me wo t ns 1 a g a. ce offences witbot1 t violen 625 (fa1 I:1 re to � 1a intain ); ery 11lt ad 8 61 � e); ag rri ma 11 i t cei de a 1d 1 d _ _ _ publicity); 614 (frat1 com n 11 tted �1th111 the ty e op pr st a1 ag ces : e11 off t all � tha g n bi cri ( Jres 01 1e 's fa1nily); 629 J n ce or coercion); 632 le vio lve o ID:v t 11o do y the if n t lai mp co n ble o ha nis fa.1nily are pu . ( t1 i1Ja.wful use of the 644 11); t10 r1a rop pp isa (m 643 ); 11ed o,v y gs n ntl joi io1 thi act of 1 (abstr ; 649 ( �ama�e to proJ)erty JJroperty of a11other); 645 (nusappropriation of lost property) _ ca11sed by herds); 650 (I) ( disturba11ce of _possession n ot 111 aggravatin g c1rc t1 mstances); 653 (dama.ge to property i n aggravati11g circumstan ces);. 661_ (fraudt1 Ie1 1� exploitation of pt1blic credt1lity); 665 (in citen1 ent to speculation); 666 (1 n c1teme11t of minors to carry 011 t prej11dicial transaction.s); 671-676 (offen ces again st i11ta11gible rights); 680 (frat1dulent i11.solve11 cy); 68 I (irreg11lar bankru1Jtcy) and 721 (I) (a) (IJetty offe11ces of a private nature). 4 W.l1euever an offence is committed i11 violation of an y of tl1e above-mentioned pro­ visio1 1s, no actio11 may be taken except at the injtiative of tl1e person qualified t111der the law for 1 11aki 1 1g tl1e 11ecessary co1 nplain t. 5 If t11e offe11ce is a flagrant one, tl1e offender may n ot, it see11 1s, be arrested ,vithout a warran t 11nless a complai n t is first rnade. Artjc!e 21 of tl1e Crin1i11 al Procedure Code states (I) tl1at, in cases of flagran t or quasi-flagrant offences, proceedi11gs n1ay be i1 1stituted witl1out a11 accusation or complai n t (in the ge1 1eral se11se of informatio11) being 1nade, t1 r1less the offence is pt1nishable 01 1 compla.int (i11 the tecl111ical se11se of the ter111) a11d (2) tl1at tl1 e offe11 der may in sucl1 cases be arrested ,vith011t a warra11t i11. accordan ce witl1 Articles 49 ff . It may be arg11ed tl1at s11b-article (2) deal­ i n g ,vitl1 arrest is as ge11eral as it could be and that 11ad it been i n ten ded to prohibit an arrest witho11 t a warrant from bei11 g made ,vl1en tl1 e flagrant or qt1asi-flagrant offence is pun.ishable 011 complaint, this JJroJ1ibition would have been express})' laid do\.vn in st1b-article (2) or, like the prohibition from instituting proceedings, in s11b-article (I) of tl1e said Article 21 . There are, ho\.vever, a n umber of reaso11s wlticl1 militate to,vards ,t different construction of this Article . Firstly, it is debatable a.s to \vhether tl1e ,vords ''in st1cl1 cases'' apJJearing in sub-article (2) are meant to refer to all cases of flagrant and qt1asi-�agra11t offences _ or _o nly to those where proceedi11gs may be instittited 'rvithout an acct1sat1? n or c�mpla1nt bei1 1g made, i.e. , all cases \.vhere the offe11 ce is 1 1ot pu11isl1abl e ? 11 co _n 1pla1�t (strzcto se11su). Seco11dly, whe11 a flagrant offe11ce is committed, justic e 1s set 111 motion by tl1e mere fact of the arrest; to allow a n arrest wit]1out a \\'arrant \.vhe n the offe11ce is punisl1able o n complain t wo11ld ·be incon siste nt witl1 tl1 e pri11ciple that it.

2. If the offence i? c omn1itted in ag¥ravating circun1stances, as d efined i ii A rticle 561, no con1plaint sh ould be required (altho11gh A rticle 561 does not expressly s o pr ovide ) O\ving to the seriou sness o f the punishment that n1ay then be order ed ( rigorous imp risonment not exce eding five y ears).

3. If the offence i? committed in ag'?ravating ci rcumstances, as defined in Article 598, no con1pl ai�t should. be r equ! red �although Article 598 does not exp ressly so p rovide) 1s t n1en pun isJ1 · t]l e e sinc ' then r igorous 1n1pr1sonment not exceeding ten years.

4. Althougl1 A rticle � 21 i� very general, it would app ear that only ffen icl es 778, 78?, 794, 796-798, 805 (if private _pr operty), 806, 807, 810, 812 and 81 o ces under Artfall ,vithin tlus of 3 th e Penal Code cate�ory. As for th e co plamt required by Ar ticle 21 (1) (b) of th e Penal Code; see note 12 infr�i:r1 7 _ _ 5. If th1s offence 1s �on1m1tted together \Vith another offence hc n ot punishable on coniplaint ' t11e pub p rosecutor may, m the absence of a complaint' pros e not . niay cute He only r fo nce. tl1 e e latte off r . d iscl ose that anotl1er offence · has · been c omn11tte d nor ma y th e c o11r•t ·increas e ti 1 e sent ene·e on th t ground of concurrence of offences s th h h ' accus oun d · e·d had also be en charg ed with, and fi guilty of, th e ofef nce punisllable ;� coC:.::;lai�t� 0

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PROSECUTING CRIMINAL OFFENCES PUNlSI·fABLE ONLY UPON PRIVATE COMPLAINT

is .for the irljured p �rty to set justice �11 motio11. Thirdly, 011e of tl1 e purposes of a11 arrest w1tl1out a warrant 111 flagrant cases 1s to preve11t ·public order fro 1 n beino- disturbed or further dis�urbed; yet, h � who is about to commit or is com111 itti11g an offe�ce punishable 011 complaint does not disturb pt 1 blic order. Finally, to permit a11 arrest withot1t a warrant "vhen the :flagrant or q11asi-:flag1·ant offe11 ce is p1111jsl1able 0 11 com1)laint would as often as 11ot rest 1lt i11 de [e�ting one of tl1e n1ain IJ·urposes of tl1 e complaint, tl1at is, to avoid sca11dal when the 1nJ11red party does 11ot \Vant certai11 thin.gs k11own. Tl1is is probably tl1e strongest argun1e11.t against taki11g tl1 e said Article 21 to mean that sucl1 a11 arrest is permitted. It is u11desirable, to say tl1 e least, that a11 y one, whetl1er a n1ember of tl1e police or a private person (see Article 50 of tl1e Cri1ni11al Proced1 1 re Code) sl1ould be en­ titled, for instance, to grab by tl1e 11eck and brin.g to tl1 e nearest police statio11, cora,11 populo, two persons he finds i11 the act of comm_itti11g adt1 ltery. It seems that an arrest sl1ould not be n1ade i11 sucl1 a case except by, or at the 1·equest of, the irijt1red spouse.

For obviot1 s reasons of convenience, tl1e co.mplaint should then ·be made orally to t .he police, and not in writing as reqt1ired by Article 14 of tl1e Crimi11al Procedure Code, so that tl1e arrest, if to be made by tl1e police, ma.y be · made forthwith. TJ1is oral complaint should thereafter be confirmed in. writing.

It mt1st be clear that the sole purpose a11d effect of tl1e complaint is to enable the pi1blic prosecutor to institt1te proceedings. It n1ay not be held that offences punishable on complaint are offences whlcl1 n1ay be prosecuted only by the i 11jured party. The second paragraph of Article 217 of the Penal Code states that ''this form of ... complaint upon which... tl1e bringing of the pitblic actio11 depends .... " TJ1 e bringing of the public action obviously means the instit11tion of proceedi11gs by the public prosecutor. It is quite true, as will be seen later, that a private J)rosecution may be i11stit·uted with regard to offences punishable on complaint, but this is permissible 011ly after the p11blic prosecutor has found himself unable to carry ou.t Iris d11ty to institute proceedi11gs as he is bound by Articles 216 of the Penal Code and 40 of tl1e Criminal Procedl1re Code to do whenever any breach of the law occurs. As 11 oted above, the pl1blic prosecutor will act a.s custodian of the injured party's rights insofar as is possible; only when this is not possible may the inju.red party substitute himself for tl1 e prosecutor.

Regarding the manner in whicl1 offences purrishable on complaint are to ·be pro­ secuted, tl1e Penal Code and the Criminal Procedure Code m11st be read togetl1er. Thus, the person or persons against whom an offence punisha.ble on complai.nt has been con1m.itted may set justice in motion by making a complaint in accordance with Articles 220 of the Penal Code and 13 ff. of the Criminal Procedt1re Code t1nless the offender is a juverule, in which case the provisions of Article 172 of tl1e Crimi11 al Procedt1 re Code w·ill apply. 6 TI1 e question as to who is qualified to file a complaint is resolved by Art�cles 218 and 219 of tl1 e Penal Code. It must be noted, 110\vever, that the ge 11eral r11les contained in the latter Articles are sometimes departed from i11 tl1e Special Part of tl1e Penal Code.

In cases of ad11ltery, for instance, tl1e right of complaint does not pass to tl1e next-of­ kin (Article 619), contrary to what is provided for· by Article 218.

T·he complai 1 1t must be made within tl1ree mon.ths of the injured J)arty's k11owledge of the offence (as a complaint may, according to AI·ticle 15 of the Crimi�al Procedure Code, be made against a n · . 1111know11 offender) or that of tl1e offe11der (Article 220 of tl1 e Pe11al 6. Purst1ant to the rttle of indivisibility (Article 222 Penal Code), i� several JJersons are involved in the _ 1 commission of one and the same offence pt1nishable on complamt, � l1ey v. 111 all b� prosecute_d even thougl1 the complaint is made witl1 regard to only some_ of then1; 1f tl1e offence 1s_ not pun1sl1a_ ble on complaint but some participants cannot be prosec11ted 1n the absence of a con1pla1nt (e.g., Article 629 (2) Penal Cocle), tl1e rt1le of indivisibility does not apply.

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VOL. W A L N IA P IO l I· T E F O JOURNAL

II - No. l

t� s b gji1s to ru11 oi ee m l d io er p _ is �h at tl1 ar cle � � ;� ( ) ; � ; Code), 11nless tl1e la\v itself makes it 0 1 2 _e1 1al Code.

1. a1 9 �9 s l� 1c rt A er 1d u1 � se ca e tl1 is as from a different date, ld a� he be. i�ovided for by l! wi n. io at 1g st ve i11 e lic po a e, ad � n1 en be s After a com.plai11t l1a e o� in .th g ld of tl�e poli ce, fit 1 ii er id s 11_ co r ft� A . de Co e ur ed oc Pr al i11 im e Cr Articles 22 ff. of tl1 e , bl ses �1� 10 ca est 9u ll \VI in ns 1o at _ei�her tig es i11v .

1er rtl fu g rin de , or or t1t ec the public pros 39 le tic of tl1e _Cr11n1n al i 1 (A o1 1 s 1 cde ble ala pe ap un a11 t11 wi n file tio iga est e i11v lic close the po 11s ,vl1y proceed111gs ma y so rea are re tl1e s les un s i11g eed oc pr Procedure Code) or i11stit11te . de) Co 1e san 11ot or can11ot be .instituted (Article 42 of tl1e When tl1e p11blic prosec11tor instit11tes proceed�11gs witl1 respect to a 1 1 o�e11ce_ p11nish­ able 011 con1plai.n.t, the ordinary provisions regard111g tl1e cl1arge a11� tl1e trial will apply (Articles 94 ff. of tl1e Criminal Proced11.re Code) or, w]1ere a,1)propr1ate, tl1ose regard ing petty offe11ces. (Articles 167-170 of tl1c sa111e Code). 7 H:owever, as tl1e p11blic _prosec11tor J)rosecutes or1ly beca11se tl1e_ ir1jured JJarty has expressly requested hi111 to do so, it follows tl1at, \Vl1ere the co1�pla111a11t �eclares that l1e 110 loL1ger ,:vants the offe11der to be prosecuted, i.e., vvl1ere l1e w1tl1draws his complaint as l1e is e11titled. to do tinder A.rticle 221 of tl1e Pena.I Code, tl1e I)Ll blic prosecutor is compelled to \Vill1dravv the cl1arge. 8 Tl1e accused. n1ay not, as a rule, object to such ,vitl1dra\val and de1nand tl1at tl1e case sl1ot1ld be carried forward. 9 ( Wl1ere, for reaso11s whic]1 are to be given in \Vriting to tl1e injured J?arty Article 43 of tl1e Crimi11al Procedure Code) i11 tl1e 111an11er prescribed by Form V in tl1e Third Scl1edt1le to tl1e said Code, the public prosect1tor ref11ses to i11stitt1te proceedi11gs ,vith respect to an offence pt1nis}1able 011. con1J)lai11t, proceedi11gs may no11etl1eless be i11stitut­ ed, dependin.g on tl1e reasons upo11 wl1icl1 tl1is refusal is based. If the p11blic prosecutor refuses to prosecute for a11y of the reaso11s set out in Aricle 42 (1) (b) - (d) of 7. Accor d in g to Articles 100 of t he Pen al Code a11d 154-159 of the Criminal Procedur e Co de, tl,e injured party 1nay then apply for pem1ission to joi n in tl1e c riminal pr oceed ings with the vie\V of merely claim­ ing compensation fo r the da n 1age arising out of the offence. See Graven, Joinder of Criminal and Civil Pr ocee di n gs, I Jour n al of Ethiopian Law 135 (1964).

8. Althougl1 this case is not specifically dealt witl1 in the Crimin al Procedure Code, it should be clear that Article 122 of the said Code is inapplicable. If the con1plaint is withdrawn at any time before judgn1e nt, the procee d ings n1ust be discontinued and th e public prosecutor n1ust, therefore, with­ draw the charge whether or n ot the court agrees th ereto. The situation is the n t h e same as if no con1• plain t had been origi nally made. Con seque ntly, as is JJ rovide d by Article 217 of the Penal Code, the c_o� r t has no po,ver t o try the <;>ff�nce and no p enalty n1ay be in1posed. Without prejudice t o the provisions of Article _141 �f tl:e Cr1mmal Procedure Code, an or der for tl1e discharge of tl1e accused ought �o be made which will, ! n fact, amount to an acquittal si11ce a new con,plain t n1ay not be made r ega�d1ng �he sam e facts (Article 221 of the Pe nal Cod e). Anot}1er insta n ce wher e proce edings n1ust . b e d1scont1nued as a matter of righ t, though on diffe rent grounds, m ay be found in Article 619 of the Penal Cod e (deatl1 of injtlfed party in adulte ry cases).

9. Th is is_ with out prejudice to the provisions of th e last paragraph of A rticle 222 of t11e .Penal Code, according to w�1cl1 _ the _accused may "i�sist on being tried'' but o nly when he is charged ,vith others a1:d the con 1pla1n t 1s w�th�rawn regardmg only part of the accused persons. Nothing, ho,vever, �er· n1;1 ts one to s ay that th1� 1s a general rule that m ay be i n vokecl even \Vhen o n ly o n e person is be1:ng tried for an offe�ce punisl1ab_Je o n com plaint. It is regrettable tJ,at the accused ca n not al,vays requi _re that th e pr o�e � ding� b e continued so that he be foun d not gt1ilty and acquitted inste ad of being dis· charge d. This 1� of i mportance in view o� Article 441 of tl1e Penal Code unless wl 1ich cloes n ot appl y t�1e p�rson against \vhom a false accusatio n l1as b een n1ade is fouiid nne c· to inn n t. I n this co be oce tion, it should be _h eld t hat, for the purposes of tl1e said Article person 10 the of 441 , disc the l1nr ge ,vl1 0!11 � he c�mplaint relates ha� the sam e e�ect a� �n acquitt al, as has been suggested i n note 8 supr a.

A 8_1m l r vie:" may be foun . d tn the Recuerl off1c1el des arrets (/u Tribunal federal suisse 72 JV 74 _or } � ; ohu, na. c.esh T,;blunahux 1946 IV 184.) If th is were n ot so, the con n 1 plainant could wit hcfra,v bis con1pla1 t w enever e 1e t t at the accused would be acqui'tte f d n d 1 1e wot1ld tl1en escape tl1e app1·1ca t1' on od · a • . groun · appr opriate cases, on tJ1e A f l 441' in d tl1at tecl1 nically speaking the accused ,vas not foun i����:t.

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I

PROSECUTING CRIMINA'L OFFENCES PUNISFIABLE ONLY tJPON PRIVATE COMPLAINT

the �rin1inal Procedure_ Co�e, 1?s refusal is final (as it is, also, whe11 tl1e offence is not pur �shable on �o�pla1nt). But 1t tl1e prosecutor reft1ses to i11stit11te proceedings because l1e 1s o � tl1 e �p1mo11 tl1at tl1e1:e 1s 11 �t st1fficient evide11ce to justify a convictio11, that is, he �onsiders In accorda11ce w1tl1 Article 42 (I) (a) of tl1e Crin1i11al Procedure Code tl1at lie 1s unable to P!·ove �hat the offet :d er is gttilty of tl1 e offe11ce to wl1ich the con1plaint _ relates, a remedy IS available to tl1e II1Jllred party. Wl1at tl1e.n is tl1e nature of this retnedy and wl1at are its effects?

The re111�dy co11sists of providi11g the injured party with a certificate specifyi11g tl1e offe11ce to wl11cl1 tl1e reft1sal relates, stati11g that _p11blic proceedi11gs will not be instit11ted. witl1 regar � to sucl1 offe11ce, and a11tl1orisi11g tl1e i11j11red _party to co11duct a private pro­ _ secution ."v1th respect t1 1ereto _ (Article 44 (1) of tl1e Criminal Proced11re Code) at I1is peril a11d at his o�n expen�e (Articles 46 a11d 221 of the same Code). 1 0 A copy of the certifi­ cate, for which there 1s 1111fort11nately 110 forn1 i11 the Tl1ird Schedule to the Cri1ninal Pro­ cedure Code,. \vill b � se11t to the co11rt l1avi11g jurisdiction, e11abli11g it to ascert,1in, in accorda11 �e w1tl1 Article 150 (2) of tl1e Cri1ni11al Proced11re Code, that t] 1e offence charged by the private prosec11tor actually is tl1e offe11ce i11 respect of wluch I1e l1as been authorized, t111der the certificate, to i11stitute private proceedi11gs. 1 1 The q11estio11 1nay be asked whether the certificate is to be at1tornatically issued upon the public prosecutor's reft1sa.l to prosecute, in whic]1 case it ougl1t to be attached to the copy of the decision se11t to the i11jured party in accorda11ce with Article 43 (2) of the Criminal Procedure Code, or whether it is issued 011ly at tl1e request of the i11j1rred party, i11 whicl1 case tl1is reqt1est ougl1t presumably to be made within the same per.iod of time as an appeal under Article 44 (2) of the said Code. Althougl1 the law makes no specific provision 011 tlus poi11t, the first solution sl1ould prevail. Since tl1e public prose­ cutor may, in no case, object to tl1e instit11tio11 of private proceedings a·fter 11e has decline.d to prosecute 011 t11e ground of lack of evidence, it is of little importa.nce whetl1er the certi1icate is issued at1tomatically or on application. Tl1is bei11g so, tl1e more convenient _practice of giving the certificate imn1ediately, regardless of whetl1er the i11j11red parry intends to make use of it, ought to be fallowed.

Another questio11 is whetl1er, as of tl1e tin1e tl1at he has been iss11ed a certificate, the private complaina11t may exercise all the rights wl1ich the pt1blic prosecutor wot1ld have in public proceedi11gs. Altl1ough a provision like Article 153 (1) of the Crimi11al 10. Where the public prosecutor refuses, on the ground of insufficiency of evidence, to institute proceed­ ings with respect to an offence wh.icl1 is not pt1nishable on complaint, a different re111edy is available to the injured party. He may not be authorized to conduct a private prose<:ution but he 1nay, in ac­ cordance with Article 44 (2) of tl1e Crin1inal Procedure Code, app�al �ga1nst tl1� refusal a_nd seek an order to the effect that tl1e public prosecutor be con1r,elled to 1nst1tute public proceedings. As this order is sot1ght from the cot1rt that wot1ld l1ave appellate jurisdiction if proceedings were insci­ tuted, it follows that should proceedings be i�stituted by order of tl1at cot1r_t and _ t he case con1e be­ fore the said court on appeal, the judges having made su�h ?rder sl1ottld d1sgual1f � tl1emselves �nd not sit on the appeal, for as a rule a judge may not act twice 1n the sa1ne case 1n a different capacity.

11. Since the certificate may be issued only in cases of insufficiency of evidence, it may_ l1appen that there be doubts as to the nature of the offence com1nitted. There should tl1en be nothing to prevent the private prose.cutor from framing a charge containing alternative cot1nts t1nder _Article 113 (I) of _the Crimin al Procedure Code, provided that the offences tht1s cl1ar?ed are all purusha1:">le on �ompl� 1nt.

Consequently, the certificate shoulcl not be too restrictive re�ard1ng the offences aga1nst_ wh1cl1 private proceedings ma y be instituted, ancl the pt1blic _prosect1tor _migl1_t well allow tl1e compla1�ant to cl1arge the offender wit h common wilful injt1ry not 1n aggravating circumstances, un�er Article 539 (1)_ of the Penal Code, and, in the alternative, witl1 comn1on injury ca��ed by neg}1gence, uncler Art1cl_e ­ ) Cri the ( of 113 of icle Art ons visi pro tl e 1 � at t r, eve I1ow � ar, 43 cle be st roti It (3 de. _ . ) of tl1e same Co 5 rve sib1 tl1e pos l1ty of framminal Procedure Code wil l apply even thot1gh the certificate does not rese ini? alternative cl1arges.

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JOURNAL OF ETI-IlOPIAN

LAw _ VoL. II - No. 1

s ee111s 1nore reas it e, iv at 111 ilr af e tl1 . in . er ona ble Procedur e code,. v,1otil d induce o11e t o a11sw. ct sele to tI1 e court bav1• er po\v the Y ·I ai 1 u r tic pa d 1 a1 , rs e 11g t o cor1sider tl1at certai n po w . . o r eve 11 tJ1ot1gl1 h e does 1 1ot p t1t ec os pr ic bl J)u . e tll rose by · . d e .· on. , 1.e . t . d1ctJ local r1s e wl1ere tl1e offe 1 1ce pt1 1us l1able o1 1 coin. c pla tl1e o �� t as s � ise a r u� {� d� a reaso11 e ct 1t .

C o de), it sl1oul d i1o b� e t1r ed oc Pr l i11a irn Cr tbe f ? · -o · {o t · IJla1�1 1t· .wa.s coinm�tte d (s ee A�ticle · ' ised exerc y 1 ·mall o b 1 1 is 1. · tl 1c 1 1 I e w . , l · a tri Y . of e J JJUblic l1eld tl1at tl1e power t o clirect tl1e pl,1c . · e , pa ses t? t_J1e P1 1vate p od C _ id sa e tl1 of 7 10 le tic Ar th wi r e c 0• prosecutor ir1 accorda11 � J _ 1at, 1 11 st 1cl1 a cas tl d !1e be 1 l1e rat t1ld sl1o rt 1 1 o i e, the ft1s 1 .

1 co se cau t 1 J n secLIt or, for tl1is 1jo0 . . o tl1e c Olli·t 1·11 \:vh · t as de I e d t e, c� 1 ·fi ti cer tl1e 1g 1 u1 1ss t r o o 1ch pri t, n 1us public JJrosecut o r � . . . e r fo1 tl1e e, , to_ gl1t u o_ be i11ent1oncd t1rt o c 1 cl1 st n a . d , e t l 1e co1 11 [Jlai11ant wil l file l1is cl1arg i1 1 tl1e certifica te . This i nterpretation is co11 firmed by Article 44 (1) of tl1e said _Code \-VJ1ich, as l1as been seet1, compels the public prosect1t or to se11d a copy �f t1:e �er_t1fi_cate to the court I1 avii1g jt1risdictio11, whicl1 tern1 does no t n1ean on ly mater1al Jltr1 sd1c�101� �ut i11 • elu des personal and l ocal jL1risdictio11, also. Sl1 ot 1ld several c o_urts �ave loc�l J_ur1s d1ction . tl1e public prosecutor would clearly be u 11a·ble to c omply :V1 th tl11s dt1ty_ 1 f 1t were no{ f or l1e and. l1e alo11e to decide ir1 wl1icl1 of tl1ese courts tl1e pr1,,ate prosec11t 1on v\1o uld have t o be c o11ducted .

Tl1 e effect of a certificate l1aving bee1 1 isst1 eci is tl1,1t tl1e i njt1red par ty or l1is representa­ t ive, as defi11e d i n Article 47 of the Criminal Proced t1 re C ode, may i11stitt1 te pr oceedings i11 tl1e court n1e 11tioned i11 tl1e certificate. I-le vvill fran1e a c11arge, 1 2 a.nd tl1e case \vill then proceed i n accordance vvitl1 tl1e pr ovisio11s of Article 150-153 of t 11e Crin1inal Procedure Code. I 3 It will be not ed tl1a.t eve11 in these ca ses t l1e i11jt1red party 1nay apJ)ly to be allo\-ved to clai1n co111pe11sati on \vl1ile at tl1e same timt. co 11dL1cti11g tl1e prosec11tion (Article 154 (3) of tl1e Crin1i na1 Procedure Code), 14 Lrnless tl1e acct1sed is a jt1venile (Article 155 (I) (�t) of the. same C ode) .

Tl1e above expla11atio11s are \vitl1out prejudice t o th e provisi o11 s of Artic le 48 of the Cri 11Lir1al : Proceclure Code, accor di11g to wl1icl1 a JJrivate J)rosect1tio11 may be stayed at a11y stage tl1 ereof at t he reqties t of the pL1blic JJrosect1t o r, if i t a.ppears i 11 the co11 rse of such JJrosect1 tio11 tJ1 at tl1e accL1 sed co1111njtted a n1 ore serious offe1 1ce tJ1a11 tl1 at for which tl1e certificate l1ad been issued t111der Artic le 44 (I) of tl1 e said Code. A 11 example would 12. 1-\ccording to Article 108 (I) of the Cr in1inal Procedu re Code, no c h arge nee d be fran1ed \Vhen the prose cution r elate s to a petty offence, in w11ich case th e provisions of Articles 167-170 of lhe said Code a re applicabl e . In connection with petty offe nces, a pec uliar sit uation arises u nder Article 721 (I) (b) of th e Penal Code , w hi.ch 1,rescribes that br eache s of su b si diar)' l egislation are prosecut ::d upon a complaint b eing n1ade by th e duly authorize d repre sentative of the Gov en1n1e nt Agency t rans acting t11e busin ess specified in th e la\.v whicl1 has been violated . Although one 111ay be inclin ed to think that a con1plaint should be d ispensed \Vith, for tl1ese are not offe1 1ces of a private natur�, the purpose of this require1nent may b e to avoid tl1e p ublic prosecutor's instit uting proceedings 1.0 cas es :,vhere,_ uncl �r the law wh icl1 has been violate d, a s ettl en1ent may be e ffected (e.g., customs cases). _ But d1fficult1es will occur \.Vl1en, a con1pla1n t ha�ing been made, the p ublic pro secutor ref uses to p ro· _ se�ut� on th e g ro11n d of lack of evi denc e , for , if a certificate were isstied under Article 44 (1) of �he Cr1m1nal Procedure Code, one co uld hardly speak of a private prosecution s the re presentative ince of the Agency concerne� wo uld prose7ute on ?ehalf of the State. This is why n ay be advisable it 1 _ to hol d that th � complaint refe!re d to 1n t11e said A.rt1cl e 721 (1) (b) is not a co111plaii1t srricto sensu , b ut a_n accu sat1011. Case� of tl1is nature �hottld , therefo re, be subje ct to ie rul es regarding the pro· tl sec ut10� of offenc es � 11ich are not p11rushable on complaint and a ref u sal to prosectite should be dealt w1tl1 u nder Article 44 (2) of the Crimina l Procedure Code.

13. Accor ding to Artic_le 166 of the _ Cri�ninal Pro:ed�1. re Cod e, the he abs en�e cas e t rna in y ed no r t e oc p of the ac_cused. T�1 1�, however, 1s wi�bout preJu�1ce to t1 1 e provisions of Ar tic le 17 0 (4) of the said �ode_ ,;vhich perm1� J udgme�t to be given f orth\.v1tl1 if the accu se s ed fails t o appear witl1o ut good cau 1n pr1_vate procee dings relattng to a petty offence. The wi s doin of the lat ear to be ap p uld ter ru w le o · ' questionable .

14. Regarding the _trial of t�e civil claim and th e effects · of a withdrawal of complaint, convic tion, dis charge or acqu 1ttal (Ar ticles 157-159 of the C'rimin al Procedure Code) see ot1r art'1c1e qu oted at note 7 supra.

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r \

PROSECUTING CRIMINAL OFFENCES PUNISI-IABLE ONLY UPON PRIVATE COMPLAINT

be if tl1e certificate were issued witl1 regard to an offe11ce under Article 644 of the Pei,al a!1d it were disclosed dt1ring tl1e tri,ll t11at of anotl1er) Code (unlawft1l use of the property _ _ _ the accused actually I1ad tl1e 1nte11t1on of obta1n111g an u11lawft1l e 1 1ricl1me11t and sJ1ould tl1erefore, l1ave been cl1arged vvitl1 a11 offe11 ce of tl1eft i 1 1 violation of Article 630 of th� Penal Code. 1 5 111 this respect, it _ must be clear tl1at a stay of proceedi11gs sl1ould not be ordered wl1enever 11ew ev1de 11ce 1s prodt1ced a11d tl1e pt1blic prosecutor declares that had l1e _k11own_ sucl1 evid �11ce before, l1e would 1 1ot l1ave reft1sed to IJrosecute 011 tl1e gro1111d of 1 1 1s·uffic1ency of ev1�e11ce bt1t \Vot1ld l1i1nse.lf }1ave i11stit·uted IJublic proceedi 11 gs. It seems t]1at a stay of proceedings sl1ot1ld be ordered 011ly wl1e1 1 it appears tl1at tl1e offe11ce actuallv comn1itted is st1cl1 tl1at tl1e pt1blic prosect1tor could, i11 110 case, l1ave issued a certificate u11der Arti�le 44 ( 1) of tl1e Cri11�11al P �·ocedure Code beca11se tl1is offence is not JJunis/1able on co1npla111t. Altl1011gh tl1e said A1:t1cle 48 cloes not expressly so provide, 011e sho11ld consider that after a certificate l1as bee11 iss11ed, tl1e p11blic prosecutor n1ay not i11terfere i11 private proceedi11gs 1111less tl1e case clearly is not 011e ir1 which only private i11terests are i11volved .-

CONCLUSION These are the general rules to be followed wl1e11 a11 offence is comn1itted that can 1 1ot be tried except upon tl1e request of the person wl1ose rigl1ts or interests l1ave been affected by tl1e offence. Similar 1·ules will seldom be fo11nd in other cot111tries for, althougl1 man.y foreign laws provide for offe11ces pu111sl1able 011 complaint, few of them autho1·ize the institution of private proceedi11gs, as this is deemed contrary to tl1e principle that prosecu­ tion and pu1tisl1ID.ent are not a11 individual but a collective concern and that a perso11 \vho com·mits a criminal offence is ans,verable to tl1e com.m11nity, regardless of tl1e fact that only one member thereof has been i11jured.

The system laid down i11 tl1e Ethio1Jian Crimi11al Procedure Code of 1961 is much more restrictive, and rigl1tfully so, than tl1e 011e which existed previo11sly. According to Section 9 of the Public Prosecutors Proclamation No. 29 of 1942, imp]jedly repealed by the Criminal Procedure Code, whe11 a criminal case was not conducted by the pt1blic prosecutor, the court was bou11 d to permit the i1 1jured party to co11duct the prosect1tio11 either perso11 ally or by an advocate, irrespective of tl1e nature or seriot1sness of tl1e offe11ce or of tl1e reasons why tl1e p11blic prosec11tor did not prosecute. This provisio11, whicl1 so e·mphatically stressed the importance of tl1e part traditionally played by the injt1red party in criminal proceedings, resulted i11 disregardi11g tl1e f11ndamen.tal differences that exist between civil and criminal liability a11d proced11re, as did also the now abolisl1ed practice of avoiding certai11 cri1ninal prosect1tio11s by paying blood money. It is only · e clearly made today in tl1e provisions of tl1e respective proper that this difference should b Penal a11 d Criminal Procedure Codes relating to offences pt1nishable on complaint.

15. Article 48 of the Criminal Procedure Code unfortunately fails to specify l1ow the public prosecutor will be informed, and this may require tl1at the pu�lic pros�ct1tion de_partn1ent sen� a represent _ � tive to attend all private prosectitions, a rather inconvenient reqt1� rement. S1� ce tl1e �ases 1n wh1cl1 a private prosecution may be stayed are (if th� s� ggeste? construction. of Art1c_ le 48 1s correct) cases w�ere public proceedings should I1ave been 1!1st1tuted 1n the general 1nter�st, 1t sl1oul� have been P:ov1ded _ that a private prosecution may at any time be stayed by t� e cot1rt of 1ts ?\VD n1ot1on or on appl1ca�1on.

This should be the case particularly � hen tl1� n:io� e � er1ous offence d1scl? sed (such as t_heft, triable by an Awradja Guezat cotirt) is outside the Jt1r1sd1ct1on of the cot1.rt trying tl1e less serious offence charged (such as unlawful use of tl1e property of anotl1er, triable by a Woreda Guezat court).

- 127 -

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>1·�·'P&: (1'C) ©ii: -1 1 I Iuf�!i: '¼. '}°. {l(Dl1)0}•: J'Iflf�i: q, er. r,:,)·,11: Jtil..l·Pif..c : o'P� = OJ-1. :1-r•*fro•.r·tc; = Oar611' = 111c = (l?Jl· = ODl1hA 1 «?&.7.:c; = J-,.c:,•q'l! = f"fa., , t\ f.'l:1-1 : 'ltPJ.fovn1 , OTJ'i:1�m-·tcr : ,"f1'? = hP' 6- = lt.f, = 1,1Pi.rm•t\.· = r,:c�· : O�.Y·l· = ODht\hlt.:ftD•'} : tP/OJ•la•I: r 'i!t. r fl\OJ•: '11C : 'llD· :: 4 2 f1'.;l•'t-A•f J r,::f•,l1 I 11,h.C I ,'h'? � J,"}•f K" 1 f.fjf. :: 1,1f..f·LlJ•9° ! 'llD•� : 1'1C : (l?J:.t". 1 f/) c,r: JP6,•l·7i;.:f I OD�J�jf: (OT/�OC) J-1'1t\. l· I /\.1i).: J-1f,':i·�•']° :I O>-h·Y.OC J (1':,''J°·)·) ?!'%: ,j,'}: Ifif�: q, '}°. {llDtl}Or: ',;,&:I•: ;Jll."1: fC'I: wt,.rf·"rl· 1 oo�P,jf 1 .¥.:1;,'l. :s 43 fJ-1.,)·r·*f, 'i::1,c1,, •n,,..c I J1«? -1 J-,'t•l'7-' • r.f:if == 44 fJt.•)•\'•*f : t;:•1•,f1 : •(l,fi.C I ,"f1dJ f h'i:,1?.' f.fj{i-!:. ts 41

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,p,e, f: : fl\t'} : itaitti : OD"}"JP';rT : f++ft+ll : :,,,:e,:,., : f,h,J--1\fr :: 9°Vl\'Prw·1: Otlf(Dc: 'lf..t..1--: fco-6Lh: h1C: flSJ>l--: l\f,: fttfw·: f1?-: ih°l: _f.&.�9°'1:f'PA -1'llhtLU9° : �lll: f;J6-: A67 �: ih°l : (1''1°1: flo(IJc : ) 114> �l..111 : f,h,J--1\�:: f, 1j.'}: h1}t t 0/bl\: h1C:i' : tJDf,.0� : DD'it,.f:f(Dc·'}: ff.. l'1-- = +wI\�:F:f w•1 = °l I\ 'I! : °11� a;,f-;r:f(IJc'}: /\OD�1:,. : foiz.m+ 01)« o:, .: 11th. �'I! m"l't = 'Im• n:t:ib , ntitt�'l°n.f , n,-.,w-cpp..c I otall:rtti i nt.,AtiAii'P...c ·1 01 r f+fHW-: i't4>6-lfl: 'P'i!T: ODD/\'PlD'P= (l'J:?- i OiL);t 'f!I\ l h'i : Ollllhft.fl : ,e,1iw-: 'llD-:: f,U: f�irrch: 11"1.6-'l!: ih°l: h1C:i''J: 01\67: ('l°'t'lt--:fw-1: n a,«6Jl': i't1C: ff..l'l--: +wl\�:F:flD-1: OD'tllJm?-1: �/\:,.: ',a r:) fh'iw-'i"A::

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O°IA : 1t.1i:C'i"7i.'il\'P. : m°l : l\f, : 0'}�� : f+t..nw- : l'l!:P : h09°llT: '}OD;r:,. : 01\f, : DDf,.0�: on'itf:fw-'} : Ot. l'}l)f,: h1C: ff..l..1--T: f(Dc"Lh: i't1C : 09>1' : h*Ol/rW•'i : f1'flo;r : (ID,fl;r:f(Dc : 0&.l"}l)f, : ih°l : 1'1-'t�1 : OD'l�l°l = o.wc� = o.. 'Pt..� = fUDllJw-1 = i','i'6-l1l = fOIJ.f7i7iA = .,(De== Oibl\ = "71�:fm-9° : il�6-: 9°Ul\'P:fw•1 : ,.<1f..l1' : &.l1l)W-f1 : O&.l1ltf, : f,f:-/\f, : 92 °11\'1! : ch'? : +mf'f!: lDf,'J°: rl•11C : {/Dli'i":ftD•'}: f,'i''Pl\fr::

=

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rf>"-'P6-Tllr = 11� = ftt = ,-1.1:1: 9°'t'l6-rw•1 nw-6J.b = h.1c = I\Y-t..1•'1:,· = h1c 11't; = "'"'1Jl6-rllr = h� = ftt = fw•6J.b = 1t1c = flSJ>l-- = 0Df..n'1 = OD'i tfrw•'} = "**(JD•'lirr: h1C-:: 'J°'i'A'l,"f-c: 'h'JY.tlU: fflmc: h'i'6-l1l: f"?..Ojf:,C: f,"fi'iA:: Q"fi19°. ¾ OOD'}"l.F7T : ontihA : n'i•-&.:J>�'}.: (-lloai:,--,) f°t&.'PC : 7'1}( : flPf..l�: i',_f,f../\9° 1 h.1�: OD"}°IP''T: ontit;rw-1 : 0W·6J.b : i't1C: llY.l'I--: ti, 1:i: = r+ttf, = "11\'l! ch"l = f,t--wl\�.,:,. = ,"h"l 1'1�."fi1 = fllt.A;,A. = •n� = tiOD'I n:,-. ¾ l\1h..fw•ll: 06-fl·: tl,11·: l\f,: IL&.?iOD(D•: f1/\mW•'}: 4>--T'PC : OtL1.r TlD• : 1\1!, : fbflo".:f-.: OD"}"lP';J--,1· : f'}� : 'h1-'t&.�•01)« : OD"}&.. °l : hf,1'llD•9° ::

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91

92

'iJ?.ol:\.°71 1 II I w-r:1-n:1 I )',.C,:: �o.1f.1' I}.<;:: II' (J{l,l•CJY/'},f• I J'l� I (r•1ll:i•DY/1'•l·1' s if1""ll {){\ trrJ7iif/.\ s ft\(JJ•: "1"1) ! !l?:' f}', OT/.61-t: fi',,.'}•l:C'i"il:',/;\.' if1""l • nu�·,11.:i•' rfi.i•� I (IfJf�E) s: i'1 1 �,, 7.•

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f: .

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"1 : f, f•ll fr P,9f : f1i'lt&i : f (no : 'f!

1i : 1• ,'h'? ;11 '),, : °t ;J : 'l!

'111\ f, l--fl ir fl J ' D lC : ',1 .. htLU : Ok:,•: 'h1�,f ° : ' c;, f, 01 : �� LU .. ht .9 r 4,f : :: l\ f : fr.·9° .f -A" -rV : Oh.. : · ?':f tit 'P;E,: frl--'11?- ) m· c -= :,, = �� "l D = m1t. af: IP/.. = U '£ ;,,'11 '111\ -/lf, : f,f� Pi1 : h1 'T 11'/ll } }4..

Pi'l! : t&ilt);?': : ., lD' : 'h "ft- = iL n,e}, 1 A,fto:f:'I° = 'I°u "m· = ., ti}« = 'hf ft· = (I, roil '1·'i = nit" ..,: 9'1 = m l\ : ( :� "l'�r-:f.: h01J..1i : 'r tD:l �t-L " +X h1 IJ: flL :: A i-'P ': 4:,f, f ::}f· ;ov11?-:f (L --: ,,.•ti : }.,r: '11r:l-: m·il'r: 1i·fl:,•: fh�" t-�m·: �C..l!": fL:,• tD 19' t ��: f1i��: 0 :: 0:c�:�lt : }\'i : O it1.-f.t c ft-: ro(l) : ( : 'ilD' "I: l\t;'l firJ-m L : "1"1 : "11\'l! : f, f,f--l\ 93 ,.,.,: ovt1nA 4· hf1"1•: fl�: h..trJAf'l!: ,1-11r : 1i·'i : 9°1Jl\tn.: DDT?°: Oit..,}•V: kf : f1i ',m• � htJ?.. ilrJ: : ;Jt-- : �CP.'l! : OV/\ff-r : -r'htl 1i : 'hiJ;,f1� : mrcr : (tell1):: �C..l!": !L•I:: : h ")P,,t-1-m· ¾ �CP,'£: (Wl\.ff-r: f,f-- {]l\llr: CD'?'i: 1»co--l•: h.,-,.,iltirf:f, n..1) l\h.,:,..v,-kf'l!lD' : "1'?: f;rm+ : hf,�l\'l° :: h.llJAf'J!(D«: ,'h°l: fL.tc?.'l° : f,1'1A : (LA: C,:C�--: f1rJ: : Of','i : �CP,tf : OD/lff,,.1:1: nfflf :; h.llJ Af'l!W·1 : ,'h°l : ftc ?.ovOT: 'J°ti1 f,f'f : 'h1f.D?.h,t--1\-."t-: 'I Ol I-

(l!) hf1-1- : '1� : h..trJAf'l! : i-11f : il/l',Ol I

(g) onAil: oat. 'P'J°: h.flJAf'l!ir: ,J-11f: (lll'!Oli· I

(r) ;J.-fi7lD- : f,f-nOlm·'i : fi-tc?.(11JlD': h..llJAf'l!m· : ;,.oi : O"ttc:P�w• :

ODIPl'T : illl'IOl j 1 .

(2) /\t;:CP.'l! : OD/\ff:,. : foY. i1 : lD'lt); : Oh..-rV-A·f'P.ro• : ;,,01: m•il'r : ill\A', Ol 1 'h'i : (?;) h.,,rr·kf'P. : "1'? : t\1..P,� : f"'t.f.1t\'?A: h1Pii' : (D•(}); : 'll\�l10-r: ",e nro-611" h1c (l?J1: = ODtihA = noiz..'!LJ.Jc-r '11r:1.._ flD-61}- ti1c = ;,,'? : A'1°"f1 : O°l-OC : l\f, : 11'/'P/t• : fh..:,•r-A·fro- : �CY: : f1.-f:f, : AIP/ Y: : i'tt\ 'I Ol : 'llD- s: .

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,eu: 'l°C'l°C: hf1T: '1�: 'l°IJl\lD.'1: ntt.:,•r·kf: hY:C1 : f',Ol: {lm·: t OD1i }.'J UAlD- = "fl\ f.,t\ 'PA f ht .f'l°: 01\f, •1 rm•ti�lD' : m·m,r: llh..:,•r-1.-f = tL11-- fCP/f,11•m,: noY:'l11: t,11"1·: fl�: Oh..:'f--r-A·f: m·il�: h11·: ',m•::

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A,I\ = 'h1�H.tr = .r n = lD-m-1- = f11lD': h1Y:: '11c i flil1'P.,e: m1'f:f. = 9"U l\'P:fm·1: flh..TV"A-f : hY:C1lD- : 0'1 0 ?-:,.. : f'?tti: tt1l- : ti,)•(lm·/\..fl : hti:r 94 1-'IF,f : O'!Olm, : l\f, : 'Im• :: h�";rlD • : hoo11� : f�� (lm·t\...fl : ;Jlr : 'l'-'i: hfi,,.°l": '1�: �:t:1: &.l\1:: �CY:: 111:: n,t-ht.tit: w1cr:1: : -Otl1>t.'I!: ,'h'? : ODIPl-1- : t\..Wfi1 : f,1'1A : (I.A : Of','i : O'?th· : lj:,)•,h : ,(lth.C: 95 ,l1°1: f+{JDwl"l-: �:f1 : nlfH :: h1Y:t.l''J°;rc;c;: hh1�"tf'J°;TG"'i: ,:Jt.. t 95 O'IO?-:,.. : '11r::f.. i Oh.:'f·r-A•.f'ftD• : ,l1 '?: {'lt\7'­ 'h'i : ltCPfl : hlLCii'il : :Jt•: P,f, = m1'i1-- = 'l°Ul\'P:fm·"t = htLtr = f1.l?:- = '10?-= )'he;: n,t-ml\�:., :J":i:m•= ;,,'l· = 93 94 95 96

�:1·.-h • 11,h.C • }1C • 'I>"". fif'f;/j 11 �·1·.-h 1 11.-h.C, �,c, cf>'-. !ff!l/!llt =•

�.-.-.-h • 11.-h.C I }1C : ....... §f!,6/!lt JI �·1·,h • 1lt11ac = �,c = cf>'-. §f!l§/!ll = - 1.54 -

.

(IPiJhA: "16LhT = il"A'lnl 1 tj:C�: ft+.: 1.._J;i1: ltl\1ll\l\lD•9° ;·tt(Dclt).9°: tt/Afw. l(lf1,r9° ! ntLuc;:ro- � 'p', : ntL..<'i1lD•: DD1"1P':,.. ¾ nn•ftrf:9°: cf1"1: Ul11PlT: (L "ti'> i ttft:'f' fli �:1:1 = tt"'l"1,:,.. = flttou...n:'f' = 'lnt..i; == 1''l1tv = .,,�l- f�:,-.,,, = -O tlh?, : "1."l : h�i;n:,.. : 4'1 : fl&.T : frf•w(l� : '11�1' : oo1i'i".T(Dc1 : .1,'t.it1'1H fl4:'f- = filt..A;,A 1 ht1.u = "lc1. = i1f..9°r.fw• : nift,.. = ,i,..,_) ODIPt..:,. = �c� = 0,.y..:f : 1llr : 1.lt : �:f1 : f\oPW(l't : (l.flA : fi:C.';'P. : P't\llJ't1 : hfmA<t9° : (h f,t149°) ::

= =

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flil,,.1""11\ : nitA : f.."l'l° i f't7-rP-'11P':,• : m:111\f, : 'i:c� : f1,f: : On·ilT : .,,�l- = l\,,e = 9°1Jl\(Dc = f +tt.,,e : "11\ 'l! ,l,"1 OJ) IPl:,.. • = ,,e1i1 = tl't�.. = wil).IA == 07 "' flf""11il: Tt..:f : ii;: nOJ/:,.. i;,,,e-,"li : UV�'}1 : outiht\. : {1,,,..,.,,0J•: '11C= tj:C.(' : f1rf:'} : f,:J(llODOJ• : &'1:1.. : 9°Ul\lD.1 : nt,.:i-r·k.(' : 1,'}·J;f..l'l : f'l°+ : fl't.llJIAf : tt;, : 7-..J;,,e't : ',nt.. == Oh.llJA,,<' : 1',1C : oi{l:,• : n."1111..: h!l : f,J,OJft � : Al!.-:f..1 : fTOJ : (l(Dc : ',Ol :: ti1-'t,r : h.Tf"kf'l!:,- : ,:Jlr9° : 011� : }.C' 1 h!t. : f..'?'I° : nh.llJ/,\f'f! : cf1"1 : ODIPGT: h,l1 "1: (Dc6J!-: (Jt:J>I\) foi'k,m? , : /,\"fl. f1 = i•OJ == nh."lAf'l! "1"1 oov,t..:,. = Jt.Pfto:f = (hOl/1'(lt..-,:,,,n;: = (Dc61,h = f+OJ ll.!;.: ) tifl:r:f(De : /lOD (De G{l: n, f,1'ftc'J° :: {1 h..:,. V-k f : cit "1: 011 IPGT: fcft"1-lD•611' : A�'l:r : /J1(l-Atft1l : (l11(1. TT) ti,r.. : ·,,rA:t-�+ : ',(De :: n.fl:,-r,:,. : 1'{lh:r ro+ : r n t..il = tLu n. = tifl: 1--J;,,er = l\,,e fl:,-..,� :r(Dc"'":r(Dc .,nt.. :- Al!.l- = i 1: :ffDc = hitA = ,,eti�l\tt• == h."1Af'£(Dc = ,n"1-fi"OJl\;e,.,...1: = ih"1 = 0'Jf\,r = ',(Dc­ hP'Ir = l\f,: fLOJ•/A: },� t h,llJIAft;'l!: Al!.:ii= 11:,:: ,,eroc(l-: 'IOl:: h.Tf"kf'l!�: lh"I - f9°U I\m.. : "1."1 : "'I ft:,. : � lD• - h P't,. : I\,,e : (I_(De/,\ t IAl!.:ii : f'li �:,- : 1j.ftc t h."1/Af(Dcf'}t; : tt.:i-f"kf(Dcf1 ¾ hit/A : ,,e.ti�.l\(\c : 1 f'}7-1P-'l1P':,. : ID lflflf, : �C..(!' : ft� : S' Ul\(Dc : fT/lf, : "11\'l! : "1"1 : ov IPGT : ',(De: (I.I,\ : tDit'i : h.Tf"kf'f!OJc: ih"1: 1'1.it&.i9°: hf..l'l :: f�CJ¾..: 'h1"1lL1fi1(Dc: 1l'tA = f°thTfl tIJc"}: f,?/,\"1/,\ ;-

=

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n·ftc

0

1

''h ',If : frf•f\,,e : "11\'f! : "11.. t fa,:,i : f+rol\;e:,-,:,. : ih,-.. lDf,9° : 0 'l°Tfl:,. : 1.tt : f',OllD• : f9°Ul\tn.. : ,n"1 : IL1i1 : f.,-:f-1\IA :: h'lltU : &ft,f�·= "11·1·: f:,C�(Dc'J : 'h1f.."'1.hTI\- : flJl/..',..(!';'f,: P'"riJ: (O;rCI\ oi1+ = fOJ"1 = "1"1) nt1..:'f•f"kf = tittOD'i�-9° = nl\1, = (tt1tu = +f..

9°) f,t<h,t..m«+ : '11�l· : h1f..�w-1: m"1: OJ,,e'J°: lbl\OJ-1 = n(/DhT IA: fi}.: it/AO',l9°:: f, n-1 : 1'1:( t f;'f,cft: 1.lt : f(llD· : A;e,: "1"1 : <j:/,\{l<j:t; : it1IOl/oif : OJf. : 'J°Ul\(Dc : "17-: 1'1,:Jf:!l.lA :: n;;: : h,{l,,.rSf :,.. = f9°UI\OJ• = ;,,,.. = f<f'Y:'l° = +wl\;e, '1+.1= ti,,ett<f'= 9°1fl?,'} = n,f•t\f 1',1C : fl!f:!f:oo � (lOJ.. : f...f.. <f'(l<f'(l : �CJ;'£ : "fi·'I :r9l-:f-1'i " : "11�',,f,-:j-'} : = 'IOJ• i iltt,.LU9° = f9°UI\OJ• = c111-- = f tt(JD�·,;:,- = n.enA'P = n�ti; = = fOIJ.J;� = ;,,"1 = 1,1.it1i1 = ,,e,ctA= 011A °IA = t1 !l:9° = 1--J;r-:r.., =· 1,C.-ii flt\1 ::''

n-t\--

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,,,,n.

=

,,eu'} : .,,c : rl•h:'f•{\lD• : t,/A<j:/of. : ;ril,f--t,. : hOIJ.ilil : hill\tJ;.llc; : 7!.c;e: : 08 h ill\l}til : ;,t,. : n ', (llOJ• : 'l?C : I\J!, : _e"ti OJ• T&.?i'l°OT ¾ (l fl/At; : OIJ. ilT :

.=

97 98

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�:,•,11 , 11,,hc .e°l'l� , «f>•·. Zf.ifl:J;/iflu == �:l·m : 11,11.C : J',°l'l� : .,,.._ r.f.ifl:J;/'!Jf: :: - 155 -

aotihA: f"},fll-r : ov-01,'f: ,,..P,f, : n, ·t-ml\;e,'1-t. : ii,<? {l;J,flfCD·: 9°Ul\lD" : ,'h ''l : f,P,7/-(A : ,t'lA: i-Oflj ::

99 = h(JD�"}",..l:

: .R,A:,, I

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9°£, : ftJ'l/f,"}<f'l}<f1il: Uir(l:J••:1:w-1: lD•C{l: 001/F.l\f..A: (O{JlJOD(ll"}) "h.'i: {l{ID<P.,ll} me: i'1.•l·V-kf: hm-t,.: (11c,1:) tpq,9°: ill\:,•:: hU "l-- t -'l!lD•: tblD·�9.: rf--mti 'h'Jf.'?A = f1..t\f, t11°l = aorPlT f'l:.mln:,- illlJ«t.. 9''h1,,r:,. = 01·1.fm•: .,1-1 ...

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.

NATIONALITY, DOMICILE AND THE PERSONAL LAW IN ETHIOPIA

by Robert Allen Sedler, Faculty of Law Haile Sellassie I University INTROD'UCTION

!�

this article tl1e wri �er l1opes to explore the Ethiopian law of nationality and donuc11e_ and the law applicable to determine matters of personal status. In Ethiopia the foreigner has always been welcome. Ma11y foreigners live and work here, ofte·n for many �ears, but do not become Ethiopian nationals. A country with a large foreign popu­ lation 1s thus faced with questions of nationality law, questions of who is domiciled there, and questions of what law shall govern the personal status and r. elations of individuals.

In this paper I propose to present the existing provisions of law relating to Ethiopian nationality, review such legal distinctions as exist betwee11 Ethiopians and fo·reigners, discuss the p·rovisions of the Civil Code that cover the domicile of natural persons and to deal with the question of the governing personal law.

NATIONALITY Acquisition and Loss of Ethiopian Nationality It is provided in Article 39 of the Revised Constitution that ''the law shall determine the conditions of acquisition and loss of Ethiopian nationality and of Ethiopian citlze:n­ ship.1 '' The existing law on the subject is the Ethiopian Nationality Law of 1930, 2 which is s·till in effect. The Civil Code of 1960, it should be noted, contains no provisions with �espect to the acquisition or loss of nationality, though it does contain provisio·ns relating to domicile.

There are two basic approaches to deter1nination of nationality and citizensl1ip, 3 t.hat of jus sanguinis (nationality by blood) and jus soli (nationality by birth). Under the principle of jus sanguinis, a child takes the nationality of his parents {where the parents are of different nationality, it is usually tl1e nationality of the father) ir1·espective of where the child was born. Germany, for example, has adopted parentage as the decisive factor; children born of German parents are German whether born in Germany or abroad while

1. The same provision is contained in Article 18 of the Constitution of 1931.

2. Law of July 24, 1930. Throughout the arti�le the Gregoria� c�lendar will be used unless otherwise

indicated. However, Etluopian cases are cited to the Eth1op1an Calendar.

3. Of these two terms, ''nationality'' is used more in an international context and ''citizenship'' in a local context. Distinctions between citizens and nationals are frequently made in cot1ntries that have colonial possessions. For example, a person born �n a posse�sion of the United State� is call_ed a national rather than a citizen. United States Code, Title 8, Section 1408. For purposes of 1ntemat1on.al law there is no distinction between citizens and nationals. See generally, Silving. Nationality in Com­ par;tive Law 5 A1nerica1z Joi1r11al of Co111parative Lalv 410-415 (1956). Nationals of a country having a monarchiai form a government such as Ethiopia are someti!Iles called subjects. As used in this article, ''nationality'' and ''citizenship'' have the same meanmg.

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1 1�1les b11t take the 11atio n io at 1 1 11 1a 1 1 er G t i1o e ar alit y cl1ildre11 of foreig11ers bor11 it1 Ger1na1 1y of tl1eir parents.4 . . .

1 , vvlie�l1er tli� J)are1 �10 na a in rn bo 11 re ild cl1 : li, so !ts be Uiider tl1e pri1 1ciple of jus 1 1 to its nati bo 1e 1ld ch y, e ers r1v � � c ls; 11a onals tio . e na �. � _ i 1 atioi1als or foreigners, beco m as e ,1 nat1?i 111 wlucl1 tl1e territo class1� � is s a.

1ti1 Arge1 ls.

11a tio na t � i1o are residing abroad, 1ct fa 1 u1 111 r te (le ve 1 1s cl1 ex � e tl1 � � ry 011 wl1 icl1 tl1e birtl1 occt1rs is .

11 t1 1 Ma11y 11atio11s recogr1ize ele1nents of botl1 p_rinc1ples 11� the_ir � 0 1�l1ty la\v, \Vith rily a ;z,1s so/i 11ation.

0 11e or tl 1e otl1er us11ally predon1inati11g. 7 Tl1e U1uted �tates is p�ima The Fourteen.tl1 A111e11 dn 1ent to tl1e Co11stitutio1 1 provides tl1at ·'all J)erso11s bor11 or na­ ttrralized i11 tl1e United States, a11d subject to tl1e jurisdictio11 tl1ereof:, are citize1 1s of the ·uiuted States ...." Tl1js JJrovisio11 insured tl1a.t all the 11ewly ema11c1pated Negroes and tl1eir cluldre.11 \vould be An1erica11 citize1 1s. This provision also })roved of great ,1alue cltrring tl1 e large '\vave of immigratio11 to tl1e U1uted States jn tl1� lat� ni11etee11tl1 ceL 1tury, as all tl1e cl1ildre1 1 bor11 in tl1e U11ited States of 11e�rly arrived 1llll1gra11t 1Jare1 1ts would be Ai11erica1 1 citizen.s.s Cl1ildren bor.1 1 abroad are co11sidered citize11s of the United States a11 citize11s, tl1e cl1ild, tl1ough in certain circ11msta11ces.9 W11ere both JJare11ts are A meric � born abroad, is co11sidered an America11 citize11 by birtl1 1 0 so long as 01 1e pare11t had a reside11ce i11 the U11ited States or its possessio11s prior to tl1e birtl1 of the cluld. If only 011e IJarent is a citize11, tl1at pare11t m11st l1ave bee11 a reside11t i11 the United States or its possessio1 1s for a co11ti11uous JJeriod of at least o:ne year IJrior to tl1e 'birtl1 of tl1e cl1ilct.1 1 Where 011e JJare11t is a citize11 wl10 did 1 1ot reside in tl1e United States for a continuous period of 011e year JJrior to tl1e birtl1 of tl1e cllild., but \Vas present in the U11ited States or its possessions or served in tl1e 111ilitary services for periods totaling IO years, at least 5 of ,vllicl1 \Vere after attaining tl1e ,1ge of 14, a child bor1 1 abroad is co11sidered a citize11.

81 1 t st1 ch a child n111st, JJrior to attai11ing the age of 23 a11d after the age of 14, spe11d at least 5 years co11ti11uo11 sl)1 in the U1 uted States. It is clear tl1at tl1ese provisio11s are very restrictive, at 1d that tl1e J?rune basis o. f citizensllip in the U1lited States is birtl1 there.

France originally followed tl1e }us sangui11is princiJ)le very strictly. U11der Article 10 of tl1e Fre11cl1 Ci,,jl Code ''every cl1.ild bor 1 1 of a Fre11chma11 i 1 1 a f oreig1 1 cot111try \Vas Fre11cl1." A cllild born i 1 1 Fra11ce of a foreig11er \Vas 11ot Fre11cl1, tl1ougl1 · under tl1e pro­ visions of Article 9 of tl 1e Code a c]1jld bor 1 1 in Fra1 1ce of a. f oreig11er could 11po11 attaining

4. Reich and State Nationality Lavi of July 27, 1913, paragraph 4. Under i\rticle 1 1 6 of the Constitu­ tion of the Federal Republic (West Ger111any) all persons wl10 possessed Gern1an nationality or who ,vere accepted as refugees of German stock as of 31 Decen1ber 1937 are Ger1nans. Person s who J?st Gern1an nationality by tl1e act� _of tl1e Nazi regi1ne are regranted this nationality upon applica­ tion. In tl1�. absence _ of otJ1er prov1s1ons, t�e La\v of 1913 is tl1e basic nationality }av1. Under that lavv the leg1tunate child of a Gern1an father 1s Gern1an as is the illeoitimate c11ild of a Ger1nan n1other.

See t11e �isc11ss i1� Oppen11ein1, International La1v' (8th ed., I�a�1 terpacht), Vol. 1, p. 651. . _ _ ion 5. Oppenheun, 1bicl. This would not, of course, include children of foreign diplon1atic representai1ves.

6. Oppenbeio1, ibicl.

7. For a . listing of the different ap1Jroacl1es toward nationality based 00 a 1935 study see Bishop, fn­ ternat1011al La�v 415 (2d ed. 1962). TJJe original study will be found in 29 ,,J,nericti,1 Journal of Inter­ national La1v 248, 256 (1935). Altl1ougl1 some cl1a11ges no doubt have been 01ade the study gives ' ' a genera.I idea as to the distribution of the different approacI1es. ' 8. In the_ case of [!nitecl Sta_tes v. Wong Ki,11 Ark, 169 U.S. 649 (I 898), tl,c Supren1e Court l1eld that . the cl11ld_ born 1n the United States of Chin ese parents was a citizen of the United States, though at the time the pa�e�ts were not eligibl� �o becon1e naturalized citizens. u 11cter the jus soli approach tJ1e statt1s or c <?nd1t1on of the parents 1� irrelevant as long as they are the jurisdiction of sub ject to _ the state 1n wh1cl1 the child was born, 1.e., tl1ey are not cliplon,atic officials.

9. TJ1is is set fortl1 in United States Code, Title 8, Section 140 1.

IO. Onl?' American c�tizens by birth are eligible to becon1e ·President. Co Unite d States, tJ1e nst of itut ion Article II, Section 1(5).

1 I. See United States Code, Title 8, Section 1401 (5).

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�ajority cla !n1 �rench natio11alitv. The Frencl1 approach fluctuated over tl1 e years as differen t nat1onal1ty laws were enacted, but the Fre11ch Nationality Law of 1945 extensive­ ly employed bot h pri11ciples i11 a11 effort to increase tl1e number of French n,1tionals. The provisio11s are interesting, as they demo11strate an effort by a nation to obtain as many natio11als as possible.

U11de1· Article 17 a11d 18, tl1e legitin1ate cl1ild born of a Fre11ch father is French irrespective of where he \Vas bor11., as is tl1e legitimate cllild of a French mother where r's natio tl1e fatl1e nality is u11k11ow11. U11like tl1e · united States ' tl1ere are 110 residence . . requ11·en1ents imposed 011 tl1e pare11ts. Wl1ere a cl1ild f1rst establishes filiation 12 against a Fre11cl1 parent, wl1etl1er tl1e fat11er or n1otl1er, that cl1ild is French. So too, if 011e JJarent is French and t11e 11atio11ality of the parent against whom the first filiatio11 action is brought is unknown, tl1e c11ild becomes Fren.cl1 u1Jo11 s11ccessfully mai11tai1ii11g a11 action of filia­ tio� _ agai11st !he Fre11ch pa1·e11t. U11der Article 19, subject to a11 option to repudiate, the legit1mate child of a Fre11cl1 111otl1er a11d foreig11 fatl1er is French, as is tl1e 11atural cl1ild recognized by or successft1lly :filiated against parents, one of whom is Fre11cl1. The above provisions are esse11tially based on }us sar1guirzis, as tl1e country of birtl1 is irrelevant.

The French la\v also co11tains ma11y elements of jus soli. 1 3 Where a child is bor11 in France of a father who was born in Fra11ce, tho11gl1 not necessarily a French national, that cliild is F1·e11ch. Tl1e same is true when the parent against whom filiation was first established was bor11 i11 F1·ance. Tl1e legitimate child bor11 in France of a mother also born in France is French, subject to his right of repudiatio11; so is the child of a pa.re11t born in France when that parent is the 011e against whom filiation was establisfu.ed the seco11d time. Under Article 21, the cluld born in Fra11ce of parents whose national1 ity is unknown is French unless he is filiated and takes the nationality of the filiated parent.

Where the child was born in France of foreign parents, neither of whom was bolin in France, the child is co11sidered French upon attaining majority if he is then residing rn. France and has been residing there since the age of 16. 14 He may decline French na­ ti0nality in certain circumstances, a·nd in certain circumstances the government may oppose the petition. U11der tl1e Law of 22 December 1961, military service can be sub­ stituted for the five yea.r reside11ce. Such a child ca11 also claim French nationality prior to reacliing majority if lie l1as resided in France for five years. If l1e is u11der the age of 18, the claim can be made by his guardia11. There are special provisions relating to children who were raised i11 France, tho11gh not born tl1ere; 11nder certai11 circ11mstances they can acquire Frencl1 nationality as well. 15 It is clear that France, while retaining the basic principle of jus sangui11is, has adopted many elements of jus soli in an effort to increase the number of Fre11ch nationals.

Since some states use }its soli a11d otl1ers jus sanguinis and many a combi11atio11 of both, not infrequently individuals are born witl1 dt1al natio11ality. For exan11Jle, a child born in the United States of Germa11 immigrants wl10 had 11ever reno1111ced Germa11 nationality would be considered American by the United States; the same child would be considered Germa11 by Germany. Dual nationality may arise also if a woman tak�s her husba1id's 11atio11ality upon marriage under his national law, b11t does not lose nationality under her 11ational law. Some states provide that a natio11al loses 11ationality 12. FiJiation in tl1e broad sense is tl1e process by wl1icl1 the parentage of a cl1ild is ascertained.

See generally Civil Code of Etl1iopia, Cl1apter 10. Tl1e tern1 n1ay also refer to an action brot1gl1t by the child for a judicial" declaration as to his parentage.

13. See partict1larly Articles 23, 24, 44 and 52 of tl1e Frencl1 Nationality Law of 1945.

14. If the principle of jus soli were strictly follo\ved, tl1e cl1ild would be Frencl1 irrespective of wl1ere l1e \Vas residing.

15. La\v of 22 Decen1ber 1961, Article 55.

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b · acce tin foreigi1 11ationality; otl1ers permit tl1eir natioilals to ta� e on foreig n . _. d se, c latter the In n�tio11alhy !thot1t losir1g origina� 11ationality. �� 11'� t1011ality may __ ; 1 1 d War, also result. Conflicts freque11tly arise; for example, du1111� ��e econ \V}1en _ _ cluldre11 bor11 in tl1e U11ited States of alie11 p _arents w�re � 1 s 1 t111g tlle 1101::e 11atio11 of tl1eir _ pare11ts, tl1ey vvere ofte11 co11scripted into �l1tar� service 1�1 tl1o�e co��tr 1�5 � 11 the ground _ Efforts 11ave been tl1at tl1ey were nationals because of tl1e 11at1011al1ty of tlieir �aieii� s. n1ade by son1e natio11s to resolve the problen1 of dual n� t1o11alit), • 1 7 Another conditio11 that may arise is statelessness: Tl;11s results \Vlie 11 a }Jerson loses the natio11ality of one state witl1out acqt1iri�g 11a!ional1ty 1� a�otlier F�r ex�_ rr�.ple, under : if her hus­ the lav-ls of some st,1tes a \Voman loses 11at1onal1ty by ma1ry111g a fore1g11e1, band's natio11al la\v does not oive her his nationality, she is stateless. 111 certain circumst­ ances a perso11 may be depriv�d of his natio11ality by Ius natio11al la\v 1 8: witl1out a�quiri11g another n.ationality. I 9 As we \Vill see, Ethiopia11 la\V makes every eflort to avoid both dual nationality a11d statelessness.

Novv that we l1ave considered cornparative approacl1es to n,1tio11ality, let tis look �tt tl1e Ethiopia11 Natio11ality La\V of 1930. Etl1iopia follows strictly t]1e pri11ci1Jle of jus sar1gui11is. Any perso11 bor11 in Ethiopia or abroad wl1ose father or motl1er is a11 Etl1iopian is a11 Etl1iopia11 subject. 20 If the father is an Etluopian subject, the cl1ild at1to111atically acquires Eti1iopian n.ationality, but if only the 111other is a11 Etluopia11, the cliild must affinnatively elect to becon1e an Ethiopia11 natio11al by li,1ing i11 Ethiopia a11d proving tl1at lie is divested of l1is foreig11 11ationality. St1cl1 a cl1ild, upon doing so, is to be co11sidered a11 Etltiopian subject by birth. 21 A child born to a11 unmarried Etl1iopia11 won1a11 \Vould, of course, be Ethiopian.

The Law contai11s no provisio11s by which a perso11 bor11 i n Ethiopia of foreign pare11ts is or can become an Etluopian natio11al exceJJt by 11aturalizatio11. In otl1er ,vords,

°

16. Another conflict m ay arise as to clain1s agains t a governn1ent \Vl1ere tl1 e clain1ant is a National both of the claiming state and the state against whorn tl1e claim is 1nad e. In t he Canevaro Case, decided by the Per111anent Court of Arbitration in 1912, the Italian and Peruvi an governments agreed to submit to arbitration cl aims arising out of the f ailure by tl1e Peruvian government to honor certain checks issue d by tl1at government to a firn1. The claim passe d into the l1a.nds of certain persons, one of wl1on1 w as Rafael Canevaro. Th e tribunal \Vas given jurisdiction only to consider clain1s of lialian nationals against the Peruvian government ; tl1us, if Canevaro were not an Italian n ational, the tribun­ al \Voul d have no juris diction to h ear !us claim. Peru followed jus soli to detern1ine n ationality \\ hile It aly followed jus sanguinis. Since he w as bor11 in Peru of an Italian father botl1 Peru and Italy 1.vould consider l1in1 their national. The court held that for purposes of l1is stat�1s as a claimant, Peru had the righ t to consid er him as its national and tl1at l1e was not an Italian national within the n1eaning of the arbit ration agreen1ent.

17. �ne is t�e I-Iague Convention o� Apr_il 12, I 930. Anotl1er is the Protocol on ivlilitary Obligations m Certain Cases of Double Nat1onal1ty. Not all countries are signatories to these agreements.

I 8. Durin� �he N'azi �eg_ime m any persons were deprived of German nationality because of their religi_on or pol1t1�al assoc1at!ons. T _ l1ese people w�re_ thus rendered stateless. Also, certain countries prov1�e for _forfe_1ture of nat1onal1ty by tl1e con1m1ss1on of certain acts, and tile ·JJerson who thus forfeits his nat1onal1ty may become stateless.

19. �ee �e discussio n of attempts to provid e protection to stateless persons and tile n1ateri al cited therein 1n Bishop, International LaJv 414 (2d ed. 1962).

20. Tl1e t:rm "s�bJect :• is used, since Ethiopia is a n1onarcliy. Note that for international law purposes !here is no distinction bet\veen a national, citizen or subject. The status of EtlliOIJians living in Erit a re 1s gove�n�d by 9rcter No. 6 ?f 19�2, Negarit Gazeta, September 11, 1952. u·nder Sec tio11 9 of �at Or�er, i� 1s prov1d�d t �at all _inhabitant� of �e territory of Eritrea, except persons possessing foreign nationality, are Eth1op1an n ationals. All 1nhab1tants born in Eritrea and 11avitlg at leas t one indigenous parent ?r gran?par�nt were also declared to be Etl1iopi an nationals. Ho\.vev s possess· per son er, stic if ll ed foreign national1_ty, they could renounce Etl1iopian n ationality wit of h in six montlls of the date the Or der. If they �1d �ot re°:ounce, t her were d_ecla red to lose thei The term� . nat r for ion eig alit n y of !hat Ord�r are 1dent1cal _w1tl1 the United Nations Proclama tion Sev est ablishing the Federation.

United Nations Proclamat ion No. 39 0 (4), December 2, 1950.

1

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tl1e co �cept o �j:,s soli does not exist l1ere. On t _l1e whole tl1i� is .:,ou11d. The great majority of f�re1gners l1v1°:g here are Europea11s - co1TI1ng from a different culture and a different eth�c %roup.. Cl11ldren bor11 of such _parents s.l1ould 11ot automatically be considered as Ethiopian nat1011als and probably wo11ld 11ot desire sucl1 a11tomatic assimilation. Those that desire to do so can obtain Ethiopia11 11atio11ality througl1 11aturalization. However, many persons from areas such as tl1e so11ther11 S11da11, 11ortl1ern Kenya and Somalia have entered Ethiopia. They belong to the san1e etlu1ic gro11ps as Etl1iopians living in the border areas and 11pon entry, beco11.1e f11lly assimilated. S11cl1 persons and their cluldren are often in­ distin �isha1?le from the Et �io I?ians residing near the border, but technically neitl1er tl1ey nor their ch1ldre11 are Et111op1a11s. Perhaps some 1nodification should be made to .provi�e that me111be _rs of certai11 specified etl111ic grou_ps wl10 live i11 Ethiopia with the 1ntent1011 to remain l1ere perma11ently 2 2 should be co11sidered Ethiopians and that children of sucl1 persons born in Ethiopia are Etlliopian subjects by birth. With this possible exceptio11, the pri11ciple of jus sanguinis seems well-suited to Ethiopia.

The Law contai11s provisio11s witl1 respect to tl1e effect of marriage, legitimation and adoption 11pon Etl1iopian nationality. A foreig11 woman wl10 e11ters into a lawful mar·riage witl1 an Ethiopia11 takes on Ethiopian nationality. An Ethiopian woman who marries a foreigner loses her Ethiopian nationality 01l1y if the 11ational law of her husband confers 'his nationality 11pon her. This i11s11res that 110 Ethiopian woman will become stateless by marriage and, where possible, tries to prevent n1arried women from having dual nationality.2 3 The same principle is applicable with regard to legitimation. Note that legitimation does not exist in Ethiopia, because there is no legal concept of illegitimacy. A child is the child of parents against whom filiation is established; once established it is irrelevant whether the parent agai11st whom tl1e filiation was established is ma.rried to th.e other parent. Thus, the child filiated against an Ethiopia11 mother or father would be Ethio­ pian. But, if a child born to an unmarried Ethiopian woma11 would become legitimated by a foreign father under his law, problems \vould arise. Again, in an effort to prevent either dual nationality or statelessness, the Law provides that such a child loses his :Ethiopian nationality by the legitimation only if tl1e 11ational la\-V of the father confers the father's nationality upon the child \Vith all attendant rights.

Adoption of an Ethiopia11 child by a foreigner does not cause the cl1ild to lose l1is Ethiopian nationality. Conversely, a child who is adopted by an Ethiopian does not there­ by acquire Ethiopian nationality. Here, dual nationality and statelessness are possible.

For example, if an Ethiopian cl1ild is adopted by a foreigner and 11nder the national law of the adoptive parent the child takes on tl1e nationality of his father, such a child would acquire dual nationality. By the same token, if a child adopted by an Ethiopian loses his former nationality under his national law, lie wo11ld be stateless 11nless he acquired Ethio­ pian nationality by naturalization. It may be that at the time the 1930 law was enacted, the adoption of foreigners by Ethiopians was rare and the co11cern was to prevent a11 Ethiopian child from losing Ilis Ethiopian nationality. Now tl1at adoption is f11lly covered by the Civil Code, 2 4 adoptions between Ethiopians a1:d foreigners may increase. P: rh�ps the provisions of the Nationality Law should be reconsidered. It may be that an Eth1op1an child adopted by a foreigner sho11ld not lose l1is Ethiopian nationc1Jity, though it is difficult 21. This is important, as there are distinctions is the enjoyment of politi�al rights between subjects by birth and others. See the disct1ssion, i1ifra at note 38 and accompanymg text.

22. In other words, domiciled I1ere. See tl1e discussion, i1zfra at notes 53-62 and accon1panying text.

23. A foreign woman married to an Ethiopian might ba�e dual _na�io_nalit� if her nationa! la:V, did not cat1se her to lose her nationality as a rest1lt of the n1arr1age. Still, It IS desirable from Eth1op1a s stand­ point that a married woman have the same nationality as her husband.

24. Civil Code of Ethiopia, Chapter 11.

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. LAW N IA P 10 1-r T E F O J.., A N R Jou .

VoL. II - No. 1

1 1 cluld leg!tima ed by a pi i tl1 E 1 a1 om fr ? n tio si po nt re a .tlu. op1a11 sl1011ld 11o t be � to see wl1. 11e sho11ld be i 1 1 a diffe I e�de ed 11 � a by te p o ad d 1il _ � cl n ig re fo _ a rly ea � . foreigner.YBut cl _ ld ou in sl1 ta e ob 1 ] e11 tl1 J11 Et y, 0 lit 11a t10 11a er rm fo 1 1s 1 s se lo 1)1an l1e if y; eb er th s es tel sta . natio11aljty by the adoption. 2 5 • . .

11c ide 111 res o o tlu ars ye e � [ fiv r aft ed � 1)ia. B·e liz 1ra att 11 me co be y � A foreigner ma , law l 11a lu l1 t10 1 the of ns t1o ¥: 11la reg � _ wo11Id be e 1 tl 1 to i 1g ord acc ;; age l � n1ust be ''of ft1l 11 his ar to e 11 abl v111g a11d to be 1st m1 e I I� de.

Co il Civ tl1e of 98 I e I 8 t111der Articl 11guage perfectly, Ia r1 c l1a Am tl1e w no ''k st n1u _ He ." ily fam Iris f a11d sel I1im provide for 5 a Finally he ''111ust l1ave no� prev1011 1 b en c? 11dem11 _ 2 '' tly. fl11en it ing writ 1 a11d 5._ � � _ 1g s1Jeaki , er e latt Tl1 p1 ov1s1?n m11st . lavv 11 11no co the of ach bre or e crim 1t for me1 1isl1 p11t ? a11y ed to _ be read in ligl1t of tl1e Penal Code, which has cod.1fied tl1e IJen .a l law a11d _vvl11cl1 1 11clude s pett), as well as serious offenses. It is diffict1lt to believe tl1at � perso11 co11 v1cted of a petty offe11se sl1ould be denied 11aturaljzation. Perhaps tl1e ter111 ''cr11ne or breacl1 of tl1e comm o11 law'' sho11ld be interpreted to i11clude crimes ''n1al11n1 in se, '' tl1at is, acts tl1at traditionally were punisl1able as cri 111 es i11 Etl1 jopia or are ge11erally recognize� as \Vro1�gft1l. Tl1is matter would l1ave to be deternuned by tl1e Co1nn1ission charged w1tl1 pass111g 011 naturali­ tio11 a.pJJlications.

Tl1e Natio11 aJity Law provides for a special gover11me11 t Co1 11111issio11 con1prisi11g the 'Min.ister of tl1 e I11terior, tl1e I\1iruster of Foreig11 Affairs a11d a11otl1er ''dig1utary of the Empire," presumably to be a.pJ)Oi 11 ted by tl1 e Emperor or J-Iis desig11ee. Tl1e Com1 1ussio11 is to exa.n1i11e the ap1)lication and l1ear tl1 e applica11t ii1 person. Its decisio 11 is fi11al. Naturaliza.tion does 11ot exte11d to the wife of a nat11ralizecl person.; sl1e 11 111st 1nake her ow 1 1 apJJlication. Tl1e Law says 11ot]1 j 11g abo11t cl1ildren, a 11d i11 the abse1 1ce of express provisio11, it n11 1st be assumed that cllildre11 \vou1d have to n1ake tl1eir O\V11 application 11pon reaclu 11 g tl1e age of eigl1 teen.

Ethiopian 11atio11ality may be lost only by tl1e acquisitio11 of anotl1er 11atio11 ality.

111 tl1e case of a \Vo111a 11 , tl1is ,vould include loss by n1arria.ge witl1 a foreigner, providing his 11atio 11 al law co 1uerred lus natio11ality 11pon l1er. 2 6 Where a person volt111tarily acquired a11 otl1er 11 atio11ality, J1e \vot1ld lose his Etl1iOJ)ia 1 1 1 1atio11ality, even tho11gl1 t11e law of the state of lus new 11 atio 11 ality per111itted dual 11 atio11ality. 27 TJ1e La,:v co11tai11s 110 provisions dealing witl1 loss of n.atio11ality through commission of certain. acts or e 11gaging in u11law­ f11l co11duct. Tl1e la\vs of son1e otl1 er nations co11tai11 s11cl1 provisions. In Fra11ce, for ex­ ample, a natio11al \\1110 serves in tl1e Armed Forces of a foreign st,1te despite an order to quit from the Frenc11 gover111nent loses his Fren.cl1 nationality. He m11st q11it ,vitl1i11 six montl1s after tl1e receipt of 11 otice unless it is impossible for him to do so. 2 s Fra11ce also provides tl1at certain acts of persons who have acq11ired Fre11cl1 11ationality otlrer t/1011 by birt/1 will cause tl1em to lose tl1eir 11atio11a1ity. 29 These acts i11cl11de tl1e co11viction for a cri1ne against tl1e inter11al or exter11al sec11rity of F·ra11ce, convictio11 for crin1 es p1111isl1able

25. France forrner]y denied an adopted child the status of a Frenchinan. But no\v such a child can clain1 French nationality if l1e resides in France. Law ·or 22 December 1961, Article 55.

25a. Under a later a�endn1ent to the �ationaity. Law, 25 Maskara1n, 1926 E.C., the require1nents of five years of residence and fluency 1n A1nhar1c 1nay be waived by the Con.11nissio11.

26. Under American law a woman_ doe� not lose l1e� nationality by n1arriage. u 11cter French la\V a wo1!-' an k_ eeps J1er Fr�ncl1 nat1onal1t_Y upon 1narr1age 11nless sl1e rei)udiates it, and sl 1e can not repudiate 1t �nless she JS able to acquire her husband's nationa lity tinder bis law. Nationali ty Lav, of 1945, Article 94.

27. America.n law is to the same effect. �nited States <;ode, _Title 8! Section 1481 (a) (1). 111 France, bo\V· e�er, such a P�rs_on does not lose h1s French nat1onal1ty 11nt1I fifteen years J1ave elapsed from the tune !1e was el_1g1ble to perform military se1;ice. He ma y reptidiate his nationalit y duri ng for eig n _ ��t ���e, and if l1 e does so, he will not lose his Fr encl1 nationality. Nationality Law of 1945, Articles 28. Nationality Law of 1945, Article 97.

29. Nationality Law of 1945, Article 98.

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NATIONALITY, DOMICILE AND Tl-IE PERSONAL LAW IN ETI-lIOPIA

under Articles 109-1_31 of t. h e French Penal Code, 3 0 . co11dem11atio11 for desertio11, acting on behalf of _a fore1g11 governme11t contrary to tl1e Interests of Fra11ce or incompatible with tl1e quality of a �ren�l1n1an, or co11viction fo1· any crirae wl1icl1 is st1bject to p11nisl1ment of five year� ?� 1mpr1so1unent. TJ �ese �cts mt1st l1ave occun·ed within te11 years from the date of acq111s1t1on of Fre11cl1 11at1011aJ1ty. 3 1 The loss of 11atio·nality also extends to the 'vv:ife and children of s11cl1 a pe1·so11 providing tl1at they were originally of foreign na­ tionality a11d l1ave retai11ed s11cl1 foreign 11atio11ality. J 2 In tl1e U11ited States, tl1ere are exte11sive provisio11s deali11g witl1 loss of citizensl1ip by t�1e c?mmission of a.cts, wl1icl1 i11clude taki11g an oatl1 of allegiance to a foreig11 state, serving Ill the arn1ed forces of a foreign state witl1out pern1issio11 of tl1e United States gover1lll1e11t, accepti11g e111ploy1ne11t for a foreig11 governme11t wl1ere an oatl1 of allegiance is reqt1ired, voti11g i11 an electio11 i11 a foreign state, desertio11 in time of war, committing treaso11 and departing fro111 tl1e u·1uted States with the intention of avoiding military service. 3 3 Tl1e U11ited Sta.tes S11preme Cotirt l1as tipheld tl1e power of Congress to provide for loss of citizenship b)' voti11g in a foreign election, 3 4 but has held that it is unconstitu­ tional to deprive a perso11 of his citizensl1ip for desertion 3 5 (he could, of co1use, be punish­ ed for desertio11) or for leaving the United States witl1 the intention of avoiding military servjce 36 (again, st1ch a person could be pu1ushed, but not by loss of citizenslup). Certain provisions deali11g witl1 loss of citize11ship by natt1ralized citizens were declared 11ncon.­ stitt1tional, since tl1ey \Vere not applicable to citize11s by birth. 3 7 These are illustrative o:f the provisions relating to loss of nationality contained in the laws of otl1er nations. As stated previously , no such provisions exist in Ethiopian law. It n1ay be that st1ch provisions would be inconsistent with the concept of Ethiopian nationality and the desire to prevent the statelessness of any Ethiopian, no matter wlaat be has done. As the law now stands tl1en, Etl1iopian nationality can only be lost by tlae v0luntary acquisitio11 of anotl1er nationa1ity or the obtai11ing of a.nother nationality by marriage or legitimation.

The Nationality Law makes it very easy for a11 Etliiopian. who has lost Ethiopian nationality to reacquire it. All that is necessary for a person who has lost Ethiopian nation­ ality by acquiring another is for him to return to Etluopia and to apply to the Imperial G·overnment (presumably to the Ministry of Interior) for re-admissio11. Tl1ere is no dis­ cretion to deny the application. So too, a woma11 who l1as lost l1er nationality through marriage to a foreigner may re-obtain Etl1iopian natio11ality t1pon dissolution of the marri­ age by divorce, separation or deatl1 if she becomes domiciled in Ethiopia and applies for re-admission. As pointed 011t earlier, a child born of an Ethiopian mother in a lawful marriage who takes on the qationality of the foreign father may reacq11ire Ethiopia11 nationaljty by living in Ethiopia and divesting hjmself of tl1e paternal nationality.

Apparently this is not applicable to a child wl10 acquires his fatl1er's 11ationality tl1rot1gl1 30. These sections cover the crimes against tl1e Constitutional Charter, violations of tl1e civil rigl1ts of others and attacks against liberty.

31. Nationality Law of 1945, Article 99.

32. Nationality Law of 1945, Article 100.

33. United States Code, Title 8, Section 1481.

34. Perez v. Brow11ell, 356 U.S. 44 (1958).

35. Trop v. Dr,lles, 356 U.S. 811 (1958).

36. Ke1 1nec!y v. Me11cloza-Marti11ez, 372 U.S. 144 ·(1960).

37. In Sc/111eider v. Rr,sk, 84 S11pre1ne Cortrt _Repo1 :te_ r 1187 (1?64�,. it ,v� s beJd �l1_at Congress could not constitutionally provicle tl1at a naturalized c1t1.zen lost �us c1t1zen�b}P by res1dmg for � hree yeID:s in the cotintry of his birth. Tl1e court emJJbasized tl1 �t n �tive born c1t1;2ens were not subJect to this restriction and I1eld fbat the discrimination was so unJustifiable as to violate dt1e process.

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VoL. W A L N 1A r 1o 1-1 r E F o L JoURNA

II - No. 1

on rs pe is considered e tli d, r ui ac re is y lit � na tio 11a q ian an legitimatio11. Where Etl1iop 11· t10 za al 11r at by an tl1 er th ra h . � ? .

Etl1iopian subject by birt . . . . to te iis de ine n� t1o_nality. m 1s th e prin 1ple 0[ JU:,;; sanguzr � v. llo fo ian op hi � In su1nmary, Et ts, e11 pa e tl1ou_gh foreigners, ios wl 1a h10 Et � 1n rn bo en ild � ch of n tio cep ex Witl1 the possible � . cl 1 18 fully satisfactor y. oa pr ap s thi s, t1p gro n p1a h1o Et Tl1e are of the same eth11ic stock as ssne�s- There are provi sions tel sta o: t ali ion nat al � du t ven pre to s f trie w ity La __ National ca� only be lost by lit1 : 1o1 nat .

1an op Eth s. ner � eig for of 11 tio liza ura .

11at � ng to tl1e relati _ n, btit atio itim leg _ once lost, . taking on another natio11ality or through marriage or Etl1iopian nationality is not difficult to regain. On the \vhole, the Na.tio11al1t y Law of 1930 seems well-suited to Etl1iopia's present needs.

Distinctions between Ethiopian Subjects by Birth and by Naturalization Such legal distinctions as exist bet\veen subjects �y birth and s11bjects by naturaliza­ _ tion are fou11d only in tl1e area of politica1 rights. Article 38 of the Revised Constitution provides tl1at there sl1all be no discrinlinatio11 a111ongst Ethiopia11 s11bjects ,vith respect to tl1e enjoyn1ent of all civil rigl1ts. A civil right is defi11ed u11der Article 389 (2) of the Civil Code as 011e, the exercise of which does 11ot imply a11y participatio11 in the govern­ ment or admi11istratio11 of tl1e country. 38 Tl1ere are some limitations on the exercise of political rigl1ts by naturalized subject.

Under Article 95 of the Constitution, only Etlliopian subjects by birth may vote for candidates for the Cba1nber of Deputies. So too, under Article 96, Deputies must be Ethiopian subjects by birtl1, and under Article I 03 Senators m11st be Ethiopian subjects by birth. There is no requiren1ent that j11dges be Ethiopian st1bjects by birtl1 or even that tl1ey be Ethiopian subjects. 39 U11der Article 67 of tl1e Co11stitution, no one may be a Mi11ister u1tless his parents were Ethiopian subjects at tl1e time of his birtl1; if they ,vere not, it is immaterial tl1at h.e was an Etl1iopian subject by birth. There is 110 requirement, l1owever, tl1at his parents be Ethiopian subjects by birth, so that the child of naturalized parents is eligible to be a . Minister as long as they were naturalized at tl1e time of his birth.

With these exceptions, there is no distinction between Etl1iopian subjects by birth and by naturalization.

Distinctions between Ethiopian Subjects and Foreigners.

In every nation there are distinctions between nationals and foreigners both in tern1s of enjoyment of rights and performance of d11ties. While this is true i11 Ethiopia as well, the distinctions are s11ch tl1at it is clear that there is no attempt to impose serious disabili­ 40 This spirit is refl upon ties foreig ners. ected in Article 389 of the Civil Code ' ,vliich pro. v1des as follows: (1 ) Foreigners sha11 be fully assimilated to Ethiopian subjects as regards the enjoy­ ment and exercise of civil rights.

(2) All rights the .e�ercis� of which does 11ot imply any participation in the govern _ ­ ment or adrrurustrat1on of the country shall be considered to be civil ngl1ts . shall affect sucl1 special conditions as may be prescribed (3) Nothi�g in this Article regarding the granti_ ng to a foreigi1er of a permit to work in EthioJJia. -----38. Rights w�ch imply such participation ma y conveniently be called politic al rights.

39· The r�qll!1'ements for appointment to the judiciary are set fortl1 tl1e Revised in of 111 Art · icle Const1tut1on.

40. It is interesting to note that under the Administration of Ju aril Ne g 194 2, sti ce Pr of oc lam ation Gaz�ta, J�nuary �1,. 19 �2, the courts are Pr hibited from sh har ma kes giv ing � effect to an y law that . and 1nequ1table d1stmct1ons between Eth1o p1ans and foreigners.

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AN INTRODUCTION TO LABOUR DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Article 389, of course, must be read in light of the other provisio11s of the Constitu­ tion a11 � Code that do .make distinction � between Ethiopian subjects and foreigners. _ .

The m �n statt1tory rest �1ct1on 1s �l1at foreigners may not own immovable l)roperty here except 1n . accordance_ w1tl1 Imperial Ord�r.4 � Tl1is is also applicable to rigl1ts of usage for a �er1od exceed111g fifty years or a like interest ter1ni11able 011 death.4 2 A foreig 11er roust d1s �ose of such property to an Ethiopia11 withi11 six months; othenvise the property will be seized and sold by tl1e competent at1thority.4 3 Articles 389-393 are the only articles of the Civil Code s_pecifically deali11g with foreig11ers.

The otl1er disti11ctions betwee11 Ethiopian s11bjects a11d foreig11ers are contai 11ed ir1 the Constitt1ti?11.. Of co11!se, foreig11ers cannot vote or l1old political office. U11der Article 47, every Etl11op1an subJect l1as tl1e rigl1t to engage in any occupatio11; tl1is is not true of foreigners, as tl1e provisio11s of Article 389 (3) of tl1e Civil Code i11dicate. 4 4 01uy Ethio­ pian st1bjects have tl1e rigl1t of : peaceable assen1bly 4 5 and tl1e right of unrestricted move­ ment tl1rot1ghout t11e Empire.4 6 No Etliiopian subject may be banisl1ed from the Empire, 4 7 a rigl1t that, of co11rse, can11ot be accorded to foreigners. Fi11ally, no Etl1iopia11 subject may be extradited; otl1ers may be extradited only as provided by a11 international agreement such as an extradition treaty.4 8 Witl1 tl1ese exceptions, all other rigl1ts guaranteed by the Constitutio11, st1ch as equal protection of tl1e laws, freedom of speecl1, due process, petition to the Emperor and all the guarantees afforded to criminal defend­ a.nts, are given to foreigners as well as subjects. In this con1 1ectio11, it sl1ould be noted that foreigners are exempt from military service. 49 All in all, it is clear that foreigners in Ethiopia enjoy full protection of tl1e law and most of the rights enjoyed by subjects.

At this juncture a word should be said about the other provisions of law relating t0 foreigners. The Fo1·eigners Registration Proclamation 50 requires all foreigners re:Sid�11t in the Empire to register with the appropriate authorities within 30 days of arrival. 111 Addis Ababa they must register with the Director of Public Sa·fety; elsewhere they must tiiegister with the Superintendent of Police. This is applicable to all persons above tl1e age of sixteen. The registration must be re11ewed annually.

At present tl1ere is 110 comprehensive law relating to the deportation and expulsio11 of foreign ers. When tl1e Minister of Interior decides that any foreigner is an undesir­ able immigrant, l1e is to notify the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who may ca11cel his resident per111it. Then, the Minister of Interior is to arrange for the deportation of the for­ eigner. 51 Under Article 154 of tl1e Penal Code, the cot1rt may order the expulsion fJ"om the Empire either temporarily or permanently of a foreigner who has been convicted of crime and has been, sentenced to a term of simple imprisonment of three years or more, or who is a habitual offender sentenced to inter11IDent, or who is an irresponsible or partial­ ly responsible offender recognized by expert opinion as a danger to public order. 52 It 41. Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 390. Likewise, foreigners may not be 1nembers of a Farn1 Workers Cooperative. Farm Workers Cooperative Decree, Negarit Gazeta, October 27, 1960.

42. Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 393.

43. Civil Code of Ethiopia, Articles 391-2.

44. For the law with respect to the issuance of work pern1its to foreigners see Order 26 of 1962, Cl1apter VI., Negarit Gazeta, September 5, 1962.

45. Revised Constitution of Ethiopia, Article 45.

46. Revised Constitution of Ethiopia, Article 46.

47. Revised Constitution of Ethiopia, Article 49.

48. Revised Constitution of Ethiopia, Article 50.

49. The duties of Ethiopian subjects and others are co11tained in Article 64 of the Revised Constitt1tion.

50. Proclamation 57 of 1944, Negarit Gazeta, April 29, 1944.

51. Proclamation 36 of 1943, Negarit Gazeta, April 30, 1943. Tl�is act goyerns in1migration.

52. In such a case the court should consti.lt the competent public authority.

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VOL. \1/ A L N IA I' IO I-I T E F O JOURNAL

II - No. l

\1/0t1ld be desirable if Parlia1ne11 t would e11act a co111prehe11siv� !av,, relati11g to de . por ta. t oi . de d. ordered E11 5 1 o pers for review dicial 1 erger1 tio11 and providir1g for jt c � y ! situatio ns � � _ · . co11ld be exclucled. 111 an)' eve11t, at prese11 t_ fo! e1gners are t: ot ,tdv� sed_ of � l1e c11c un1stances . in ,,,1 1icll tl1 ey ca1 1 be deported except as 1nc1de 1 1t to p11111sl1me11t f 01 c11me.

No'"' that we l1ave co11sidered tl1e JJrovisions of tlie !aw relatii1g to Etl1io1Jian na­ tio11ality a11d tl1e stat11s of foreig11 ers, let us tur11 011r attent1011 to tl1 ose perso11 s who, while 11ot citize 11 s of Etl1iopia, are domiciled l1 ere.

DOMICILE Meanin Tl .. 1e .. · o0 of Domic1·1e: Domicile and Residence Defined A perso11's reside11ce is tl1e place v.rhere l1 e l1as l1i� I1�bitatio11 ; legally, r� side1: ce mean� the place wl1ere a perso11 11ormally resides. 5 3 I1: Etl1 1 op1a, ,,,11e 1 1 a persoi:1 l1ves 1n a place _ 54 J for tl1ree rno11tl1s, l1e is deen1ed to have l1is res1clence tl1ere. W 11le residence may have legal sig1lificance for certai11 IJllrposes, e.g., local jurisdictio11, it is 11o t, on tl1e \vhole, a sig11 ifica11t legal contact.

Domicile differs from reside11ce in two respects. First, do11 1icile is a u11itary conceJ)t ; ,l perso11 rnay l1ave severa.l reside11 ces, 5 5 bt1t only 011e domicile at a given ti 1ne. �6 The latter sta ten1e11 t n111s t be taken to n1ea 1 1 that l1e n1ay 011ly l1ave one domicile at a tin1e ir11cler t/1e /a1v o_f a particzrlar state. As we will see, differe 1 1t states l1ave differing con­ ceptio11s of don1icile. Etl1io1Jia 1nay fi 1 1d tl1at a 11erson is don1iciled i11 Etl1iopia in accorclancc ,vi tl1 tl1e JJrovisions of tl1e Etlliopia11 Civil Code; France 1nay find that t he san1e JJerso11 is don1iciled in Fra11ce 1111der the provisio11s of tl1e Frencl1 Civil Code. 5 7 Witl1 tl1is qt1alification, hovvever, a 1Jerso 1 1 can l1ave 011ly one do1nicile 3.t a give11 tin1e.

Seco 1 1cll)', do1nicile de11otes a11 eleme11t of JJer1na11e11cy; it is the place ,vl1ere a person resides a11 d l1a.s establisl1ed l1is interests with tl1e intentio 11 of living tl1 ere '' 1Jer1na11 ently'' a term ,,d1icb also ]1as cliffere11 t n1eanings. B11t \Ve ma.y say as a ge11eral pro1Josition that don1.icile reqt1ires residence in a JJarticl1lar place co11pled witl1 tl1e intention to live there '·JJern1ane 1 1tly''.

Dontlcile u11der tl1e Civil Code Ar ticle 183 of tl1e Civil Code provides tl1at ''tl1e domicile of a perso11 is the place ,,,here s11ch person l1as establisl1ed tl1e principal seat of I1is b11sir1 ess s s a 1 1d of l1is interesl \Vith tl1e i 11 ten.t ion to reside there JJerma11 e11 tly. '' We m11st define the word ''permane11tly" i 11 tltls co11 text, a 11d it is subrnitted tl1at ''permane1 1tly'' should mea 11 ''for a11 indefin ite period of time.'' v\111at 11 1ay be called a ;'floati11g i11te11tio11 to rett1rn'' sl1011ld 11ot be suffi53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 174.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, A rticle 175 (2).

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Ar ticle 177 (1).

Civil Code of Etluopia, Article 186.

Eacl1 stat� must de�ide \vhere a person is dorniciled in accordance law. As the 1-ligh its own witl l �ourt po1nt�d out 10 _Kokkinos v. K��kin�s, Civ[l <;ase No. 477/52: ''Tlle fact tliat the: petitioner 1na)' �tt Greek l�\\ be considered as dom1c1led 1n Eth1op1a under article 54 of tile Greek Civil Code does in no \Vay unply_ tllat h� 'Yould l1a�e to be considered as dom Ja,v. icil ed t o Etl1iopian acc her ord e ing _ As ]ready rneat1oaed, 1t 1s Etl11op1an law alo y esle An ne n tlia t re ; det erm Jn ine s thi als s point." See o [ 19--61 1 Cha�7�ery 692, where the Cou.rt of Appea l held tha t a Britisl1 subject ,vas donuciled in Fra nce 11nde� tl1e Br1t1sh conce�t�on of donucile, though under Fre ve ha to ed nch dee m law slle be �o \Vo t uld acquired a French donuc1le.

58 . The term "business'' sl1ouId be construed to m ea n employn1ent.

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NATIONALITY, DOMICILE AND THE PERSONAL LAW IN ETI-IlOPIA

cient to preve11t a person from a�qujring � do�icile l1_ere. For example, ]et 11s assuine that a Greek merch�nt �omes t� Eth1op1a, br111gs his fa1ruly with him, and invests substa11tial amounts of cap1tal 111 a bus1ness. He plans to retur11 to Greece when 11 e retires. He sl iould be considered do1niciled in Etl1iopia, as his i11tentio11 is to ren1ain i11 Ethiopia i11definitely.

This i11te�p�etation of �omicile is_ b11ttressed_in Etl1iopia by tl1e provisions of Article 184 of the C1v1l Code, which provide as follo\vs: (I) Where a person l1as his norn1al reside11ce i11 a place, I1e shall be deemed to I1ave the intention of residi11g pern1ane11tly in suc]1 place.

(2) An intentio11 to tl1e co11trary expressed by sucl1 i:>erso11 shall not be taken i11to consideration t111less it is sufficie11tly precise, a11.d it is to tal<e effect on tl1e happening of an event ,vhic]1 will nor1na]ly J1a1Jpen according to the ordi11ary course of things.

For example, if a perso11 came to Etl1iopia to work on a five year contract, intending to lea,,e after tl1e expiration of tl1e five years, he would 11ot be do1niciled in Ethiopia, tbo11gh be l1as his residence l1ere. The inte11tio11 to leave is s11fficiently precise and will take place upon the happening of a definite event i. e. the expiration of the five years. In the case of S/1atto v. S/1atto, 59 the Supreme Imperial Court co11str11ed Articles 183 and 184 and concluded that ''permanent'' meant for an indefinite period of time. The person v.1bose domicile was in question was a ''safari outfitter,'' carrying on l1is private business here, and had been resident in Ethiopia for six years. The High Court (with one member dissenting) denied 11is petition for homologation of divorce on the ground th.at he was not domiciled here, as he might some day leave the count1·y (he was an American citizeR); therefore, it concluded th.at he did not ''intend to live in Ethiopia perina:nentfy." In re­ versing the decisio.n, the Supreme Imperial Court held that ''the majority was c©rtainJ!y wrong to foresee too 1nucl1 the future.'' Since he was residing in Ethiopia ana h.ad lllis1 business here, the presumption of A.rticle 184 applies; in the absence of clerur e·videne@ of contrary intentio·n, tl1e pres11mption was not rebutted, and he ,vas deemed d.omiclled in Ethiopia. To the same effect is the case of Zissos v. Zissos, 60 involving a Greek national who had lived in Ethiopia for some years and whose business was here.

The approach toward domicile under the Civil Code is vastly different from the earlier approach, at least as evidenced by the holdi11g of the Supreme Imperial C?� rt in the case of Pastori v. Aslanidis, 61 decided before the Code. The perso11 whose do1D1c1le was in question was a Greek national who came to Ethiopia in 1910. He established a business here and was married here. He made a n11mber of visits to G·reece during that time and went there when he was seriously ill; he ret11rned to Ethiopia after he was cured.

The court con.eluded from his testamentary will that he intended it to be gover11ed by Greek law, since it would be valid under Greek law, but not 11nder Ethiopian law, and since he directed that it be exec11ted by tl1e Greek consul i11 Addis Ababa.

The court held that he wa s 11ot domiciled in Etlriopia. It said that the test of wl1etl1� r a person acquired a domicile wa s whether ''he intended to make t�e ne\\' cot1ntry . �s permanent home in s11ch a way as to detach himself completely fro1n l11s country of origin and from its laws and customs an d to s11bject l1imself permanently, as regards personal law, to the laws an d customs of the ne w country." In followi11g what is apparently tl1e British approach the court emphasized the fallowing: (1) length of'residence, eve 11 though' continuo11s, is not sufficient to establish a change of domicile·' Civil Appeal No. 784/56, I Journal of Ethiopian Law 190 (1964.)

60. Civil Appeal No. 633/56.

61- Civil Appeal No. 338/47.

S9.

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11r e11 of proof req uir e tl1 a11 � d, ve � pr b ly � ar cle st mu e ? cil mi do ed �_ (2) change of e 1� tll 1an . case of a don1ici tl ter ea gr 1s 11 1g1 or of e cil nli do e tl1 m fro ge _ le to s11ow a cl1a11 evid_ence to s110\v that t t ien c i uff t n s \Va re tl1e t � tl1a ed ? lud nc co urt co e he of cl1oice. Th 1 p_ l1as 1 zed tJ1_�t l1e co11�inu e en It .

JJ1a 110 Etl i11 e i cl1o of e cil mi a do d ire qu c a. � d perso11 had _ .

1 to acq1111e a11 Etlliopia 101 e11t 111t the ve ha not did s thu and e 11er '' life ,:v of k ay ree ''G IJis n dornicile.

The result wot1ld clearly be different ·under tl1e Code. He l1as bot}1 l1is busi11ess and l1is 11ormal residence i n Ethiopia. The presumptio11 tl1en is that l1e was don1iciled in Ethio­ pia. The i 1 1te11tio11 to return to Greece was ''floati11g'' at best, a11d there_ was 110 fixed event, upon tl1e J1a1J1Je11i11g of wl1ich l1e vvould retur11 to �reece. 111 f�ct, he died I:ere. Therefore, tl1ere would be 110 evidence to rebut t]1e pres11n1pt1011 t]1at l1e 111.te11ded to live l1ere per ma­ ner1tly, and today sucl1 a person would be considered don1iciled in Etl1io1Jia. Ethio1Jia's policy, as evidenced by Articles 183 and 184 of_ t�e Cod.e and tl1e inter­ pretatio11s the courts l1ave put upon tl1em, favors a finding of do1ruc1le wl1en a person lives and works l1ere. This insures tl1at foreig11ers residing l1ere a11d having their business or ernployme11t here sl1all be deen1ed to be Etl1iopia11 do111iciliaries absc11t a clear and precise intentio11 to tl1e co11t:ra.ry. 6 2 011 tl1e other l1a11d, tl1e Code does 11ot require tl1at a perso11 mt1st J1ave spent any partict1lar amot1nt of tin1e in Etl1iopia in order to acquire a don1icile l1ere, as lo11g as tl1e necessary intent is prese11t. Presumably the Etl1iopian courts \Vot1ld reach tl1e same result i.n a case suc]1 as JV/1ite v. Te11nant 6 3 as did the An1erican state court that decided the case. TJ1e 1Jerso11 wl1 ose do111icile was i11 q11estion sold l1is l1ome in State A and moved to a 11ew hon1e j11 Sta.te B . with his v.1ife. Previot1sly l1e l1ad shipped some 1novable pro­ :perty to State B. I-Ie was i11 State B about a day \v]1en l1is wife becan1e ill. He took her ba.ck to State A, where sl1e ,;vould stay \Vitl1 relatives i11tendi11g to i111n1ediately return to State B; the wife wot1ld retur11 to State B when l1er healtl1 improved. Tl1e husbat1d died suddenly \Vl1ile still i11 State A. It was held by tl1e court in State A that l1 e had acquired a domicile in State B. He l1as his residence there, was physically prese11t there, and had tl1e inte11tion of living tl1ere pe11nanently. There was a concurrence of reside11ce and the i11tentio11 to live tl1ere pern1ane11tly. Since tl1ere is 110 requirement tinder the Code that a person have l1is reside11ce i11 Ethiopia for any period of time, the same res11lt shot1ld be reacl1ed in Etl1iopia. l\1oreo,,er, tl1 ere is no requirement under the Code that tl1e person have a fixed place of abode i11 Ethiopia. U11der Article 177 of the Code, a person n1ay have several residences.

The term ''nom1al residence in a place,'' as used in Article 184, should ref er to residence in Ethiopia. ra �her tl_ 1a11 res�dence in a particular part of Etl1iopia. So, if �l person lived part of tl1e time 111 Addis Ababa, part of tl1e time i n Gondar and part of the time i n Jin1ma, staying in hotels in eacl1 place, he should be deemed. do;niciled in Etl1iopia, 64 En1pire. he does 11ot have a perma11ent of residence i11 tl1ougl1 tl1e any part 62. No formalities are required to obtain an Ethiopian domicile.

63. 31 West �irgini� Rep?rts 79?, 8 Southeastern Reporter 596 (1888).

64. For cases 1nvolv1ng this question and l1olding that the person acquired a domiciled in t11at stat e, see Mc:rks v. 1\rlarks, 75 Fee/era! Reporter (U.S. Circuit Court, Te,znessee) 321 (1896); and Winans v.

W111a11s,. 205 Ma.ssacht1setts Rep�rts 388, 91 Northeastern Reporter 394 (1910).

Article 1_85 of �e Code pro�1d� that where a person performs the in a pla� cal ling his wo of r. k and pc_tss�s his family or social life rn another place, lte sha ll in cas to have h15 dee e me be dou of d bt dom1c1le rn t� e latter place . �uch a sitl.}ation confronted two Am on pers the wh ere eric _ an cou sta rts, te _ que \vhose_ dom1c1le was ID stion had his b�siness in State A and lived with !:tis fanlily in State B. T!1e court 1n State A held th at he was donu_ c1led there, Jn re Jersey ,&Jui�Y Do rra ,rce 's Ne Est w ll5 ate . , Reports 268, 170 Atlant1 c Reporter 601 (1934); the court in d icile dom in Sta te wa B s hel d that he State B, l�t re Dorrance , s Estate, 309 P_en'!sylva11ia Repo (1932), 303 _ rts r 151 , Re 16 po 3 At rte lan tic .

The question 1s clearly resolved ID Eth1op1a by the prov isions of Article 185 .

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The intenti�n un�er Articles . 1 �3 and 18� �ust be tl1e intention of living i11 Ethiopia rather tha1;1 .the 1ntent�o?- o_f acq�1r1�g � dom1c1le. These sections would preve11t a person from acqwr1ng � donuc1l� 1n �th1op1a s1mp�y by renting a room l1ere while actually living else where. Consider the s1tuat1on prese nted 1n a case Sltch as Kirby v. Town of Charleston. 6 s for legal purposes the party wanted to acquire a domicile in State A. He rented a hotel room there, but never used it and co11tinued to live in his l1ot1se in State B. It was held that his domicile remained in State B, as l1e 11ever had tl1e i11tention to live i11 State A. The same result wot1ld be reached u11der Article 183 of tl1e Code,. si11ce i n such a situation there was 110 intention to live here perma11e11tly.

Article 187 deals \Vitl1 tl1e problem that arises whe11 a person has left his former domicile with tl1e intentio11 11ot to retur11, but has 11ot yet acquired a new domicile. Let us say that a Greek 11ational who l1as been domiciled in Ethiopia decides to retur11 to Greece and live there permanently. I-le leaves Ethiopia, but dies before he reacl1es Greece.

The question is where he was domiciled at the time of death. He has abandoned his Ethio­ pian domicile, but has not yet acquired a Greek domicile, since he was not pl1ysically present there - the i11te11tion a11d pl1ysical presence have 11ot coincided. 111 such a situa­ tion English courts have l1eld tl1at tl1e person reacquires his domicile of origin, that is, his domicile at the time of his birth. 6 6 This may be a relic from colonial days when man.y Englishmen were domiciled in the colonies and were retur11ing home in their old age. When such a person died, if he were found domiciled in England, English law rather than colonial law would determine the distribution of his estate. The American courts, on the other hand, have held that the person retains his former domicile until he acquires a new one. 67 Ethiopia follows the latter approach; under Article 187 of the Civil Code, a person retains his domicile in the locality where it was established until he establishes bis domicile jn another place.

A married woma11 has the domicile of her husband as long as the marriage lasts u.nless he is affected by judicial or legal iI1terdiction; 68 it is not possible for her to acquiire a separate domicile, 6 9 though she may acquire a separate residence. 7 0 An ub.emancipatec minor shall hav·e the domicile of his guardian, 7 1 though he too may acquire a separate residence. 7 2 An interdicted person retains his domicile at the time of llis interclictio11 7 3, though he also may acquire a residence of his own. 7 4 In summary, the law is very clear witl1 respect to tl1e acquisition of Ethiopian domicile. Persons having their normal residence here are presumed to be domiciled here unless this presumption is rebutted by clear evidence of contra1·y inte11t, and tl1ei� leavi•1g Ethiopia is to take place upon the happening of an event that i� likely to occur. This � e � ns that persons living and working here for an indefinite time will be l1eld _by _the Ethi_op1an courts to be domiciled here. The fact that the law is clear has great s1g111ncance 1n the 65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

99 Atlantic Reporter 835 (New Hampshire Supreme Court 1916).

Udny v. Udny, [1869] Law Reports, 1 Sc. & Div. 441.

111 re Jones, 192 Iowa Reports 78, 182 Nortl11vester1i Reporter 227 (1921).

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 189.

T h' e recent trend in the United States_ and in som� other countries ha� been t� p�r�t the wife to acquire a separate domicile even during the �ont1!111ance of the marriage. Ethiopia s approach to domicile is the same as her approach to nat1onal1ty.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 178.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 190.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 178.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 190.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 178.

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determi11ation of tl1e q11estion of tl1e gover1ri11g perso11al law, to wb_ich we now turn our atte11tio1 1.

Tl-IE PERSONAL LA\V Tl1e N·ature of tl1e Problen1

1 1 1 all leg,tl syste1 ns certain q�estio11� are d �te1�n �11ed by tl1e JJerso11al la_1:v· By pers oiia l law "''e 01e a11 tt1e lavv of a state ,v1tl1 whicl1 a1 1 1ndiv1d11al J1as some co11nect1on. Tlie court 11111st decide ,vllicl1 lavv de !er1nine�s �atte�·s �f a perso11's �tatus - does_ he have �h� ca1)a city to 111 arr)', vvhat are tl1e r1gl1ts of his cl11ldre11 a11d tl1e like. The law that_ dete1m111es such q11estions is called J1js perso·nal la,v. In n1an y st�tes personal la,v det_erlll111es all questions of successio11 to 1 novable property. '"fhe quest1011s that are deter1111n�d by perso11al lavv are fo1111d in eacl1 state's rt1les of l)riv ate i11ter11atio11 al law, or co1Ifl1ct of laws, a s it is son1etin1es called.7 5 It is tl1at law which decides what state's law is looked to for tl1e JJer­ s011 al law, e.g., tl1e l,1,v of the state of wl1icl1 tl1e perso11 is a u a. tio1 1al or tl1e law of the state wl1ere the perso11 is do1niciled.

The l)roblem is con1JJlicated i11 Etlliopia by the fact tl1 at at present the private inter11atio1 1al lavv l1as 11ot bee11 codified. Tl1e provisio1 1s of tl1e draft Civil Code deali11g with private i11ter11ational la\v were 11ot i 11clt1ded in the fi11al e1 1actme1 1t. 7 6 U11til s11ch ti1ne as tltis codifica tion takes ])lace, tl1e qt1estion ,vill l1ave to be determined by ca se law. Before co1 1sideri1 1g tl1e Etliio1Jian cases 011 t11e s·ubject, let us look at tl1e approacl1es otl1er 11 ations ba.ve taken to this questio11.

Approaches to,, 1ard the Governing Personal La," Three distinct a1J1)roaches l1a.ve bee11 taken to,vard tl1e qt1estio11 of gover1ung JJersonal la,v, wl1icl1, for ])L1r1)oses of converue11ce, n1a.y be called the civil law ap1Jroacl1, tl1e com­ mo11 l aw approacl1 and tl1e Lati1 1-Americ a11 appro[tcl1.

Civil lav\' cot11 1tries 11ave by a.11d large adopted 11,1tio11ality as tl1e goverrri11g personal la,v, tho11gh so.n1e are tur1ung toward domicile. For example, Article 3 of tl1e French Civil Code pro·vides th::1t ''the lavv1s relati11g to tl1e conditio11 and privileges of persons govern Frencl1me11, altl1ough residi11g i11 a foreig11 co11ntry;'' and tl1e Fre11cl1 rules of private i11ternation,1l la,v hold that tl1e perso11al law of foreigners residir1g i11 France is the 1a,v of tl1eir nationalit)'.7 7 Article 17 of tl1e Italia1 1 Civil Code J)rovides tl1at ''the status and capacity of persor1s and fa1nily relationships are gover11ed by t]1e Ja,v of tl1e State to w11ich the J)ersons belo11g. " 7 8 To the sa1ne effect is Greek l,1w7 9, Ht111garia11 law 80 , t tha s cou11trie Bt1lgaria11 l,1'1118 1 , and the la,v of 1na11y other EtLropear1 1d 1 a co11ntries · e1 nploy the ci,,il law. s 2 75. It .has ?een l1eld in Etl1iopia, as we will see infra tl1at personal Iavv governs questions of status aod succession to movables.

76. David, A Civil Code for Ethiopia, 37 Tulane Lc1»1 Revieu1 187 (1963).

77. See the discussion i11 Planiol, Treatise on tire Ci1 il La1v 181 (English Tra 11s. 1959).

78. See tl1e discussion in M 'cCt1sker, The Italian Rules of the Confljct of Lavvs ?5 T11lane Lall' Review 70, 75 (1950), 79. See tl1e discussion in Nicoletopoulos, Private International Law in the New Greek Civil Code, 23 Tulane La1v Revie1v 452, 455 (1949).

80- See the discu�sion in Drobing, Conflict of Lavvs in ltecet1t East Euro1Jean Treaties ' 5 A111erica11 Journal of Cornparat,ve La1v 487, 489 (1956).

81. lbicl.

82. See 1 Rabel, 11ie Conflict of La1vs: A Con1parati11e Study 113-115 (2d r ske Cu Mc also ed · 1958) · See supra, note 78.

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I � examining the reasons for us �g nationality, we find that such reasons may be .

1ustor1cal, may follow �rom the theoret1cal may be quite practical.

11ature of the system, or _ _ Jn_co �m �nt1ng on ltal1a11 law, one ��1ter observed 8 3 tl1at the retention of tl1e 11ationality principle �� Italy unde� tl1e 1942 C1v1l Code _ was due to two reasons, one historical, the other pol1�1cal. He J?0111ts �ut tl1at !he nat1011ality principle was most fully developed _ by an Italian, Manc1111, dt1r1ng tl1e t11ne of Italy's t1ni:fication. Mancini's thesis was that and not territorial, tl1at it is made for a give11 people and 11ot for a given law is personal territory8 4 • 111 otl1er words, a perso11 carries bis 11ational law witl1 hi1n irrespective of where he resides.8 5 Tl1us i11 perso11al matters, 11ational law ratl1er than tl1e law of do1Jucile governs. The political reason, accordi11g to tl1e author, lies in the ''i11tensely 11ationalistic doctrines of more tl1a11 twenty years u11der Mussoli11i." He s11mmarized tl1ese doctrines as follows: ''It would be a11 abdication of sovereignty if a State renounced its right to govern its 11ational who has e1nigrated; conversely, it would be a violation of the sovereignty of the emigre's nation if tl1e rece.ivi11g nation should apply to the emigre laws not made for him; fi.11ally, legal ties of tl1e emigre with l1is fatherla.nd contribute to bis fidelity to national i11stitutions. '' In other words, it \Vas strongly in tl1e i11terest of Italy to bind Italians living abroad

by Italian laws; reciprocity demanded that the same treatme11t be accorded to foreigners far fewer in number - who happe11ed to reside in Italy.

Anotl1er author, commenting on Greek law,8 6 poi11ts out that Greece has a large number of nationals who emigrate to variot1s parts of the world (there is a substantial number in Ethiopia) and that, therefore, ''no reason could be strong en@ugh to lead to the abandonment of the nationality system, the co·ntinuation of which was conside:red as a measure of self-preservation.'' This desire to control the personal status of natioE.aJls residing abroad even takes precedence over consistent adherence to political ideology. for example, treaties between socialist states such as Hu11gary a11d Bulgaria retain ]la­ tionality as the basis of personal law. One writer, commenting on this treaty, 8 7 says that the reaffirmation of the nationality principle is ''astoundi11g'' and inconsistent with &ocial­ ist theory. He ask.s ''is not the application of this or that form of socialist law to a conrrade of this or that socialist state rather irrelevant.'' While the result could be explained on the basis of the ''inviolable sovereignty of eacl1 socialist state,'' nonetheless, it seems that the desire to control nationals residing abroad is great, even if they are residing in other socialist states.

Finally, nations witl1 a la.rge number of 11ationals residing abroad may fear that the personal status of these persons will be gover11ed by an alie11 legal system, with alien ideas, particularly as to marriage and the family. One writer, in pointi11g ot1t \Vl1y BelgiL11n, The Netherlands and Luxembourg have followed the 11ationality syste1n, 8 8 observes that ''many Eastern countries have quite differe11t co11ceptions of marriage and pare?,t­ _ He says that wester11 sta�es sl1ot1ld 11ot acce� t b1gn1ay or the like cbild relationships.'' . as legal for its citizens domiciled in those nations; consequently, 1t must l1old tl1at the personal law should be that of nationality rather tl1an domicile.

83. Mccusker, s11pra note 78, at p. 72.

84. See the discussion of Mancini's theory in Stt1mberg, Cases 011 Co11flicts 5 (1956).

85. The only exception would be \vl1en the public policy (ordre public) �f �l1e state whe_re a pers�� resided demand ed that its law be applied. Tht1s, A� ticle � of the Frencl1 <?1v1l Sode provides that the la,vs of police and public security bind all the 1nl1ab1tants of the terntory.

86. Nicoletopoulous, s1,pra note 80, at p. 455.

87. Drobing, st,pra note 80, at p. 496.

88. Meijers, The Beneltix Convention on Private International Law, 2 A111erica11 Jo11rnal of Co111parative La•v 1-2 (1953).

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ted op ve t1d nality as l1a io at · n 11s tio 11a y a11 1n at tl1 e es tl1 as ch stt the It is for reaso11s oasis of perso11al law. . .. . . tl1e d 1:J d ite an St�tes to adop n gla En led ve � ha � 1s io1 rat de 11si co of e . typ e _ sam T}1e t cts i co11fl lavv followecl th.

11 1ca ne1 -A1 glo An .

Jaw 1al so1 per of is bas e 1 tl as e · -1 . donuc1 . e t t · . es a I lpet� s in la!er tim � its gre · �ive t b r, b Hu by ped elo � � dev t firs � , ory the ty iali itor terr es 8 11ce of_ tl1e territoriali by tl1 e writings of Joseph Story, an. American Jurist : . Tl1e esse ty f tl1at 11ation, � � tlleory was that tl1e laws of eacl1 nation l1a� fore� w1th1n tl1e . ?ou11dar1e _ btit 110t witho·ut. Persons did not carry tl1e1r national law w1tl1 then1 , Iather they were subject to tl1e laws of tl1e state wl1ere tl1ey lived. Consequently, �he gov�rnin � perso11al law was tl1at of a person's domicile - tbe. place wl1ere be was with the 1ntent1on to re­ main - ratl1er tl1an bis 11atio11ality.

Moreover, tl1ere were comparatively few Englisl11ne11 residi11g outside of E11glai1d except for tl1e colonies. Ai1d Engla11d controlled tl1e 1 7�al syst�m i11 the colo11ies; thus, sl1e could insure tl1 e applicatio11 of English law to Br1t1sl1 nationals where she deen1e d tllis desirable. Likewise, by using don1icile as tl1e governing personal law, the An1erican states exercised co11trol over the large 11umber of foreign imm_igra11ts; few A111ericans are domiciled abroad, eve11 today.

A 1111n1ber of Lati11-An1 erican states follow a mixed system. Local law is applied to foreigners domiciled there - to tl1is extent they follow tl1e common law approach.

However, 11atio11al law is used to gover11 the personal relatio11s of their 11ationals domiciled in otl1er countries. With variatio11s, tl1is approach is take11 i11 Cl1ile, Colombia, Ecuador.

Costa Rica, El Salvador, Peru, Ve11ezuela and Mexico. 90 This accomplishes tl1e goal of civil law cou11tries, 11amely, co11trol of 11atio11als domiciled ,tbroad.

The proposed. Fre11ch Draft on Private Internation,11 Law, wllich l1as 11ot yet been adopted, would modify the traditional approacl1 by providing that foreig11ers domiciled in France for n1ore tha11 five years \vould l1ave their stat11s a.nd capacity governed by Frencl1 law. Fre11chme11 don1iciled elsewl1ere would contin11e to be s11bject to French personal la\v. 9 1 Such an approach is suitable, perhaps, for a co1111try l1avi11g a large number of its citizens domiciled abroad, and a large nu1nber of f· oreig11ers don1iciled tl1ere. Still, it can­ not help but ca11se ill-will ,1mong natio11s; if a 11ation believes that personal la\V should be that of nationality for its 11atio11ality domiciled abroad, tl1en it sl1ould not deny to other natio11ality tl1 e same control over their citizens that it purports to exercise over its o\v11.

The Governing Personal Law in Ethiopia As stated previously, tl1ere are no statutory _provisio11s de,1ling with perso11al la\v i11 E!hiopia. In �lie past, judicial decisions ha.ve go11e both ways 011 the qt1estion, some . _ l1old1ng na.t1011al1ty a11d others l1old111g domicile to be the basis of ()erso11al la\v. Of the cases dealin� wit� tl1e question tl1at are known to tl1e author two lfigl1 Court decisio�s 9 2 the et1tl1e gov �eld that 11at1o?al1ty was erni ng pers on. a l law .

In Verg Ant inel o11ia la ni, v. �_ _ t1oner, an Ital1a11 �ubJ�ct ad1nittedly domiciled i11 EthioJJia, sought a decree of jud1 c1al _ separ�t1on fro� his �1fe Tl1e institution of judicial separation, a.ccordi11g to tl1e cour t, : d was �ot �nown 1n E�hiop1a re n law .

Tl1e ord cou e rt l1el d th,1 t a11d Ital ian Jply law sllo a tild _ 1 tl1e Jud1c1al separation. Its reasons for applying Italian law were as fol lows: 89. See the discussion in Sturnberg, supra note 84, at p. 3.

90. Nadelman, The Question of Revision of the Bustrnante o11al 11ati J111e r of Cod e Jou 57 rna A 111er l ican · ' Law 384 (1963).

I 91. Article 27.

92. Civil Case No. 905/50.

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tl1e petitioner was an Italian subject; the resp�nde nt was also an Italia11 st1bject; tl1e marriage was celebrated i11 accorda11ce with Italia11 law• !l1ere was no pr?vision in Etl1�op�an law dealing with judici�l separatioii; and �t \Vas t�e practice of t?e Eth1op1a11 co�rts_ to apply principles of foreign lav.: 111 matte1.s betwee11 fore1g11ers wl1ere Eth1op1a11 Jaw makes 110 provision for the matter.

This reasoning i �11ores_ t_l1e f�ct tl1at tl1e l)�ti_ tio11er was domiciled in Ethiopia; more­ over, tl1e �e-sult of this de�1s1011 1� tl1at tl1e pet1t1oner receives a remedy in Ethiopia that _ is. not available to Eth1op1an subJects.

A11ot�er case t� !he s�n1e e �ec � is Katsoul �s . v. Kats·o-,,,lis, 9 3 wl1ere the parties were Greek nat1onals do1111c1led 1n Etb101)1a. The pet1t1011 er sought a divorce on grou11ds of desertion. The court l1eld tl1at the case sl1ould be decided according to the n:tional law o·r the parties and ordered a divorce ba.sed 011 the Greek Civil Code. 111 the cases of At1clria111pa11a11a v. Anclrian1pa11ana9 4 , a11d Zervos v. Zervos, 9 s the court did not reacl1 the question, since tl1ere was no co11flict betwee11 Ethiopian law (the parties were do1niciled l1ere) a11d the law of tl1eir 11ationality; tl1e petitio11er was e11titled to a divorce u11der the law of either state. It sl1ould be noted tl1at all these cases were decided prior to the effective _date of the Civil Code; as we will see, 11nder the Code tl1e cottrts will not t1sually take juris­ diction to decree a divorce.

Two Supreme Imperial Court cases, on the otl1er hand, have held that domicile should be tl1e basis of perso11al law. In Yohannes Prata v. W/T Tsegainesh Makonnen, 9 6 the court was cont·ronted \Vitl1 a sitt1ation of an Italian national who died domicilea im Ethiopia. He was married to a woman in Italy a .nd left children by her. He lived witn an Ethiopian won1an and also left chlldren by her, who would be considered illegitim.ate unde,r Italian law. Und.er Italian law illegitimate childre11 cannot inherit from �he fatifu.�.r.

Under Ethiopian law tl1e· concept of illegitimacy is unknown. All children inherit equally from tl1e father, as lo11g as paternity is establisl1ed, and here paternity was admitted.

If Italian law-the law of nationality-were applied, the Italian children alone would Italian in.herit. If Etl1iopian law - the law of doniicile - were applied, all children, : and Ethiopia11, would share equally. The Supreme Imperial Court held that domicile was the basis of personal law a11d applied EthioJ)ian law. The English version of the judg­ ment states tl1e following: ''Now the personal law may be either the la\v of nationality of the deceased or the law of J1is domicile at tl1e time of his death. There is 110 enacted law in Ethiopia to lay down which of these two laws is to be followed and decided cases 11ave not been consistent in following one law or the other. The recent trend of jurisprudence, how­ ever has been in favour of the law of domicile. In our opinion the law of domicile is n{ore adequate to govern the juridical situations and relationships ¥iven ri� e. to by a person wl1 o has established his domicile i11 a particular country w1t��ut g1v1ng u· p his original 11ationality; we consider, therefore, that the la\V of dom1c1le should be the law governing all matters of personal status."

This case was followed and applied i11 Alfredo Pastori v. "Jvlrs. Asla11idis a11d George Aslanidis,91 which held that the questio11 of proprietary rights between husband and (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

93. Civil Case No. 250/51.

94. Civil Case No. 441/52.

95. Civil -Case No,. 154/52. . .

96. Civil Appeal No. 638/49.

97. Civil Appeal No. 338/47.

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JOURNAL OF ETI-IIOPIAN LAW - VOL.

II - No. l

er th ra le ici than tl1 e law 1n do l ia on rim at m e tl1 of w la e th by of wife was governed nationality. 98 1 e 1d th u1 s so es 1es a of str on em emp�oying , � rl la cu rt � pa , se ca a at � Pr e th � l t i lt su re Tile _ ge e1 lar a mb i1t1 is e er:_ of Th 1a. fore ign ers 1op Eth in law al 1 so1 per of sis ba the _ as domicile 1 n ny l1ave ail ers ign for to le t spi l1o y ver � chos en "? is ia iop 1 � � Etl :1 domiciled i11 Ethiopia; _ are the J to often greater than n ope s t1 uru ort opp ? the ere \Vh e, l1er � ._ to spend their lives 011s d 1ct1 l st11 leg e the , lier ear saw we As � � _ betw ity. nal atio 1 1 ir �11 Ethi o­ the j 11 tI1e country of _ 11s do1:111c1led_ 111 1a iop Eth r ew far r a. re The � . few � other are ers ign � pians and fore cou1 1tries. Tl1e foreig11ers domiciled l1ere live their lives _I1ere, e1:gag e 111 � us1ness here , marry and produce cl1ildren here. Etl1 iopia l1as a strong interest 1n r�gulat111g the status of tliese perso11s a11d the succession to their 1no�able property. A. pr111 1e reason for con­ tinental 11ations employing nationality as the bas1� of perso�a� la\v 1s tl1at they have many n1 ore 11atio11als residi11g a broad tl1a11 tl1ey do fore1g11ers doIDJc1led tl1ere a11d wa11t to control the status of tl1eir nationa.1s. In other words, the rule as to gover1u11g law is in 110 small part fasl1ioned 01-1 tl1.e basis of tl1e interest of _tl! e country apJ?lyir1g tl1e rule. Etl1iopia should protect its ow11 interests a11d tl1us use domicile as tl1e basis of personal law. As poi11ted out earlier, do1nicile is easily determined under tl1e provisio11s of tl1e Civil Code; there­ fore, 11atio11ality sl1ould 11ot be chosen 011 the ground that it is easier to determine than domicile. 111 surnmary, it is st1bmitted that the courts of Ethiopia shot1ld hold tl1at the JJersonal law sl1ould be the law of tl1e place \Vb.ere a perso11 is domiciled rather than the law of the state of wl1icl1 J1 e is a natio11al.

Tl1ere is a collateral qt1estion, \vhicl1 relates to t}1e circun1stances u11der \vhicl1 the courts of Etlliopia \viii take jurisdictio11 to deternu11e matters of fa1nily status such as djvorce. Tl1e courts l1ave l1eld tl1at tl1ey \Viii not take jursidiction unless one of tl1e parties is domiciled l1ere. 111 Jiallock v. J{allock, 9 9 tl1e JJarty seeking a divorce was a11 American employed by Etl1iopia11 Airli11es. He was l1ere on a term contract a11d was domiciled in the State of Alaban1a in tl1e U11ited States. He conte11ded tl1at under the law of Alaban1a reside rice in the state for at least one year \Vas sufficie11t to confer jurisdictio11 on tl1e courts to issue decrees of divorce. Tl1 e Supreme Imperial Court quite correctly held that what tl1e Alabama courts \Vould do was irrelevant i11 Etl1iopia. Tl1e court held tl1at in the absence of legislatio11 by Parliament establishi11g residence as a basis of jurisdiction to divorce, the court \.Vould require that at least one of tl1e parties be domiciled in Etl1iopia. Co11seque­ ntly, the petition was dismissed. The same result was reacl1ed in Kokl,i11os v. Kokki110s, 100 where the court fou11d that the petitio11er was not don1iciled i 11 Etl1 iopia. In a 11umber of otl1er cases, tl1 e court, i11 taking jurisdictio11 , empl1asized that at least one of the parties \vas domiciled l1ere. 101 It should be poi11ted out tl1at 110w the l1usband 1nust be domiciled i11 Ethio1Jia, since un.der the Code the wife's domicile follo\VS that of tl1e husband as long as the 1nar.riage sub:;ists. 102 Since tl1e courts will take jurisdiction only on the basis of domi�i l e _and siuce_it appars that_ do:11icile will be the basis of personal law, it follo,vs that 1 n divorce actions only Etl11op1an law will apply. of ons reaso n �h� re is also a procedural wl1y th.is provi sJ1oul si d be so. the ·u·nde r _ the C1v1l Code cases of ?-ivor�e mt1st be l1eard initially by tl1e family arbitrators ratl �er . _ tha11 the courts. D1ffi cult1es ar1s111g out of ma.rriage n1ust first be subn1.itted to tl1e fanuly 98. Not � that in that case the court f011nd. th at the parties were not domiciled in Et11iopia. See the dis­ cussion, supra note ?.1 and accompanying text. Under the provisions of the Civil Code they woul d now be found dom1c1led here.

99. Civil Appeal No. 249/50.

100. Civil Case No. 477/52.

• 101. Vergi!1el1a v. Antoniani, supra note 92; Katsoulis v. Katso Andria mpanana v ulis , si,p ra 93; not e ��rtampanana, SlfP'Cf note 94; Zervos v. Zervos, supra note 95.

102. C1v1l Code of Eth1op1 a, Article 189.

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NATIONALITY, DOMICILE AND THE PERSONAL LAW IN ETHIOPIA 103 and the role of the court is to decide whether or not a divorce has b ors, arbitrat 104 As the Supreme Imperial Court pointed out in the case of W/ o Jaman::� ed. ounc pron 1o5 /: ue an Am e old W ra fer Amare v. Ato Te ''As. regards the ques�ion �f divorce, the Civil Code l1as establisl1ed certai 1 1 rules which must be complied w1tl1. l11 tl1e first place, tl1e Civil Code I1 as establislled a body of perso °:s called _tl1 e f �mily arbitrators �o whom all difficulties arising betwee11 the spouses during n1 ar1tal life m11st be submitted .... Petitions for divorce mtist be subn1 itted to the fanlily arbitrators; and 11 1 1til sucl1 time wl1en tl1e petition for divorce has_ been_ s ubn1itted to tl1e family _a1· �it1:at?rs and wl1en the latter have pronounced _ their dec1s1on, the Court has no JUr1sd1ct1 on to deal with divorce· the Court can , l1owever, decide ,vhetl1er or not a divorce l1 as bee11 pronounced by 'tne arbitrators. !

The Code n1akes 11 0 provisio11 for special treatn1 ent for persons not domiciled I1ere, and the court sl1ould 11ot read a 11 exception for them into it. It would be unso11nd for the court to appoint family arbitrators or to proceed to hear the case in the absence of family arbitrators; 106 as tl1e court pointed out in the case of Kokl,inos v. Kokki11os, 1 o 1 it is more reasonable for such perso 1 1s to petition tl1e courts of their domicile for the divorce.

In su.mmary, the courts will not hear a petition for divorce unless the l1usband is domiciled in Ethiopia; note that if the husband is domiciled here, the wife is also. Divorce in Ethiopia must be handled by tl1e family arbitrators rather than the court. Of course, Ethiopian substantive law n1ust be applied by the family ar'bitrators. If the courts used nationality as the basis of personal law in divorce actions between foreigners domiciled here, it would have to by-pass tl1e family arbitrators. It is difficult to see why t,he courts should do so; for the reasons i 11dicated previously, foreigners domiciled here shol!l1d me subject to Ethiopian law rather than to the law of their nationaljty. If thiis aipprroaclli: is followed, there will be no question of applying foreign law in a divorce action. Jurisdicti©n to divorce then exists only on tl1 e basis of domicile, and under tl1e Code divorce must be pronounced by tl1e fan1ily arbitrators rather than the courts.

CONCLUSION In this paper an attempt has been made to discuss the Ethiopian law relating to nationality, domicile and the governi11g personal law. The Nationality Law of 1930 sets forth the conditions for the acquisition and loss of Ethiopian nationality. The Civil Code clearly defines domicile and demonstrates legislative intention that foreigners residing here and having their business or employment here shall be deemed Ethiopian domicil­ iaries absent a clear intention to leave Ethiopia at a definite time in the future. The recent trend of decisions would indicate that domicile is to be the basis of personal law, whicl1 is very sound in view of the large 11umber of foreigners domiciled here. At such time as private international law is codified, a provision to the effect that don1 icile is the basis of personal law should be included in the codification.

103.

104.

105.

106.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Articles 725-728.

Civil Code of Ethiopia, Article 729.

Civil Appeal No. 101/56.

However, in some circumstances, where the appointn1ent of family arbitrators is impractical, the court may decree the divorce. Forti v. Forti, Civil Case No. 174/55. In that case the whereabouts of one of the parties was t1nknown.

See also Zevi v. Zevi, Civil Appeal No. 1109/56, where the Supreme lm�erial Court l1�ld that the majority of the arbitrators had erred in denying the divorce. Therefore, 1t confirmed instead the report of the minority of the arbitrators granting the divorce.

107. S11pra note 100.

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- 181 -

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CURREN.t ISSUES

CIVIL COpE ARTICLES 758-761: SIDE ISSUES (Pater11itJ' claims bar.red by Article 761 of t/1e Civil Code: T/1 e proble111 of substiti,re re,nedies.) . .

INTRODUCTION .

Some members of tl1e Etlliopian legal professio11 are co11cer11ed about the severity of our codified law of filiation wllich has been comprehensively restated in Workines/1 Bezabih v. Yide11ekou, recently decided by the Supreme Imperial Court and reported in Volume I of the Journal of Ethiopian Law (1964) at page 17. Rathe. r than adding to that lu.minous opini9n, �Ins note is concerned predo1ninantly with certain side issues raised by the situation of a deservi11g motl1er-claimant who does no.t satisfy the strict conditions required _by Article 758 of the Civil Code for a judicial declaration of the paternity of her child. The text below constitt1tes a succinct analytical explo1·ation of the fo]lowing question: What remedies, if any, may still be available in sucl1 a situatio1.1 witl1 respect to (I) J>aternity, (2) damages, a11d (3) aliments? . , ·· ..

PATERNITY There are 110 remedies with respect to a declaration of paternity ttnder Article 758 of the Civil Code in circumsta11ces other tl1an those of rape or abduction. Article 761 expressly prohibits the consideration of other circumstances, e.g., sedu'ction or a.dmission (see also tl1e prohibitions under Article 721 of the Civil Code). Ren1edies, if any, available to a claimant denied recovery under Articles 758-761 of the Civil Code may lie not wit], respect to a declaration of paternity, but with respect to offences, faults, or acts whicl1 are n9t grounds for a decla.ratio11 of paternity. .

Co11sequently, we have to explore, ozcttside the domain of declaratio11 of patern;ty, the possibilities of giving red.ress to a claimant failing o.r likely to fail in l1er suit for a declaratio11 · of paternity of her cluld. There is ample scope for such: redress a11d precede11ts in its favour exist abroad·. Some 1;emedies may lie clearly in Tort (see the disct1ssion belO\\' under Da111ages), \1/hile others are arg1.1ed for, witl1 scant clarity, by the protagonists of ''alimentary'' or ''q11asi-alirnentary'' redress (see the disct1ssion below under Ali111ents) .

•

DAMAGES .

If the defe11dant's condt1ct, 11ot amounti11g to abductio11 or rape (Articles 558 at1cl .

589 of the Penal Code), constitt1tes a sedt1ctio11 in terms of Article 596 of tl1e Penal Code _ or co11stitutes any other pe11 a1 o_ffence, a claim for damages can be based on A ticle 2035 r of tl1e Civil Code.

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JOURNAL OF ETIDOPIAN LAW - VOL.

II - No. 1

;,r consists of con reI me ult fa 's nt da fen de e th ce, en off an to ng duc If without amounti t n l txc ?

Ar sed ba 203 b can of ges ma � da the Civil � for � im cla a s, ral mo od go to a�y ntr co n of s sio thi ver l1 gl1s En Article is Wron e Th ns. sio ver nch Fre and . 1'ts Amharic C0de in g should '' read Y l't '' 1 g ra mo o IC d 1· ? m orals.'' in that ''offence'' sl1ould read ''fault'' and ''pub 1· . e 0� a 1notr1er-cl�rm�nt de cas the r e�e he w ss dre -re age dam ow all � nied Article 2030 will it. mer �ut for of m 1mu m1n a ws sho -761 758 �cat1on alone, s icle Art er recovery und im cla any (Article 721 of the und gro to t ien ffic insu is ct, u d. con ble ma bla t er withou oth Civil Code).

In appropriate cases, moral damages may be award_e� over a_11d above the_ material ones on the basis of either Article 2107 or 2114 of the C1v1l Code 1n the Amharic-French versions. The English version of both seems wrong: (a) (b)

Article 2107 (compare 2038) deals with a ''repulsive'' variation of what should perhaps be termed battery rather than assault.

Article 2114 in the French version, speaks not of assault but of ''atteinte a la pudeur'' �nd (apart from rape) of ''acte contraire a la pudeur." It also quite clearly con.templates moral reparation, wl1icl1 the Er1glish version does not.

Article 2114 requires a penal conviction prior to damage-awards. So the French master-versions of the Civil and Penal Codes 1night have to be collated to find the penal counterparts for this provision, without which its object, moral damages, cannot be attained. Such counterparts should presumably be sought in Articles 590-595 of the Penal Code dealing with ''sexual outrage.''

Wl1ere the defendant,s illegal or immoral conduct ( e.g. an unfair seduction) was due to his inte11t to injure, Article 2106 (compare 2032) of the Civil Code may alone suffice to ground a claim for moral damages.

ALIMENTS Can redress be given i11 the form of aliments or (maintenance,) under Article 808 of the Civil Code? Tl1e answer clearly is in the negative, unless the required relationship (in our case paternity) is specifically established in the ways prescribed. Tl1ese ways are more limited in Etl1iopian law than in the French law, which recognizes , for example, seduction or admission as sufficient grou11ds for a declaration of paternity (see French Civil Code, Article 340, as of July 15, 1955). Two points remain for discussion: (a) Even ,vithout the establishment of paternity, Frencl1 courts sometimes impose an �lim�1:tary obligation by circuitous methods (see Encyclopedie Dalio!, Dro1t C1v1l, Tome 1, Aliments, No. 63-77), which we shall now illustr ate in terms of Ethiopia11 law. A defe11dant's conduct not amounting to the formal acknowledgment required by Article 748 of t]1 e Civil Code but oth erwise clear­ ly recog1rizing his probable paternity (state1nents, acts of �upporting tl1e child, etc.) may be alleged to constitute an actionable novation of a non-a ctionable n1oral . obligati�n to maintain the cl1ild. Moral obligations are recogruzed as to their defensive effect by Article 2166 (I) of the Civil Code. But we could _ ha�dly imply an acceptance and conclusion of tl1eir novation in view of 11!e str 1ct requirements of Articles 1682, I 826, and 1828 of the Civil Code. Still more questionable are some French decisions which eve in the abse 11ce of n sue� ''novatioi:s, '' awa d compensation in the nat r_y enta alin 1 qua si� ure of (revisable) obl1gat1.ons 10 cases of non-establisl1ed pat e edi lop c (E1 1cy ernity - 186 -

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CIVIL CODE ARTICLE

758-761:

SIDE ISSUES

Dal/oz, ibid., No. 13, including further reference). The aforementioned cir­ cuitous methods of alimentary relief are widely criticized as illogical (e.g..

Mazeaud, Lerons de droit civil, Tome I, No. 963. See also No. 982). They would be exceptionally disruptive in Ethiopia in view of the recent restrictive purposes clearly and mandatorily expressed in Articles 761 and 721 of the Civil Code, and whose change, therefore, lies in the power of the legislator alone by the interpretative canons of the Common Law, the Continental Law and the Ethiopian Law alike (Article 1733 of the Civil Code a fortiori: see G. Krzeczunowicz, ''Stat11tory Interpretation i11 Ethiopia), I Journal of Ethio­ pian Law (1964) at page 318).

(b)

In Ethiopian law the only effect given to 11on-legal (notorious) filiation is that of Article 584 of the Civil Code, which does not concern aliments. But Articles 745 and 708 of the Civil Code (concerning irregular unions) greatly facilitate the establishment of presumptive legal filiations which do carry alimentary duties in terms of Article 808 of the Civil Code.

CONCLUSION

A mother-claimant who does not satisfy the requirements of Article 758 of the Civil Code has no other possibility to obtain a judicial declaration of paternity of her child.

Her substitz1te remedies are: (a)

in fit cases, to claim damages for material and/or moral harm to herself;

(b)

where the intercourse has initiated an ''irregular union," to claim aliments for the child (not for herself: see Article 711 of the Civil Code). (since in such case the child ''has a father'' Article 758 becomes inapplicable even if there was rape). Sl1e l1as no other possibility to recover aliments.

By: George Krzeczunowicz Professor of Law, Haile Sellassie I University

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