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JOURNAL OF ETHIOPIAN LAW

Pt1blisl1ed twice annt1all)' at tl1e fact1lt1 of La\XI of Iiaile Sellassie I U11iversity (to be cited as: 1 J. E'fH. L.) 1

EDITORIAL BOARD

Justice Belatcl1ew 1\s rat, Cl1air111a11

Ato Nirayo Esayas

Dr. Pl1iliIJIJe Oraver1

Dea11 Jan1es C. N. Paul

Ato Negga Tesse111a

Ivl r. Robert

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EDITORIAL STAfl:;· l'vlr. Ro.bert A. Sedler, Ma11ag·i11g Eclitor for Aclmir1istratio11 Mr. Ste\rer1 Lo\ve11stei11, Ma11agi11g Eclitor for Coi1rt Re1Jorts Mr. Tl1ornas 0. Rose, Cottrt Re1Jorti11g Eclitor Mr. \Y/. La\Xrre11ce Cl1urcl1, Press Editor J\I\ r. O,ve11 P. CyIke, Bt1si11ess l\1a11ager Ato Wor1d \Y1osser1 Iiailt1, La11gt1agc ,\ssista11t ..

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JUBILEE

PALACE

ADDIS ABABA

It is ,vitl1 great satisfactio11 tl1at We witness tl1e publication of the inaugural '

issL1e of tl1e Jot1r11al of Echiopia11 Law, ,;vl1icl1 rnarl{s still anot11er step forward in tl1e legal developme11t of Ot1r country. Dt1ri11 g Our reign we l1ave been pleased to see tl1e Constitt1tion a11ci the otl1er lav. s wl1icl1 We l1ave proclaimed, the in1plemen­ 1

tation of tl1ose laws and tl1e moder11izatio11 of tl1e legal system, all of wl1ich l1ave proceeded i11 ligl1t of Etl1iopia's ricl1 legal l1eritage begi11ning f ram the Fetl1a Negast. Since, as We 11ave observed, Etl1iopia's rapid progress de1nands the services of a large nu111ber of legal experts, a Fact1lty of Law l1as !)een established to educate persor1 s capable of insuring the effective application of the law. We l1ope tl1 at furtl1er progress will be acl1ieved by tl1e creatior1 of a law jour11al con­ tainu1g reports of the decisio11s of Our cotrrts a11d co1nn·1entary upon tl1 e law of Ethiopia.

Law is a t1nifying force in a nation; 011e of tl1e goals sougl1t to be attained by the enactme11 t of moder11 codes ancl other legislatio11 is that the law be u11iform tl1roughout tl1e E1npire. Wl1ere rl1e 1nea11ing of provisions of tl1e law is doubtft1l or a questio11 arises tl1at is 11ot express!,, covered by the law, it is necessary that the courts interpret tl1e law and decicle t1pon its application. Tl1ese jt1dgments of the courts 1nust be l(nown to all engaged i11 tl1e administration of jt1stice and tl1e study of the law. The pt1blication of cot1rt decisions will serve to make the law more certain, and tl1us will be a valuable contribution to the legal system of Ethiopia.

Tl1 e Codes, tl1ot1gh drawing in part on foreign sot1rces, were drafted to accord with Ethiopia's needs ancl a11cient legal tradicio11. Tl1e foundation of il1e Codes lies in the feeli11g of tl1e people as to wl1at is jt1st. Tl1is bei11g so, Our courts and V

jl1dges ca1111ot rel1 exclusi,,ely 011 foreig11 s011rces i11 i11terpreti11g the Codes. T11e 1

11atio11al cl1aracter of Etl1 iopiar1 Law den1ancls that Etl1iopia11 Co1n1ne11tary l1pon rl1e law be developed. We l1 ope tl1 at tl1rot1gh tl1 e n1edit1n1 of tl1e Law J011rnal, legal experts, botl1 Ecl1iopian and foreig11, can express tl1 eir views as to rl1e 1neaning of tl1e provisions of tl1e Codes a11 d propose solutio11s to legal problems Jjl{ely to co11fronc Etl1iopia. Tl1 e Law J ot1r11al ca11 serve as tl1e vel1icle by w J1icl1 ,vriti11gs explaining tJ1e law of Et11iopia can be pt1blisl1ecl a11d 1nade available. w·e hope tl1at tl1is Jo11r11al will L1e wiciel·y circ11lated throug11out tl1e E1npire a11d abroad. Law is an insrru1nent for civilizu1g the peoples of the world. We l1 ope tl1at cl1 e p11blication of t11 1s Law Jot1rnal will add to the study of Etl1 iopian Law. And We l1ope tl1at t11is Lav.-· Journal will find its appropriate place in the i11ternational literature of laws.

Ir is, tl1ereforc, witl1 great pleas11re tl1at We i11 augt1rate t11e publication of cl1e .Journal of Etl1iopian Law. W e earnestly J1ope tl1at ft1tt1re publications of tl1is Law .r Ollrnal will give tl1e desired f1-L1its.

I-fAILE SEI�LASSIE I

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TABLE Of CONTENTS Page Inaugural State1ne11t by His Im1Jerial Majesty

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Table. of Cases Reported

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Case Reports

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Articles : Marriage u11der the Civil Code of EthiOfJia

by William Btthagiar Iiierarchy of Laws in Ethiopia

by G. I{rzeczur1owicz

Joir1der of Criminal a11d Civil Proceedings

by Philippe Graven

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TABLE Of CASES REPORTED Supreme Imperial Court

Aval<ia11, Cl1al<e v. Artin Avakian (Civil Appeal No. 1114/5'5 E.C.)

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faco11do, fra11cesconi a11d Ol1ia11do11i -rre11zio v. Pedretto Oi11se[JfJe (Civil A1)1Jeal No. 413/49 E.C.)

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Oetatcl1e\v Oizaw v. Tl1e Advocate General (Crimi11al Appeal No. 95/51 E.C.) \Vorl<inesl1 Bezabil1

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Woz. YidenekoLt (Civil Appeal No. 883/55 E.C.)

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Avakia11, Setrak, I 11 tl1e Matter of tl1e Estate of: (Probate and Ad1ninistratio11 Case No. 107/55 E.C.)

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Jv\a1nmo Yinberberu v. Virgu Abebe (Civil Case No. 454/55 E.C.)

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Tl1e followir1g· are six cases decided b11 tl1e S111Jren1e Imperial and the f-Iigl1 Co11rts of Etl1ioJJia. Tl1e An1l1aric j11dg1ne11t is official a11d al\xrays JJrececles the E11glisl1. It is i1111Jortar1t to note tl'1at i11 tl1ose cases l1earcl before r11ixed l1e11cl-1es of lJotl1 Etl1io1Jia11 and foreigr1 j11dges, two se1Jarate opinior1s are \xrrit­ ter1, or1e i11 1\1nl1aric a11d or1e i11 E11g·Iisl1. Tl1ese OJJir1ior1s are not tra11slations of 011e a11otl1er, b11t are i11cleJJe11der1t j11dg·1nents based 11po11 co1n1nor1 agreen1e11t a1no11g tl1e jL1dges as to the 1Jrir1ci1Jles a11d fi11al 011tcome of eacl1 case. It is l101Jecl tl1,1t the JJL1blicatio11 of sig11ificant decisio11s \xrill be of great val11e to those e11�:agecl i11 tl1e adr11i11istratio11 of j11stice ir1 Etl1ioJJia.

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SUPRElv\E Ilv1PERIAL COURT Div. B

FRANCESCONI fACONDO & OI-IIANDONI rfRENZIO v. PEDRETTI GIUSEPPE Civil AIJfJeal No. 413/49

la7..,• of Obligations - - Agree,nenl in restraint of trade - - Presu1nption of ir11.,,a/idity 1111/ess reasonable to protect proprietary interest - - Reasonableness a question of law.

By Clause VI I of an agreen1ent dissolving their partnership, respondent prornised apJJellants not to Of)en or sell his labour to any \xrorkshop in Dire Da\xra in the future. f-leld: Since this restriction upon cornJJetition is unli111iteti as to tirne and does not purport to afford rnerely reasonable JJrotection to a1)pellants' business interests, it is void. ( Art. 1715 of the Civil Code, \v'hich \Vent in force lv\askara111 I, 1953, after this decision \xras rendered, calls for the san1e conclusion.)

1-Ja111le 1, 1950 E.C. (Jttly 8, 1958 O.C.); Jt1stices: Vice Afer1egt1s I Iaile Marian, Vesl1onel1, Dr. W. Bt1l1agiar, Ato l\l\el<Ltria Dame11a: - - TJ1is ap1Jeal arises ot.tt of the se\1ere11ce of a JJartnersl1i 1J wl1icl1 was establisl1ed for tl1e 1Jur1Jose of run11i11g a garage ;;1t Dire Da\va. �fl1e res1Jonde11t i 11 tl1is case \Visl1ed to be jJaicl ot1t l1is share, ar1d accord­ ir1gl)' a11 agreer11ent of dissolt1tio11 of fJart11ersl1i1J \Vas clra\x, 1 1 UfJ. Clause VII of tl1e saicl agree1ne11t reads as follo\vs: Vil). lv\r. 1 i edrelti binds hin1self not to ope-11 1 in the future, any \x·orkshop

in Dire Da\'\fa for the re1)air of rnachineries and vehicles, or not to be ernployed in any J)rivate \VOrkshoJJ as director, or as an ordinary \xrorker or as partner. lie can only be e1111JloyeLi in Oovernrnent adn1inistrative factories, as the Cotton Factory, or the Franco-Ethiopian Rail\vay Co.

Tl1e res1Jo11dent in breacl1 of l1is agree1ne11t agai11 set ttjJ i 11 tl1e garage bt1si11ess i11 Dire Dawa \Vitl1 a11otl-1er. Tl1e f-ligl1 Cottrt I1eld tl1at Clause VII of tl1e agree111e11t \'1/'as i11valid a11cl that no clan1age could arise. Against tl1is decisio11 the a1Jf)ella11 ts l1ave appealed.

Clat1ses si1nilar to Clattse Vil are co1111nor1ly referred to as co11tracts i11 restrai11t of trade; st1cl1 cor,tracts are co11trary to pttblic JJolicy and invalid 11r1less: - 6 --

(A) the restraint is reasonably necessary for the )Jrotectio11 of the person in

whose interest it is in11Josed;

(8) tl1e restraint is reasonably in the interests of tl1e JJarty restrainecl; ancl '

(C) the restraint is reasonable in the i11terests of the public.

for the purposes of tl1is afJpeal agreeme11ts in restraint of trade may be classified in t,vo l<i11ds: (A) agreen1ents in1posing on one of tl1e JJarties restrictio11s in tl1e exercise of his calling after the ter1nination of part11ership or a[Jprenticeship articles or co11tracts of service; ancl (8) agreements by )Jersons selling the goocl will of a business not to carr)'

on a si111ilar business so as to con1pete \vith the purchaser.

All agreen1ents of tl1is l{i11d are prima facie void as bei11g co11trary to pt1blic policy, for it is co11trary to JJublic fJolicy tl1at a JJersor1 sl·1ould be restrai11ecl frotn disposing of his labour a11d his capital freely a11d to tl1e best adva11tage, his busir1ess ir1 tl1e 111ost profitable \Vay. Bttt some a11d fro1n conducting •• restraint 1nay also be justified by jJublic policy. Nobody \XIOL1ld btty tl1e good will of a bt1si11ess t111less l1e could prevent tl1e vendor from at once setti11g tip a competir1g busi11ess 011 l1is ow11 accot1nt. A master wo11ld be discouraged from taking apprentices a11d e1nrJloyi11g clerks and otl1er serva11ts in [Jositio11s of confidence if l1e ran tl1e risl< of tl1e servant or aJJfJre11tice setti11g UfJ 011 his O\vn account next door a11d acquiring tl1e cttstomers of l1is late master. J-Ience, JJttblic policy allo\vs of co11tracts wl1icl1 restrair1 a JJerso11 fror11 doing tl1ese things, to the extent necessary to protect the proprietary rights of tlJe pttrcl,aser or tiJe niaster, br,et 120 more. A11y restrai11t wl1icl1 is greater tl1a11 is reasonably r1ecessary to protect tl1e jJerso11 i11 \xrl1ose i11terest it is ir111Josed is t11111ecessary l1ardsl1ip a11d does 110 good to a11y 011e.

The test of reasonable11ess is consiclerably stricter i 11 cases of covena11ts restraini11g a serva11t's competition tha11 i11 tl1ose of cove11a11ts e11tered i11to 011 tl1e sale of good\X,ill. 011 tl1e sale of a bt1si11ess tl1e jJLtrcl1aser is entitled to be protected fro111 tl1e risl< that tl1e seller may set UJJ a 11ew bt1si11ess to tl1e detrime11t of tl1e old 011e1 a11d cove11a11ts clesigned to preve11t sucl1 con1petition are riot objectio11able if tl1ey are reasonably 11ecessary to secure this JJrotectio11. ''Witl1ot.1 t sucl1 a covena11t, a JJL1rcl1aser wot1ld not get \vl1at l1e is co11 tract­ i11g to bt1y, nor cottld tl1e venclor give what he is i11te11di11g to sell'' - - per Lord Parl<er i11 Morris v. Axelb)' ( 1916) A.C. 688. 011 tl1e other l1a11d, wl1ere a11 en1rJloyer tal<es a cove11a11t fron1 a11 e111fJloyee restrai11i11g the latter fro1n carryi11g on a co111peting bt1si11ess after tl1e terminatio11 of the em1Jloyme11t, ,...

- I -

SL1ch a cove11a11t will 11ot be u1Jl1eld if it is directecl or1ly to tl1e fJreventio,1 of co1n1)etitio11, or agai11st tl1e t1se of tl1e JJerso11al sl<ill a11d l{11owledge acqL1ired by tl·1e em1)loyee i11 tl1e bt1si11ess. It will be voicl, i11 otl1er \Y.1ords, if it goes ft1rtl1er tl1a11 is reaso11ably r1ecessar)' for tl1e 1Jrotectio11 of tl1e 1Jro1Jrietary rigl1ts, st1cl1 as a trade co1111ectio11, or tl1e trade secrets of ll1e e1111Jloyer. A J)t1rcl1aser of a bt1sir1ess is, tl1erefore, e11titled lo protect l1i111self fron1 co1111Jeti­ tio11 per se; a11 e1n1Jloyer is 11ot, for it is cor1trary to [Jttblic iJOlicy tl1at a serva11t sl1ot1ld be restrai11ed fro1n t1sing l1is O\v11 skill and ability i11 com1Jetitio11 \Vit11 I1is late n1aster.

Reasonable11ess is i11 ever)' case a questio11 for tl1e Cot1rt, lool<i11g· at tl1e 11atL1re of tl1e busi11ess, tl1e lengtl1 of ti111e dL1ri11g \Vl1icl1 tl1e restraint is i1111)osed, tl1e area of tl1e restrai11t, a11d all the circL1111sta11ces of tl1e case. But tl1e 011t1s is 011 tl1e 1Jerson for \Vl1ose be11efit tl1e restrai11t is i1nJJosed, to sl10\v tl1at it g·oes r10 ft1rtl1er tha11 is required for tl1e fJrotectior1 of l·1is bL1si11ess. Tl·1e longer tl1e tiine of tl1e restrictio11, tl1e \vider its s1Jace of 01Jeratio11, tl1e greater \Vil! be tl1e difficulty of tl1e covena11tee i11 justifying it.

111 tl1e 01Jir1io11 of tl1is CoLtrt, tl1e fact tl1at tl1e res1Jo11dent was gra11ted reside11ce 011ly in Dire Da\va a111ongst tl1e 500 Italia11s wl10 re1nair1ecl i11 Etl1io­ !Jia after tl1e Restoratio11 i11 tl1e year 1941 0. C. does 11ot i11 itself a1noL111t to a jt1stificatio11 as tc> re11der tl1e agree1ner1t 11ull ar1d void as bei11g a general restric­ tio11 i11 s1Jace; tl1is fact \vas l<r10\vr1 to tl1e res1Jo11de11t \X1l1e11 lie signE>d tl1e agree111e11t \X1l1icl1 lie diet \Villi11gl�)'. 1 11 tl1e 01Ji11io11 of tl1is Cot1rt, l1owever, tl1e restrictio11 goes furtl1er tl1ar1 is 11ecessary for tl1e 1Jrotectio11 of tl1e a1J1Jella11ts' rigl1 ts for t\VO reaso r1s: {A) l)ecause 1he agrer1r1ent bet\veen the ap[)ellants and the reSJ)Ondents \Vas not an agree111enr f0r the purchase of goodix1ill so as to entitle the111 to the [)rotection of their JJrOJJrietary rights and to protect the111selves fron1 con11)e1ition per se: and (1�1 bec;;.11se the restriction is unlirnited in tin1e anc! the aJJ[Jellants have not sho\Vll that this restriction as to tin1e goes no further than is reqnirecl for ihe protection of their business.

for tl1e above reasor1s \Xie !·1old tl1at Clattse VI I of tl1e agreeme11t is null ar1cl void as bei11g in restrai11t of trade. \Ve 1nay also aclcl tl1at tl1e a1J1Jella11ts l1ave �ldduced 110 evidence to show tl1at tl1e 11011-observa11ce of Clause VII 011 tl1e 1Jart of tl1e respondent l1as caused tl1e111 ar1y loss.

We, tl1erefore, disn1iss tl1e appeal a11d confirn1 tl1e judgmer1t of tl1e Higl1 Court. A1JJJella11ts to !Jay res1Jo11de11t Advocate's fee of $100.

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SUPREivlE Il\'1PERlAI_ COURT Div. A Ato GETA TCHEW GIZA\Y/ v. Tl1e ADVOCATE GENERAL Cri1ni11al A1JtJeal No. 95/51 E.C.

Crin·1i11al .lrresponsibility /I rticle 5 22 P. C.

1.

- - Articles 48 ,tnd 49 P. C. - - PsJ chopalhic personalit;y - - Deatl.J sentence, 1

1-\ "constitutional psycho1Jath" \XJho corn111its an offense clue to his inability vis a vis

nor111al inclivid11als to control and restrain in1pulses 111ay not be consiclered critninally irrespon­ sil1le under Articles 48 ancl 49 P. C. 2. Article 48 requires inter alia an absolute inability to regulate cond11ct according to t1nclersta nci ing.

3. ,:\11 abnor1nal or deficient condition" within the 111eaning of f\rticle ,19 11111st be biolo­ gically caused excluding such factors as llJJbringing and at111osphere of living.

11

Vel<atit 3, 1951 E.C. (febrt1ary 11, 1959 0.C.); Jttstices: AfenegLtS Tal<elle \v'olde Ha,x1ariat 1 Dr. W. Bul·1agi,lr, Blatta Bal<e1e IIabte Ivlic!-1ael: - - Tl1is is a11 ap1Jeal agai11st t11e jt1dg111e11t of tl1e J.-Iigl1 Court, \Vl1icl1 fo1.111d tl1e a1J1Jella11t gt1ilty of l101nicide i11 tl1e first cleg·ree a11cl by 111ajority se11te11cecl tl1e a1J1Je!la11t to deatl1; accordi11g to tl1e mi11ority jt1dgn1ent a sente11ce of rigorous in11Jriso11n1e11t for life was co11sidered a n1ore st1itable IJL111isl1me11t in all the circL1111sta11ces of tl1e case.

Tl1e facts ir1 tl1is case are 11ot co11testecl bJ' tl1e a1J1Jella11t; indeecl tl1ere can be 110 dot1bt \vl1atsoever tl1at tl1e aJJjJella11t killecl Liet1te11a11t 1'sigel1 Oeta11el1 by sl1ooting l1i111 i11 the bacl{. Tl1e 011ly clefe11ce in tl1e Jiigh Cot1rt \Y1as, broadly SJJeal<i11g, 011e of i11sa11ity, ar1d ex1Jert \vit11esses \x1ere callecl by tl1e defe11ce to st1p1Jort tl1is jJlea. 1~1,e evide11ce of Dr. Nick: A. Ca1Jotas, tl1e Ivledical Director of tl1e E111a11uel State Me11tal IioSJJital at Addis Ababa, is tl1e rele\1a11t ancl 111aterial evicle11ce 011 tl-1e 1Joi11t. Tl1e co11clt1sio11 of tl1is 1nedical expert, \vl10 l1ad tl1e a1JJJella11t 1111der observatio11, is tl1at tl1e a1Jpellar1t is a ''cor1stitu tio11al 1Jsycl·101Jath''. To qL1ote tl1e ·f11ll -fir1al 01Ji11ion of tl1e ex1Jert, tl·1e aJJ1Jella11t 1 ' 111ore esJJecially belo11gs to tl1e grottjJ of the e111otio11ally 1Jatl1ological 1Jerso11ali­ ties, cl1aracterizecl by clefects i11 tl1e 11a.t11re or co11trol of tl1e en1otio11al or 11 -

affective fur1ctio11 of tl1e 1Jerso11ali ty, i 1 11pt1lsive a 1 1d excitable. Tl1e t1st1al a 1 11ottiit of stress a11d strain (1Jhysical, psycl10Iogical, JJrofessio11al, '111ilitarďż˝, discipli rie') wl1icl1, i11 tl1e average or so-called 11ormal i11dividuals, \xrould not elicit a11y ab11or111al reaction, is' for this l{i11d of cor1stitutio11al psycl1opatl1y, too stro11g/ a11d, owing, eitl1er to tl1e i11creased stre11gtl1 of tl1eir i 11sti11ctt1al drives or to tlie i11ability to ap1)ro1Jriately co 11trol ar1d restrain tl1em - - 111 ay brir1g about a11 ttnusually J)ronot1nced ter1der1cy to yield to i111pt1lses of violence \xrithot1t restrai11t a11d tl111s beco111e da11gerous to society."

Tl1e gro1111cls of a1J1)eal are substa11tially - (a) that the J-iigh Court wrongly interpreted the JJrovisions of Articles 48 and 49 in that it confined itself to the consideration and i11terpretation of the 111edico-legal JJhrase "n1er1tal disease", an expression \'v'hicl1 does not a1Jpear in those articles; (b) tl1at the High Court failed to clistinguish bet\veen abnor1t1alities of the cogn­

ition fron1 those of affectivity, a material element \vhich is both tl1e said Articles 48 and 49;

(c)

\'<1arranted

by

that the I-Iigl1 Court based its decision on the standarcls of a nor111al person, which is contrary to Article 51 and also ignored tl1e finding of tl1e ex1Jert witness and overlooked tl1e definite fincling that the a1Jpellant is a "constitutional psychopath".

Now t111der Article 48 of tl1e Pe11al Code a person is 1 1ot resrJ011sible for 11is acts a11 d tl1erefore 11ot pu11isl1ab Ie if - (i) at the tin1e of the act he \'(fas inca1Jable of understanding tl1e nature or consequences of his act or of regulating his conduct according to such understanding, and (ii) s11ch state is clue to age, illness, abnorn1al delay in his develo1Jn1ent or deterioration of his 111ental fact1lties.

Si111ilarl)' t1ncler Article 49 a JJerso11 is not liable to tl1e f L1 ll pL111isl11nent 1 l,ecause of limited res1Jo11sibility, if - (i) at the time of the act, he \'(fas not fullJ, capable of 11nderstandi11g tl1e nature

a11d consequences thereof or regulating his conduct according to such u11clerstanding, and

(ii) such state was due to a derange1nent of his n1incl or understandino- or an b1 arrested n1ental develOJJment or an abnormal or deficie11t condition.

It is correct \xrhat tl1e advocate for the a1)pellant pointed out' tl,at is, that 11either of tl1ese Articles mention ' 1 1ne11tal diseases''; u11der tl,ese two Articles the irresponsibility or partial respo11sibility of the offei,der is based on t\'(,'0 - 12 -

criteria, that is, the 1Jsycl1ological criterion affecti11g tl1e ir1tellige11ce a11d tl1e psycl1ological criterio11 affecti11g volitio11. \Xll1etl1er these t\xrO criteria for111 JJart of tl1e bra11ch of n1edici11e t1ncler tl1e general headi11g of tnental diseases or 11ot is too tecl111ical a {Joint to settle l1ere; i11deecl it l1as 110 bearing on the fi11al solt1tio11 of tl1e n1atter. It ma 1r be stated, 110\xrever, that tl1ese t\vo criteria l1ave bee11 i11trodttced i11 1noder11 legislatio11 as 1nodern medico-legal scie11ce l1as fou11d it 11ecessary to acl111it tl1e 1Jrinci1Jle of JJartial respor,sibility clt1e to certai11 factors ir1 tl1e ht1n1a11 rnind a11d body ,xrl1icl'l 1Jrod11ce a state or cor1clitio11 11ot an1ou11ting to i11sanit)', bt1t \xrl1icl1 for111 a defir1ite bra11cl1 of 111eclical psycl1ology. lv1ocler11 scie11ce l1as tnade jJrogress i11 tl1e stt1dy of tl1e l1u111an 1ni11d, its (Jowers a11d \x reakr1esses, a11d distir1guisl1es betwee11 ab11or111ality of 1ni11cl, n1er1tal res1Jonsibilit)i, etno tio11c11 i 11stabili ty, gross JJerso 11alit}' cliso rder, ancl so fortl1. Tl1e ter1n ''1Jsycl101Jatl1'' as t1secl ir1 rr1odern scie11ce l1as 11ot really a clefir1ite 1nea11i11g \xrl1ich i11dicates exactly tl·1e state of 1ni11cl or of tl1e 1Jsycological set-Ll!J of a particular person; it is still a vagt1e ter111 and cloes 11ot ir1dicate a partict1lar st.ate of 1nincl or co11clitio11. Ir1 tl,is IJartict1lar case tl1e exJJert e,,ide11ce is to tl1e effect tl1at tl1e ap1Jell,t11t is 1nore i11cli11ed to give way tcJ l1is ir1sti11cts tl1an a11otl1er 1Jerso11 ,xrl10 is 11or111ally' referrecl to as ''normal''. I-Ie fLtlly t1r1clerstands tl1e r1att1re a11d co11seque11ces of l1is acts; l1e is 11ot subject to ,tct on an irresistible i111pL1lse; l1e is sin11Jly i11clinecl to Lise less resistance tl1an a11otl1er [Jerso11 to do \X1 ]1at l·1e 1<110\xrS is wror1g e\re11 l<r10\vi11g tl1e co11seqt1er1ces of l1is acts. It is also clear tl1at tl1is state or co11dition is riot clt1e to age, or illness, or ab11ormal clelay i11 l1is cleveloJJn1e11t or deterioratio11 of l·1is 111ental fact1lties; tl1e ap1Jella11t ca1111ot, tl1erefore, rely 011 absolt1te irres1Jc.)11sibility t111der i\rticle 48 botl·1 beca11se tl1at 1-\.rticle does riot cover tl1e cattses of l1is state or co11clitio11 and also because l1e ca1111ot be said to be absolutely i11capable of co11trolli11g liis acts or regt1lati11g l1is co11duct accorcli11g to his L111clersta11di11g. Nor is tl,ere Lt11cler Article 49 a derar1ge111ent of 1ni11d or t111dersta11di11g or arrestee! 111ental clevelo1Jr11e11t; and tl1e 0111)' 1natter to be cor1siclered is \vl1etl1er tl1ere is a11 abr1orn1al or cleficie11t co11ditio11 \xritl1i11 tl1e mear1i11g of tl1at 1\rticle. rfl1e 1neclical expert statecl tI-1at tl1e t)'IJe of cor1stitt1tio11al jJsycho1Jatl1 to \xrl1icl1 tl1e a1Jpella11t belo11gs is incli11ed, i11 certai11 circt11nsta11ces, to 11 ielcl to impLtlses of viole11ce ,XIitl1ot1t restrai11t, ,vl1ile Sltcl1 circt1111sta11ces \vould 11ot elicit a11:,' ab11or111al reactio11 1 i11 the case of tt1e so called ''11ormal i11dividt1al. Tl1is state or co11clitio11 may arise out of variot1s cat1ses; tl1t1s a jJerso11 \vl10 is 1norall>' 1Jervertecl is 1nore or less i11capable of cor1trolli11g l1is i11sti11cts, bt1t it is t111iversally ackno\xrledged tl1at st1cl1 a JJerso11 is 11ot jJrotected by tl·1e 1)rovisior1s of Article 48 or 49. Article 49 is 11ot i11te11ded to cover a case of \x 1 eal,11tss of cl1aracter \xrl1icl1, l1avi11g regarcl to a r1or111al i11dividt1al, 1nay be said to be ''a11 abnormal or deficier1t co11clitio11." Tl1e cat1se of tl1e ab11or111al or cleficie11t condition, witl1in tl1e mea11ing of Article 49 111t1st be cltte to s01ne biological factor a11d 11ot to st1cl1 factors as t1J)bri11gi11g or atmospl1ere of livi11g. '

Neitl1er Article 48 11or 1--\rticle 49 cover tl1e prese11t case; tl1e ajJjJellant Cot1rt \x,as rigl1t i11 1nt1st be co11siderecl to be 'f11lly res1Jo11sible a11d tl1e IIigl1

- 13 -

fi11di 1 1g !1i r11

g¡t1ilty of i11te11tio11a1 .!10111icide i11 tl1e first degree.

Witl1 regard to se11te11ce, Article 522 of tl1e Pe11al Code JJrovides for tlie sente11ce of deatl1 or tl1e sente11ce of rigorot1s i1nprison111e11t for life. Tl1e facts i11 tl1is case jt1stify tl1e se11te11ce of deatl1. Tl1e a1JJJeal is, tl1erefore, clis111issed Court are confirn1ed. a11d the cor1victio11 and ser1tence of tl1e IIigl1 (Se11te11ce of deatl1 confir111ed by Iiis lr111Jerial Majesty i11 accorda11ce witJ 1 tl1e Revised Co11stitt1tion of Etl1io1Jia, Art. 59 a11d tl1e Code of Cri111inal Procedttre, Art. 204.-Ed.)

-------------

- 14 -

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- 16 --

SUPRElV\E IMPERIAL COURT Div. A Woz. WORKINESI-I BEZABIH & others v. Woz. YIDENEKOU ••

Civil AIJIJeal No. 883/55 E.C. P,tternal Filiation -- Proof of fi!iation -- J)ossession of status -- Articles 740-761, 769-777 Civ. C. RelationsJ1ip of Civil Code to prior custo,nary la'i.v - - Art. 3348 Civ. C.

Where at)(Jellanls have a1J1Jealed fro1n an orcler of the Higl1 Cot1rl allowing res1)011cle11t to call \vitnesses in order to prove 1Jossessio11 of the stat11s of daughter born out of \Vedlock of alleged 111oil1er \vl10 diecl nine years previously and alleged father, recently deceased, fro1n wl1ose estates she \Vishes to claim - Held: Order quashed as respondent's suit does not con11)ly \vith the relevant provisions of

the Civil Code.

l. A child 111usl be considered of 1111kno\vn father unless car)able · of 1:>roving paternity tinder one of the follo\ving r1.1Ies: (a)

a cl1ild has as his father tl1at J)erson who, at the tirne of birth or conceJJtion, was 1narried to the 1nother or was living in an irregular union \Vith the n1other (Arts. 740 (!), 741-745 Civ. C.).

(b) \Vhere lhe lJaternity of a child has not been established under rule (a), then JJaternity rnay result fron1 an acknowledgtnent 111ade in \Vriting in accordance \vith tl1e provisions L)f Arts. 746-757 Civ. C.. (c) \v'here tl1e paternity of a chilcl has not been estalJlished under either rule (a) or rttle (b), tl1er1 JJaiernity 1nay result frorn a judicial declaratio11 which can be made in the case of abductio11 or rape of the n1other in accorclance \Vith A1is. 758-761 Civ. C. 2. Filiation is to be JJroved by records of birth and in default of st1ch records by JJOssession t)f status (f\rts. 769- 77() Civ. C.). Mere rt1mors of filiation do not co11stitt1te possession of stat1.1s; a cl1ild n1ust be treated by the alleged parent as his child and seen to be Sl!Ch by relatives, neighbors and surrounding society.

3. An action to clain1 status \Vhen bro1.1ght by a child must be instit11tecl against the 111other (Art. 777 (2) Civ. C.).

4. Althougl1 c:ourts 1nay proJJerly entertain suits to prove tl1at paternal filiation has been established according to ct1ston1ary la\v prior to the con1ing into force of the Code, they 111ay not hear suits to clai1n possessio11 of status uncler custon1ary law after tl1e effective date of the Code as the agglomeratio11 of facts \Vl1icl1 entitles a person to clai1n JJossession of status did 11ot· constitute a ''legal situation" before enactn1e11t of the Code as requirecl by Art. 3348 Civ. C. A "legal situation" is created \Vhen a cottrt clecicles that certain facts entitle a jJerso11 to the status in qt1estio11.

- 17 -

Tal1sas 7, 1956 E.C. (Decen1 ber 17, 1963 O.C.); Justices: Afe11egt 1s Kita\\:, Yitatel<LI, Dr. W. Bt1l1agiar, Ato 'faddesse Tel<le Oiorgis: - - I 11 tl1is case tlie appella11ts claim to be tl1 e l1eirs of Balambaras Degefe Bezabil1 wl10 died intestate i11 tl1e year 1954 a11d i11stitt1ted (Jroceedi11gs i11 tl1e Higl1 Cot1rt to be declared l1eirs; tl1 e res1Jo11de11t claims to be tl1e dat1gl1 ter of tl1 e deceased born out of \Vedlocl<, l1er 1notl1 er bei11 g Woizero Maniste Tegegt1, \x,110 died about 11i11 e J'ears ago. Tl1e res1Jo11de11t a1Jplied to the Higl1 Cot1rt to prove possession of statt1s as bei11g tl1 e clat1gl1 ter of tl1e deceased, a11d tl1 e Court allowed 4 wit11esses to be called b)' tl1e res1Jonde11 t to IJrove sucl1 statt1s. TI1e appellants are 11 0\X, ap1Jeali11g from tl1e order allo\vi11g the res1Jor1de11t to call \xrit11esses.

Before dealing \xritl1 tl1e n1erits of tl1is apJJeal, it is im1Jorta11t to co11sider wl1at IJrovisions tl 1e 11e\v Civil Code of Etl1 iopia (\xrl1 icl1 came into force 011 Masl,ara111 1, 1953) mal<es as regards n1 aterr1 ity a11 d (Jater11ity a11 d as regards JJroof of filiatio11. In ma11y respects st1cl1 fJrovisio11 s cliffer fu11cla1nenta!IJ' from tl1e rules of custo1nary la\v now re1Jealed by tl1e Code, partict1larly in matters co11cer11i11g 1Jaternity.

As regards n1aternity tl1e Civil Code JJrovides i11 Article 739 tl1at ''mater11al filiatio11 res11lts fror11 tl1e sole fact of tl1e birtl1' \Xfhe11 it is establisl1ed as a fact tl1at a cl1ild l1as been bor11 to a 1Jartict1lar wo1na11, tl1at \x,oman is tl1 e 1notl1er of the cl1 ild; acce1Jti11 g tl1 is fact, Roma11 law l1ad the maxi1n ''n1ater setnper cert a est''. Tl1ere 1nay 1 of course, be cases \vhere tl1e said fact is not clearly establisl1 ed, as wl1 e11 tl1ere l1as bee11 a st1bstitt1tio11 of tl1e i11fant at the ti111e of l)irtl1 , i11 wl1icl1 case 1naterr1al filiatio11 tnay be co11tested.

1

•

As regards (Jater11al filiation, tl1e Ci\1il Code la1,s do\vn tl1ree rt1les, one st1bsidiary to tl1e otl1e.rs, 11a1nely - (a)

a child has as his father that per son wl10, at the tin1e of birth or concep­ tion, \Vas rnarriecl to the rnother or was living in an irregular union \Xlith 111e rnother - - Art. 740 (I) and Arts. 741-745;

(b) \xrhere the JJaternity of a child has not been established under rule (a), ihen 1Jaternity n1ay result fro,n an ackno\vledgn,ent n1acle in \Vriting· in accordance \xdth the provisions of Arts. 746-757; and (c)

\Vl1ere the paternity of a child has not been establishecl tinder either rule (a) or rule (b) then paternity ,nay result frorn a juclicial declaration \x,hich can be made in the case of the abduction or ra1Je of the 1nother in accor­ clance ,vith the JJrovisions of Arts. 758-76 I.

Wl1ere tl1e fJaternity of a cl1 ild I_·1as not bee11 establisl1 ed tinder ariy of t11e _ above-n1e nt1011 ed rt1les, tl1en tl1ere 1s 11 0 remedy for tl1 e cl,ild to establisl1 paternity, and l1e n1ust be co11 sidered as being of ur 1l(tlO\Vtl fatl1er. The Code makes �ro�isio11 for tl1 e case of co �1flict of pater11 ity (Art. 762 et seq.) whicl1 1nay arise 111 cases, e. g. of a 1narr1ed \X1on1a11 Iivi11g also witJ1 a ma11 iii a,1

- 18 -

irregttlar 11111011. But �tpart fron1 cases of sttcl1 a co 1 1flict, f)aternity is establisl1ed strictly in accordance \Vith the tl1ree r11les above me11tioned. Tl1tis in the case of J)aternity establisl1ed ttnder rt1le (a), if tl1e ma11 claims 11ot to be the fatl1er of tl1e cl1ild, l1e 111ay bri 1 1g a11 action to disow11 tl1e cl,ild tt11der Article 782 et seq.; but tl1e law gives tl1e right 011Iy to l1i 1 11 (a1 1d i11 tl1e cases 111entioned in Art. 793 to l1is descenda11ts); b11t if tl1at n1a 11 elects 11ot to bri 1 1g tl1e action to diso\xrn, tl1e 11 110 otl1er J)erso11, 11ot even tl1e cl1i]d a11d the 1notl1er, can bri11g sL1cl1 action. Tl1e la\v also lays do\'X/11 a perren1ptory period \Vitl1i11 \Vhich st1 cl1 actio11 1nay be bro11g·l1t, tl1at is, 180 days. (See Article 792.) So tl1at if tl1e fatl1er does not bring tl1e actio11 or does 1 1ot bri11g it wit11i11 tl1e said period of 180 days, tl1e11 f)aterr1ity \x1ill be as establisl1ed t111der rule (a), a11d it is not permis� sible to addttce a11y evide1 1ce to sl·1ow tl1at st1cl1 JJater 1 1ity does not correspo11d \vitl1 tl1e real facts. Tl1is a 1 1d otl1er rttles concernir1g paternity and mater1 1it)' are in the natt1re of jJf0\1isio11s of fJttblic JJOI icy (disJJOsitions d' ordre JJubliq11e).

As regards JJroof of filiatio 1 1, tl1e Civil Code co11tains provisio11s in Arts.

769-777. Tl1e cardinal r11le is tl1at filiatio11 is provecl by tl1e records of birtl1, tl1at is, by tl1e registratio11 i11 tl·1e Registers of Civil StatL1s sho\vi11g \Vl10 tl1e father and tl1e 111otl1er of tl1e cl1ild are. Tl1e Registers of Civil Stattis are me11tioned i11 Articles 90 et seq. of the Civil Code; these Registers are records ir1 \Vl1icl1 particttlars of birtl1, deatl1 a11d 111arriage of all {Jersons are e11tered. 1�1,ese Registers 11ave 1 1ot so far bee 1 1 establisl1ecl, bL1t wl1er1 establi.shed, tl1ey will provide co 11clt1sive evide11ce of tl1e JJartic11lars e11terecl tl1erei11. Ir1 default of records of birtl1, filiation 111ay be JJroved by JJossessio11 of status.

Ir1 tl1e ge11erality of cases tl1e qt1estio11 of JJroof of filiatio11 arises i11 rela­ tio11 to fJater 1 1ity, for as a r11le maternity gives 110 difficLtlty. It is clear tl1at 0 1 1ce tl1e Civil Code l1as establisl1ecl defi11ite r11les regarcli11g JJaternal filiation, it is 1 1ot JJern1issible to circt1mve11t those rLtles ,111cl try to lJrove tl1e existe11ce of a stat11s co11trary to tl1e sitL1atio 11 arisi11g fro111 tl1ose rttles. l�l,11s it is 11ot JJerrnissible to JJrove tl1at a cl1ild bor11 of a \X!Otnan at a ti 111e sl1e \Vas 111arriecl to a fJartic11lar ma11 l1as tl·1e stat11s of a cl1ild of a11other 111ar1 ( exce1Jt i11 an action of diso\x,11i11g bro11gl1t by tl1e allegecl fatl1er); 11or is it jJer111issible to bri11g· ar1 a ma11 for a declaratio11 tl1at a cl1ilcl l1as tl1e JJossessio11 of stat11s action aaai11st b of being a cl1ild of tl1at n1a11 \x,l1e11 tl1at n1a 11 l1as 11ot acl<nowledged tl1e cl1ild as his or 11,1s not bee11 jL1dicially declarecl to be t11e fatl1er of tl1e cl1ilcl after a co11victio11 of abclt1ctio 11 or ra1)e.

Wl1at is n1eant by possession of stattts? Possession of stattts is tl1e jLtdicial aspect of ma 1 1ifestatio11s of out\vard aJJpearances; tl1e ele1ne11ts of possessio11 of sta­ tus are 11ormally said to be 1zomen ( 1 1a1ne), tractatits (treatn1e1 1t) a11d Jama (notoriety).

Article 770 of tl1e Civil Code provides as follo\vs: ''A JJerso 1 1 l1as tl1e JJossessio11 of stat11s of a cl1ild wl1e11 l1e is treated by a n1a11 or a woman, by tl1eir relatives ancl by society as bei11g tl1e cl1ild of tl1at ma11 or \V0111an''. It is to be 1 1oted tl1at Article 770 does 11ot i11clt1de tl1e 11an1e as a 11ecessary i11greciient for tl1e - 19 -

1Jossessio11 of statt1s, btt t, 11att1rall}', tl1e f,1ct tl1at a cl1ild lias co11stantt), carriecl tl1e 11a111e of tl1e alleged pare11t is a very re]eva11t circ11111sta11ce. i\t\ere rt1mot1rs abottt filiatio11 do 11ot a11101111t to JJossessio11 of status; it is esse11tial tl1at a cl1ild l1as bee11 treated b)r tl1e allegecl JJare11t as l1is cl1ild a11d tl1at, in tl1e eyes of tl·1e relatives, of tl1e · 11eigl1bours a11d of s1. 1rro1111c1i11g society, tl1e cl1ild is co,1sidered as tl1e cl1ild of tl1e alleged pare11t (Jama). Tl1e la\xr gives i111JJorta11ce to tl1ese circt1111sta11ces becat1se \x1l1en tl1ese 111a11ifestatio11s are !Jreser1t, it is n1ost lil<el)' tl1at tl1e cl1ilcl is trt.tl)' tl1e cl1ild of tl1e alleged JJ,1re11t. Statt ts ma), be co11tested as 1Jrovidecl i11 Articles 778-795 of tl1e Civil Code.

(1)) In Article 775, tl1e Civil Code la.)'S dO\X1r1 by \'v'l101n a11 actio11 to claim a stat1.1s 111ay be instit11ted; sucl1 actio11 111a)' be i11stitt1ted, (sttbject to tl1e prior aJJIJroval of tl1e Co11rt (Art. 773) by (a) tl1e cl1ild (or l1is guardia11 or l1eirs), (b) by tl1e 111otl1er of tl1e cl1ild, a11d (c) by tl1e fatl1er of tl1e cl1ilcl. It \'lOtild see1n tl1at tl1e actio11 bJ' tl1e 111otl1er or by tl1e father are actior1s more i11 tl1e 11at1.1re of contestatio11 of statt1s tl1a11 actions to cla.itn a stat11s. Tl1e actio,1, \Vl1e11 lJrougl1t lJy tl1e cl1ild, is to be ir1stit11ted agai11st tl·1e n1otl1er (Art. 777). It is 11ever instituted agair1st tl·1e alleged fatl1er, a11cl, tl1erefore, it is to be l1eld tl·1at tl1e actio11 to clai111 a status ca1111ot be i11stitt1ted for tl1e IJL1r1Joses of establisl1i11g 1Jater11ity; 1Jater11itJ, can be estal,lisl1er1 tl·1rot1gl1 an actio11 i11stitt1ted against ll1e 111otl1er \.vl1e11 tl1e \\'0111a11 \vas marriecl, or was 1ivi11g ir1 a11 irregular u11io11 witl1 a r11a11 1 at tl1e tin1e of birtl1 or cor1ce1Jtio11. It is for tl1is reaso11 tl1at f\rticle 777 (3) laJ1 s do\'ll11 tl1at tl1e jJerso11 to \vl101n pater11ity of tl1e cl1ild will be attrilJt1ted i11 case the actio11 is s11ccessft 1l 111ust be 111acle a JJarty to tl1e S ll 1 t. �1·11e above is a state111e11t of tl1e la\v as it sta11ds sir1ce tI-1e Civil Code catne i11to force 011 Jviaskaram 1, 1953. 1· 11e olcl c11sto111ary la\v wl1ich 1Jrevailed before ti, e con1 i11g· i11to force of tl1e CiviI Cocle tooI< a 1nore I iberal vie\v i11 1natters of JJroof of filiatio11; tl1ere were no definite 1Jri11ciJJles for tl1e establisl1rne11t of J)ater11ity, exceJJt tl1e birtl1 of a cl·1ild from tl1e alleged fatl1er, a11d for tl1e iJLlrJJose of jJrovi11g 111is fact all 111ea11s of evidei1ce \'v'ere available. l�l1ere \x,as 110 tin1e lin1it for tl1e institt1tio11 of a SL1it, a11d cases were freqt1ent \x1l1ere a 1Jerso11 ca111e to Cot1rt, JJartict1larly 011 tl1e deatl1 of a 1Jerso11 JJossessi11g 1JrOJJert:f, witl1 a clairn tl1at tl1e clain1ar1t \Y1as tl1e cI-1ild of tl1e deceased. S11cl1 clain1s \Xlere r11ade 111a11y )'ears after tl1e birtl1 of tl1e clai111a11t, soinetiines 30, 40, or 50 years later; i11 some cases tl1e deceaseci \Vas a lawfully r 11arried JJerso11, a11cl tl1e clai111a11t \VOL1ld be ar1 adulteri11e cl1ild; i11 otl1ers, tl1e deceased \x,as a sir1gle 1Jerso11 1 arid tl1e clai111a11t wot1ld be a 11att1ral cl1ild. Tl1ere were also cases \X1l1ere tl1e clai111 \Vas brougl1t dLtri11g tl1e lifeti11·1e of tl1e allecred fatlier \X1itl1 a vie\XI to obtai11i11g 1naintena11ce for the cl1ild. l11 some cases there were iiidications, 111ostly vagt1e, \vl1icl1 \vere alleged to amot1nt to a11 ack tlO\'v'ldg111e11t of tl1e cl1ild. Tl1e Co11rts entertained tl1ese actions, and evidence of ever.)' natttre (wl1icl1 i11 tl1e circt11nsta11ces cotild be very dangero1.1s) \Xlas allo\ved to prove tl1e birtl1 (accot 1cl1eme11t) frorn tl1e alleged fatl1er. Tl1ere \x,ere also cases wliere - 20 -

tl1e clain1ant alleged that l1e had bee11 acknowledged by the father i11 accordance witl, the customary Iaw prevaili11g at the time, or tl1at lie l1acl been adopted accordi11g to custom. In tl1ese cases tl1e evide11ce was directed to prove suet, acl<no\vledgn1ent or adotJtion. Cases to prove paternal filiatio11 are still being introdt1ced in Cottrt a11d the questio11 is: Can these cases be entertained 110w tl,at the Civil Code is i11 force \vl1icl1 prescribes defi11ite rttles about JJaternal filiation? Tl1e claim is 11or111ally based 011 tl,e follo\vi11g legal grottnds: It is stated tl1at Article 3348 of tl1e Ci\ril Code l1olds valid legal situations created fJrior to tl1e co111ing into force of tl1e Code, not\vithsta11ding tl1at tl1e Code modifies the co11ditio11s on \X1l1icl1 st1cl1 sitt1atio11s may be createcl. The legal s· itt1a.tio11 \vl1icl1 is allegecl to l1ave been created 1Jrior to tl1e co111ing i11to force of tl1e Code is tl1e statt1s of beir,g tl1e cl1ild of tl1e alleged father, a11d an actio11 to clain1 status is institttted t111der Article 772 et seq. of tt1e Code. As poi11ted out above these clain1s arise 011 tl1e deatl1 of sotne person, allegedly the fatl1er, and tl1e claima11t apJJears as an opposer to the JJetitio11 for probate of a will or ·for admi11istratio11 of tl1e proJJerty of tl1e deceasecl. Tl1e actio11 is 11ot brot1gl1t agai11st any JJctrticttlar i11dividt1al, a11d tl1e mott1er, agai11st wl1on1 tl1e actio11 for possession of status sl1ot1ld be i11stitt1ted, is in ma11y cases dead.

Tl1ere ca11 l:>e r10 qt1estio11 tl1at wI-1e11 a legal sitt1ation l1as bee11 createcl before tl1e cor11i11g i11to force of tl1e Civil Code, tl1at legal sitt1atio11 co11ti11t1es to be valicl t1ncler tl1e Code, not\vitl1sta11di11g tl1at tl1at legal sitt1atio11 arose out of circt1msta11ces or Lt11der co11ditio11s \'v'l1icl1 tl1e Code 110 longer recog11ises.

Tl1t1s tl1ere \X10t1ld be a valid legal sitL1atio11 \Vl1e11 a J)erso11 l1as been acl<r10,v­ ledged as a cl1ild of a 111an ir1 accorda11ce witl1 tl1e for111alities of ack110,vledg­ me11t L111cler ct1sto111ary la\xr altl·1ot1gl1 tl1ose formalities \v'Ottld 11ot, t111der tr1e Civil Code, be sufficie11t to co11stitt1te acl<110\vledgme11t. Si111ilarly, if a 1Jerso11 l1as bee11 ado1Jted i11 accorda11ce ,vitl1 ct1sto111ar)' law, st1cl·1 aclo1Jtio11 woLtld a1110L111t to a JJrOJJer ado1Jtio11, 11otwithsta11di11g tl1at tl1e forn1alities t111cler ct1ston1ary la\xr are differe11t fro111 tl1ose reqttired u11der tl1e Cocle. S11cl1 a11 acloptio11 \VOL1ld create a legal sitt1ation ,vhicl·1 conti11t1es to be valicl after tl1e co111i11g i11to force of tl1e Code. Actio11s to prove that tl1ere is established 1Jater11al filiatio11 as a rest1lt of st1cl1 ack110\vledg111ent or adoptio11 before tl1e con1ing i11 to force of tl1e Code are actio11s \vl1icl1 can jJrOJJerly be e11tertai11ecl by the Courts: I 1 1 sL1cl1 cases, 110\vever, tl1e object of tl1e actio11 is 11ot to establisl1 1Jater11al filiatio11 bLtt to sl10,v tl1at JJater11al filiatio11 l1acl bee11 establisl1ecl before tl1e comi11g i11to force of tl1e Code.

Is tl1e JJOsition tl1e sa1ne in tl1e case of a JJersor1 \Vl10 i11stitt1tes ar1 action to clain1 1Jossessio 1 1 of status? Tl1e a11s\ver is in tl1e 11egative becaLtse it ca1111ot be said tl1at tl1e fact \vl1icl1 e11titles a 1Jerso11 to clain1 JJossessio11 of stat11s is a legal sitL1atio11. Tl1e agglon1eration of facts whicl1 e11titles a perso11 to clain1 jJossession of statt1s is a factt1al situatio11; sucl1 factt1al sitt1atio11 becomes a legal sitt1atio11 \'v'l1e11 tl,e Cot1rts l1ave decided that tl1ose facts e11title tl1e tJerso11 concer11ed to be declared t!·1e cl1ild of a 1Jartict1lar fJerso11. Possessio11 of statt1s is a new co11ce1Jtio11 ir1 Etl1ioJJian law, and therefore it ca1111ot eve11 be saicl - 21 -

tt1at those facts gave tl1e rigl1 t, before Masl<ara1n 1, 1953, to a person to i11stitL1te a st1it for f)ossessio11 of status and tl1at tl1at rigl1 t sl1ould be res1Jected.

Nor ca11 it be said tl1at a JJerso11 \vl¡10 l1ad a rigl1t to i11stiti1te a st1it for a declaration of paternity i 1 1 tl1e \vay it \vas do11e before Masl<aram 1, 1953, has still tl1at rigl1t to i 1 1stitute tl1at suit, because the princi1Jles of ordre pt1blique ur1derlying tl1e positive law as laid do\Xr11 i11 the Civil Code are co11trar)' to the idea of ordre fJttblique accepted before tl1e Code. for tl1ese reaso11s any st1it bro11gl1 t after Masl<aratn 1, 1953, f.or establisl1 ing JJater11ity must comply \Vitl1 tl1e JJrovisions of tl1 e Civil Code. l 11 tl1e case of tl1is appeal it is 11ot alleged by the res1Jonde11t tl1at tl1ere \vas a11 ack 1 1owledg 1nent by the deceased that lie \'v'as lier fatl1er, or that tl1e deceased l1 ad adopted her or that tl1 ere was a11ytl1i11g else whicl1 an1ounts to a ''lega.l situatio11''. Tl1e actio 11 is directed to prove tl1e accoucl1e111e11t (birtli) frotn the deceased. Tl1is is agai11 st tl1e IJrinciples laid dow11 i11 the Civil Code, a11d therefore lier actior, must fail. Tl1e Order of tl1e I-Iigl1 Court to hear \Xii t11 esses i 1 1 stt J) fJO 1-t of tl1 e res JJondent' s clai111 is quashed, tl1e appeal is allowed, a11 d the case is referred back to tl1e I-Iigl1 Cot1rt to proceed 011 otl1er matters concerr1 i11 g tl1e inl1eritance of tl1e deceased.

Tl1ere sl1all

be 11 0

order for costs.

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SUPREI\t\E IMPERIAL COURT Div. 6 Mrs. CJ-IAKE AVAKIAN v. Mr. ARTJN AV1-\Kf1-\N

Ci vi 1 AJJ IJea1 No. 11 14 /55 E. C. la·1,v of Succtssions

-- form of ioi/1 -- \fiitnesses -- llrt. 881 Ci·v C.

On aJ)jJeal fro1n juclgn1ent of lhe High Court clenying tJetition for JJrobate of a \viii on the basis that, although valid in other respects, there ,vere only three attesting \Vitnesses, ,xrhile Art. 881 Civ. C. requires fo11r such ,vitnesses.

1-Jeltl: petition should be allo,ved as three ,vitnesses are sufficient to valida!e a \viii when tlif'. inf·ention of the testator is clear beyond doubt.

1. The real ai111 of the legislators goes to the true intent of the testator ancl not to the forn1

of I hr ,vill.

l�eket11t 13, 1956 E. C. (October 24, 1963 0. C.); J L1stices: 1'i1tr. 0. Debbas, Orazmatcl1 Tessen1111a Negede, Ato liaile A111ar1: - Tl1is is an aJJpeal ag·ainst the jL1dgme11t of tl1e I-Iigl1 Court (1st Co1nmercial Divisio11) datecl 23.7.55 in Probate a11d f\dmir1istration File No. 107 /55, wl1ereby the atJfJellant lost lier 1Jetitio11 for jJrobate of tl1e \vill of t1er l1L1sband a1JJJOi11ti11g I1er as l1is sole l1eiress b)' t1niversal title. Tl1e I-Iig·h Cottrt declared tl1e \Vill i11\1alid for lacl< of form only, altl1ougl1 it cor11111er1tecl ar1cl ad111itteci that tl1e J-1L1sba11d \var1tecl his \x1ife 1 tl1e j)rese11t appella11t, to l1e l1is sole l1eiress. rr11e \Vl1ole a1Jpeal, i11teresti11g as it is, is ,ll10Llt tl1e valiclity of a will. Tl1e late Setrak Aval<ia11 was tl1e a1Jpella11t's l1usband ancl diecl i11 Addis Ababa 011 2r1cl Nove111ber, 1962 0. C. I-Iis \Xlido\xr jJetitio11ecl tl1e Iiigl1 Cotirt for JJrobate of the \xrill of lier l1t1sba11d, 111ade by l1in1 011 l6tl1 Ja11t1ar)', 1961, 0. C., a1 J1Joi11ti11g lier as l1is sole legatee b)' t111iversal title. Tl1e fir,dit1g·s of tl1e I-ligl1 Cot1rt regardi11g tl1e co11te11ts of tl1e \vill are riot disputed by eitl1er 1Jart)'· TI1e contents of tl1e will are type\x,ritte11 or1 botl1 origi 1 1al versions ir1 Aml1aric a11d E11glish. Tl1e elate of tl1e sig11i11g by tl1e deceased is filled i11 -· · 26 -

in l1a11dwriting 011 botl1 versio11s. Botl1 versio11s bear tl1e sig11alure of the deceased; a11cl three )Jersons l1ave affixed tl1eir signatttres, wit11essing the si.gni11g i11 tl1ejr ]Jresence by the deceased after tl1e \xrill l1ad bee11 read over. 011e of tl1e wit11esses to tl1e will \Vas give11 ct1stody of tl1e origi11al An1l1aric a11d E11glisl1 versio11s. So far tl1ere is 110 clispttte bJ' either 1Jarty.

••

W 11e11 the \X'iclow petitior1ecl tl1e J-Iigl1 Cottrt for IJrobate of the will of lier late l1t1sba11cl, tl1e 011ly OJJ!JOser \'Vas lier fatl1er-i11-law, i. e., tl1e JJrese11t respo11dent! Cert,tir1Iy, tl1ere was 110 01Je11i11g for l1i111, except to attacl< tl1e form of tl1e \X'ill. Accorcli11g to Article 881 of tl1e Civil Cocle, fottr witnesses are necessary for a 1Jt1blic \Vil!, \X'l·1ile t\vo \vit11esses \VOttld be strfficient, tt11cler Article 882 of tl1e Cocle, 1Jro\ridecl 011e of tl1e111 is a JJt1blic officer acti11g i11 tl1e discl1arge of l1is clt1ties. I11 tl1is ver>' case, 011ly tl1ree \Vit11esses affixed tl1eir sig11att1res to \vit11ess tl1e sigr1i11g of tl1e \'(/ill by tl1e testator a11cl tl1e reacli11g OLlt of it. Tl1e qL1estio11 tl1at r10\v arises is \�·l1etl1er or 11ot tl1ose tl1ree \vit11es­ ses are sLIff icie11t to \'a I idate t11e \Vi11.

111 orcler to decide or1 st1cl1 very clelicate cases, a COLlrt sl10L1ld r1ot be blir1ded by tl1e qL1estio11 of for111; it sl1ot1ld go a little ft1rtl1er a11d fir1cl OL1t tl1e prest1med i11te11tioi1 of tl1e testator, fro111 surro1.111ding circL1n1stances, es1Jecially i11 cases of dot1bt or t111certai11ty. Not 011ly or1e article of tl1e Code sl1ot1ld bi11d a cot1rt, bttt tl1e \vl1ole sitt1atio11 sl1ot1ld be loolcecl LIIJOn ge11erally.

It is 111ore tl1e i11te11tio11 of tl,e testator tl1a11 tl1e for1n of tl1e \vill tl1at is tl1e real ai111 of tl1e legislator.

To start \vitl1, tl1is \vill is a t)'JJe\vritte11 \viii botl1 i11 1\111l1aric a11d i11 Englisl·1. 1\rticle 885 of tl1e Civil Code \vl·1icl1 deals \Viti, type \Vritte11 wills, IJrovides tl1at st1cl1 \vills sl1all be of 110 effect L111less tl1e)' be,:ir 011 eacl·1 of tl1eir leaves a l1a11dwritte11 i11dicatio11 of st1cl1 fact. Tl1is very \viii co1T11Jlies \vitl1 tl·1is Article 885, becat1se it co11sists of 011e si11gle leaf ir1 A111l1aric a11cl 011e si11gle leaf i11 E11glisl1 1 \Vl1icl1 are bot!, sig11ecl b)' tl1e testator a11d tl1e tl1ree \Vitnesses ar1d testify, to tl1e fact tl1at it is a ,vill. Co11seqLte11tly tl·1ere is 110 argt1111ent agai11st this \viii tinder Article 885 of tl1e Civil Code.

Co111i11g· 110\v to Article 881 of tl1e Civil Code, wl1icl1 1Jrovicies for fot1r \vitnesses, as O[JJJosecl to Article 882, \x1r1icl1 pro\rides for t,Xto ,vit11esses, IJroviclecl one of then1 is ,t !JLtblic officer, a11d lool<i11g at tl1e \Viii, sttbject-111atter of this apJJeal, we l1ave to go far beyond tl1e Articles referred to b;i botl1 parties a11d try to fii1d oLtt tl1e real i11te11tio11 of tl1e testator, i11 viev,, of tl1e clot1bt tl1at . arises. l�l1e real i11te11tio11 of tl1e deceased testator is \vl1etl·1er or 11ot l1e died ''uii\villi i1g'' to aJJpoi11t I·1is \vife as 11is sole l1eiress. -r11ere is 110 argt1111ent tl,at tl,e testator cliecl si11cerely believi11g tl1at l1is sole l1eiress \'\1 0Ltlcl be l1is \vife, i. e., tl1e a1J1Jella1Jt. fron1 l1is com111ercial activities clttri11g l1is lifeti111e, it tra11SJJires - 27 -

fro111 ll1e Jv\e111ora11ciL1111 of Associatio 11 (Article 17 tl1ereof) tl1at a !Jrivate Ii111ited cotnJJatl )' SINALCO J1ad beer1 forrned bet\vee11 l1i111 a11d l1is_ wife, i. e., ved i 11 tl1e aJJjJella11t. Article 17 1Jrovides ''Nor sl1 all tl1e c?111_JJa11>' be cl1ssol _ case of tl1e deatl1 of a 111e111ber. 111 the latter event, it is l1ereby 1rrevo cabl )' sti1Jt1lated tl1at tl1e sl1ares l1eld by Setral{ Aval<ia11 sl1all de\rolve LljJ011 Mrs. Chal<e Avakia11 (tl1is a1J1Jella 1 1t); a11cl vice versa." ''ft1rtl1er111ore, tl1is lad)' a1JJJella11t l·1olds i11 tl1at JJri\1ate li1nited co1111Ja11y 75°/o of tl1e sl1ares (vide Article 5 of tl1e lv\e111ora11dt1111 of Associatio11), \vl1ile l1er deceased l1t1sba11d \Vas l1oldi11g or1ly 253/0 of tl1e sl1ares. fro1n tl1e cor1te11ts of Article 17 of tl1e Jvlen1ora11dum of Associatio11, it is alreacl )' clear tl1at tl1e ir1te11tio11 of tl1e testator lo11g before l1is deatl1 a 11d before lie \,:,rote l1is \vill, \Vas to assig·11 tl1e ow11ersl1i1J of all his sl·1ares i11 tl1at co1111Ja11y to l1is \vife; \vl1icl1 fact clarifies l1is i11te11tion i11 the ,x,ill tl1at sl1e sl1all be l1is sole !1eiress.

0Ltr argL1111e11t regardi 1 1g tl1e JJrest1n1ecl i11te11tio11 of tl1 e deceasecl testator does 1 1ot stoJJ l1ere bt1t is reir1forcecl by tl·1e cc>111111e11ts i11 tl1e jt1dg1nent of tl1e Iiigl1 CoL1rt. A111011g otl,er co111111e11ts, tl1e Higl1 Court co111n1e11ted ''It results tl1at tl1ere is no validly give,, \Xiii!. Tl1is ma)1 see111 a stra11ge, a11d in tl1e circu111sta11ces, unsatisfactor;' resL1lt, si11ce tl1ere ca11 be 110 serioL1s, doubt abot1t tl1e deceased's i11te11tior1 to a1Jpoi11t l1is \V-ife as l1is legatee by t1niversal title, a 11d tl1at l1e rnay l1ave died i11 tl1e belief tl1at sl1e \\?OLtld sL1cceed to all l1is 1JrO(Jerties. Bt1t tl1e rt1les relati11g to tl1e forrn of \xrills l1ave bee11 give1 1 in order to e11sure tl·1at effect is give11 011ly to tI·1 e ir1clL1bitable i 1 1te11tion of the testator .... '' frorn tl1ese words, a11d JJartic L1larly tl1e last se11te11ce of tl1e f-Iigl1 Cot1rt co1111ne11t, tl1e i11dL1bitable i11ter1tio11 of tl1e testator \Xtas to aJJpoint }1is \Vife Cl1ake Aval<ia11 as l1is sole heiress. rfl1e existe11ce of tl1e prese11t \Vil!, cou1Jled witl1 tl1e argt1111er1t of tl· 1e J-Iigl1 CoL1rt regardi 11g tl1e ir1te11tio11 of the testator, ar1d COUJJled also \Vitl1 tl1e co11te11ts of Article 17 of tl1e Jv1en1ora11dL11n of Associatio11 of SINALCO, leacl Lts to believe tl1�1t tl1e indubitable i 11te11tion of tl1e testator was clefinitel)' to aJJfJOi11t l1is aJJIJellant \x1ido\x, as l1is sole legatee by L111iversal title, to st1cceecl to all l1is jJrorJerties. It is conseqL1ently Ltseless to co11tir1L1e cliscL1ssir1g tl1e i11te11tion of tl1e testator.

A11otl1er article \Vl1icl1 eventL1ally l1el1Js tl1e apfJeal is i\rticle 906 of the Civil Code. Tl1e testator died \X1l1e11 tl1ey were still legally 111arried as I1usband a11d \Vife. 1�1 ,eir marriage \Vas dissolved onl)' tl1rot1gl1 tl1e deatl, of tl1e l1usba1 1d; a11d conseqLte11tly ar1y testa111e 1 1tary 1Jrovisior1 1nacle by tl1e testator, tl1e late Setrak Avakia11 in favo11 r of l1is SIJOL1se, Mrs. Cl1al<e Aval<ia11, is still strong a11d valid. l11 sucl1 cases wl1en tl1e coL1rt of first i11sta11ce l<TIO\VS tliat tl1e presumed intentio11 of tl1e deceased is to let l1is wife succeed to all Iiis properties, it sl1ot1ld 11ot blind itself wit � tl1e question of form, especially \vlie11 tlie for111 l1as all bee11 co1nplied \Vttl1. A11 abse11ce of 011e witness, wlieii tliree are JJresent a11d reliable, is of no i111porta11ce.

- 28 -

U11der the circL11nstances, a11cl i11 vie\xr of the foreg¡oi11g ex1Jlanatior1, we l1ereby allo\xr tl1is aJJJJeal a11d qt1asl1 tl1e jL1dgment of tl1e High Court and declare tl1e will of tl1e late Setral< Avakia11 appoi11ting his wife Mrs. Cl1al<e Avakia11 as l1is sole heiress, as valid and exect1tory a11d appoint Mrs. Chake Aval<ia11 as sole 1 iq uidator of tl1e estate of l1er late h11sba11d.

Eacl1 JJarty shall bear its O\xr11 costs. Oive11 a11d delivered i11 OJJen coLtrt tl1is 13tl1 day of Tel<emt, 1956, in tl1e presence of botl1 parties.

- 29 -

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- 31 ,

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J-IIOli COURT f\cicl is Ababa, Co r1 1111. Ct. No. 1 111 tl1e lv\atter of tl1e Estate of: SETRAK AVAI(IAN Probate a11cl Admi11istratior1 Case No. 107/55 la,w of Successions 885 Civ, C.

--

f'orn1 of will - - l�eq11£rt'J11ents for public or holograp/1ic will • - Arts. 881 and

On the J)etition for J)robate, OfJposer clai111ed the nullity of will for its failure to co1n1)l y ,vith forn1al requiren1ents for a valid J)ublic Y(lill or holograpl1ic \X'ill.

Held: Petition cleniecl, the will having been signed in the ]Jresence of three \vitnesses only \'Vhere Art. 881 Civ. C. requires four for a la\wf11I public ,viii.

I. Tl1e contested ,viii does not n1eet tl1e forn1al requisites of a l1olographic ,vill as speci­ fied in Art. 885 Civ. ( ·. because it does not inclicate itself as such.

2. 1::-orrnal requirerr1enls for wills have been establishecl to ensure la,vful effect is given only lo testator's inciubitable intention.

Megabit 23, l955 E. C. (April 1, 1963 0. C.); Judges: 1\11 r. S. Ster)l1e11 son, Ca1)tain Vassot1 Oebre I:-lawriat, Ato Guerra Worl< Agor1 afer: - Setral< Aval(iar1, a reside11 t of Acldis Ababa, clied 011 2nd Nove1nber 1962 (0. C.). I l-is wido\v Chal<e Avakia11 J-1 as 1)etitio11 ed tl1 e CoL1rt for probate of a \vill 1 11ade by tl1e deceaseci 011 tl1e l6tl1 Ja11L1ar.}' 1961 (0. C.) ap1)oi 11 ti11 g her, tl1e j)etitio11er, as l1is legatee by t111iversal title.

Tl1e fatl1er of tl1e deceased, Artir1 Aval<ian, l1 as filed i11 Co11rt l1is declara­ tior1 of Oj)JJositio11 to tl1e will, in tl1at l1e clai1 ns tl1at it is of 11 0 effect by tl1 e reaso11 of 11ot ft1lfilli11g· tl1e reqt1iren1e11ts of la\v as to for111 . l'l1e op1Josition \vas filecl i11 respo11 se to tl1e cit,ttior1 [Jt1blisl1 ecl by orcler of Cot1 rt in dail)' 11ews­ JJa1Jers.

Si11ce tl1 c \viii \v,1s 1nade after tl1 e er1 tr)1 i11to force of tl1e Civil Code the isst1 e i11 respect to its valiclity is gover11ed b)' tl1 e Code.

Tl1e will \Vas 111 acJe in tl1 1 E11g·lish ancl in a11 A1nl1aric versio11 ' botli co11tain­ ed 01 1 a si11gle sl1eet of f)aper. rl�l,e co11te11ts of tl1e \vill are j 11 botl1 origi11al -- 32 -

\1ersio11s ty1Je\vritten. The date of tl1eir sig·11i11g by tl1e deceased are in botl1 versio11s filled i11 i11 l1and\vriting. Botl1 versions bear tl1e sig11ature of the deceas­ ed. Three fJersons l1ave affixed their sig11atures to tl1e will i11 wit11ess of its sig11i11g i11 their prese11ce by tl1e deceased after its l1aving bee11 read over.

011e of tl1e wit11esses to tl1e \Xlill \Vas also give11 ct1stody of originals; there is 1 10 dis[Jttte as to tl1is fact .

•

Tl1e first q11esti011 \Vl1icl1 arises is wl1ether or not the \Vill can l1ave effect �s a pttblic \Viii according to Article 881 of tl1e Civil Code. Tl1e answer must be tl1at it ca11not, becat1se it \Vas read prior to sig11ing by the deceased i11 the jJreser1ce of only three \Vi t11esses1 \xrl1ile the Ia \V den1a11ds fottr wit11esses.

It is to be n1e11tioned tl1at r1c>r1e of tl1e \Vit11esses is sucl1 a pttblic officer as me 1 1tior1ed in Article 882 of tl'1e Code, so tl1at tl1e \Vil] cot1ld I1ave effect witl1 011 1)' 0 1 1e other \X1it11ess besides l1i11 1.

Still tl1e \Vill cot1ld l1ave effect if it l1ad bee11 give 1 1 in tl,e forn,s reqt 1 ired for a valid l1 olograpl1 \Xiill. Botl1 origi11al versio,,s are typewritten and sig 1 1ecl by tl1e deceaseci. It \X'OLtld see111 l1 ov1ever, tl,at tl1 ey were not typed by t11e testator hi111self. Bttt eve,, if tl1e deceased actLtally typed eitl1er botl1 or 011e of tl1e versio,1s l1i 1 11self, tl' 1 e reqL1irerne11ts as to forn1 \VOLtld not l1ave bee11 satisfied, becattse 1 1011e of tl1e111 bea"rs a l1a11dwritte11 i11dicatio11 of sucl1 fact. Vide Article 885 of the Cocle.

It resttlts tl1at tl1ere is no validly give11 \xrill. Tl1is 1nay seen1 a stra1 1ge, a11d i 1 1 the circu 1 nsta11ces L111satisfactory rest1 lt, sir1ce tl1ere car1 be no seriot1s doubt about tl1e deceased's i11 te11tion to apfJOi11t l1is wife as his legatee by L111iversal title, and that l1e may have died i11 tl1e belief tl1at sl1e \VOltlcl sL1cceed to all l1is properties. Bttt tl1e rt1 les relati11g to tl1e form of \xrills !·1ave bee11 give11 i 1 1 order to enst1re tl1 at effect is give11 011Iy to the i 11dL1bitable inte11tio11 of tl,e testator to desig·,1ate a11otl1er or otl1er SL1ccessors to l1is estate tl1a11 those \vl10 \Voulcl otl1erwise have beer, l1is rigl1tfu·1 heirs at la\v. St 1 cl1 rules 1nt1st be strict, arid tl1e Cot 1 rt can11ot, even i11 circLl1nsta11ces as tl1e prese11t 011es or in a11y circLtrnstances, ig11ore tl1 e 1n or· allow a11y latitt1de i11 tl,eir observa 11ce.

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It is of co11rse t111derstood tl1at tl1e \xrido\xr s rig·l1t to her la\xrfttl sl·1are of jJroperties acquirecl by lier i11 con1 1no11 \Viti, tl1 e deceased clt1 ri11g tl1eir rnarriage is 11ot affected by tl1is clecisio 11 .

1-1,e afJfJOint 1 ne 11 t of tl1 e JJetitioner as liq11idator by orcler of Co11rt given on 21. 7. 55 is repealecl, 1Jrovided that tl1e repeal of tl1 at order mt1 st 11ot be tal<er, to mea11 tl1at tl1e petitio11er is tl,ereby cleprived of rigl1ts as regarcls her sl,are to JJropert.ies acqt1ired i11 co1n1no11 arid lier co11ti 1 1ual adn1i11istratio11 i 11 tl1at resrJect.

(Judgn1e11t reversed by St11Jre111 e I1111Jerial CoLtrt, see OfJi11 io11, supra-ed.)

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I-IIOI-I COURT

Acldis Ababa, Civ. Ct. No. 2 Ato l\t\Al\t\N\O YINBEf�BERU v. Alo VIROU ABEBE Civil Case No. 454/55 E. C. .L:rbour relations - - Labot!1' Relations Decree 49/54 E. C. (49/62 G. C. ) - - Arts. 2567-2593 Civ. C.

l. ·rhe Labour Relations Decree extendi11g inter alia, to guidance of the relationshiJ) bei\veen en1J)loyer and en1ployee, t)rogress of work, advance1nent, and expeditio11s settlernent of misunder­ standings does not restrict an en1ployee's rig11t to clain1 con11Je11sat ion for wrongful dismissal ' 11 ncler the Civil Code.

2. Fa1tlt of the enitJ!oyee ,nay constitute good cause relieving· t!,e e111ployer of his duty to cc1rn pen sate for dis111issal. Art. 2575 Civ. C.

N1asl(aran1 20, 1956 E. C. (October 1, 1963 G. C.); Judg·es: Ato Belatcl1e,v Asrat, Ato Wolde lv'\t1ssie Vil1dego, Ato Mel(on11e11 Oetal1t1n: - Tl1is a1Jpeal \Vas brot1 gl1t fron1 jt1dg111er1t of tl1e Addis Ababa A\vraja Cot1rt allo\x,i11g respo11de 11t '$ 900 i 11 order to fi11cl em1Jloyme11t. Tl1e decision \Xras based u1Jo11 tl1e Labottr Relations Decree 49/54.

It l1as ofte11 been stated after tl1e e11act111e11t of tl1e above-1ne11tio 11ed Decree tl1at the Board establisl1ed tl1erei11 a11d 11ot tl1e courts is tl1e pro1Jer i 11 stitutior1 to l1ear cases betweer1 en11Jloyer ar,cl e1n1Jloyee. Some coL1rts I1ave reft1sed jt1risclictio11 i11 st1cl1 cases.

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111 ot 1 r 01Ji11io11, tl·1e Labottr Relatio 1 1s Decree \x1 as e11acted to cical \x,ith g·e 11eral difficL1lties arisi11g· bet\vee 1 1 ern1Jloyer ar1d e1111)I0)1 ee. Tl1e scOJ)e of the Decree exte 1 1ds to s11cl1 areas as· tl1c follo\X1 i11g: g·t.1ida11ce of tl1e relationsl1ip l1et\x,ree11 e1111JI0)1 er a11<J e1nJJloyee, j)rogress of \'(!Ori,, c1clvar1ce111ent, ancl tl1e ex1)eclitiotts settlen1e11t of 1nis1111derstctndi11gs. 'fl1e Decree does 11ot restrict tl1e 1 1 em1Jlo) ee's rigl1t to clai111 co111Je11sat:ior1 for \vro11gft1l clis111issal ir1 a co11tract of Iiire tinder tl1e provisio11s of tl1e Civil Code. rrI1e 1)reser1t case is, tl1erefore, j)roperly l)efore tis.

U11der tl1e Ci\1il Code a co11tract of l1ire n1ay be for a li 1 11ited or u11lin1ited period and rnay be terrni11ated or 11ot re11e,,:,ed ,x-·iti1ot1t notice. In st1cl1 a case, -- 36 - -

l1owever, tl1e injt1red JJarty may claim compensation. The employer is permitted to defend himself by establisl1i11g good cause, including fault in the employee, wl1ich justifies the termi11ation of the co11tract.

In our opinion the Addis Ababa Awraja Court has not paid sufficient attention as required by the Civil Code to tl1e appellant's allegatio11s tl1at resJJondent \Vas dismissed dtte to l1is ow11 fault. The judgme11t of the Awraja Court is tl1erefore reversed, and the case is rema11ded for further proceedings not inconsistent with tl1is opinion.

The parties ,vill bear their ow11 costs.

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MARRIAGE UNDER THE CIVIL CODE OF ETHIOPIA

by William Bul1agiar Preside11t, Higl1 Court of Ethiopia

Ur1der tl1e Civil Code of Etl1io1Jia1 111arriage is a 111or1ogan1ous unio11, as i11deed it l1as always bee11 i11 Cl1ristia11 Etl1iopia; it is the volu11tary union of one n1a11 a11d 011e woma11 to tl1e exclLtsion of all otl1ers. Tl1e Code contemplates three types of tnarriage: ( 1) civil n1arriage, (2) religious n1arriage, and (3) custo1nary n1arriage. A 1narriage i11 Etl1iopia may take place i11 a11y one of tl1ese forrnalities, bt1t tl1e effects of tl1e 111arriage, both as regards tl1e perso11al relatio11sl1ip 'betwee11 tl1e husba11d and tl1e wife arid as regards tl1eir property are tt1e san1e i11 all three ty1Jes of n1arriage; tl1is is so also i11 regard to ct1stor11ary tnarriages so tl1at, altl1ougl1 a marriage Jllay I1ave bee11 solemnised according to tl1e ct1sto111 of the l1usband or of tl1e wife, the effects of tl1e marriage are gover11ed by tl1e JJrovisio11s of tl1e Code and not by tl1e customary la\!:, under wl1ich tl1e 111arriage was sole1nr1ised.

A civil marriage is one wl1icl1 is celebrated before a11 officer of ci\ril stattts.

A religious marriage is 011e \Vl1icl1 is celebrated accordi11g to tl1e rites of the religio11 of botl1 IJarties or of 011e of tl1e1n 1 wl1ether st1cl1 religion be that of tl1e Etl1iopia11 Orthodox Cl1urcl1, tl1e Catholic Cl1urch or tl1e Greek Ortl1odox Cht1rcl1 or tl1e religio11 of any otl1er CJ1urch or belief. A custo1nary n1arriage is one whicl1 is celebrated according to st1cl1 rites as are co11sidered by tl1e ct1ston1 of tl1e co1111nu11ity to wl1icl1 tl1e SfJOt1ses belo11g or to \vl1icl1 Oi1e of tl1e spouses belo11gs, to cor1stitt1te a (Jer111anent u11io11 bet\vee11 tl1e 111a11 a11d tl1e \voma11. U11der tl1e Civil Cocie tl1e l<ind of 111arriage forn1erly l<11ow11 as ''be dan1oz'' is 110 lo11ger recog11ized, but tl1e Cocle provides for wl1at is called ''a11 irregular ur1io11' \Vl1icl1 is, as we sl1all see later, a state of fact between a ma 1 1 and a \xroma11 \Vl1icl1 is give11 limitecl jLtridical acl<110\vledge1ner1t.

1

I - CONDITIONS COJ\1lv10N TO ALL FORMS Of MARRIAGE

Conditions

Before any marriage ca11 be celebrated in a11y 011e of tl1e tl1ree for111alities mei,tioned above, tl1ere are cert,Lin conditions wl1ich must be fttlfilled. These are tlie follo\vi11g: age, consa11guinity and affi11ity, bigam)' a11d conse11t.

1. Age: A marriage 111a)' not be co11tracted by a 1na11 wl10 _ l1as not attained the age of eigl,tee11 years a11d by a \voma1� \vl10 l1as not attained �l1e age _of _ _ fifteen years. A disJJensatio11 fro111 tl11s co11cl1t1on n1ay be gra11ted by I-I1s Imperial - 73 -

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bLtt s11cl1 disJJer,sation l\l\ajesty, or b:,, a perso11 SfJecially a1Jpoi11ted by I Iitn; car111ot be gra11ted exceJJt for a JJeriocl of two years - tl·1at is, u11der sttch dispe11satio11 111arriage 111ay be JJossible for a 1na11 \vl·10 is 11ot L111der sixteen :,,ears and a wo1na11 wl10 is 11ot 1111cler tl·1irtee11 years (Art. 581 ).

2. Consa12g1-tirlif)1 a1zd affinif;),: Tl1ese are i1111Jedir11e11ts to a 1narriage; a 1narriage is JJrol1ibited bet\vee11 perso11s \v-l10 are related by co11sa11gt1inity or affi11it)' (Art. 582 a11d 583). 1-\rt. 584 JJrol'libits also a 1narriage betwee,1 perso11s \xr]10 \VOLtld be related b>' co11sa11gt1i11ity or affi11ity if i11 fact tl1ere exists a 11at11ral bond· of filiation wl1icl1 is con1111011ly k110\Vn bLtt wl1icl1 l1as 11ot bee11 legally establisl1ecl.

Tl1e co11ce1Jts of co11sa11gui11ity a11d affi11ity are defir1ed i11 1\rt. 550 et seq.

3.. Bigamy: A marriage ca11not be contracted bet\vee11 two JJerso11s one of wl1om is still bot111cl by tl1e bo11ds of a JJrevio11s 1narriage. (Art. 585).

4. Corzsent: As i11 a11y otl1er co11tract, tl1e co11se11t of tl1e parties is 11ecessary

for a valid 111arriage. St1cl1 co11se11t 1nust be free, tl1at is, 11ot extortecl by viole11ce, a11d 111L1st 11ot be affected by any error of substa11ce . The co11sent mL1st be give11 by tl1e SJJOL1ses 1Jerso11ally at tl1e time fo the celebratio11 of the n1arriage. Tl1e spot1ses c,11111ot be represe11ted by anotl1er JJerso11 for tl1e giving of tl1e co11ser1t; tl1t1s, as a rL1le, marriage b); proxy is 11ot jJer1nissible, but a clis1Je11satio11 fro1n tl1is 111ay be give11 by tl1e Advocate Oe11eral for a good reas()Jl (Art. 586). 111 tl·1e case of a marriage of a JJersor1 \vl10 is 111i11or, the co11se11t of tl1e 111i11or l1i111self a11d of tl-ie re1Jrese11tative of tl1e fa111ily is 11ecessary. l11 tl1e case of a jt1dicially interdicted perso11, tl1e co11se11t to tl1e marriage 111ust be sup1Jorted by a11 a11tl1orisatior1 give11 for tl1at JJt1r1Jose by tl1e Court (Art. 588 and 369).

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Cor1sent is vitiated by vio!e11.ce or by an error of sul1sictnce. A co11se11t \xrl1ich l1as bee11 extortecl b:,1 viole11ce is 11ot a free cor1se11t a11cl tl1erefore 110 co11sent at all. It is r1ot a11y l<ind of viole11ce \xrhicl1 vitiates tl1e co11ser1t; t111der f\rt. 589.

(2) co11se11t is vitiated \xrl1e11 as a rest1lt of viole11ce or duress 11sed by s01nebod)' a. jJerson gives l1is co11se11t to tl1e n1arriage \xritl1 tl1e object of protecting l1i111self (or l1erself) or 011e of l1is desce11dents or asce11cla11ts fron1 tl1e tl1reat of a grave and immine11t evil; st1cl1 evil may be 111oral or rnaterial. St 1 cl1 evil 111t1st pe of a seriot1s 11att1re a11cl mtrst be 011e \x,l1ich ca1111ot be avoided or forestallecl b)' • la1Jse of tir11e. If tl·1e evil is 11ot grave or 11ot i 1nn1i11e11t, tl1e viole11ce \xrl1ich i11d1,1ced a JJerso11 to give co11se11t to a 111arriage does 11ot vitiate tl1e cons�11t..

1-\ co11sent is 11ot vitiated whe11 it is g·ive11 as a resttlt of revere11tial fear towards a11 asce11clar1t or s0111e otl1er persor1; tl1at is, conse11t given becat1se of respect dL1e to a11 asce11cla11t (g. e., father, gra11clfatl1er, or gra11dn1otl1er) or so•me other person who, tl1ot1gl1 11ot a11 asce11da.r1t, sta11ds ir1 Loco parentis is 11ot vitiated. (Art. 89 (3 ).

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f\ conse11t is vitiated by a11 error of substa11ce wl1e11 one of tl1e spouses . gives tl1e co11se11t to tl1e marriage \vl1ile t111der a mistal<e as to certai11 1natters co11cer11ing the otl1er S(JOttse. Art. 591 gives a restrictive ent1111eration of tl1e tnatters \vl,icl1 arnot111t to errors of st1bsta11ce sufficie11t to vitiate tl1e co11sent. 'fl1ese are as follo\vs: (a) error as to tl1e iclentity of the sjJOL1se; or (b) error as to tl1e religi or1 of t l1e spot1se; or (c) error as to tl1e state of l1ealtl1 or boclily co11for1natio11.

Tl1e Civil Cocle li111its tl1e error wl1e11 it is \vitl1 regard to tl1e iderztity of the spo1tse; tl1e Code 111al<es it qttite clear tl1at tl1e error mt1st be as to tl1e p�ysical iderztity of tl1e s1Jouse. Tl1e \vords t1secl by the Code solve tl1e matl)' questio11s tl1at arose t111cler otl1er Codes, e.g., tl1e fre11ch Civil Cocle (Art. 180 (2) arid tl1e ltalia11 Civil Code of 1865 (Art. 105} where tl1e words Ltsed \vere ''erret1r sur la JJerson11e' a11cl ''errore 11ella jJerso11a. Tl1e qt1estio11 disct1ssecl \Vas \vl1etl1er ''1Jerso11r1e' a11d ''1Jerso11a11 mea11t only tl·1e JJ!·1ysical ide11tit)' of tl1e SJJouse, or w11etl1er it i11clt1ded also tl1e esse11tial qt1alities of tl1e 1Jerso11ality of of the s1Jouse, st1cl1 as tl1e virgi11ity of tl1e ft1tt1re \X ife or the co11victior1 of a serious offe11ce t111der tl1e Pe11al Cocle. U11der tl1e Civil Code of Etl·1iopi,t, tl·1e error is litnited to tl1e 111istal<e as to tl1e physical ide11tity of tl1e SJJOL1se a11cl \Ve 111ay quote tl1e exa111ple give11 by Potl1ier: ''Par example, si 111e 1Jro1Josa11t d'epoL1ser lvlarie et croya11t co11tracter avec 1\t1arie, je pron1ets la foi de marri,1ge a Jean11e qui se fait JJasser jJOt1r Marie. U11der tl1e Civil Cocle of Etl1iOJJia, tl1erefore, a 111istal<e as to tl1e social stattts or tl1e fi11ar1cil rnea11s of tl1e s1Jot1se or ar1y otl1er mistal<e as to tl1e qualities of tl·1e S{JOttse cloes 11ot vitiate tl1e co11se11t.

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There is error as to religion of the spouse vitiati11g tl1e conser1t 011ly wl·1e11 tl1e religio11 of tl1e s1Jouse is differer1t from tl1at of tl1e spoLrse \vl10 is tl1e victirn of tl1e error; tl1t1s, tl1ere is 110 error of st1bsta11ce SL1fficent to vitiate tl1e consent \xrhe,1 a ma11 \x,rl10 professes tl1e religio11 of tJ1e Etl1io1Jian Ortl1odox Cl1t1rcl1 tr 1 i11ks that the \v'Oman lie is 111arryi11g JJrofesses tl1e Oreel< Ortl1oclox Cl1t1rcl1 when ir1 fact sl1e JJrofesses l1is religio11.

As to error regarding the state of /1ealth, tl1is is lin1ited to cases wl1ere the SjJOtrse, belived to be l1ealtl1y, strffers from leprOS}'; tl1ere is also error sufficie11t to vitiate tl1e co11se11t wl1e11 a s1Jouse was t111der a 1nistal<e regardi11g tl1e requisite orga11s of the spotrse 11ecessary for tl1e cor1st11nmatior1 of tl1e n1arriage, tl1at is, to l1ave 11attrra1 sextral i11tercot1rse. Tl1t1s, tl1e fact tl1at tl1e SfJOuse \Vas st1fferi11g frotn a ve11ereal disease wottld 11ot by itself a111ot111t to a11 error of st1bsta11ce sufficient

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to vitiate tl1e co11sent t111less as a resL1lt of st1cl1 clisease tl1e affected SJ)OL1se was incaJ)able of co11su111111ati11g tl1e 111arriage.

Errors as to tl1e otl1er s1JoL1se, \vl1icl1 do 11ot arnou11t to errors of st1bsta nce sufficie11t to vitiate tl1e co11se11t t111der Art. 591 of tl1e Civil Code, 1na:i amount to r1011-seriot1s gr0Lt11ds of clivorce, e.g., \vl1ere 011e of tl1e SJJOLtses is affec ted b�>' a \re11ereal disease \x1l·1e11 tl1e otl1er s1Jot1se l1acl reaso11 to believe tl1at tl1at SJ)Ottse \xras i11 a good state of l1ealtl1. It is also reaso11able to l1old, co11siclering tl1e CLtsto111 i11 certain J)arts of Etl1io1Jia, tl1at tl1e fact tl1at tl1e wife was 11ot a virgin at tl1e tin1e of tl1e 111arriage wl1e11 tl1e l1t1sba11d co11siclered lier to be a virgi11 \VOL1ld a1110L111t to a grot111d for divorce, bttt not for dissolLttion (i11validatio11) of tl·1e rnarriage 011 tl1e grou11d tl1at tl1e co11se11t \Vas vitiated b�>' a11 error of SLtbstance.

0/Jpositiorz to n1arriage

111 vie\v1 of tl1e JJrovisio11s of Art. 560 a11cl of tl1e co11clitio11s to be ft1lfilled before tl1e celebratio11 of at1)' l<i11d of 111arriage, tl·1e la\v JJrovides tl1at certain perso11s n1a>' n1al<e Oj)j)Ositio11 to tl1e celebratio11 of a r11arriage. U11der Art. 592 st1cl1 OjJjJositio11 111ay be 111ade by tl1e perso11s tl·1erei11 111e11tio11ed a11cl by no otl1er perso11 1 namely a ) by t11e re1Jrese11tative of tl1e family of 011e of tl1e future SJJOL1ses, st1cl1 re1Jrese11tative bei11g tl1e 1Jerso11 111er1tio11ed i11 1\rticle 5621 or by the guardia11 of s1Jouse \xrl10 is a 111i11or; st1cl1 opJJosition cot1lcl be 111ade on the grou11d of lacl< of tl1e reqt1irecI age for tl1e 111arriage or tl1e existe11ce of a bo11d of relatio11sl·1iJJ by co11sa11gL1i11ity or affir1ity or 011 tl1e grot111cl tl1at tl1e reJJreser1tative of tl1e fa111ily does 11ot a1J1Jrove of tl1e marriage.

Wl1ere tr1e SJJot1se !1as bee11 1narried 1Jreviot1sly 1 opJJositio11 ca11 be 111ade only by tl1e pttblic prosecutor (Art. 595 (2); b) by the J)Ltblic :Jrosect1tor, as for exam1)le 1 in tl1e case of a marriage betwee11 1Jerso11s one of \xrl10111 is still bot111d b)' tl1e bo11ds of a [)revious • n1arr1age.

The la\xr does not reqttire ar1y SJ)ecial for111 for tl1e n1al<i11g of tl1e OJJpositio11; it may be 1nade ,tt any time L1ntil tl1e celebr::1tion of tl1e marriage (/\rt. 593), Either of the SJJOttses 111ay asl< for tl1e \vitl1dra\x1al of the OJ)fJOsition, a11d if sucl1 reqttest is not gra11tecl, a11 appeal \vill lie to tl1e coL1rt; tl1ere is 110 st1cl1 apJJeal, 11owever1 \X1l1en tl1e jJerson to \x1l1ose 111arriage tl1e OJJpositio11 is 111ade is a person t1r1der t\,:renty years a11d st1cl1 O[JJJosition t1as bee11 1nade by tl1e fatl1er or motlier of one or tl1e otl1er of tl1e future SJJOL1ses. If 011 aJJJJeal to the - 76 -

N\ARRIAOE UNDER TI-IE CIVIL CODE Of ETHIOPI ..-\

c ?ttrt, tl1 e co11 rt l1as ordered tl1e \vitl1dra\val of tl1e opJJositio11, it is not 1Jern1is­ s1ble to 111ak:e agai11 a11 op1Jositio 1 1 to the celebratio11 of the marriage betwee11 tl1e sa111e SJJ011 ses. (Art. 595).

A 1narried \von1an wl1ose n1arriage l1as corne to a 11 end by an)' of tl1e ca1 1ses mentio11ed i11 Art. 66'3 (tl1at is, by cleatl1 of tl1e l111sba11cl, or by divorce or by dissolutio11 as a sar1ction of 011e of tl1e co 1 1ditio 11s of n1arriage) n1ay 11ot co11tract a 11e\X1 tnarriage t111til 0 11e l1t111clred a11d eigl1ty days l1ave ela1Jsed si11ce tl1e da)' 0 1 1 ,vl1 icl1 tl1e first rnarrirtge ca111e to a 1 1 e11d. This fJrol1ibitioi 1 to re ...: 111arr)1 1 1 0,vever, ceases if a cl·1ilcl is born at ar1y ti 1 ne before tl1e expiry of tl1 e said or1e l1t1r1drecl a11d eigl1 ty da)'S. Tl1e sa 111e JJrohibitio 1 1 ap1Jlies to a worna11 ,vho l1as bee11 livi1 1g witl1 a 111a11 i11 a11 irregular t111io11 (Art. 596). 1·t1e object of tl1 e prol1ibitio11 111entio11ed i11 tl1is 1-\rticle is to avoicl ar1y cor1f11sion that may arise as regard s, 1Jater 1 1ity; tl1e periocl of 011 e l111ndred ar1d eighty days is co 1 1sidered st.rfficie11t for tl1e exis�e11ce of a cl1ild i11 tl1e wo1T1b co11ceived from tl1 e {Jre\rious 111arriage. Tl1e court 1nay 1 l10\X1ever, exer11JJt a n1arried \X'On1a11 frorn observi11g tl1e JJeriod of \viclo,vhoocl; sucl1 exen1ption wo11lcl be given \vl1 e11 tl1 ere is 110 cla11ger of arl)' t111certai11t)' arisi11g as regarcls JJaternity as for exan11Jle, i11 cases wl1ere it is sl10\v11 tl1 at tl1e wo111a 1 1 was 11ot ca1Jable of beari 11g childre11. ,

II - f()R1\'lALIT.IES FOR "fl-IE CELEBRATION Of TI-IE V ;.\RIOUS KINDS OF .i\t\ARRIAGES

A civil rnarriag e is celebrated before tl1e officer of civil statt1s of tJ- 1e co111 111u11e wl1ere at least 011e of tl1e s1Jo11ses or 011e of l1is pare11ts or ascencl­ a11ts l1as establisl1 ed ]·1is residence by co11ti1111011sly livi11g there for ,l periocl of 11ot less tha11 six rnon tl1s before tI ·1e date of t\1e n1arriage. (Art. 597). Tl1e date of tl1e 111arriage is to be fixecl by agreeme11t bet\vee11 tl1e fL1t11re s1Jouses a11d tl1e officer of civil statt1s. (Art. 602). Tl1e rnarriage is celebrated JJL1blicly i11 tl1e JJrese11ce of tl1e future SJJ011 ses ar1cl fot1r \Vit11esses, t\vo for eacl1 of tl1e f11t11re spouses, s11cl1 \vitnesses 1nay or 111ay 11ot be related to tl1e f11t11re spo11ses.

(Art. 603). Before tl·1e officer of civil statt1s celebrates tl·1e n1arriage1 tl1 e f11 t11re SfJOuses and tl1e wit11esses I 1· ave to tal<e a11 oatl1 stati11g tl1at tl1ere does 11 ot exist, to tl1eir 1<110\vledge, a11y obstacle to tl1e rnarriage (e.g., relatio11sl1ip of co 11sangui11ity or affi11ity). \Vl1e11 st1cl1 Oi:1tl1 l1as been tal<en, tl1e officer of civil status receives fron1 botl1 SfJ011ses, or1e after a11otl1er, a declaration tl1at tl1ey \va11t to tal<e one a11otl1er as l111sba11cl and \vife. Wl1en SL1cl1 declaration l1 as bee11 received by tl1e officer of civil stat11 s, I1e sl1 all ]Jro110L1nce tl1e t,xro SfJOLtses I111sba11d a 11d \xrife, i 11 tl1e 11a 111e of tl1e la\v. (Art. 604).

Wlie11 t\VO 1Jerso1 1s i11te1 1d to co 1 1tract a civil n1arriage, tl1ey l1 ave to ir 1 for111 the officer of civil stat1 1 s of tl1eir i11te11tio 11 at least 011e \veel( before tl-ie i 11• - 77 -

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tended date of 111arriage. (A1-t. 599). If ciuri11g tl1is JJeriod it co111es to tl·,e l<nowledge of tl1e officer of civil statt1s, or if l1e l1as good reason to believe, tl1at tl1ere exists a11 obstacle to tl1e celebratio11 of tl1e 1narriage, it is l1is d Lt ly to reft1se to celebrate tl1e marriage, a11cl lie sl1all ir1for111 tl1e future spoL1ses of tl1e reaso11 for l1is refusal to ce1ebrate tl1e 111arriage. (Art. 600). Eifl1er of the s1Jo11ses 111ay a1J1)eal to tl1e coL1rt fro111 tl1e decisio11 of tl1e officer of civil statt1s to refuse to celebrate t]1e 111arriage; if tl1e coL1rt fi11cls tl1at tl1e reft1sal is r1ot justified, the officer of civil statL1s shall celebrate tl1e 111arriage, a11d \Vl1en tl1e cot1rt l1as so decided tl1e officer may 11ot reft1se to celebrate tl1e n1arriag e for a11y reaso11 wl1atsoever. (Art. 601).

A religious marriage is celebrated according to tl1e formalities JJrescribed by tl1e religion of tl1e JJarties concer11ed. ReligioL1s marriages are, as otl1er kinds of 111arriages, st1bject to tl1e co11ditio11s commo11 to all l<i11ds of rnarriages Linder the Code; b11t religious n1arriages are also st1bject to st1cl1 otl1er cor1ditions as are prescribed by the religio11 accordi11g to \Vl1icl1 tl1e marriage is celebrated.

Tl1e formalities for a custon1ary n1arriage are tl1ose {Jrescribed by tl1e TLtles of tl1e commu11ity to \Xrl1icl1 tl1e fut11re SJJOt tses belong· or to wl1icl1 011e of the1n belo11gs. In all cases tl1e co11ditio11s co111111011 to all k:ir1ds of 111arriage 111ust be observed, 11ot\'v'itl1sta11di11g tr1at accorcli11g to local CL1ston1 st1cl1 co11ditions are 11ot essential.

•

\X/he11 records of civil status (i. e., records for tl1e registratio11 of births, n1arriages a11d deatl1s) are establisl1ed, tl1e JJerso11 celeb1·ati11g the 1narriage is required to draw LijJ a record of tl1e marriage, and s11cl1 record \-X1ill be registered i11 tl1e records of civil statt1s; proof of tl1e 1narriage will be JJossible b), 1:,rodL1ci11g a11 extract fron1 st1ch records.

III - Sf\NCTIONS OF THE CONDITIONS Of ALL l(INDS Of i\1,l\.RRIAOE

1-Iavi11g establisl1ed co11ditior1s of 111arriages, tl1e la\v 1nal{es provision for sa11ctio11s i11 case st1cl1 co11ditior1s are 11ot observed. St1cl1 sa11ctio11s refer a) to cases \'(/l1ere a marriage l1as bee11 co11 tracted \Vl1e.11 tl1ere existed an obstacle by reason of age, co11sa11gui11it)', affi11it)', existi11g bo11d by a 1Jreviot1s n1arriage (bigar11y), ,1bse11ce of tl'le 11ecessary autl1ority for tl1e marriage of a 111inor or an i11terdicted JJerso11, period of widowl1ood; a11d b) to cas-es \.'(1]1ere a 1na1·riage l1as beer1 cor1tracted witl1 a co11se11t \vl1ich is vitiated by viole11ce or b}' error of st:1bstance.

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I 11 cases L111der (a) tl1e sa11ctio11 JJrovidecl by ]aw co11sists i11 i ) tiie fJLti 1 isl1111ent LLncler ll1e Per1al Code of tl1e officer of civil status or otlier at1tl1oritJ, \vl10 l1as celebrcttecl tl1e 111arriage a11d tl1e jJL111isl1111e11t of tl1e SfJOLtses tl1e111selves, tI-1e wit11esses a11cl otl1er JJerso11s privj' to tl1e celebratio11 of tl1e 111arriage; a11d ii ) t11e d -ssoILt t on (i11validat.io11) of tl1e 111arriage.

1·

1·

111 cases u11cler (b) tl·1e sa11ctio11 co11sists i11 tl1e clissolt1tio11 (i11validatio11) of tl·1e 111arriage.

Li.,1.bility to P11-11isl?111e1zt: 1-t11der t!1e Pena.l Code

-r11e officer of civil statt1s or otl·1er at1tl1orit\rJ celebrati11cr the marriaob o e is liable to pur1isl1111e11t u11der tl1e Peria! Code \xrl1e11 lie l<11e\v or sl10L1ld l1ave k110\x:11 (£. e., after 111al<i11g tl1e i11qt1iries \vl1icl1 a clilige11t JJttblic official sl1oulcl 1nake) tl1at tl1ere existed a11 obstacle to tl1e 111arriage by reaso11 o-f a) age (f\ rt. 607); b) bo11ci of affi11it}' or cor1sa11gt1i11ity (f\rt. 6 LO); c) existi11g bo11d by a previot1s 111arriage (Art. 611); d) lacl< of tl1e 11ecessary at1tl1ority to the rr1arriage i11 tl1e case of a jJerson \vi10

is a n1i11or or i11terdicted (Art. 614);

e) co11se11t to tl1e r11arriage being vitiated by vioie11ce (f\rt. 616 (2).

St1cl1 officer or aL1tl1ority is also liable to pt111isl1n1e11t t111der tl1e Pe11al Code \v·he11 lie celebrates a 1nc1rriage to ·\'v'l1icl1 a11 opJJositior1 has bee11 valiclly r11a.cle (f\rt. 619) or to wl1icl·1 tl1ere \x,as a11 obstacle by reason of tl1e JJeriod of \vido\vl1ood (i-\rt. 620). It is to be 11oted tl1at in tl1ese t\vO i11sta11ces tl1e law does not reqt1ire tl1at tl1e officer or at1tl1ority kne\v or sl1ot1lcl l1ave l<11owJ1 of st1cl1 obstacle; if tl1ere was a11 OjJfJOsition valiclly n1acle to tl·1e 111arriage, st1cl1 OJJJJositio11 would be l<110\x111, a11d as regards tl1e JJeriod of wido\x1 l1ood 111is is a 111atter \Vl1icl1 ca11 be verified fron1 tl1e records of civil statt1s \i:1l1en st1ch recorcls are establisl1ed.

Tl1e spot1ses tl1emselves, tl1e JJerso11s \i:1l10 l1ave cor1sented to tl1e n1arriage a11d tlie \vit11esses to tl1e n1arriage are also liable to IJL1r1ish111e11t u11cler tl1e Pe11al Code \vl1e11 a n·1arriage l1as bee11 celebratecl \,1!1ile a11y 011e of tl1e above 111e11tio11ecl obstacles to tl1e 111arriage \vas JJresent. But i11 tl1e case of a rnarriage between perso11s 011e of \Vl10111 \vas t111cler tl1e reqL1ireci age, it is 011ly tl1at JJerso11 wl10 is liable to jJL111isl1111e11t (Art. 607 (2); a11d i11 tl1e case of a 1narriag·e bet\vee11 jJerso11s 011e of \vl1om \Vas a 111i11or or i11terdicted a11d tl1ere \xras 11ot - 79 -

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tl1e 11ecessary a11tl1ority, it is tl1e otl1er 1Jarty to tl1e 1narriage wl10 is liable to JJ1111isl1n1e11t (Art. 614 (2). It is to be 11oted tl1at \Y1l1ile provisio11 is n1acle i11 tl,e Pe11al Code (Art. 615 a11d 412 et seq.) for tl1e IJt111isl1111e11t of a11 officer or autl1ority \xrl10 celebrates a 111arriage \xrl1icl1 is forbidde11 by la\v, 110 st1cl1 JJrovisio11 is 1nade for tl1e IJL1nisl11ne11t of tl1e s1Jot1ses, tl1e JJerso11s wl·10 co11se11ted to tlie 1narriag·e a11d tl1e \Vi t11esses. Tl1e s1Jo11se \xrl10 1 bei11g tied by tl1e bo11d of a valid n1arriage1 i11te11tio11ally co11tracls a11otl1er 111arriage before tl1e first u11io11 has bee11 dissolved or an11ulled wo11ld, of cot1rse, be liable to pL111isl1me11t for biga1ny (Art. 6 l6 Pe11al Code). A jJerso11 wl10 l1as forced anotl1er person, by . viole11ce, to give l1is co11se11t to tl1e 111arriage is also jJU11isl1able 1111der the Art. 616 of tl1e Pe11al Code (see also Art. 568 of tl1e Penal Code).

Sa11ction of dissolutio11 (in.validatio1z) of t/;e 1narriage

•

l�l,e otl1er sanction, co11sisting i11 tl1e dissolt1tion (i11validatio11) of the r11arriage, l1as effect ir1 tl1e follo\ving \X1 aVS: a) i11 tl1e first jJlace, tl·1e dissolL1tio11 of tl1e marriage does riot tal<e place \xritl1ot1t a11 order of cot1rt 1 to wl1icl1 a11 ap1Jlicatio11 m11st be made b)' tl1e JJersons l1ereL1nder 1ne11tio11ecl (11ote that tl1e applicatio11 for the clissol11tio11 of tl1e n1arriage is 1nade to tl1e co11rt a11cl 11ot to tl1e fa1nily arbitrators; tl·1e fa111ily arbitrators cleal \vitl1 a1J!Jlicatio11s for divorce but 11ot witl1 dissolt1tio11 of tl1e rnarriage as a sar1ctio11 to tl1e co11ditions of 111arriage); b) a11 arJIJlic.atior1 for tl1e dissolt1tio11 of a 1narriage based 011 tl1e grot111cl tl·1at 011e of tl1e parties 'l;vas t111der tl1e req11ired ag·e or or, tl1e grou11d of tl1e existe11ce of a bor1d of cor1sar1gt1i11ity or affi11ity rnay be n1ade to tl1e cot1rt b�>' a11y i11terested 1Jerso11 or by tl1e jJttblic JJrosect1tor, a11d whe11 st1cl1 arJ1Jlicatio11 l1as bee11 111ade, tl1e co11rt 111t1st gra11t dissolt1tio11 of tl·1e 111arriage. -r11e dissolt1tion may r1ot, l1owever, be a1JIJlied for \x1l1e11 tl1e req11ired age for 111arriage l1as bee11 attained by tl1e spo11se \xrl10 was t111der age at tl1e time of tl1e 111arriage (Art. 608 a11d 609); c ) an ap1Jlicatio11 for dissolt1tio11 on tl1e g·rot111d of bigamy 1na)' be 1nade by e.itl1er of SJJ011ses to tl1e bigan1ot1s n1arriage or b)' the public 1Jrosecutor; bt1t the co11rt will 11ot 111al<e a11 order of dissolt1tio11 t111less it is establisl1ecl witl1 certair1ty that tl1e SJJ011se of tl1e former 111arriage \.Vas alive at tl1c ti111e of tl·1e celebratio11 of tl1e second marriag·e (Art. 612); as s0011 as tl1e s1Jot1se of tl1e for1ner marriage dies tl1e 111arriage \xrliicl1 was origi11ally bigan1ous beco111es valid, and it is 11ot possible to aJJjJly' for dissolL1tior1 011 tl1e grot111d of biga111),'; - 80 -

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·d) · an a1Jplicatio11 for dissolL1tio11 on tl1e groL1nd of lack: of autl1ority to a marriage of a n1inor or i1 1capacitated person ma)r be 1nade by tl1e minor or ir1terclicted perso11 l1in1self, or by tl1e 1Jerso11 who sl1ould have co1 1sented to tl1e 1 11arriage of tl1e 111i11or, or by tl1e gLtardian of the ir1terdicted jJersor1. Sucl1 aJJjJlication ca1111ot be 1 11ade by the 1ni11or or interdicted jJerso11 I,1ter tl1a11 six mo11ths after the mi11or or interdicted 1Jerso11 l1as ceased to be so i11caJJaci tatecl, a11cl by tl·1e perso11 \vho sl10L1lcl have giver1 l1is consent, or by tl1e gL1arclian later tl1a1 1 six mo11tl1s from tl1e date 011 whicl1 tl1ey ca111e to l<11ow of tl1e existe11ce of tl1e marriage; e) a11 a1J1Jlicatio1 1 for clissolL1 tio11 ca1111ot be 1 11ade 01 1 tl1e sole grou11cl tl1at tl1e jJeriod of \xricio\vl1ood l1as 11ot bee11 observed (f\rt. 620 (3), or on tl1e sole groL111d tl1at 1 10 consideration l1as beer1 give11 to a11 opposition \Vt1 icl1 l1as bee11 made. l�l,t1s, for exa111ple, if an oppositior1 to tl1e celebratio11 of a 1narriage !·1as bee11 111ade 011 tl1e grot111d tl1 at tl·1ere exists affi11ity bet­ \Vee11 tl·1e ft1lt1re Sj)Ouses, wl1e11 i11 fact tl1ere is no si1cl1 bo11d of affinity, tl1e11 tl1 e f,1ct tl1at 110 co11sideratio11 l1as bee11 give11 to tl,e 01Jpositio11 will riot be a good grot111cl for clissolt1tion; bt1t if a bo11cl of affi11 ity ir1 fact exist e cl, t11e 11 t11e I) ro IJ er grou1 1d f or disso I LItiC> 11 \VouI cl be t11 is bo11d.

Dissolt1tior1 01 1 tl1e groL1 11d of cor1se11t to tl1e n1arri,ige bei11g vitiated by viole11ce or error of st1bsta11ce 111ay be aJJiJliecl for 011ly by tl1e perso11 \Vl10 is tl·1 e victim of tl1e \riole11ce or error, a11d st1cl1 aJJjJl1catio11 r11ay be rnade witl1i11 six 1no11tl1s fro111 tl1e elate 011 \vl1icl1 tl1e viole11ce ceasecl or tl1e error was discoverecl. 1\11d i11 ar1y case, ar1 a1J1)licatio11 for clissolL1 tior1 of tl1e marriage 011 tl1is grou11d ca1111ot be rnacle after two years fron1 tl1e elate or, wl1 ich tt1 e 111arriage \Vas celebrated. (Art. 617 a11c1 618).

Sanctio?"is vec1,1,/iar to the vario11s ki11ds oj· m.,1rriages J

-

Tl,e sa11ctio1 1s so far dealt \Vitl1 refer to cor1ditio11s \xrl·1icl1 are com111011 to all l<iiids of n1,lrriages, bL1t tl1ere are otl1er sanctio11s \vl1icl1 are 1JecL1liar to the ctiffere11t l<incls of 1 narriages. Tl1e sa11 ctio11s pect1liar to civil marriages affect 1it11esses; in 110 tl1e a11d \X 1ses s1Jot tl1e other case d 1 a1 1s statL l civi of cer offi tl,e 1,ave sticli sanctio11s tl-1e effect of jJroclt1ci11g tl1e dissolL1tio11 of tl1e n1arriage.

1-\11 officer of civil statL1 s \vl1 0 celebrates a 111arriage wl1 e11 co1 1ditio11 of six moi,tlis residence l1as 11 ot bee11 co1n1Jliecl \X1itl1 is liable to jJL1 11isl11ne11t 11nder tl,e Pei,al Cocle if lie i<11e\X1 or sl·1oulcl l1ave !{110\v11 tl1at sLtcl1 condition l1ad 11ot bee1 1 conifJliecl witl1; tl1e s1JoL1se a11d tl1e \Xli_tnesses are also liable to iJL1 nish n:i e1 :t.

11t t111 der tl-ie Pe11al Code 1f rn e l11n 111s jJL1 to ble lia is tt1s sta il civ The officer of l1 \X1it tl1e )' 111Jl co1 requisite of JJLtblicity ot 1 1 s cloe lie ge rria rna tlie celebratirig· - 81- -

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111e11tio11ed i11 Art. 603 or \XTitl1 tl1e forn1alities 11 �e11tioned i11 Art. 604, regardi,,g tl1e oath to be tal<en by tl1e s1Jot1ses a11d tl1e \v1t11esses at1d tl1e declaratio11 by tl1e s1Jot1ses t11at tl1ey wa11t to be l1usba11d a11d wife.

Tl1e lacl< of observa11ce of any for1nalities i11 a religiot1s a11d customary 1narriage is not a grou11d for tl1e a111111l111e11t a11d dissolutio11 of tl1e 111arriage; tl1e a11r111l1ne11t of a religiot1s 1narriage by tl1e religiot1s a11tl1ority 1nay, l1owever a111ot111t to a gro11nd for di,,orce (Art. 623 (2) a11d Art. 671). Tl1e a11nulment of a c11ston1ary 111arriage b)' tl1e ct1sto111ary ai1tl1orities is of 110 legal effect.

Tl1e 0111)' sa11ctio11 for the 11011-observa11ce of tl1e co11ditions a11cl for111alities of religious arid ct1sto111ary 1narriages is tl1at tl1e autl1ority whicl1 celebrated tl1e 111arriage 111ay be co11der1111ed to pay a fi11e, a11d tl1e i11jured, party may be e11titled to da111ages, st1cl1 fi11e a11d da111ages being according to tl1e religio11 or custon1 cor1cerned. Bttt tl1e court 111ay, 11otwitl1sta11di11g tl1e religion or custom co11cerned, red11ce tl1e fi11e a11d tl1e amou11t of damages wl1ere sucl1 an1ou11t is excessive, and tl1e court 111a)' also reft1se to give effect to tl1e custom u11der \X1l1icl1 si1cl1 fi11e a11d dan1ages are JJaJrable if it a]JjJears tl1ai tl1e custom is t111reaso11able or co11tra.ry to eqt1ity or to 111orality. (Art. 624).

IV - EFFECTS Of !v1ARRIAGE

Tl1e effects of 111arriage are of t\v'O l<i11ds: a) JJerso11al;

b) jJect111 iary.

Tl1e 1Jerso11al effects of marriag·e co11cerr1 tl1e JJerso11al relatior1sl1ip between tl1e S]JOL1ses; tl1e pect1r1iary effects concer11 tl1e pro1Jerty belo11gi11g to each s1Jo11se arid to botl1 of tl1em i11 co111111on. Tl1e effects of marriag·e are tl1e same i11 all l<i11ds of marriage '\{/itl1out disti11ctio11 betwee11 civil, religio11s a11d customary 111arriages. (Art. 625). A 111arriage prodt1ces effects as soon as it is co11tracted and \v'l1etl1er it is co11surnn1ated or riot.

Co11tract of marriage

Before tl1e celebration of tl1e 111arriage, tl1e future s1Jouses may execute a co11tract of marriage to reg11late tl·1e pec11niary effects of tl1e n1arriage; i11 st1ch co11 tract tl1ey may also mal<e JJrovisio11s to regulate the perso11al effects of the 111arriage 011 tl1ose JJOi11ts wl1ere tl1e la\xr does 11ot mal<e a11y prol1ibition. Tl1 e contract of 111arriage must be i11 writi11g sig11ed by the ft1ture s1Jouses; the - 82 -

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p�ese�ce of four wit11esses is 11ecessary, t\vo for tl1e husband a11d two for tl1e \Vtfe; 1 11 defa11lt of tl1ese formalities, tl1e contract of n1arriage is of no effect.

(Art. 629). If 011e of tl1e f11tt1re spouses is a 111i11or or a j11dicially i11terdictecl perso11, the following req11ire111e11ts are to be observed u11der Art. 628: a) in tl1e case of a mi11or, tl1e co11se11t of tl1e tutor is 11ecessary in additio11 to tl1e co11 se11t of the 111 i11or·' b) i11 tl1e case of a jL1dicially ir1terdicted person, tl1e contract of marriage must be a1JJJroved b )' tl1e co11rt.

A persor1 interdicted by law is u11cler no incapacity as regards tl1e contract of marriage, and s11ch co11tract may be made by l1i111 witl1ot1t otl1er formalities tha11 those 111entio11ed above i11 Art. 629. U11der Art. 630, a co11tract of marriage, \Vl1e11 made, sl1011ld be defJOsited i11 tl1e registry of a co11rt or witl1 a notar)', and any of tl·1e spouses, and a11y JJerso11 at1tl1orised by tl1e spo11ses or by tl1e co11rt sl1all l1ave access to it a11d n1ay freely examine it. It is importa11t tl,at 1)erso11s deali11g \xritl1 011e of tl1e s1Jouses sl1ould l<nO\V wl1at tl1e s1Jot1ses l1ave agreed to as regards tl1e pect111iary effects of tl1e 111arriage, becat1se 1111cler Art. 658 tl1e agreement of botl1 SJJouses is 11ecessary for certai11 j11ridical acts.

Wl1en a co11tract of 111arriage is made, any modificatio11 tl1ereto 111ay be 111ade by tl1e fa111ily arbitrators 011 tl1e req11est of tl1e spot1ses \xrl1e11 tl1e i11terest of the fa111ily so req11ires; a COIJY of a11y 111odificatio11s 111ade 111ust be deposited in tl1e registry of a cot1rt or \vitl1 a 11otary so that an )' perso11 exami11ing· tl1e original co11tract of marriage ma)' be a ware of a11y n1odificatio11s made later (Art. 632). If 110 contract of marriage l1as been made before the n1arriage and tl1e spouses \xrisl1 to 111ake 011e cl11ri11g tl1e 111arriage, tl1e11 s11ch contract of 111ar­ riage is of 110 effect ttn less it l1as bee11 approved by tl1e fan,ii}' arbitrators or by tl1e co11rt. (Art. 633). Wl1ere 110 co11tract of 111arriage is 111ade eitl1er before or d11ri11g tl1e marriag·e, the perso11al a11cl pect111iary effects of tl1e n1arriage sl1all be governed by the J)rovisio11s of tl1e Code. (f\rt. 63Ll). A contract of marriage 11111st clearly lay dow11 110\v tl1e s1Jot1ses' perso11al and fJecur1iar)' 111atters are to be regttlatecl, a11d tl1eir wishes ca1111ot be expressed simpl)' by refere11ce to local ct1stor11. (Art. 631 ). If reference i11 sue!, ge11eral ter111s is made i11 tl1e co11tract of 111arriag·e, tl1e effects of tl1e 111arriage, botl1 jJerso11al a11cl pec1111iar:)', will be gover11ed by tl1e 1Jrovisio11s contai11ed i11 tl1e Cocle. As a co11tract of 1narriage is a co11tract bet\veen tl1e SfJOttses, it ca11r1ot co11tai11 provisio11s affecting t11ird JJarties; 11or ma)' a n1arriage co11tract reg11late n1atters \vhicl1 are 1nandatory 1111der tl1e la\v (e. g., tl1at tl1e SJ)Ottses O\ve eacl1 otl1er reSJJect, SLIJJport a11d assista11ce (Art. 636) a11cl tl1e d11ty of col1abitatio11. (Art. 640).

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Persorial Effects of 1l1arriage

U11less tl1e SJJOttses l1ave otl1er\x1ise agreed in tl1e co11tract of 1narriage on matters where tl1e law so allo\x,s, tl1e tJersonal effects of rnarriage are tl1e following: a ) tl1e l.111sba11d is tl1e l1ead of tl1e fa1nily, a11d tl1e \X'ife O\ves l1in1 obedie11ce i11 ,tll 1awf11l t11i11gs wl1icl1 lie orders; tl1ere are 1natters i11 wl1ich 110 s11cl1 d11ty of obedie11ce is d11e by tl1e \Xfife beca11se tl1e la\v gives certain rights to tl1e wife, e. g., tl1e rigl1t under Art. 649 given to each S{Jouse to admi11ister tl1e perso11al pro pert)' a11d to disrJose of it.

(Art. 635). Under tl1e guidance of tl1e l111sba11d botl1 spouses are bo11nd to cOOJJerate in tl1e i11terest of the \v]1ole fan1ly in tl1e ·1noral a11d material SJJl1eres a11d i11 bri11gi11g tl!J tl1eir cl1ildre11. The SJJouses are also bo11nd by atl)' u11dertal<i11g 111ade i11 tl1is resJJect i11 the co11tract of marriage (A.rt. 637); l1) tl1e SJJouses owe eacl1 otl1er res1Ject, supJJOrt a11d assista11ce;

c) \Vl1e11 011e of tl1e SJJouses is 11ot i11 a JJOsitio11 to carry out tl1e duties regardi11g tl1e 111a11age1ne11t of tl1e fan1ily as laid down i11 Art. 637 by reaso11 of ill11ess, or otl1er disability, or absence or desertio11 or similar circL1n1sta11ces, tl1e dt1ties sl1all fall 011 tl1e otl1er S!JOL1se (Art. 638; see also Art. 205); cl) \Vl1ere one of tl1e s1Jot1ses l1as chilclre11 fro111 a 1Jrevious 111arriage, tl1e

ri,,.l1t concer11i110·b tl·1e ed11cation of st1cl1 cl1ildre11 sl1all be retai11ecl b exclL1sivel)' b)' s1,1cl1 SjJOttse (i\rt. 63�)j; e) tl1e s1Jo11ses are bot111d tc> li\1 e together (col1abitatior1); marital relatio11sl1ip ir1clt.1des 11or1nal sext1al i11terco11rse 11nless st1ch intercottrse is serio11sl\- 1 prejudicial to he,1ltl1 (Art. 640): f) tl1e l111sba11d cl1ooses tl1e con1111on reside11ce, b11t tl1e wife may aJJjJeal to tl1e fan1ily arbitrators agai11st a clecisio11 of tl1e husba11d wl1ere tl1e cl1oice of tl1e con11no11 reside11ce by tl1e l1L1sba11d is arbitrary or cor1trary to tl1e terms of tl1e 1narriage co11tract (Art. 641 ); g) notwitl1sta11ding tlie dtit)' of col1abitatio11 (in respect of wl1icl1 tl1e · SJJouses may 11ot agree otl1er\vise in the co11tract of n1arriage), tl1e spouses n1ay, dt1ri11g tl1eir 111arriage, agree to live se1Jarately for a defi11ite or a11 i11defi11ite JJeriod; an agreeme11t to this effect may be revol<ed by eitl1er S{JOt1se at a11y tin1e provided tl1e revocation is 11ot - 84 -

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arbitrary. Tht1s, it is possible for two •spottses, \Vl10 ca11not because of tl1eir religious belief dissolve tl·1e 111arriage by divorce, to agree to separate a merzsa et thoro (fro111 board a11d bed) \Vl1ile tl1e tnarriage still s11bsists. The Civil Code does 11ot c·o11template jttdicial separatio11 1 b11t it enables tl1e fJarties to obtain separatio11 by agree111e11t; 11) the SJJOt1ses owe eacl1 otl1er fidelity (Art. 643); i ) tl1e l1t1sba11d owes fJrotectio11 to tl1e \xrife; tl1e I1t1sband 111ay guide and advise tl1e \xrife concerni11g l1er 1Jro1Jerty a1_ 1d general condt1ct 011ly in so far as this is i11 tl1e i11terest of tl1e fa111ily; i11 no case he is e11titlecl to mal<e t1se of tl1is rigl1t i11 a11 arbitrary, abt1sive or vexatious manner (Art. 644); •

j) eacl1 spouse l1as tl1e rigl1t to carry 011 sucl1 occupation or activity of

l1is choice, a11d tl1e otl1er SfJOt1se ca11 only object to tl1e carrying 011 of such occu1Jatio11 or activity if it is tl1e i11terest of the l1ousel1old (Art. 645); tl1e carryi11g 011 of trade by married perso11s is gover11ed

by Arts. 16-21 of tl1e Con1mercial Code; I<) the wife is- bou11d to attencl to tl1e l1ot1sel1old clt1ties wl1e11 tl1e l1usband is not i11 a 1Jositio11 to 11rovide serva11ts for the fJttrfJOse (Art. 6Ll6).

The spouses can11ot, in tl1e contract of 111arriage, make any tern1s \vl1icl1 derogate from tl1e effects of n1arriage laid clown i11 tl1e followi11g articles: (I) Art. 636 - respect, sup1Jort and assistar1ce; ('2) Art. 638 - im1Jecli111ent of 011e s1Jot1se

i11

carr)1i11g out tl1e dt1ties of tl1e

ma11ageme11t of tl1e family; (3) Art. 639 - exclusive rigl1t to cl1ildre11 of a: 1Jreviot1s n1arriage; (4) Art. 640 - cohabitation;

_

(5) Art. 643 _ dtity of fidelity (altl1ot1gl1 it is 11ot s1Jecifically me11tio11ed i11 this Article tl1at tl1e spot1ses may not derogate fro111 tl1is dt1ty, it 111ust be I1eld tl1at a11 agreeme11t to tl1e contrary in tl1e co11tract of 111arriage is of 110 effect).

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f)ecttrzit1,ry effects of· ,narriage.

11g witl1 tl1e 1Ject1niary effects of 111arriage, it is 11 ecessary to Ir1 deali . . _ cl1st1 ngt11sl·1 bet\vee11 jJrOJ)ert)' wl1 icl1 tl1 e SJJOuses l1ave at tl1 e tin1e of thei 111 arriage a11d JJro1Jerty \,1l1icl1 is acqt1ired by eacl1 of tl1en1 cluring tl1e coiitin� �1a11ce of tl1e 111 arriage. Under Art. 653, all JJroperty \Y1l1icl1 tl1 e SfJOt1ses have 1 s presL1n1ed to be con1mo11 propert)', tl1at is, it belo11 gs i11 con1mo11 to both SJ)ouses. Tl1 is 1Jrest1mptio11 111ay be rebutted by 01 1e of tl1 e s1Jouses provincr tl1at it is l1is J)erso11al pro1Jerty, tl1 at is, tl1 at l1e is tl1 e sole ow11 er tliereof.

Wl1ere tl1ere is deali11g witl1 tl1ird l)�rties, sL1cl1 tl1ir�l parties are not affected by t!1e fact tl1at the jJropert)i, tl1 e SLtbJect of tl1e deal111g, \Vas perso11al jJrOJJert)' and 11 ot co1 n111011 JJrOJ)ert)' L111 less sucl1 tl1ird party l<11 ew or sl1ot1ld have l<now11 of tl1 is fact. for exan1ple, assLtme tl1at two s1Jouses I1ave made a marriage co11tract to regulate tl1 e pect111iary effects of tl1e rnarriage, a11d such contract of 1narriage l1as bee11 depositeci i11 tl1e registr)' of a cot1rt i11 accord­ a11ce \Vitl1 tl1e 1Jrovisio11s of Art. 630. If a tl1ird JJarty deals witl1 the l1 t1sband \x, it 11 regard to certai1 1 JJro !)e rt)', w l1e11 in fact s L1cl1 fJ ro pert)' was JJersonal JJro1Jertj, of tl1 e wife as SJJecified i11 tl1 e cor1tract of marriage, tl1e \Vife ca11 set up tl1e claim· that sucl1 J)rOJJert)' \xras lier perso11 al property·, since tl1e third JJarty cot1ld l1ave ascertai11ed tl1at it was 1Jersor1al proJJerty by pert1si11 g the COJJY of tl1e co11tract of 111arriage deJJosited at tl1e registry of a coL1rt.

Co1111 no11 fJro1Jert)' rer11air1s in tl1e ow11ersl1iJJ of botl1 spot1ses, eac/J l,avi11g ct11 1,:.ridi·videcl share , u11til tl1e 1narriage co1 nes to a11 e11d by deatl1 of 011e of tl1e SJJ011ses, by divorce or by dissolutio11) and L111til tl1e JJrOfJerty is partition­ ed betwee11 tl1e SJJouses, or, as tl1e case 1nay be, bet\vee11 tl1e l1eirs of 011e of tl1e s1Jo11ses a11d tl1e otl1er s1Jot1se. It is im1Jorta11 t to stress tl1at \Vl1e11 011e of tl1e SJJOL1ses dies, tl1 e otl1er SfJouse does 11ot tal<e tl1 e sl1are of tl1e co111111011 JJrOjJerty fry s1tccessior1 l1ut bj' reasor1 of bei11 g co-o\v1 1er of tl1 e com1nor1 pro1Jert) Tl1e SJJOLtses may bri11g to e11d tl1e co-ow11ersl1iJJ of tl1e con1 mo11 prOJJerty b)' ;:igree111e11t e11 tered ir1to by tl1 e1n dt1ri11g tl1e n1arriage i1 1 accorda11ce \x1itl1 Art. 633. I t is [tlso irnJJOrta11t t() 111 er1tio11 tl1at t11 1cler f\rt. 660 tl1e co1111-no11 J)ro1Jerty is subject to certair1 debts, tl1at is, ciebts i11 tl1e i11terest of tl1e l1ot1sel1old of the s110L1ses; tl1erefore, \vl1e11 tl1e co1 nrno11 1Jro1Jert)' is to be cli\1icled bet\,7een the SjJOtJses. Tl,ese debts mt1st be declLtcted fro111 tl1e a1no1111ts \X1l1icl1 co11stituted tl1e ca1Jital of tl1e con1r-no11 pro1)erty. ft)r exa1111)le, if tl1 e 011 lj' co1111-no11 pro­ J)erty of a r11arriage cor1sisted i11 tl1 e salar)' ear1 1ecl n1 011 tl1ly by tl1e l1usband (say Es 600 JJer mo11tl1) a11d tl·1e 11 1arriage l1as lasted for a fJeriod of 5 years (1nalzi11g a total carJital of Ea; 36,000) a11d tl1ere \xrere say E$ 500 1nor1t!1ly ex1Je11 ses i1 1 tl1e i11terest of tl1e l1011sel1olcl (e. g, re11t, food, clotl1i11g·, edL1cat1011 of cl1ildre11), tl1e co1nrno11 JJrOJJerty to be 11artitio11ecl is 11ot £$ 36,000 but E$36,000 less E;h 30,000, tl1at is, E$ 6,000.

1 •

U11less tl1e SfJ011ses l1,1ve otl1 erwise agreed i11 tl1e co11 tract of 111arriage, personal proper/)' cor1sists of tl1e follo\vi11g:

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[\i\ARRIAGE U��DER Tf-lE CIVIL CODE Of ETI-IIOPIA

a) IJrOJJerty \vl1ich eacl1 SJJOL1 se l1ad at the time of t11e 111 arriage; b) jJroperty wl1icl1 eacl1 SjJOL1se acqttires d 1 1. ri11g tl1e marriage by successio11 or do11atior1: c) IJroperty \Vl1ich is acqL1ired by 011e of tl1e spottses duri 1 1g the n1arriage by 111ear1s o'f 111011e1, belo 11gi11g JJerso11ally to that SJJOt1se, or by 111ea 11s of mo11e)' \Vl1icl1 is tl1e jJroceeds of tl1e alier 1 atio11 of JJroperty belo11 gi11g JJerso11ally to tl1at spo1.1se or by 1nea 1 1s of a 1 1 excl1a 11ge of pro(Jerty be­ longi 11g IJersor1ally to tl1at s1Jo1.1 se; as tl1is JJroperty is acqL1ired dttring marriage, a declaratio 1 1 is 11ecessary by tl1e family arbitrators (,vl1ich declaratior1 is to be n1acle on tl1e req11 est of tl1e interested spot1se) tl1at s1.1cl1 IJrOJJerty is JJerso 11al JJro1Jert1r of tl1at SJJOLtse (Art. 648 and 652 (2), Ur1less otl1er,vise ag·reed i11 tl1e co11tract of 1 narriage1 commo,1 properlJ' consists of tl1e fol]o\vi 1 1g: a) tl1e salaries a11d earnings of tl1e SJJouses; b) tl-1e ir1cor11e fro 1 11 tl1e ]Jerso11al JJroperty tl1at eacl 1 SJJ011 se n1ay l1ave; tl111s1 rents fro 111 a l1011 se or ]arid wl1icl1 is JJerso 1 1al pro1Jerty of 0 11e of the Sj)OllSes are COllllTIOll pro,Jert)r; c) pro1Jert1, give 1 1 by do11atio 1 1 or by legacy to both SfJOuses joi 1 1tly.

Tl1e admi11 istration of jJerso11al propert1r is left to the s1Jo11 se tl1at O\v 11s tl1at pro1Jerty, a11d tl1at s1JoL1se may freely dispose of such JJrOfJerty. (Art. 649).

Tl1ere is 1 1otl1ir1g to JJreve 11t tl1e SfJOt1ses frotn agreei11g i 11 the co11tract of marriage tl1at 011e spo1.1se n1a)1 ,1cl 1nir1ister all or certai 11 1Jerso 1 1al fJrOfJerty of tl1e otl1er s1Jo11se, b1.1t i11 s1.1cl1 c,1se a 1 1 an11L1al state 1 ne11t of accou11t of tl1e acl111i 11istratio 11 mt1st, L111less otl1 er\xrise agreed, be give11 to tr1e otl 1 er spouse.

(Art. 650). Sirnilarly 011e s1Jo1.1se 111a)' a1JiJOi 1 1t tl1e otl1er SJJOL1se to act as l1is age11t for l1is JJerso 1 1al prOJJerty. (Art. 651 ). . A.s regards tl1e ad 111i1 1istr,1tio11 of tl1e co1 n1non pro1Jerty, a clistinctio11 mt1st be ,nade between a) salaries, earr1 i 11gs a11d i 11come fro111 persor1al JJro1Jerty; a11d b) co1nn10 1 1 pro1Jerty otl1er tha11 tl1e above me 11tioned items.

J 1 1 iJri11cipal, tl1e l11.1 sbancl is tl1e jJerson \vl10 acl1ni11isters tl1e con1n1on [Jroperty, b1.1 t tl1 is cloes not a1JIJly to tl1e ear 11i11gs and salaries of tl1e \Vife and i11 co,ne fro111 tl1e fJerso 1 1al [Jro1Jerty of tl1e \xrife, \vl10 l1as tl1e rigl1t to adtninister s1.tcl, jJrOfJerty. (Art 656). �fl1e \X,ife is also e11titled to ad 111i11ister all commoti pro­ perty \Y;}1e11 t11e 111.1 sb�11 d is for tl1e reasons l,Lid do\v11 i11 f\rt. 638 1111able to do - 87 -

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fL 1 rtt1 ern1 ore, tl1e \Vife may be at1 tl1 orised by tl1e fa111 ily arbitrators to ad1nir1ister tl1e con1 111011 JJrOJJert)' \vl1en tl1is is i1 1 tl1 e i11 terest of tl1e family, as for exa1n1Jle \vl1en a l1 t1 sba 11 d l1as JJrovecl l1 i1 nself i1 1caJJable of lool<i11 g after the 1Jro1Jert.J, i11 tl1e i11 terest of tl1 e l1 ot1 sel1old, or wl1 e11 tl1e l1t1slJa 1 1d is sqt1a11 deri11 g tl1 e con111 1or1 JJro1Jerty \Vitl1ot1 t reg·;1rd to l1is obligatio11 s tO\Xlards tl1e famil)'; tl1 e fa111 il>' arbitrators 111 ay give this clecisio11 at tl1e reqt1 est of the \vife (Art. S<).

656 (3).

Eacl1 SJJOLtse is entitled to receive l1is ear11i11 gs a11 cl salary and n1 ay l1 ave a se1Jarate ba11l< accoL1 r1t for tl1is JJttrJJOse a1 1d also for cle1Jositi11g tl1e inco111e fror11 the 1Jerso11al JJropert)r. Tl1 is is, 110\vever, sL1bject to tl1 e obligatio11 to give, ai tl1e request of tl1e otl1er s1JoL1se, a11 accot111 t of all earni11gs, sala.ries a11 cl i11co1ne receivecl. (Art. 654-). l1 1 tl1e i1 1terest of tl1e family, tl1e family arbitrators 11 1 ay, at tl1 e reqt1est of 01 1e SIJOL1se, a11tl1orise tl1 e otl1er spo11se to receive tl1e salaries a1 1d i1 1co1 11e of tl1e JJerso11 al JJrO])erty of tl1e otl1 er spouse (a11d give a receiJJt tl·1 erefore) a11d also autl1orise tl1 e attacl·1111er1t of tl1 e w11ole or JJart of the ear11ir1gs, salary a11d i1 1con1e i1 1 tl1e ha11ds of tl1e perso11 by \'v'l10111 tl1e>' are clt1 e. TJ-1us, for exan1ple, if a l1 L1sba11d sq11a11 ders l1is 111 011 e1' 01 1 dri11 k as soo1 1 as l1 e receives I-1 is salary, tl1e wife may reqL1 est tl1e family arbitrators to orcler tl1e attacl1111e1 1t of tl1e sa.lary ir1 tl1e l1a1 1ds of tl1e JJerson by \vl1on1 tl1e salary is JJayable. (1-\rt. 655).

Altl10L1 gl1 tl1 e 1 1L1 sba11d ad111 i11 isters tl1e com1non property, st1cl1 acl1ni1 1istra- • tio1 1 cloes riot er1title l1i111 to dis1Jose freely of st1cl1 JJrOJJerty (tl1e sa1ne aJJplies wl1e11 tl1 e \vife l1as bee11 er1 trL1sted \vitl1 tl1e admi1 1istratior1 of tl1e com1non JJro­ JJert>1). Tl1ere are sor11e r11atters i11 wl1icl1 tl1 e agreeme11.t of botlJ spo1,1ses is 1 1ecessary in cleali1 1g witl1 tl1 e co1111no1 1 JJrOJJerty; tl1ese are: a) alie1 1atio11 of comn1 on irnmovable JJroperty; b) alie11atio11 of co1111110 1 1 movable JJrOJJerty of tl1 e valt1e of 1nore tl1e1 1 E$ 500 a11 d alie1 1atio11 of secL1 rities (bo11 ds, sl1ares, etc.) registered ir1 tl1e 11a11 1e of botl1 SJJOLtses; c) contractir1g a loa1 1 of more tl1 a11 E$ 100; arid d) do1 1ati1 1g son1 etl1i1 1g wortl1 111 ore tl1a11 E$ 100 or sta11 ding· as gL1arantor for a 1Jerso11 for 111ore tl1 an E$ 100.

TJ1 e Code cloes 11ot reqttire atl)' special for111ality for tl1e agreement of tl,e spo11 ses i11 doi11g a1 1y of tl1 e above me11 tioned j11ridical acts; s11cl1 agree1ne11t 111ay be give11 i11 tl1e co11 tract of rnarriag·e ancl it may (it seen1 s) be oral. Nor does tlie Code SfJecify \vl1at tl1e sanctio11 is if a S{JOttse does a11y of the above juridical acts \vitl1ot1 t tl1e agree1nent of the otl1er spot1se. It is suggested, l1 ow•

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MARRl;.\OE U��DER "ff-IE CIVIf_ CODE OF ETHIOPIA

ever, tl1at tl1e sa11ctio11 is tl1at tl1e jltridical act is to be considered 11ull and void relatively, tl1at is tl1at tl1e 11t1llity ma)' be IJleaded by the otl1er SfJOLtse wl10 dicl 11ot give l1is ag1·een1e11t to tl1e act a11d by I1is l1eirs. Tl1e nt1llity ca1111ot be invoked by tl1e SJJOttse wl10 clid tl1e jt1ridical act, and st1cl1 spouse \'(lOLtld re111ai11 liable 011 l1is jJerso11al pro1Jerty to\vards tl1e JJerso11 \vith wl1om tl1e j11ridical act \Vas co11cltided.

Debts of or1e of tl1e sIJOL1ses rnay be recovered frotn tl1e JJersonal 1Jro1Jerty of tt1at spot1se and fro111 tl1e co111n1011 pro1Jerty, but 11ot fro1n tl1e fJersonal JJro1Jert}' of tl1e otl1er s1Jo11se (Art. 659 (1) ). Tl1is article 1ne11tio11s ''debts dlte by one SJJOltse'' a11cl rnal<es 110 disti11ctio11 abottt tl1e ki11d of debts; it would see111 1 tl1erefore, tl1at tl·1e 1Jerso11al fJroperty of 011e SfJOl1se and tl1e co111111on pro1Jert)' \'(IOLtld be liable tu tl1e clebts of 011e of tl1e SfJOL1ses i11ct1rred before tl1e n1arriage a11d also debts tl1at 1nay be due by a spot1se 011 acce1Jti11g a successio11.

Debts i11cl1rrecl i11 tl1e i11terest of tl1e l1011sel1old (sue!, clebts are en111nerated 111 Art. 660) are tl·1e joi11t a11d several liability of botl1 s1Jouses and 1nay be recovered fro111 tl1e f)erso11al JJrOfJerty of 011e or both of tl1e SfJOL1ses a11d also fror11 tl1e co1n111011 jJfOfJerty (1.\rt. 659). TI,e spouses l1ave the obliga­ tio11 to cor1tribt1te to\varcls tl1e ex1Je11ses for tl1e family i11 JJro1Jortio11 to tl1eir res1Jective 111ea11s. (Art. 661 ). Wl1at debts are inctlrred ir1 the i11terest of the ho11sehold are rne11tionecl i11 Art. 660, 11a111ely: a) debts i11c11rred for tl1e livelil1ood (food, lodgi11g, clotl1i11g a11d edt1cation of tl1e cl1ildre11) of tl1e fa111il)1; b) debts to ft1lfill ar1 oblig·atio11 of 1nai11te11a11ce pa)rable by' one or botl1 of tl1e s1Jot1ses; arid c) otl1er clebts \vl1icl1 tl1e fa111ily arbitrators decicle to be sucl1; tl1e fatnily arbitrators 1na)' 111al{e s11cl·1 decisio11 at tl1e reqt1est of 011e of the SfJOuses or of tl1e creditor.

V - DISSOLUTION Of i\1ARRIAOE

Causes of dissol1t, tio11

A marriage 111ay co111e to ar1 e11d i11 tl1ree \vays: a) by death of 011e of the SfJOt1ses; b) by a11 order of court dissolvi11g tl1e marriage as a sanctio11 to one of tl1e esse11tial co11clitio11s of n1arriage; a11d c· ) by divorce.

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�fl1e Cocle n1al<es 110 disti11ctior1 bet\vee11 tl1e varioL1s l<i11ds of n1arriages; all 111arriages, \X1l1etl1er religiot1s, civil or cL1stor11ary, come to a11 e11d i 11 011e of tl1e said tl1ree \x,ays.

-r1 1e circL1111sta11ces t111der \xrl1icl·1 a 111arriage co111es to e11d by divorce ap1:ily· to all types of 111arriages. I11 tl1e first JJlace, Art. 664 lays dow11 that reJJL1diation b)' 011e of tl1e s1Jot1ses does 11ot a111011nt to divorce; also divorce by 11111t11al co11se11t of tl1e s1Jot1ses is JJrol1ibited by Art. 665. Tl1ere is divorc e 011ly wI-1en tl1e 1Jrovisio11s of tl1e Code l1ave been con11Jlied witl1. A divorc e ca11 be granted only 011 tl1e gro1111ds laid do\'vl1 by la\xr; tl1ese grottnds are classifiecl i11to (a) serious grou11ds a11d (b) otl1er groL111ds. Tl1e a1JJJlicatio11 for divorce is to be made 11ot to the court bL1t to tl1e fa111ily arbitrators (Art. 666), i. e. tl1e fJerso11s 111e11tioned i11 Art. 725. Tl1e jurisdictio11 ot tl1e �011rt is o1ily s11bsidiary to tl1e fJowers give11 to tl1e fan1ily arbitrators; it is subsidiary in tl1e se11se tl1at tl1e co11rt is corn1Jete11t to decide \vhether a divorce has been pro110L1nced or 11ot (Art. 729). Tl1is 111eans that tl1e court is the fi11al at1tl1orit)' for declari11g tl1at tl1e family arbitrators l1ave pro11ou11ced a divorce i11 accordance witl1 tl1e la\v, b11t (exce1Jt i11 tl1e circu111sta11ces l1ere1111der 1ne11tio11ed) the cot1rt is 11ot corn1Jete11t to deal witl1 a11 a1J1Jlicatio11 for divorce L111less the matter !1as first bee11 s11bn1itted to tl1e family arbitrators. Tl1e co11rt ma)' tal<e '2:og11iza11ce of a11 a1J1Jlicatio11 for divorce 011ly \vl-1e11 tl1e arbitrators l1ave failed to give tl1eir decisio11 \Vitl1i11 tl1e JJeriod of ti111e laid down by law, (Art. 668 a11d 678) or witl1i11 a reaso11able tir11e. (Art. 737).

• A. 1Jetitior1 for clivorce to tl1e fa111ily arbitrators 111a)' be n1ade 011ly by 011e of tl1e s1Jot.1ses or b) botl1 SJJ011ses, a11d by nobody else, a11d if 011e of tl1e SJJOL1ses dies before a11y decision l1as bee11 tal<:e111 tl1e clivorce proceedings ccJ111e to ,111 e11cl a11d ca1111ot be co11tin11ed by tl1e l1eirs of tl1e deceased spouse or otl1er i11terested 1Jerso11s. (Art. 666). Tl1e co11ditior1s 1.1r1der \Vich a divorce 111ay be gra11ted a11d tl1e effects of tl1e divorce clepe11d on \Vl1etl1er tl1e spouse \vl10 JJetitions for divorce establisl1es a seriot.1s g·rot1nd of divorce of \X1l1icl1 tl1e otl·1er SJJouse is gL1ilty (Art. 667); tl111s Art. 690-695 deal \'vitl1 tl1e f)ecu11iar)' effects of a divorce gra11tecl 011 otl1er, r1011-serio11s gro1111ds. If tl1e JJetitio11 for clivorce is basecl 011 serioL1s groL111ds tl1at are establisl1ed, tl1e family arbitrators are to give tl1eir decisio11 witl1i11 011e 111011th fron1 tl1e date of tl1e petition (Note: Art. 668 me11tions tl1e period of ''three montl1s1 in tl1e E11glisl1 tra11slation.

J 11 tl1e origir1al A111l1aric text of tl1e Cocle, tl1is period is also stated to be tl1ree 1no11ths).

1�1 ,e serioLts groL111ds of clivorce ,ire of t\vo l<i11ds: a) tl1ose attrib11table to tl·1e fat1lt of tl1e SfJOLtse, a11d b) tl1ose \1<rl1icl1 are ir1cle1Jencle11t of tl1e \Vill of tl1e SfJOLtse.

Ir1 tl1e first class are '!11e11tio11ed: a) aclL1ltery1 1

'

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b) d �sertio11 fro1n the co11j11gal 1·eside11ce for a JJeriod of two years .in circumsta11ces wl1ere tl1e wl-1ereabo11ts of the deserti11g s1Jo11se are 11ot k11ow11. (Art. 669).

In tl1e secor1d class are 111er1tio11ed:

a) confineme11t i11 a l111 1atic asyl11111 for a period of 1 1ot less tl1a11 two years; b) absence j11dicially declared (Art. 670); a11d c) declaratio11 of n11llity of a religiotts 1narriage by a religious authority.

(Art. 671).

As regards tl1e declaratio11 or 11ullity of tl1e 111arriage by a religious a11tl1ority, tl1is ceases to be a serious gro1111d of clivorce \vl1e11 tl1e SJJOttses, being· a,xrare of tl1e pror10L1nce111e11t of ar11111lerner1 t, conti 1 1ue to live togetl1er.

It n1ay tl1ereafter amoL111t 011ly to a non-seriot1s grot111d of divorce. As regarcls tl1e otl1er serio11s gro1111ds of divorce whicl·1 are attrib11table to the fa11lt of the spouse, tl1ese cease to be serio11s gro1111ds of divorce when the inr1ocent spo11 se l1as forgive1 1 tl1e fa11lt, and sucl1 forgive11ess sl1all be concl11sively pres11med \Vhe111 after tl1e c11l1Jable co11d11ct has ceased, 110 1Jetitior1 for clivorce l1as bee11 111ade \Vitl1in six 111011tl1s. (Art. 672). \Vl1ere a IJetitio11 for divorce l1as bee11 111ade on grou11cls \Vl1icl1 fLre 11ot serious, tl1en it is tl1e duty of tl1e fa1nily arbitrators to try to brir 1 g a recor1ciliatio11 bet\vee11 tl1e s1JoL1ses, a11d for this p11r1Jose tl1ey rr1ay 1113,l<e sucl1 recom­ me11dations as tl1ey co 11sider tJrOJJer to bri11g· aboLtt tl1e reco11ciliatio 11. (Art. 676).

If tl1ey fail to bri11g abot1t a reco11ciliatio11 1 tl1e11 tl1ey sl101 1 ld try to persuacle tl1e SjJOLtses to agree 011 tl1e co 1 1ditions of divorce (sucl1 as regarcls tl1e pec1111iary effects of divorce, 1T1ai11te11a1 1ce, a11cl tl'le c11stody of tl1e cl1ildre 11). If tl1e s1Jouses reacl1· sucl1 a11 agree111e11t, tl1e family arbitrators \vill tl1e 11 give a j11dg­ me11t i 11 accorda11ce \vitl1 tl1e terms a11cl cor1 ditio11s co11tainecl i11 tl1e agreet11ent (1-\rt. 677), s11bject al\vays to tl1e decision. of tl1e co11 rt tl1at a divorce l1as bee11 1Jro11ounced u11der f\rt. 729. Wl·1ere tl1e spo11ses are 11ot reco11ciled or do not reac11 ar1 agreement as to tl1e conditio11s of divorce, tl1e fa1nily arbitrators 1nust IJronou11ce divorce witl1i11 a JJeriod of 011e year from tl1e elate of the petition, \Vl1icl1 period of 011e )'ear 111ay be extended to a period of five years by tlie siJouses. Tl-ie s1Jouses may so agree eitl1er before or after tl1e rnarriage.

(Art. 678).

Wlien a [Jetition for clivorce has bee11 1nade to tl1e fa111ily arbitrators 011 grot1nds whicl1 are serio11s, or 11011-serious. tl1e family arbitrators 111ay1 pendi11g tl1e decisio11 to be give11, give s11cl1 1Jrovisio 11al orders as 111ay be 11ecessary to protect tl1 e spot1ses and tl1e cl1ildre11. Tl1L1s tl1ey may 111al<e orders regardi11g - 91 -

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tl1e 111ai11tena11ce of tl1e s1JoL1ses a11d the cl1ildre11, the adn1i11istration of fJrOJJerty of tl1e SfJOLtses, t11e place of reside11ce of the spoLtses (Art. 674); fJrovisio11al orders so 1nade are sttbject to revisio11 or to ca11cellatio11 at ti111e for good cause s110\'(fll. (Art. 675).

tJ1e a11y any

Whe11 tl1e family arbitrators co111e to give tl1eir fi11al decisio11, tl1ey sl1all give a judgment wl1icl1 pro11ou11ces tl1e divorce. 111 _s11cl1 j11cigme11t the family arbitrators s11011ld also give orders as to the custody of tl1e cl1ildren bor11 of the marriage and orders as to the liq11idation of tl1e fJerso11al and con1m.011 pro1Jert .}' of tl1e SJJ011ses i11 accordance witl1 tl1e rttles set 011t in Art. 690-695. Where questio11s arise 0L1t of the IJro11ou11ce1nent of divorce \'v'hicl1 co11ld not be dealt witl1 in tl1e origi11 al judg111e11t, tl1e fan1ily arbitrators 111ay give a11 additional jL1dg1ne11t to regulate tl1e matters wl1icl·1 J-1ave arise11 after the divorce. SL1cl1 SLtJJJJlen1e11tary jL1dg111ent 1nay be given 11ot later tl1ar1 six 111011tl1s fro1n the date of tl1e origi11al judgme11t. (Art. 680). Ir1 111al<ing any orders regardi11g tl1e custody of the cl1ildre11 (tl1at is, whetl1er tl1e cl1ildre11 sl1ould be with tl1e father or witl1 tl1e 1notl1er) and also regardi11g tl1eir n1ai11tenance, tl1e ir1terest of the cl1ildren is tl1e IJaramount co11sideratio11. Tl1e family arbitrators sl10L1ld decide tl1ese qttestio11s l1avi11g regard only to tl1e \velfare, botl1 material a11d moral, of tl1e cl1ildre11. If there is 110 serious reaso11 wl1y cl1ildre11 sl10L1ld not be given to tl1e custody of tl1e motlier, cl·1ildre11 of tl1e te11der age of five )'ears a11d under sl10L1ld be entrusted to tl1e 111otl1er. Any order 111ade as regards tl1e cl1ildre11 is subject to revisio11 at ar1y time \Vl1ere tl1e ir1terest of tl,e cl1ildren so requires. Tl1L1.s, if a cl1ild l1as been e11trusted to tl1e 111other, wl10 at a later ti1ne begins to lead an immoral life, tl1e order 111ay be revised, and if tl1e father is fit to tal<.e custody of the cl1ildren, s11cl1 custody will be give11 to l1im. A11 a1)plicatio11 for revisio11 of an order regarding cl1ildrer1 is to be 1nade to tl1e family arbitrators by tl1e fatl1er or 1notl1er or a11y otl1er ascendant of the cl1ildren. (Art. 681 a11d 682) . . Liquidation of pecuniary relations betweert the spo1eses

011.

dissolution o; ,riarriage

Tl1e liquidation of tl1e J)ecur1iary relatior1s bet\veer1 the spouses is an important consequence of tl1e clissolutio11 of the 1narriage by any 011e of tl1e three above mentior1ed ways. The liquidation has, l1owever, differe11t aspects accordir1g to tl,e way by which tl1e marriage is dissolved, that is, wl1etl1er by deatl1, b)' divorce, or as a sa11ctio11 to tl1e conditions of tl1e marriage. The. principles aoverni11g tl1e liquidatio11 are al\vays tl1e satne i11de1Jendently of tl1e ki11d of �arriage (civil, religious or c11stomar)') tl1at is i11volved. a) Liquiclatio11 on dissol11tior1 of tl1e marriage as a result of deatl1 of one of tl,e spoL1ses.

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If the spot1ses l1ave made a contract of marriage governi11 g tl1 e manner _ .1n \vl11cl1 the JJroperty of the SJJouses, personal or co1nmo11 is to be divided then the liqL1idatio11 sl1 all tal<e JJlace in accordance witl1 su�l1 contract. If n� sucl1 contract bet\veen tl1 e spouses exists, tl1 e liquidation sl1all take place in accordance \Vith tl1e pri11 ciJJles as laid dow11 by law. (Art. 683).

The first [Jri11 ciple is tl1at eacl1 spouse may retake tl1 e property which is sl10\vn to be his f)erso11al proJ)erty. (Art. 684). If 011 e of tl1 e spouses ca11 sl1 ow that his JJerso11al jJroperty l1as been alienated a11 d the proceeds tl1ereof l1 ave gone in to tl1e co1n111011 property, tl1e11 SL1cl·1 Sf)OUSe sl·1all be e11titled to withdraw from the common prorJerty 11 1011ey or otl,er tl1 ings equal to tl1e value of the [)rice at \vl1icl1 tl1e j)ersor1al [JrO[Jerty l1acl been alie11 ated. If both l1usba11d and \Vife are e11titled to \vitl1draw SLtcl1 mo11ey or tl1ings, the11 the \vife (or her heirs, as the case n1ay be) sl1all l1 ave prefere11 ce to witl1dra\v first. (Art. 685).

Tl1e \vife is give11 tl1is fJrefere11ce becaL1se as a rule tl1 e l1usband is tl1e spot1se \vl10 ad 111 i11 isters tl1e co 1n n1 o11 JJroperty. \Vl1ere tl1e personal IJro1Jerty of 011e S[JOL1se or the common property l1as been adversely affected by reaso11 of acts JJerformed by tl1e otl1er spottse, tl1 er1 that S[)Ouse is e11 titled to co1npe11 sation or datnages if: a ) tl1 e spot1se \vl1 0 [Jerformed tl1e act l1ad no rigl1t to perform tl1 at act; or b) tl1 e act perfor1necl amou11ts to bad adn1 i11 istratio11 or was an act in defrattd of tl1e rigl1ts of tl1 e otl1er spouse.

A11 exa111ple of (a) wot1ld be \vl1ere tl1e l1ttsba11d perfor1ns a11y of tr1e juridical acts n1e11tioned i11 Art. 658 (i11 respect of wl1 ich tl1e agree1ne11 t of both spouses is 11ecessary) \vitl1 out the agreeme11t of tl1e wife. Tl1e principle of damages for any sucl1 act is mar1datory and tl1e spot1ses ca11not enter into an agreen1e11t to avoid st1ch obligation. Tl1 e pri11ciple also l1as effect notwitl1standing tl1at tl1 e liquidation has taken [Jlace and 011 e of tl1e s1Jot1ses l1 as give11 a receiJJt for tlie settlement. (Art. 686). The clain1 for indem11 ity or dan1ages may, 110\vever, be broL1gl1t only ir1 respect of acts \vhicl1 have beer1 }Jerformed not more than three years before tl1e elate of tl1 e deatl1 of tl1e spoLtse. (Art. 687). A S[)Ot1se is also erititled to an i11den1 nity if he can sl1ow tl1at tl1e personal property of tl1e other S[Jouse l1as bee11 enriched or ir1creased in value to the detriment of l1is persoi,al property or of the co1n11 1on property. (Art. 688). Tl1 t1s, - if a l1t1sband borro\YJS money belor1gi11 g personally to tl1e \Vife to imJ)rove a l1 ouse \Vhich belorigs IJersonally to l1i1n a11d before l1is deatl1 lie was 11 ot able to repay tl1e loanI the \vife wo11ld be e11titled to a11 i11clernnity.

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Tl1e co111111on 1Jro1Jerty, after deducti11g all liabilities to wl1icl1 tl1e coinino 11 · · su bJect (e. g., debts ir1c11rrecl i11 tl1e i11terest of tl1e l1ousehold) is to JJro1J�r tY 1s · _ be d1v1cled eqLtally betwee11 tl1e s11rvivi11g SJJOttse and tl1e l1eirs of tl1e deceased SJJOL1se. The SJJouses 111ay i11 tl1eir co11t1·act of 111arriage or by any otl1er agree­ n1e11t sti1J11late tl1at pro1Jerty is to be divided 11ot equally but in different sl1ares. (Art. 689). 111 tl·1is con11ectio11 tl1e q11estio11 arises \Y1l1etl1er any sti JJulation wl1icl1 is to l1ave effect 011 tl1e deatl1 of 011e of tl1e s1Jouses is co11trar1, to Art. 1114 of tl1e Code; 110 judicial 1Jrono11nce111er1t l1as 1,et bee11 1nade 011 tl1is poiiit. b) Liq11idatio11 on dissol11tio11 of 111arriage by divorce.

Tl'1e 111an11er i11 \vl1icl1 jJerso11al a11d co111mon 1JrOJJert 1, is to be liq11iclated _ Qn tl1e grant of divorce is 011e of tl1e n1atters 011 wl1icl1 tl1e fa111ily arbitrators n1t1st give tl1eir decision. 111 givi11g sucl1 decisio111 the family arbitrators must folio\,, tl1e pri11ciples laid do\vn i11 tl1is res1Ject ir1 Art. 690 to 696. Oe11erally s1Jeal<ing, tl1e liquidatior1 is to tal<e IJlace as i11 tl1e case of liquidatio11 on clissolL1tio11 by deatl1. (A1-t. 690). B11t in addition to tl1is jJri11ciple tl1e Code lays do\vn certain rules \vl1icl1 ca1111ot be a�tered b1 r tl1e co11tract of n1arriage or by any otl1er agreen1e11t n1acie bet\vee11 tl1e SJJOt1ses before tl1e di\,orce.

(Art. 690 (2).

Wl·1ere JJrese11ts l1ave bee11 give11 on tl1e occasio11 of tl1e marriage or b)' reaso11 of tl1e existe11ce of tl1e marriage,_ tl1e fa111ily arbitrators may order that sL1cl1 prese11ts be retL1r11ed. Tl1is apJJlies \vl1e11 a req11est is made by tl1e person ,\t l10 _ made t.l1e JJrese11t, wl1etl1er SL1cl1 persor1 is 011e of the spouses \X,}10 gave JJresents to tl1e otl1er SJJOttse _ or otl1er fJerso11s; wl1ere tl1e perso11 \Vl10 1nade tl1e present is dead, tl1e reqL1est 111ay be 1nade by tl1e heirs. Tl1e fa1nily arbi­ trators may terminate atl)' benefits tl1at 111ay l1ave bee11 or made to JJron1ised tl1e s1Jouses or to one of tl1ern 011 tl1e occasion of tl1e marriage or i11 consideratio11 of the marriage. (Art. 691). Tl1t1s, if a JJerson l1as \Jro1nised to· pay 011e of �l1e SJJouses a rno11tl1ly s11n1 or given to one of the spotrses a l1ot1se i11 t1st1frt1ct as. a 111arriage settlemer1t, the fa1nily arbitrators 1nay termi11ate such be11efit given to t11·e SJJouse.

1

•

In deali11g \X itl1 tl1e commo11 and \vitl1 tl1e 1Jerso11al proJJert1,, tl1e family arbitrators l1ave to consider wl·1etl1er tl1ere is a serious or 1ion-serioL1s grou11d for the· divorce, ar1d also \Vl1etl1er or 11ot tl1e gro1111d of divorce is im1Jutable to tl1e fat1lt of 011e spouse.

1

- ·w11ere tl1e groL111d of divorce is seriot1s a11d i1nJJL1table to the fa11lt of one SJJouse, tl1e11 tl1e spo11se who is at fa11lt may be ordered to give LIP tl1e wl10Ie of tl1e. -commo11 JJroperty to tl1e in11oce11t spouse a11d also to· give UIJ - to lhe i1111oce11t SJJOt1se a JJortio11 of his personal property 11ot exceeding 011e tl1ird of

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sucl1 personal JJrope �ty. S11ch JJenalty may be imposed apart from tl1e r,estitution of �he presents as laid down ir1 Art. 691. Tl1e penalti.es may 11eve1· be applied . aga111st tlie 1n11oce11t spo11se. Nor may they be applied \Vhere the ·ground of divorce, altl �o11 �l1 �eriot.1s, is not imp11table to tl1e fault of tl1e spo11se; in sucl1 cases the l1q111dat1on sl1all tal<e JJlace as it1 tl1e case of dissol11tion of tl1e marriage by deatl1.

Wl1ere tl1e gro1111d of divorce is r1ot serious, tl1e above1nentioned penalties (i.e., restit11tio11 of jJresents - Art. 691, a11d tl1e a\vard of tl1e commo11 pr.OfJerty a11d of a IJOrtio11 of tl1e perso11al 1Jro1Jerty - Art. 692) tnay be ordered only agai11st tl1e perso11 \Vl10 l1as n1ade tl1e JJetitio11 for divorce. (Art. 694). This JJro­ visio11 is i11te11decl to clisco11rage IJetitions for divorce \Vl1e11 the petitio11 is not based 011 011e of t\1e serio11s gro11r1ds. \Vl1ere tl1e gro11nd for divorce is not serious, tl1e petitioner for divorce \Viii l<11ow tl1at l1e ca11not be11efit fina11cially from tl1e gra11t of a divorce.

Altho11gl·1 tl1e fan1ily arbitrators sl1011ld a1Jply tl1e penalties n1e11tio11ed, tl1ey l1ave a discretio11 i11 tl1e n1an11er ir1 wl1icl1 s11cl1 JJe11alties are to be applied.

Tl1e rt1les laid do\vr1 as regards pe11alties (Art. 691 and 692) are 11ot to be follo\ved bli11dly by tl1e arbitrators; tl1ey may ap1Jly tl1ern or not apply tl1e111, a11d appl�>7 tl1en1 in f11ll or i11 JJart, accordi11g to their discretio11. l11 11sing tl1is discretion, tl1ere 1n11st lJe good reason, ct11cl s11ch reason sl1011ld be indicated i11 tl1eir decisio11. lr1 decidi11g \Vl1etl1er to aJJ[Jly the rules in f11ll or in IJart or 11ot to a1J1Jly tl·1em at all, tl1e fat11ily arbitrators sl1011lcl tal<e i11to co11sicleration tl1e circu1nsta11ces in \x1l1icl1 tl1e 1Jetitio11 for divorce l1as beer1 macle, tl1e degree of the fault of tl1e g11ilt)' party, tl1e co11d11ct ar1d bel1aviot1r of tl·1e i11noce11t spouse a11d the 1notive for tl·1e petitio11 a11d tl1e 111oral bacl<groL1nd for tl1e petition.

(Art. 695). c) Liquidatio11 011 dissol11tion of rnarriage for causes otl1er tl1an death or clivorce.

Art. 696 lays do\v11 tl1e rules for tl1e liquidatio11 of tl1e JJrO[Jerty of the spouses on the dissolution of tl1e 111arriage as a sanctio11 to tl1e co11ditior1s of marriage. These r11les are as follo\vs: a) t11at the JJrincirJles me11tioned i11 Art. 690-695 are only to be tal<e11 as a g11ide, and are in no way bindi11g on tl1e co11rt; b) that t11e court is to mal<e its decision accordi11g to tl1e equity; and c) that in aJJplying· eq11ity tl1e court is to tal<e into co11sideratio11 �articu­ Iar1y the good or bad faitl1 of tl1e SfJ011ses or of one of tl1e1n, tl1e interest - 95 -

JOURNAL OF

ETliIOPIAN

LA \Y/

-

VO i..

I

-

NO.

1

of tl1e cl1ildre11 (if a11y) of tl1e 111arriag·e, a11d, if a11y tl1ird J)arty has performed a11y juridical act betwee11 tl1e date of tl1e marriage and tl1 e date of tl1e dissolutio11 of tl1e SJJOttses, tl1e i11terest of st1cl1 tl1ircl JJarties ,xr1 10 l1ave acted i11 good faitl1.

It is to be 11oted tl1at i11 cases of dissolt1tio11 as a sa11ction to tl1e co11ditioi,s of marriage, the questio11 of dissolt1tio11 of the 111arriage ar1d tl1e co11seqttent liquiclatio11 of tl1e JJroperty is one for tl1e court and not for tl1e fainily arbitrators.

VI - IRREGULAR UNIONS AND 01-liER REf_,i.\ TJONSHIPS

lrreg1,1 lc(,r U11io11

1-11e Civil Code does 11ot recog11ise tl1e !<incl of marriage formerly 1<110\xrn under cttstomary la\xr as ''be damoz''. Tl1e Civil Code does, I·1owever, give legal recognitio11 to the fact of a 1nar1 a11d a \xroma11 livi11g together as husba11d ar1d ,xrife; to tl1is fact the Code gives tl1e 11ame of a11 irregular t1nio11. Such t111io11 produces certain legal effects, bt1t an irregt1lar t1nio11 is 11ot a marriage, ar1d its effects are very different fron1 tl1ose JJrodt1cecl by a la\x,ful marriage.

Tl1e esse11ce of a11 irregular t111io11 is tl1at 110 marriage !1as beer1 performed \X-'ith tl1e formalities recogr1ised by law for a valid marriag·e. An irregular Linion is simply a state of fact \x1l1ic�1 g·ives rise to certai11 li111ited co11seqt1ences.

There is ,t11 irregL1lar t111io11 ,vithir1 tl·1e 1neanir1g of tl1e Civil Code only \vl1en a n1a11 a11d a \Xro111a11 live togetl1er and bel1ave as if tl1e)' were l1t1sband ;:t11d \Vife. It is not necessary tl1at tl1ey represe11t themselves to otl1ers as being rnarried, J)rovided they co11duct themselves i11 their daily life cis if tl1ey \x,ere l1usba11d ar1cl ,vife. Tl1e fact tl1at a man and a ,xro1na11 111eet freqL1ently a11d l1ave sexttal relations rer::ieatedly and eve11 11otoriot1sly (tl1at is, tl1at tl1is is \veil kno\vn to otl1ers) is not e11ougl1 to 1nal<e tl'1e relatio11sl1i1) amou11t to a11 irregu• lar t111io11 ,vitl1 the legal effects of st1cl1 t111io11. (Art. 709).

Wl1ether ar1 irregttlar t111io11 exists is a 1r1atter of proof, a11d st1cl1 1Jroof consists i11 tl1e possessio11 of statt.1s; sucl1 statt1s 1'l1eans tl1at tl1e fa1nilies of the 1na11 a11d ,,qomar1 a11d tl1eir 11eigl1bot1rs co11sider tl·1at sucl1 1nan a11d wo111a11 are Iivir1g as married ,,ql1e11 in fact they are 11ot 1narried. (Art. 718). The JJroof of fJOssession of sucl1 status may be made by \Vit11esses wl10 are reliable, and the 1Jossession of stalt1s ma)' si111ilarly be contested by \xrit11esses. I11 default of such evidet1ce, stattts may be 1Jroved l1y a11 act of 11otoriety. (Art. 719 a11d 720).

- 96 -

lv\ARRIAGE UNDER TI-IE CIVIL CODE Of ETHIOPIA

A11 irregttlar u11io11 does not create a)· ai7 obligatio11 betwee11 tl1e 111an and the \von1a11 to n1ai11tai11 011e a11otl1er; b) any co1n1no11 proJJerty bet\vee11 the 1na11 and tl1e w6111an; c) a11>' rigl1t of st1ccession bet \V/ee11 tl1e man a11d tl1e wo111an (Art . 711, 712 arid 713).

Ar1 irregt1lar t111io11 cloes 11ot create a bo11d of affi11ity as ir1 tl1e case of 111arriage; bi1t i11 tl1e i11terest of jJublic JJOlicy (orclre pLtblic), the relatives of tl1e man a11d of tl1e \x1on1a11 are precluded fron1 marrying i11 tl1e same way as if the ma11 a11d \V01na11 livi11g· i11 a11 irregular t111io11 \xrere lawft1lly married. (Art. 710).

111 one res1Ject a11 irregular t111io11 is equivale11t to a la\xrfttl tl1at is \vith regard to tl1e JJater11ity a11d n1ater11it), of cl1ildre11 1111ion. In tl1is respect, tl1e rttles tl1at aJJIJly to cl1ildren bor11 marriage apply to cl1ildre11 bor11 from a11 irreg11lar t1nio11. (Art. 1

111arriage, and bor11 fron1 the fro1n a la\vful 715).

A11 irreg11lar u11io11 may be termi11atecl at a11y ti111e by tl1e n1a11 a11cl by tl1e won1an witl1ot1t a11y for111alities wl1atsoever. Tl1e -family arbitrators l1ave no JJO\xrer to deal witl1 111atters arising out of a11 irregL1l,1r 1111ior1; ir1 all clis1Jt1tes arising OLtt of ar1 irregt1lar u11ion it is 011ly tl1e coL1rts \X1l10 are co1n1Jete11t.

(Art. 730). If it is tl1e \vo1na11 \vl10 termi11ates tl1e 1111ion, sl1e is not li(tble to pay the n1a 11 a 11 y com IJ e11sat i o11 or i11de1n11 i ty, 11or is sl1 e I iab I e to retLtr11 to tl1e 111a11 \vl1atever tl1e mar1 111ay l1ave jJrovided for lier clL1ri11g tl1e L111io11. [f it is tl1e ma11 \vho ter111i11ates tl-1e 1111ior1, tl1e \Voman l1as u11der Art. 717 tl1e rigl1t to clai111 a11 a11101111t corres1Jo11cli11g to tl1 e ex1Je11ses 11ecessary for lier maintenance for a JJeriod of tl1ree 111011tl1s Arr1haric versio11; (tl1is period is stated as six n1ontl1s i11 tl1e Eng·Iisl1 tra11slatio11. In tl1e origi11al fre11cl1 text of tl1e Code t11 is IJeriod is stated to be six mc>ntl1s).

Other relationships 01ttside wedlock

U11der the Civil Code, tl1e 011ly relatio11sl1ips bet\vee11 a ma11 a11d a woma11 whic]1 are given a legal sta11ding are (a) n1arriage a11d (b) irregt1lar Ltnion. f\s regards 1narriage, tl1 ere are tl1ree l<i11ds of 111arriages a11d 110 otl1ers, tl1ese are tl1e civil, tl1e religio11s a11d the c11sto111ary marriage. It is to be recalled tl1at tinder Art. 3347, all ct1sto1ns in force before tl1e co1ni11g i11to force of tl1e Code are repealecl (exce1Jt i11 cases \vl1ere sucl1 ct1sto111s l1ave bee11 preserved

- 97 --

JOURNAf_

01=

El"HIOPIAN

LA \XI

-

VOL.

I

- NO.

1

by tl1e Code). Art. 721 stresses tl1e fJOint tl1at relations bet\vee11 a ina11 and a wo n, 1a11 have 110 effect wl1atsoever 1111less such relations arise from a lawful ma1·riage or from an irregL1lar 11111011. As relatio11s \vl1icl1 arise between a 111an a11d a \X1oma11 011tside a lawful 111arriage or outside a11 irreg11lar unio11 li ave 110 legal effect wl1atsoever1 no· JJerso11 may, in a11)' fJroceedings, raise tl1e point tl1at tl1ere are relatio11s between a ma11 a11d a wo111a11. Tl1us, as we sl1all see later, a cl1ild born from a wo111a11 wl10 is legally 111arried to a n1a11 has as his fatl1er tl1e husba11d of that wo111a11, and it is 0111)' tl1e fatl1er \Y✓ho can disO\X111 tl1at cl1ild. U11der Art. 721 (2), it \viii 11ot be possible for a11y person wl,o may be interestecl in so stating to state t}1at, ir1 fact, tl1e mother of tl1e child had relatio11s witl1 anotl1er ma11, because s11cl1 relatio11 would riot be a relation arising from a la wf111 111arriage or fron1 a11 i rreg11lar unio11.

As regards cl1ilclre11 bor11 from a relatior1 bet\vee11 ,1 man a11d a \VOrnan 011tside a la\vful 111arriage or a11 irregttlar unicJ11 , Art. 72 l (3) lays down that suet, cl1ildren l1ave relations i11 la\x, only witl1 the 111otl-1er. Tl1is prir1ciple does 11ot a1JI)ly \vl1ere tl1e cl1ild l1as bee11 acl<nO\X!leclged by tl1e 11atural fatl1er in accordance \Vitl1 tl1e J)rovisio11s of Art. 746-757 or where the cl1ild l1as be·e11 adopted by sotne otl1er IJerso11, i11 \vl·1icl1 case tl1e cl1ild would have a j11ridical bo11d 11ot 011ly witl1 tl1e 1notl1er bttt also \X1itl1 tl1e fatl1er wl10 has acl<no\x,Iedged l1irn or \Viti, tl1e persor1 \x ho l1as adopted l1i1n.

1

VII - CONFLICTS IN CASES RELATING TO MARRIAGES, DIVORCES AND IRREGULAR UNIONS

A rt. 722 et seq. of tl1e Civii Code lay do\vn rt1les as to tl1e manner i11

\v}1icl1 disfJtttes tl1at arise out of betrotl1als, 1narriages a11d irreg11lar u11ions are to be settled. Tl1e courts l1ave sole j 11risdictio11 i11 decicling whetl1er tl1ere J1 as bee11 a valid betrotl1al, whetl1er a marriage l1as been celebrated, a11d if so wl1ether it is a valid 011e, a11cl \,ql1ether an irreg11lar unio11 l1as been establisl1ecl bet\vee11 t\VO 11erso11s (Art. 722�724,730). Tl1e co11rts l1ave also sole jt1risdictio11 to decide all 1natters tl1at arise ot1t of ar1 irreg11lar ttnion; but i11 cases of disiJtttes tl1at arise from a betrotl1al or a r11arriage, SL1cl1 dis1Jutes sl1ould in the first instance be dealt \xrith b)' the fan1ily arbitrators'.

Ir1 tl1e case of clisp11tes arisi11g· out of a betrotl1al or tl1e breac.l1 of a betrotl1al, the arbitrators are tl1e 1)erso11s wl10 were wit11esses to tl1e betrotl1al a11ct, where wit11esses l1ave been desigr1ated to be first wit11esses, the arbitrators sl1 all be s11cl1 wit11esses. There is 11othi11g to (Jreve11l the parties, at the time of tl1e betrotl1al or at a later stage, to designate otl1er persons to be arbitra­ tors (A,rt. 7·23). .

.

- 98 -

MARRIAGE UNDER THE CIVIL CODE OF ETI-IIOPlA

I1 1 tl1e case of disJJtttes that arise cluring tl1e 111arriage, tl1 e family arbitrators are theperso11s wl10 l1ave bee11 wit11esses to tl1e n1arriage, and, if son1e persons . l1ave bee1 1 designated to be first witnesses, tl1e arbitrators sl1 all be st1cl1 first witnesses. The sp?Ltses 111ay at tl1 e time of tl1e 111arriage, or at a later stage (e. g., \Vhe11 tl1e cltSIJL1 te actt1ally arises) desig11ate other persons to be arbitrators for tl1e JJurpose of tl1e that dispttte. (Art. 725). 1�1 ,e family arbitrators are also tl1e perso1 1s i1 1itiall )1 co1n1Jete1 1t to deal \xritl1 dis1Jt1tes tl1at may arise 011 tl1e dissolt1tio11 of tl1e 11 1arriage 1 Jy deatl1 . (Art. 726). lf any disJJLtte arises 1 1ot out of tl1e marriage bt1t after a clivorce has bee1 1 fJro110L1 r 1 ced, tl1e dis1Jute \vill be st1bmittecl to the sarne arbitrators \Vl10 l1 ave jJro11ou1 1ced the clivorce. (A1-t. 728).

The Code does 1 1ot 111al<e a11y SfJecific JJrovisio1 1 -for tl1e case \.vhere a di\'Orce \x,·as f)ro1 10L111 ced by tl1e cot1 rt becaL1se tl1e fan1 ily arbitrators cot1ld riot come to a decisio11 ,xritl1i11 tl1e ti1 ne allo,xred by la\v; (see Art. 737); bt1t i11 sL1cl·1 cases the diSJ)ute arisi11g fron1 tl1e divorce sl10L1lcl be st1 bmitted to tl1e cottrt. Dis1Jt1tes arisi11g from an irregLtlar u1 1ior1 are to be st1bn1 itted to tl1e coL1rt. (,L\rt. 7301).

The nt11nber of arbitrators sl10L1lcl as a rL1le be t\.X'O for eacl1 s1JoL1se.

Wl1ere a11 arbitrator is dead or is 11ot i11 a JJositio11 to decicle tl1e clis1JL1 te ,vitl10L1t ciela)', l1e sl1all be reJJlacecl i11 the sa111e ma1111er ,1s l1e \Xias aJJIJOi11ted; tl1 t1s if a11 arbitrator ,xras a1J1Joi11ted by 011e of tl1 e s1JoL1ses or \vas a \vit11ess for 011e of tl1e spouses, tl1at spouse n1ay apJJoint a11otl·1er persor1 to re1Jlctce tl1at arbitrator. If tl1ere are the 11 ecessary nt1mber of arbitrators, bt1t 011 e refuses to ,1ct as a11 arbitrator or is dismissed b)' tl1e coL1rt, tl1 e coL1rt 111a>' a11poi11t a11 otl1er jJerson to rep]ace l1i111. (.A.rt. 733). �r11· e arbitrators 1nay a111011gst then1selves decicle, b)' n1ajort)', to 11omi11ate 011e or 111ore additio11al arbitrators to er1 able tl1e111 to fulfil tl1eir clL1ties i11 cleciclir1g tl1e dispL1te. (1-\rt. 732). If tl:e spoL1ses l1ave agreed to appoi11t arbitrators to decide 011 atl)' clis11L1te a11d tl1ey cannot ag·ree a1T1 o11 gst t11e111selves as to tl1e ap jJOi11 t rne11 t, sLI c 11 a IJ!JO ir1tr11e11t shall be 111ade b)' the coL1 rt. (f\rt. 73Ll). \Vl1ere a SJJOLtsc \.X1l10 is reCJLtired to a11poi1 1t a11 arbitrator fails to do so \,1itl1i11 fiftee11 da}'S fro1T1 tl·1e d<1te 01 1 \'v' 11icl1 l1e l1as bee11 req Ltested to cl o so by t l1e o t 11 er s [JO Ltse, t I1 e a pIJO i1 1 tm e1 rt crf the arbitrator \Xlill be 111ade b)' tl1e coLtrt 011 tl1e a1J1Jlicatio11 of tl1e i11terestecl spouse. (Art. 735). If t\·1e arbitrators fail to 111al<e a decisio11 \"'litl1i11 tl1e ti 11 1· e specified b)' la\'v' or \.X1itl1 in a reasonable tin1e, tl1e COLtrt 1na)', 011 tl1 e ap1Jlica­ tion of one of tl1e spottses, talce cognizance of tl1e diSJJL1te a11d clecicle it (1-\rt. 737). this jurisdictior1 of tl1e coL1rt is1 tl1erefor�, 011ly �L�bsicliary i11 tl1e s�11se tl1at the cotirt ca11 tal{e cog1 1iza11 ce of tl·1e dispute ar1s111 g OLtt of a n1 arr1age 0111.>' wl1e11 tlie arbitrators l1ave failecl to co111e to a clecisior1. Tl1e clecisio11 of tl1e fa111ily arbitrators is s11 bject to a1J1Jeal to a cot1rt. �rid tl1e co� trt 111a}1 i_1111Jt1gr1 . tl·1e decisio11 011ly \v1l1e11 it is sl1 0\.xr11 tl·1 a.t tl1e clec1s1 011 of tl1e tar111'.;' c1rb1trators _ _ . \xras affectecl by corrttjJtio11 or fraL1d, or ,vl1e11 tl1e dec1s1or1 1s otiv1ot1sl)' Lt11 reasonable, e. g., wl1 ere tl1e farnil)' arbitrators l1ave not follo\xred tl1e rtt1es laid do\vr1 i11 Art. 690-695.

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HIERARCHY Of LAWS IN ETHIOPIA by 0. KrzeczL1nowicz Faculty of Law, Haile Sellassie I University

In a report to the 6tl1 Inter11ational Co11gress of Comparative La\v on the Regin1e of Assen1bly i11 Etl1io1Jia 1 I l1ave set forth some i11stances of the Etl1iopian Constit11tio11's mi11or borro\vi11gs from tl1e U11ited States Constitution. Bt1t the major i 111 IJact of tl1e Vr1ited States Constitutio11 2 seems reflected (in strong over­ to11es) ir1 Art. 122 of tt1e Ethiopia11 Co11stitutio11 IJroviding that all acts inco11sistent \v·itl, tl1e latter sl1all be void.3 I sl1all now disc11ss tl1e local significa11ce of tl1is S\vee1Ji11g article \xritl1i11 tl1e frame of a still wider problern, tl1at of tl1e hierarcl1y of Etl1ioJJiar1 la\X,s ir1 gc11eral.

H iera rcl1y is a cl1ai 11 of sulJordi11atio11. /\s it does betweer1 perso11s, it exists between la \X'S. 011 top is tl1e Co11stitL1tion. Belo\v is ordinary legislation.

Still belo,v are tl1e Ad1ni11istrations' ge11eral orders a11d fJartic11lar decisions, i11 t11r11 sL1bdivided into l1igl1er a11d lo\ver. rfhe lo\ver sl1ould 11ot contradict tl1e l1igl1er. l�l,is [Jri11ci1Jle is si1111Jle e11011gl1; its itnplementation is less so. Tl1e following a11al)1sis is based cl1iefly 011 the Etl1ioJJian Co11stitution of 1955, to \vhicl1 I sl1all refer by articles (Art.). The term, 11Ad1ni11istratio11'', \x,ill denote tl1e executive bra11cl1 of Ooverr1n1e11t. I sl1all discuss, co11sect1tively, the respective l1ierarcl1ical sta11di11g of (1) Co11stitt1tio11al1 (2) Legislative, a11d (3) Ad1ni11istrative e11act111e11ts: I.

CONSTITUTION

A co11stitutior1 is 11 • • • SLtfJerior to ordi11ary law a11d ... !Jlaces primary fJrinciples above tl1e fl11ctuations of politics. A Co11stitL1e11t fJO\ver exists ...

114 a1Jart from tl1e ordi11ary Legislative JJower. U11der tl1e Etl1io1Jia11 Co11stitL1tio11 (Art. 131), tl1ree-fot1rtl1s of eacl1 cl1amber's membersl1i1J for1n, witl1 tl1e Emperor's approval, the s111Jerior ''Co11stituent'' fJOwer.

An ''t111co11stit11tio11al law'' sl1011ld be of 110 effect. But e.g., in pre-1958 Fra11ce ''... tl1ere exists no power l1aving tl-1e a11tl1ority to pass LtfJOn it and annttl it ... Sucl1 is not the case i11 tl1e United States; the Su1Jreme Federal

I. See Journal of Ethiopian Stt1clies, Vol. I, No. I, p. 79.

2. Art. VI., section 2.

3. Anotl1er niajor in,pact is cliscernible i11 the \vhole of Cha1Jler III. (Rights of tl1e People).

4. tvl. Planiol, Trftttise 011 the Cirvil Law, transl.· 1959 by Louisiana State Law Institute, No. 150.

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Cot1rt l1as a rigl1t to verif)' tl1e co11stitt1tio11ality' of la\o/s.'' 5 What is tl1e Etliio!Jia'n position i11 tl1is respect?

I11 Etl1io1Jia, tl1e Co11stitution ar1d inter11ational treaties '' ... shall be the SLtpreme la\xr of the Em1Jire, a11d all f11t11re legislation, decrees, orclers, judgm e11ts decisions and acts i11co11siste11t tl1erewitl1, shall be 111111 and void'' (Art. 122)� ''Legislatio11'' l1ere afJparently means tl1e Parliame11tary statt1te-law (Arts.88-90). ''decrees'', the emergency legislation tinder Art. 92; ''orders'', tl1e general administrative rules;6 ''decisions'', tl1e JJartict1lar admi11istrative acts. It, tl1erefore , follows tl1at a11y unco11stitutional e11actme11ts, of wl1atever l{i11d they be, shall be r1ull. But who sl1all find tl1e111 to be sucl1 and 1nake tl1em of no effect, and 110\v sl1all this be done? \'v'l,ere a11 e11actment's 11ullity de1Je11ds 011 its t1nco11stitution­ ality, tl1e latter must be first stated to exist, wl1icl1 i11volves subtle or controversial i11ter1Jretation processes (as sl1ow11 by tl1e U11ited States cases or our O\'\'n ''federal'' cases) affecti11g tl1e State ancl bei11g ofte11 beyo11d the average cot1rt's caJ)ability. Under 011 r 110\X-' abolisl1ed 7 federal systetn, s11ch cases of u11constitu­ tionality were dealt witl1 by the federal Iiigl1 Cot1rt and tl1e federal St11)reme Cot1rt J)ursuar1t to Proclamatio11 No. 135 of 1953.8 It seems that only cases co11cer11i11g Eritrea were bro11gl1t before tl1ose co11rts. In a11y eve11t, tl1e latter seem to be 110w in liquidatio11, as are otl1er federal ir1stitutions. Tl1e u11ified EtnJJire a1JfJears to l1a\,e no courts specially e111powerecl to deal \vith constitu­ tionalit)' probletns. Is tl1erefore every Etl1iOJJian cot1rts com1Jete11t, i11 e\1ery rele\ra11t case, to fJass 011 tl1e clelicate questio11s of constitt1tio11alit),? On the face of Art. 122, or1e 111ay be ten11Jted to tal<e tl1is view. B11t tl1e dearth of sig11ificant cases a11d the restrictive conte11t of Art. 62. (see below) seen, to go against st1cl1 a sweeJJing a1Jproacl1. Te11tativel) tl1e following· analysis is offered regarding 11nco11stitutior1aL (a) f\drni11istrati\1e, (b) Legislative, (c) J11ciicial acts, and (d) the E1nJ)eror1 s SJJecial JJosition: 1

,

a) Art. 62 allows residents to s11e the Administratio,i (the '0overnme11t" in its Executive se11se, togetl1er witl·1 its s11bdivisio11s: N\inistry, DerJartment, 1

5. Ibid, No. 156 6. rrhe sovereign orders or decisions, ho\vever, taken JJursuant to the En1peror's Constit uli�na! _ prerogatives (Arts. 26-36) 1 t'. g., under Arl. 36 or 27, stan,1 in a ciistinct category 1n that tl1ey are basically non-suborclinate to ordinary legislatio11 (see infra). This irrlJJOrtant category is reserve<! for serJarate cliscussion and will be only incidentally n1e11tioned in the present paper.

7. See Order No. 27, of 1962: since the liquidation of r'ederal institutions and cases is gradual, tl1e follo\ving analysis is OfJen to te1r1porary qualifications. s. Which i� now in11Jliedly abrogated 1 together with otl1er federal proclamations, by a. t�1;� sovereign order abolisl1ing the federal syste1n (after t1nanirnous 1Jarliamentary votes to end). for a qualification or this proposition, see uote 7.

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HIERARCHY OF LAWS IN ETHlOPIA

Agency, etc.) in tl1e orcli11ary courts for acts ''wro11gfttl'', which term _ _ obviously 111clt1des tl1e u11constitt1tio11al orders or decisions conte1nplated

by Art : 122. 9 !he qt1estions of t111co11stitt1tio11ality will here be settled solely 111 relat1011 to the JJarticttlar litigants involved, with 110 wider effects ( relati\1ily of jttdg1nents), so tl1at partict1lar awards under Art. ?2 _\vill 11ot carry a11nulme11t of a ge11eral e11actme11t, tl1ough tl1ey may 111d1rectly indt1ce its revocation. b) 'fl1e la11guag·e of Art. 62 is JJerl1aps oper1 to interJJretatio11 as to wl1etl1er the sa1ne rernedy \Vill a1J1Jly regarding t1nco11stitt1tio11al legislatio11 initiated by wa), of Parliame11t. Co11ceivably not, tl1ot1gl·1 only futttre cases, if ar1y, could e11ligl1ten tts Ort tl1is poi11t. I11cidentally, si11ce tl1e difference between tl1e Legislative JJO\ver and tl1e Constitt1e11t po\ver lies ortly i11 tl1e voti11g 111ajorities required (Arts. 87 and 131), u11constitutio11al legislation \Vill JJrobably occur - if at all - 011ly rarely. c) As to t1nconstitt1tio11al }ztdgmerzts, \vl10 is to in1plement Art. 122 011 tl1eir 11t1llity, si11ce it is precisely tl1e jt1clg·es \Vl10, by virtue of Art. 62, IJass 011 tl1e wro11gs of t111co11stitutior1ality? fir1al jL1dg111e11ts are fJresun1ed correct botl1 as to fact, a11d as to l,tw i11ter partes, be it Co11stitt1tio11al or other. A11cl \vhere aJJJJeal or revie\'(/ is still ope111 it ca11 i11 a11y event be lJrot1gl1t on art}' releva11t grot111d, be it of L1nco11stitutionality or otl1er. It follo\vs that ,l\.rt. 122 adds 11otl1i11g to tl1e law regarding jt1<.ig1ne11ts. It is gratuitotts and meani11gless i11 this res1Ject. d) By virttte of Art. 36 tl1e Er,zperor is J-Ii1r1self the SLljJretne sovereig11 gL1ardia11 of tl1e fJeorJle's co11stitL1tio11al rigl1ts a11d liberties as set ot1t i11 Arts. 37 -63. I11 tl1ese and other matters, everyo11e l1as the traditior1al ''rigl1t to 1Jrese11t fJetitio11s to tl1e En11Jeror'' (Art. 63), \Vl10 also l1olds tl1e sL1preme po\ver of jt1dicial revie\v JJL1rst1a11t to tl1e the s1Jirit of Art. 35 as i111ple1nented by Art. 183 of the Crin1i11al Procedttre Cocle a11d tl1e (st1s1Jended) Courts Proclamation of 1962 (Art. 9). As seems impliecl by Art. 26 ff, tl1e E111peror, l1avi11g supreme autl1ority ir1 all fields, is alone jt1clge of tl1e co11stitt1tio11ality of I-Iis ow,1 jt1dgments (cf. supra) or legislative apfJrovals (Art. 88) or sovereig11 acts (Arts. 26-36; cf. note 6), from wl1icl1, it st1b111itted, there sl1ot1ld lie 110 appeal to perso11s other tl1a11 J-Ii1nself i11 tl1e capacity ap1Jropriate to the occasion.

This view, st1pported by practice (no cases contra), is i11 tl1e logic of ottr systetn wl1ere, in accordance witl1 a sensible traclition, tl1ere is no

9. See also Civil Code Arts. 2035, 2126, 2140, 2033 (2), ancl, incidentally, Art. 2138 on i1nn1unities.

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re;1l ''serJaratio11 of J)owers1 at tl1e top (incider1tally, it n1ay be ii,api)ro­ priate eve11 to st1g·gest tl1at a se1Jaratio11 of SU[Jren1e JJO\X!ers doctri,,e _ co1111Jletely alie11 to t11e natio11al tradition - be i111ported fro111 abroad). '

2. LEGISLATION

JJegislatio11 b )' E1111Jeror ci,tni Parlia111e11t under J\rts. 88-90 or b)' i1111Jerial clecree t111der Art. 92 10 co11stitt1tes tl1e orcli11ary law bet\x,een the Constitt1tio11 above, and 1zon-sovereig11 Admi11istrative enactme11ts below. Stich legislatio11's de tJendence 011 t11e Co11stitutio11 under Art. 122 1nay be, as stressed above, so1ne,xrl1at IJlato11ic. Cor1versel)', sucl1 legislation's e1iforceability as against illegal lo,wer enactme11ts, altl1ot1gl1 t1nme11tio11ed i11 Art. 122, is a 1nore J)ractical JJropositio11 becat1se u11cter �rt. 62 tl1e AdniirzisLration ca11 be stied for any ',X1ro11gful'' acts, \vl1icl1 ,x,ot1ld ir1clt1de botl1 tl1ose t111constitutional a11cl tl1ose ir1fringi11g orcli11ar)' legislatio11.

1

3. ADMNISTRATIVE ENACTMENTS

All Ad1ni11istrative acts are subordi11ate to tl1e Constittttion, and the

non-sovereig11 011es (includi11g, e. g., tl1ose {Jttblist1ed by ''Legal Notice") to ordi11ary legislation. Tl1ere is a great variety of admi11istrative enactme11ts, and tl1eir 11omenclature \Vas far fro111 ur1ified, as a glance at {Jast ''Negarit Oazetas" \vill sl10\X,. It will st1ffice l1ere to stress tl1at wl1ile witfJi>i, res1Jectively, the Constit11tional or legislative category, rt1les are nor1nally (st1bject to i11terpretation) eqt1al, Ad1ninistrative acts are ft1rtl1er s11bordinated to one anott1er: a) Acts of lo\x,er autl1ority obviotrsly 1nay not cor1traclict tl1ose of higher autl-1oritv; •

b) According to ,vorld fJrecedents a11d the ''commur1is opi11io doctorum" 11 ar1 autl1ority's fJartictilar decisio11 may 11ot infringe its O\v11 general rule or order. Until cl1argeci or re1Jealed, st1ch rt1le sta11ds above its mal<er.

J 11fri11ge111e11t of eitl1er JJri11ci1Jle (a) or (b) or, a fortiori, of sttJJerior legislative !Jrovisio11s or of constitt1tio11al precepts, \X'Ottlcl be an illegality an1ot1nti11g to a ''\x,ro11gful'' act in tl1e se11se of Art. 62 of tl1e Constitutio11 ar1d Art. 2035 plt1s Jo. There is harcily a difference, in eJlect, bel\veen legislation JJroclai1T1ed JJurst1ant to Arts. 88-90 . and legislative decrees !Jased 011 Art. 92. This Article, poorly drafted, is confusing. In actual constitutional practice, imperial decrees issued between Parlian1e11t's sessions: a) n1ay repeal JJrior legislation; b) do not lapse UJJOn non-subrnissio11 to reconve11ed l:, arlia1nent, but continue in force until JJOsitivel)' repealed. Parlia1T1entary approval, if an)', 1nerely changes the tern1s of legal reference I 1. £. g., 0. Veclel, Droit Adn1inistratif, Paris, 1958, ,,01. 1, JJ. 16 l.

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J-IIERARCHY OF LA\VS IN ETJ-1 IO PIA

2126 of tl, e Civil Code, a11d woulcl tl1t1s e11able tl1e ordinary courts to gra11t relief wl �ere ap1Jro1�r!ate . Bttt Art. 62 also provicles a ''rigl1t of action'' agai1 1st _ tl1ose brii,gi,,g mal1c1ous ''or t111fot11 1ded' st1its aga..i 11st the adn1i11istratio11: tl1is may deter even gentlit1e clain1ants fron1 bri11gi11g borderline cases. 12 J11cide11tally, a11y �JJ _fJeals_ for .relief sl1ould first be brougl, t to !1igl1er at1thority \vitl1i1 1 the Ad1111n1 str �t1011 itself (adrni11istrative re1nedies shot1lcl nor111ally be e xl1austed before going to cottrt).13 Tl1is 11eed cat1se no l1ardship wl1ere ad111inistrative appeals follo\xr jJrecisely regt1lated patterr1s (cf r1ote 13). To wl1at degrees st1cl1 JJatter11s are follo\xred is t111l<11ow1 1 to this \xrriter. A11otl1er iJremise for effective remeclies is IJsycl1ological: l1ow far are ad 111i11istrators co 11siderecl as servants, ratl1er tl1a11 r1 1asters, of the acln1ir1istered?

1

CONCLUSION

A11 ap1Jroxir11ate jJictt1re of il1e !·1ier,trcl1y of laws i11 Etl1io1Jia rest1lts fro111 a11 elen1e11tary a11alysis of� tl1e releva11t Const.itt1tio11al (and Civil Gocle) �lrticles ,1gainst a 111i11imu111 bacl<g·rou11d of Co111 jJarati,1e La\V. TI1eoreticall)', tl1e Co11 sti­ tution is s11 1Jre111e, as i11 tl1e U11ited States. Practically tl1ere is, si11 ce tl·1e end of federation, a re111ote ar1alogy \vitl1 tl1ose foreign syste111s wl·1ere ordi 11ary legislatio,,. is su1Jre111e (Great Britair1) 1 or at least free frotn jt1clicial co11trol (11re1958 fra.11ce). Tl1e follo\xri11g re111arl<s 011 tl1e pre-1958 fre11cl1 systen1 111a>' i11deed bear some relevancy- to ottr O\v11 sitt1 atio11 : ''It is the failure of tl1e Fre1 1cl1 cottrts to assert a review JJO\ver over tl1e constitt1tio11 ality of acts o-f the legislatt1re tl1at ... l1as i11 effect placed tl1e fre11cl1 legislatt1re in a jJOsi­ tior1 of practical st1pre111acy 11ot t1 11Iil<e tl1at e11joyecl by tl1e Britisl1."I·1 Tl1e French courts ... clo not sta11d 111J agai11st tl1e legislator." 15 Neitl1er do llie 11

12. Said jJrovisio11 has no other effect. Legally, it is Ir1eaningless: a) Even \Vithout tl1is provision, the Ad111inistration can, as any defendant can, claim da111ages if the court finds that the st1it \'v'as 1nalicious in ter111s of Article 2032 Civil Code (Intent lo injure). b) Even \Vitl1 this fJrovision the Ac.ln1inistration should not, it is sub1nittecl, as no defendant should, be a\v;ardec! da1r1ages (apart from cost-a\vards) on the sole ground that the suit turned out to be "unfoundecl". Indeecl, no legal ren1edies or penalties" to such effect have been enacted here or else\-vhere, and none could be so enacted \YJithout affecti11g everybody's right to have a legal dispute deter1ni11e(l in court.

13. This principle is reflected, for instance, in Sec. 54-?2 of Income Tax_ �ecree !'lo. 19 of 1956. Appeals from the tax assessn1ents made by the 1nco_ n: e tax_ author1t1es go first to the administrative Commission of Tax ApJJeal. The latter's decis1011s, In turn, are a1Jpealable (on points of law) before the Iiigh Court.

14. B. Schwartz, Frenc/1 Administrative Law and iI1e Co,nmc.:n Law World, Ne\\'/ York 1954, p. 95.

15. Jd. at 300. At present day, this staternent re111ains true on!� regarding ?rdinary co� 1rts. Since 1958 France has a pect1liar Constitutional court, \vhose jJr1111ary task IS 1Jreservat1011 of tl1e Prin1e Minister's constitt1tional po\vers of legislation (\-.:,rhich are residual) fron1 parlia111entary in terfere11ce. See lv1. Prelot, lnstitHtions politiqnes et clroit constitucionnel, Paris 1962, No. 4 84, 592 ancl 593.

11

- 115 -

JOURNAL OF

ETHIOPIAN

LAW

- VOL.

I NO. .

1

Etl1il)JJian courts so sta11d ttp. Nor \'(,'OLtlcl it be ver.)1 j)Oi11tfL1l for them to ct it ir1 our wise system where tl1e SLLIJreme co-legislator (tl1 e Emperor) is also tl1° SLtpren1e judge. BecaL1se of this pecL1liar constitutio11al co11text, ottr Art. 122e tl1ougl1 mucl1 111ore punge11t i11 form, is mL1cl1 less sig11ifica11t in fact tl,an it� cou11te1·part (Art. VI IJ. 2) ir1 tl1e U11ited States Co11stitL1tito11, wl1icl1 tl1rows no ligl1t on our 1Jrol)lem. subject both As to �4dmir1istrative acts, tl1 ey ca11 be, i11 Fra11 ce 1 of an actio11 to an11t1l a11d of a11 action for clan1ages. . . . 111 tl1e actio11 to a1111ul, tl1e cl1allenged act is set aside if tl·1e cot1rt deter111 ines tl1at it is ultra vires. the actio11 for damages agair1st tl1e State, tl1.e deter1ni11ation of tl1e illegality ot the act cattsi11g tl1e i11jL1r;' l�acls to a judgmer1t agai11st tl1e State 011 tl1e basis of tl1e fat1lt it l1as com1nitted i11 i1ot 1naki11g sure tl1at its officers res1)ect tl1e principle of legality \Vhile perforrni11g tl1eir fLtnction -a faL1lt tl1at i11volves its tort liability."16 'fhis second tyf)C of actio11 ca11 be e11tertai11ecl by tl1e Etl1iopia11 courts 011 the basis of Art. 62 (cu1n Civil Code Arts. 2035 ar1c.i 2126J. For tl1 e first t)iJ)e of :1ctio11, 110 sucl1 specific legal basis ca11 be fot1r1d. lr1deed, aJJart from tl1e E1n1)eror, i11 who1n, conformably to a sensible traditio11, is vested st1preme autl1ority in all fields (Art. 26), tl1ere seems to exist, i11 Etl1iOf)ia, no jt1dicial i11sta11ce ge11e­ rally emf)Owered to annul goverr11ne11tal e11actme11ts on ground of illegality.

Tl1is asst1mption see111s indirectly SLij)ported by tl1 e fact tl1at, after enactment of tl1e 1955 ConstitL1tior1, special legislatio11 \Vas still deemed necessary, e. g., to vest in tl1e Iiigl1 and tl1e Sttp reme Cott rt a J)O\ver to review tl1 e legalit1 of partict1lar tax assessn1er1ts. 17 .r1 fortiori, general goverr1me11tal enact1nents seem in1mune from jttdicial nullificatior1 erga omnes ir1 eitl1er general, or precedent­ setti11g terms (as distinct fro111 ordi11,try case•decision terms iriter partes), not• witl1standing Article 122 of the Co11stitL1tior11 wl1icl1 is largely (Jrogrammatic; this, unless Article 122 car1 be ir1directly bolstered by applyir1g a U11ited States f)atterned stare decisZ:s doctri11e to S111)re111e Cot1rt case-disposals, 18 i11 other \xrords b)' ptitting in force Art. 16 of tl1e SLISJ)ended Courts Proclamatio11 of 1962; 19 or u11less some special Cot1rt with powers ge11erally to cancel 20 illegal or Ltnconstitutio11al enactments 21 is created (Continental pattern), always bearing in mind that the wl1ole proble111 may be a little t111real in our wise system where one person (the Emperor) is l1ead of both t]1e Adtninistration and tl1e Jt1cliciary, and, the federal dttality of institt1tio11s is at e11d.

11

•

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16. Id at 278. All such actions are brought, in France, before special adn1inislrative courts,

including the supre,ne "Conseil d'Etat.

See Income Tax Decree No. 19 of 1956.

111 so far as not reversed by the [111perial Celot.

Store decisi.s, l1owever, may bring a prcmatttre rigidity ir1to tl1e legal syste111 as a \vhole.

Subject to reversal by the In1perial Celot.

Such cottrt co11ld also give advisory opi11ions at clrafting stage.

11

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

- 116 --

HIERARCHY OF LAWS IN ETHIOPIA

DL1e to lack of case-reports, tl1is terse a11alysis is purely tentative. future cases (or more reflectio11) may impose its modification. Our cl1ief aim is to JJrovol<e tl1ot1 gl1t on tl1e issLtes involved, fLtrther discussio11 of wl1icl1 should be i11 practical detail. Tl1is pa[Jer's tl1eoretical metl1od may i11deed be somewhat ottt of place in traclitior1al society, for which a livi 11 g hierarcl1y of fJersons was aiw¡ays 1 11ore signific,l11t tl1a11 a11 abstract one of Ia,vs. A ''flawless'' hierarchy of la\v'S is not a11 ideal of u11iversal \ alidity. I l1ope to l1ave de1nonstrated that it rnay be i11com1Jatible - at to1J level - with a beneficial system of u11divided st1 1Jre111e po,vers. f\t otl1er levels, the obstacle may be merely lack of a\vare11ess a11d i111ple111entir1g devices.

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•

JOINDER OF CRIMINAL AND CIVIL PROCEEDINGS

by Pl1ilippe Orave11 Mi11istry of Justice

Civil liability co11sists i11 one's dtrty to repair tl1e 111aterial a11d/or moral da1nage s·11ffered by a11otl1er perso11 i11 co 1 1seque11ce of a11 ever1t for wl1icl1 011e is answerable (Art. 2028 Civil Code) ..Tl1is eve11t 111 a1, or 1nay not be i 11 tl1e form of a criminal offe11ce, b11t if it is i11 s11cl1 a for111 , tl1e11 a civii liability 111 ay be inc11rred togetl1er witl1 a cri1ni11al liability. Ir1deed, the 1Jri11ciple as stated i 1 1 Art.2035 Civil Code is tl1at a perso11 is civilly liable \x1l1ere lie infri11ges a s1Jecific and ex1Jlicit legal 1Jrovisio11 a11d tl1ereby cat1ses clan1age to a11otl1 er.

Botl1 tyJJes of liability differ in 11at11re a11d raise differe11t questio11s Y«l1icl1 are 11or1nally settled by differe11t co11rts, for tl1e objects of cri1ninal a11d civil JJroceedings are not ider,tical 11or are tl1 e justification, p11rposes and effects of criminal penalties and civil remedies. I-lo\vever, O\ving to tl1 e fact tl1at botl1 types of liability origir1ate frotn 011e a11d tl1e same 11nlawful behaviour, it n1ay in some cases be ex1Jedie11t to allow a joi11der of crin1inal a11d civil proceedi11 gs so tl1at tl1e crimi11al a11d civil as1Jects of tl1e case be decided by one ancl tl1e san1e court. A court tryir1g a cri111i11al offe11ce n1ay tl1us decide 011 tl1e civil liability of tl1e co11 victed jJerson. But tl1 e reverse is not jJossible a11 d a cot11i tryir1g a civil claim, sucl1 as a clain1 for mai11 tena11ce, \vo11Id l1a ve no jurisdic­ tion to se11te11ce tl1e defenda11 t to a crimir1al fJt1nisl1me11t eve11 \vhere it sl1ot1lcl consider tl1at he has con11nitted a11 offe11 ce co11trary to Art. 625 Penal Cocle.

Tl1is joi11der of JJroceedi11 gs, whicl1 is 110\v ex1Jressly jJrovided for by Art. 100 Penal Cocle a11d Arts. 154-159 Cri1ni11al Procedure Code, is not a 11ovelty ir1 Etl1iopian law; it could occur t111der tl1e 1930 Per1al Code already, 1na11 y provisio11s of wl1icl1 e1n1Jowered tl1e cot1rt tryi11 g a cri111i11al case to order that tl1e convicted person jJay clatnages to tl1e i11jt1red party (e. g. Arts. 273, 296-299).

Wl1at is new, l1owever, is tl1e generality with \Vhich tl1e fJri11 ciple of joinder is no\v for111 t1lated.Moreover, the conditio11 s u11der \vl1 ich a claim for con11Je11sa­ tio11 may be I,eard by a cri1ni11al co11rt and tl1e effects of a joi11der of critninal arid civil proceedings are regttlated today \Viti, greater precision tl1a11 tl1ey were i11 tl1e past.

I - CONDITION 11 \xrl1ere a11 offence has caused co11at Art. 100 Pe11al Cocle lays do\v11 th 1) tl1e i11jt1red jJartj1 or tl1e IJerso11s l1aving rigl1ts fro111 < , . siderable damage ..

J. The \Vorel "considerable 11 shoulcl have been 0111itted for it 111ay lead one to think, \v'rongly, that a joinder of lJroccedings n1ay not be allowed \x1here an offence has caused little da111age.

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JOURNAL Of ETHIOl:> J1\N

LAW

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VOL. I - l\J'O.

1

l1im sl1all be e 11titled to claim tl1at tl1e offer 1 der be orderecl to n1al<e good the damage or to make restitutio11<2> or to JJay dan1ages b)' way o� �ompensatio11 _ _ .... for the fJUrJJose of establisl1ing l1is or tl1e1r claim, tl1e 111Jured JJerson or tl1e persons l1aving rigl1ts from l1in1 111ay be joined as IJarties i11 the cri1ni11al fJroceedings. The co11ditions, form a 11d mar111er of SLtcl1 joind�r sl1all b� � over11ed by tl1e provisio 1 1s of tl1e Criminal Procedtrre Code, \Y1l11cl1 prov1s1ons are Arts. 154-159.

1. According to Art.154 (3) Criminal Procedttre Code, (3) a11 order for joi11der may be made whetl1er the prosecutio11 i11 tl1e fJroceedings is public or private. However, such an order may 11ot be 111ade by a criminal court of its ow11 motion, and \Vritte11 application for joi11der 111t1st al\X1ays be submit­ ted by the i11jured party at tl1e opening of tl1e l1earing (Art. 154 {l) )C4> i11 tl1e court of first instance <5).

Wl1ereas a joinder or proceedi11gs is not JJern1issible exceJJt 0 11 specific conditions, tl1e application for joi11der rnttst contain JJartict1lars so as to e11able tl1e cot 1 rt to decide wl1etl1er st1cl1 cor1ditio11s are fLtlfilled. l 1 1 tl1is respect, Art. 154 1nerely provides tl1at tl1e aprJlica11t \vill state: (a) tl1e 11ature of tl1e relief sougl1t1 i. e. restitution or damages or botl1; (b) \Vhere a1J1Jropriate, the a1110L111t of con1rJe11satio11 clai111ed;<6> a11d (c) tl1e \vit11esses to be callec.i in SLIJJport of tl1e civil clai111, if l1e co11siders tl1at wit11esses otl1er tl1a11 tl1ose callee! b)' tl1e prosect1tio11 a11d defe1 1ce 11eed be st1m111oned to testify 011 tl1e questio1 1 of compen­ satio11.(7)Tl1ese require111er1ts seen1 i11con1plete. ar1d a11 aprJiication for joi 1 1der 2. It may be noted that r estitution of JJrOJJerty rnay son1etimes be orclered by a crin1inal court of its own 111otion even though a joinder of proceedings has not been applied for (;\rts. 99 (2) and 144 (2) Pen al Code).

3. Unless otherwise indicated, all Code references ,viii be to the Crin1i na l Procedure Cod e.

4. This would seen1 to 111ean t hat the application is made after the ide ntity of the accu sed has been established (Art . 128) and bef ore the charge is re acl ou t (Art. 129). In fact, it ought to be m ade after the settle 1 11ent of preli n1i11 ary objections and before the recording of ihe accused person's plea. for the accus ed may be a cquitt ed or ciischargecl following ihe settle­ ment of such objections, and there is no poi nt in n1aking a n a pplication 1111less and u ntil it is kno,vn whether the c riminal f) roce edings will be continuecl.

5. Although this is not specified by l aw, the conte xt in ,vhich A rts. J 54-159 appear would tend to indicate that an applicat ion fo r joi nder , if 1nade at a ll n111st be 111acte to t he court of first instance and rr1ay not be made for the firs t ti1ne on a; JJeal.

6. W?ere the inju recl party clain1s co111 pensation fo r ma terial and rr1 oral injury, the an1ount clain1ed on each ground should be stated sepa rately.

7. An aJJpli�ant who at the sa111e tirne _ acts as JJri �ate prosect1tor n1ust specify which ,vitnesses . he ca ��s 111 supJ)ort of the prosecut �on a nd _ ,vhicl1 he calls in sup}Jort of the civil clairn, so that ,� 1tnesses do not a JJ J)ear and give evidence for a purpose different from that for which they have been st � m1nonecl. On !l�e other h and, \vhere, in public JJ roceedings, the injured _ e s no t w1 l y do sh t call e n1ust specify by \Vhich of the pro5ecu­ a ddition a w1tne�ses, h o �art _ t1on or defe nce witnesses he proposes to prove his clai1 11.

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·JOINDER OF CRIMINAL. AND CIVIL PROCEEDTNG ..

sh�ttl� actuall � contain such particulars as wottld apJJear in a statement of claim if the actio11 were tried by a civil cou rt. Particulars as to tl1e ·relief �ougl1t _ and the \V ttnesses to be called � re 11ecessary in vie\v of tl1e provisions of Art. 1�5 (1) (e) and (2). But further JJarticttlars are i1ecessary in view of the _ rov1s1 011 � _ of Art. 15 � (1), (c), (d) a11d (f). fail ing st1cl1, the cot1rt \Vill 11ot be � 1n a po �ition t o decide whetl1er tl1e aprJ licatio11 may be g·ra11ted. Therefore, !he. applicant sl1ot1ld also specify e. g. the facts showi11g tha t tl1e defe11da11t 1s l 1 able t o be call _ed UfJon t o answer the claim,(8 ) the legal provisions tt11der _ . \Vhtch the claim 1s b rottght, tl1e documents, if any, wl1icl1 will be pttt i11 evidence, a11d the like, so a s to enable tl1e accused to prepare his defe11ce or1 the questio1 1 of c o111rJen sation, sl1ould the apJJlication be allowed.

2. Tl1e cot1rt will tl 1en consider tl1e application and will reject it of its own motion o r on tl1e request of the prosect1tor or tl1e accused \Vl1ere tl1ere exists any reason for rejecting the same ur1der Art. 155 (1) or (2). In this respect, tl1e f ollo\ving ob servations may be made: a) Art. 155 (1) (a) a11d (b) states that the application must be disrnissed \vhere tl1e c ourt: (i) is tr)r in g a young person, i. e. (Art. 3) a person bet\vee11 nine and fiftee11 years of age. The purpose of tl1is 1Jrol1ibition is not clear. Asstttning that the parent s o r JJe r so11 s in loco parentis (Arts. 2124 and 2125 Civil Code) are joi11tly liable witl1 the mir1o r, there seems to be no good reaso11 why the injured party sl1ould be precluded fro1n joi11i11g in tl1e proceedi11gs since l1e n1ay sue a11y of tl1e perso11·s declared by law to be liable, inclttding tl1e minor l1i111self.

On the other l1ar1d, if Ar t. 155 (1) (a) \Vere i11tended to avoid tl1at the trial of tl1e offer1ce be delayed by tl1e formalities wl1ich a joir1de r w ould render r1ecessary (appoi11tmen t of guardian for tt1e suit), tl1en it should l1ave provided for tl1e dismissal of tl1e application, 1 1ot n1erely wl1ere the accused has not attained crimi11al 1najority (15 years), but whe11ever l1e l1as 1 1ot attained civil major ity (18 years); or (ii) is tryin g the accu sed i11 his abse11ce. Again tl1e _reasons for _ this re�­ . triction, wliich is rather t1 ncommon, are not apparent s111ce the cla11n, 1f 1t

sed against another perso11 than the one wl10 ca11 t · 8• I 11 dee d, ti1 e Cla·1m n1 ay have to be brough · · ·d e d 1c1 e · } ff f 1 1 neg · 1gen 1on1 o an enc o t 1 \-v1t rge cha 1s er driv • a . damage by an Offence • Thus, \vhere t1n1e of tI1e offence, con1JJe11sat1on the at g vin dri s \'<'a he car the of ner o,vthe t _ no l he is anc f s11 cl1 car (who 1s ner the m O\v fro bu , ver dri the n1 � fro not � d, in1e cla be e . must as a rul 11 v1l 81 t.

C1 C ode).

20 lf, Ar nse h11 by l tec 11it n11 co ce en off an of ce sen ab liable "in tlle

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JOURNAL Of ETI-IIOPIAN

LA .W · - VOL.

l - NO.

1

1 1cli 1 1g tl1at tl1e defe11da i,t a 1st itl tw 11o d ie tr be d ul co t, ur were filed iii a civil co sl1ould f�il to appea�.<9) •

a 1 1 a1J !J!ication for jo ind �r may a t tl1 e ib cr es JJr to r tte be en It migl1t have be _ _ _ 1 er tcl ns d co ari 1 1l ng a11 1,g 111 1 11t f jJ0 110 is e er tl1 be 111ade i11 neitl1er case fo r 1 1jured �arty i 1 1dicati 11g i a11 e, tic ac � pr 111 d. sse mi dis b a1Jplicatio11 \vl1icl1 must l1is i11tention to require a joi11der in st1cl1 cases sl1ot1lcl for�l1w�tl1 be r�f�rred o11 for ati Jlic J01 11der a1JJ 11 itte wr a ke 111a to i11g l1av his ut to a civil cot1rt \vitho or to be sl10\v11 the list of witr1esses, si11ce these for111alities wot1ld ser\re 1 10 purpose i11 tl1e JJarticular i11sta11ce. b) Tl1e ap1Jlication will also be dismissed wl1ere tl1e civil claim is 1Je11cling in a civil cot1rt or the applicant is 11ot qt1alified to st1e. 1 11 the first case1 tl1e dismissal is based on the rt.Ile electa una via, non datr,1,r rec1,trsus ad alteram: tl1e i11jt1red party may at l1is 01Jtio11 clai111 co111rJe11satio11 i11 a civil or a cri 1 11inal court, bt1t if he l1as elected to sue i11 eitl1er of st1 cl1 cot1rts, lie may 11ot st1bsequently sue i 1 1 the otl1er.<10) As for dis111issal by reaso11 of war1t of qttalifications, this \VOLtld l1ave to be ordered if tl1e injttred JJarty \X'ere s11 ir1g i11 a civil instead of a cri1 11i1 1al court.< 11 l c) A11y dis111issal ordered under Art. 155 (1) (e) or (f) 011 tl·1e grot1 11d that tl1e l1eari11g of tl1e civil clai1n would co111plicate or delay tl1e l1eari 1 1g of the crimi11al case can be exr)lai11ed by referring to tl1e ge11eral pri r 1ciple laid clo\vn i11 Art. 100 (3) Pe11al Code, accordi11g to wl1icl1 ''in cases of a co111plicatecl 11ature or wl1ere t\1e circumsta11ces of the case 111ake it ex1Jedie11t so to do, [)articularly where a11 i11qt1iry I1as to be J1eld i11 co11 1 1ectio11 \X1itl1 tl1e offence or \xrl1ere it is necessary to l1ave tl1e report of experts, tl1e cot1rt sitting i 1 1 cri1ninal 9. This restriction presumably also entails that an aJJplication for joinder 11111st be disn1issed if

it is 111ade in a case where the court is trying a pett 1 offence, since in such a case ihe accused need not appear (Art. 168) or rnay be tried not\vithstanding that he fails to appear (Art. 170 (4) l).

10. Ii owever, the choice th1is 1nade is not necessarily final. On the one hand, t!1e injureci pariy who has been allo,ved to join in crirninal proceetlings n1ay at any tin1e before j11dgn1eni withdraw his clain1 a11d file it in a civil court (Art. 157). On the other hand, foreign prece­ show that � JJerson who filed a clain1 in a civil court n1ay \Vithdraw it and �l �nt � ,vo1 1ld _ 10111 111 cr1_ ?111 �al proceedings where the civil court had no jurisdictio 11 or the clain1 was filed _ therewith 1n ignorance of the fact that the cause of action arose fron, a cri ininal offence.

J\.1ay it also be noted that the court 111ay not of its own n1otion disniiss an application on the ground of pend ency; pendency has to be JJ!eaded by t l1e JJarties' as it would have to be if the clain1 were tried by a civil court. have son1etim �s ar !sen as to ,vhich persons exactly can be dee,ned to be injured 11. Doubts _ parties or persons having r i ghts frorn such parties. In France for instatice it \Vas held that t? e person to whon1 �he victim of the offence assigns his cla/n1 niay not a;Jplv for a joinder since, properly S[Jeak1n � , the cause of action then arises fro,n a contract, and not from an offe nce (Court of C �s �at1011, February 25, 1897). Stich a situation could not occur in Ethiopia (see Art. 2146 (1) C1v1l Code).

1

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JOINDER OF CRIMINAl. AND CIVIL PROCEEDING

!

�o.urt may remit 11e case fo r decision by tl1e •civil court.'' 12 Inasmuch as a · · JOtnder of proceedings may be aIIowed wh ere 1t · 1s convenient for tl1e purpose . . . of Justice, it follo\vs tl,at it may not be granted where it is inexpedi ent. d) �o too, tlie applicatio11 will be dismissed wl1ere the amou of compe nsa­ nt . tion clat �ned 111 sucl1 as to fall outside the pecuniary jt1risdictio11 wl1ich tl1e court tryit,g tl,e offence would l1ave if it sat as a civil court. Tl1us, where in the case of a,, offence contrary to Art. 539 Pe11al Code (common wilful injury, _ triable by a Woreda cot1rt) tl1e injured fJarty claims 1000 dollars compensation, a joinder of proceedir1gs rnay not be allowed for a Woreda cot1rt l1as jurisdic­ tio11 to l1ear sucl1 civil cases 011ly wl1ere the amount involved does not exceed 100 dollars.

111 all sucl1 cases, tl1e court is obliged by law to reject the afJplication.

Tl1ere are bttt two questions i11 respect to which the court has some discretion: (a) are tl1e \vit11esses to be called in SU[JjJort of the civil clain1 too r1umerot1s; and (b) \Viii the l1eari11g of tl�e civil case com[Jlicate or delay tl1e l1earing of tl1e crirnir1al case? \VI1ere eitl1er question is a11swered in the affirmative, the applicatio11 mt1st be dis1nissed.

3. One may wo11der wpetl1er an ap1Jlication may be dismissed 011 other grou11ds tl1a11 tl1ose me11tioned in Att. 155 and, n1ore specifically, \vl1etl1er the accused rnay raise sucl1 prelitninary objectio11s as a defenda11t would be e11titled to raise if tl1e clai1n were tried by a civil court. Tl1is questio11, which is 11ot expressly dealt \vitl1 i11 tl1e law, ca11 be a11swered as follows.

A defendant may a1Jply for tl1e dismissal of a claitn 011 tl1e grou11d that it l1as previot1sly been tried or settled by co1npromise; tl1at it is pendi11g in a11other court; tl1at the otl1er party is not qttalified to sue or, wl1ere ap1Jropriate1 l1as 11ot obtai11ed prior permission to sue; tl1at the clairn is to be settled by arbitratior1. \Vl1at \VOLtld be tl1e effect of any sµcl1 objection (otl1er tl1an a11 objectiou based 011 JJe11de11cy or lack of qttalifications to sue, covered by Art. 155 ( 1) (c) and (ct) ) beir1g raised at tl1e time \vhen a joinder of proceedi11gs is aJJjJlied for? a) A11 application for joi11der \Vil] be distnissed \vhere tl1e subject matter of tl1e clain1 is res j;,tdicata. If, prior to tl1e i11stitt1tio11 of the crimir1al [Jroceed­ ings, a decisioti has been given 011 tl1e qttestion of compe11satio11, tl1e i11jured party may not take advantage of the institL1tio11 of sttch proceedings i11 orcler to cause the said decision to be revised. Tl1is is trtte whether tl1e claim has 12. Under the Crin1 inal Procedtire Code, the dis111issal is tl1en compt1lsory, and not OfJtional as it is tinder the Penal Code.

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1

on se the mi pro oun ;im co _ t of e . �av � s :ti.e par . the 1:1 r rt o . cou a by been decided _ u l ed vi oc e Ci Pr tli re 1� , �r e Co w o de ). . de Co l vi Ci (1) 12 � � damages (Art. 33 _ e th e u1 d u wo ely l1k -tt t, eta that ? en ! il civ � le : nt tie l ne mi le cri l� e ru .t tl1 should ;;idop il im tf civ a cla s, ea er wh should n ve gi sly iou ev pr d be ul a judicial decision wo ve to ha be uld wo s1J 1gs su di1 ee oc pr end­ il civ e th , 1ce fe1 of l na mi m se a cri ari fro ed until tl1e co· mpletion of the criminal proceedings. on t)1e ground tl1at tl1e civil er nd joi the · to ts jec ob d use e acc the 1er b) wl . clain1 is barred by limitation, the objectio11 will be overruled in accordance with Art. 2143 (2) Civil Code: a civil claim arising from a crimi11al offence is not barred so long as tl1e criminal proceedings in respect of such offence are not barred. c) Where the accused declares that the court has no local jurisdiction, the objectio11 will again be overruled: as the injured party is given tl1e choice of suir1g i11 a civil or a crimi11al court, his choice may not be questioned on the ground that, l1ad tl1e claim bee11 filed in a civil court, it wottld have been tried in a differe11t area of jurisdiction. 13 If, on the otl1er ha11d, the accused pleads to tl1e material jurisdiction of the court, two situations may occur. Wl1ere he alleges tl1at, by reason of its amount, the claim is triable by a11otl1er court, tl1e provisions of Art. 155 (2) will apfJly. Wl1ere he alleges that, by reason of its nat1,1,re, tl1e claim is triable by a11other court, no joinder may be allowed if the objection is well-founded.14 011e will remember tl1at a court wl1ich has not material jurisdictio11 must decli11e .to hear the case and need not \Vait for an objectio11 to be raised on this point. '

d) Witl1 regard to the want of prior permission to sue, it ,viii be recollect­ ed tl1at the Civil Code in some cases, especially in cases of filiation, makes the institutio11 of proceedings conditional upon a permission given to tl1is effect by tl1e court. Ho,vever, these cases are quite different from those ir1 relation to whicl1 a joir1der may be applied for, since the pt1r1Jose of requestina the said per1n1ss1on 1s not to be allowed to claim compensation. .

.

b

.

13. The cases whe�e !he_ a�cused �ay wish t o raise sucl1 an objection are likely to be fe\v, for _ _ _ both areas �f Jtt r1sd1ct1on_ ord 1nar1ly co1nc1de. A c r iminal offence is norn,ally tr iable at the place \'Vhere 1t was con1m1tted. Sirnilarly, a clain1 for the cornper1s ation of the dan, age caused by an. unlawful act is nor rnally triable at the place \vhe re such act \Vas perforn1ecl ( although the:e 1s at present no specific legal provision to this effect).

14. This �ay occu r wh �re, under the law, th� ci�il claim cornes witl1in the exclusive jurisdiction _ of a _given court, d1ffe r :nt fr�m th at wh1cl1 1s trying the offence. For instance it ,night be p rovided. th at all cases 1�volv1n� the civil liability of J)ttblic serv ants fo r offenc�s con1n1itted 1n the discharge of thei r off�_ c1a� d uties_ are triable by tile f-ligh Co rovisio n p Su a tirt ch . . w_ o� ld ha_ ve the _ ef! �ct ?f prohibit_ ing a JOtnder of J)roceedings \vl1ene offen ce cri n1in ver al the giving rise t? Ii ab1hty 1s not also triable by the High Court (a nd few of then1 are .so triable tind er the First Sched ule to tl1e Crin1inal Procedu re Code).

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JOINDER OF CRIMINAL AND CIVIL PROCEEDING

· e) finally, t he acct1sed m ay al1ege that tl1e claim is to be settled by arbi­ . tratio� and any s�icl � a�le�atio11 will, for all practical "purposes, amount t o an _ obJ ecti on to t l1e Jt1r1_s�1ct1on of tl1e court. In tl1is respect, some attention will _ be pai d t o the prov1s1ons of Art. 2148 Civil Code, u11der which th e parties may, after darnage l1as bee11 caused, agree on tl1e conditions under \vl1icl1 it will be made good. If tl1e terms of tl1e agreement are that tl1e question of _ . cornp�nsat1on will be settled by arbitrators and tl1 e injured party does 11ot abide by this agreeme11 t, the acc used tnay demand the specific performance tl1ereof under Art. 3344 Civil Code, and an apJJlication for joinder may thtts not be entertai11ed i11 st1cl1 a case.

4. Any decision wl1ereby a criminal court dismisses a11 application for joinder of proceedings is final in tl1at no appeal lies from it (Art. 155 (3) ).

The prohibitio11 against appealing is quite natural, not because it may appear t1seless to cl1allenge a decisior1 whicl1 tl1e cot1rt has tinder t l1e la\v tl,e duty to make, but because st1cl1 decision does 11ot l1ave the effect of depriving tl1e ir1jt1red party of his rigl1 t to sue a11d in no way prejudices tl1 e decisio11 \vl1icl1 \viii ultimately be give11 011 tl1e question of comJJensation. In otl1er words, the dis1nissal merely resttlts in debarri11g the inj11red party from tl1e excercise of l1 is ge11eral right to select tl1e court in wl1i cl1 lie will claim co1npensatio11. Tl1e door to crirninal )Jroceedings having been closed upon the dismissal of tl1e apJJlication for joinder, the door to civil proceedi11 gs naturally remains OJJe11 and tl1e injured party is e11titled to file his claim i11 a civil court. As pointed out before, tl1e Civil Procedure Code migl1t prescribe tl1 at tl1e civil cottrt to \vl1icl1 tl1e claim is so referred may not decide tl1ereon except after tl1e co1nple­ tion of t l1e crin1i11al proceedings in wl1icl1 the claima11t was r1ot allo\ved to participate, a11 d it is wortl1 \Vl'1ile re1nemberi11g in tl1 is connection that, t111der Art. 2 l 49 Civil Code, a civil cottrt wl1ich is called UfJOn to decide wl1etl1er a civil liability l1as bee11 incurred is 11ot bou11d by an acquittal or discl1arge ordered by a cri1ni11al co11rt.

II - EFECTS

Wl1 e11 l1is a))plication for joinder is allowed, the injured party \vill parti­ cipate 111 t1 1 e fJroceedings in t he capacity of plai11tiff with tl1e same rigl1ts, and for tl1at matter tl1e same cluties, as ar1 ordi11ary party, i. e. as tl1e prose­ cutor ai,d tlie accused (Art. 156 (1) ). Tl1is pri11ciple entails, for i11stance, tl1at tl1e injured party will i11 appro1Jriate cases r�ceive a c�py of tl,e _charge in accordai,ce witli Art. 109 (4); tl1 at any \Vttr1ess lie w1sl1es to call 111 support of }iis c laitn, if 11 ot a v1itness for tl1e prosect1tion or tl1e defe11 ce, will be sttmmoned ptirstia11t to Ar t. 124; tl1at, if a11y st1cl1 witness fails to appear, tl1e - 141 -

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94 1d t. t r u1 Ar e11 11m u j9 ad (2) (b); �n r -fo y pl � ap to led tit : , en injured party_ will be cep ex t on that th e ii,jured party may not pu t leading quest1�11s to a w1�ness _ , on cti to ,vi or cot fJri ', ar1ythi11g saj r no 137 t.

Ar i11 wn do tl1e co11ditior1s laid tt1at may allow th�- cotirt to kr,ow of tl1e acct1sed perso�'s a11tecedents (Art. 138). On tl1e otl1er ]1a11d, the accused will l1ave the sai:ne rigl,ts as a defendant in a civil case a11d may, for ir1stance, apply for an adJour111ne11t on tl1e grou nd that l1e requires. ti1ne to [Jre[Jare l1is defence on tl1e questio11 o� compe11satio11 or t11at he 1nust call witnesses to give evidence 011 sucl1 quest1011.

But the effects of a joinder exte11d mucl1 furtl1er si11ce, 11nder tl1e men­ tioned principle, tl1e injured party ]1as tl1e rigl1ts of an ordi11ary fJarty ''witl1 regard to evide11ce,' too. U11fortt1nately, t11e i111plications of tl1is general rule are not stated witl1 sufficie11t precisio11, a11d tl1e fJlaintiff is thus given rights withot1t bei11g told exactly how l1e sl1ould exercise tl1en1. Tl1is migl1t in a number of cases result in defeati11g tl1e p11r1Joses of Art. 100 Pe11al Code: being left i11 dotibt as to w11at will l1appe11 if tl1ey gra11 t a11 applicatio11 for joi11der a11d as to tl1e part wl1icl1 the IJlai11tiff \Vill IJlay in tl1e fJroceedings, tl1e crirninal cottrts, for fear of co11ft1sio11, migl1t be tempted to dismiss a11y sucl1 a1JIJlicatio11 \X1itl1011t even co11sideri11g it.

1

The i11jured fJarty's position is indeed clearly described by two provisions only, 11ar11ely Art. 142 (1), whicl, prescribes tl1at evidence for the inj11red party is take11 whe11 the case for tl1e prosect1tion is concluded, a11d Art. 156 (2), wl1icl1 autl1orizes tl1e plaintiff to address tl1e cottrt 011 tl1e qt1estio11 of co111pensa­ tion at tl1e close of tl1e case for tl1e defence. A court might \veil consider that tl1ese i11dicatio11s are not sucl1 as to enable it to know }1ow to enforce tl1e rule that tl1e JJlaintiff's rig·hts witl1 regard to evidence are tl1e same as tl1ose of an ordi11ary party. The Criminal Procedttre Code being i11complete, tl,e court 1night be i11clined to seek clarification i11 foreig11 la\vs wl1icl1 also provide for joi11der of proceedings. Such laws, 110\vever, would be fou11d to be of little assistance. In Engla11d, for insta11ce, altl1ougl1'' at co1nmon Jaw tl1e rernedies for civil injuries and crimes ca11not be enforced togetl1er ( ..., ) i11 a fe\v cases tl1e co11rt wl1icl1 tries an indictable offence is authorised by statute to a\Y1ard cornrJensation to perso11s injured by it.'' <15> But 110 real joinder of proceedings occurs, for the injured party is 1nerely entitled to claim co1npensation after co11viction and does, tl1erefore, IJlay no part in tl,e crimit,al procee­ dings.<16) l11 Fra11ce, 011 tl1e other hand, tl1ere are fewer diffictilties as regards 15. Archbold, Criminal Pleading, Evidence and Practice, 32nd ed., p. 281.

16. The systen1 prevailing in Engla11d (see also Crii11inal Procedure Codes of India, Art. 545; Sudan, Art. 311; M �Iaysia, A�t. 431; South Africa, Art. 363 ) shotild, logically speaking, _ have been adopted 111 Eth1op1a too, inasmuch as a cri ininal cotirt ma y not adjudicate _ . the question of co1npensat1on t1nless the accused is convicted (Art. 1.58).

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JOINDER OF CRIMINAl. AND CIVIL PROCEEDING

the [Jlai 1 1tiff's rigt1t i11 co 1111ect·ton \VI •'ti 1 evi· dence, s111ce the fJrocedttre of exan1i . 1-1n . . r1at10 1 -ch1ef, cross-exami1 1at·o.

1 11 a11 ct re-exam 1·11at10 • 11 does 11ot exist as sucl1 ' • · · e ,tll since tl1e i111·u red party 1s · a11d abov e 1 1t1tled to speak 1n sttpfJort of the .

17 f)rosecttt 1011. < ) It rnay thus be said t11at tl1e systen1 laid clO\'vn i 11 the Etl1io1Jian Cri1ni11al re Co?e is, to a large exte11t 1 Ltn[Jrecedentecl, a11d it follows that tl1e Procedt _ � _ d1ff1ct1lties \Vhtcl, 1nay be encot111tered in ap1Jlyi11g it mt1st· be solved having regard botl7 to tl1e general 1)ri1 1 ciJJies \Vl1icl1 tl1e saicl Code contains a11d to the IJUrfJOses \Vl1icl1 tl1e procedttre of joi 11der ai 111s at achievi 11g. Beari 1 1g i11 mind tl1at st1cl1 procedure is i11te11ded to exJJedite clecisions 011 n1atters of civil liability arisi 1 1g from a11 offe11 ce a 1 1d resttlts i11 the i11jured JJarty beir1g IJermitted to fJartici1Jate in cri111i11al proceeclings wit/J a view sole(y to claiming compensatio11, a11y case \Xtl1ere an applicatio 11 for joi 1 1der l1as bee1 1 gra11ted ot1gl1t to be dealt \i it11 i 1 1 t1 1e followi 11g 1 11ar111 er: 1

1. After tl1e cl1arge l1as been read out a11d tl1e plea of tl1e accused recor­ ded (Art. 132), tl1e 1Jrosecutor, if a fJlea of 11ot gt1ilty l1as been e11tered or tl1e acct1sed l1as not bee 1 1 co 1 1victed fortl1witl1 LtJJOn l1is pleadi11g gt1ilty (Art. 133, ancl 134), \Vill Of)en l1is case and call l1is \vit 1 1esses wl1orn he \Vill exar11ine-in­ cl1ief a11cl wl101n lie 1nay, after tl1ey l1ave been cross-exarni11ed by tl1e accusecl, re-examine 0 11 1Joir1ts raised i11 cross-exa 1 ni 11atior1 (Art. 136 a11d 139). If a11y it11ess for tl1e prosect1tio 1 1 l1as bee11 designated by tl1e injured JJarty, on l·1is bei11g sl10\x1n tl1e list of \'vitnesses (Art. 154 (2), as st1sce1Jtible of giving evidence 011 tl1e civil case, st1cl1 \vit11ess, after giving evidence 011 tl1e cri 1 ninal case in t11e man11er provided by Art. 136, will give evidence on the civil case before 11e\v witnesses are called. Bt1t 011e may also proceed differe11tly and allow the JJlaintiff to put qt 1 estio11s to a wit11ess for tl1e prosect1tior1 before tl1e latter is cross-exa 1 nir1ed 011 l1is statements tot1chi11g tl1e cri 1 ni11al case, ancl tl1e cross-exami 1 1atio11 \'vill tl1er1 relate to stateme 11ts macle on fJOi11ts involvi1 1g tl1e cri 1 ni 11al as well as tl1e civil liability of tl1e acct1sed. \\1

Either 1nethocl is acce(Jtable, a11d tl1e cot1rt is at liberty to adopt wl1ich­ ever course it deems more co 11venie11t in tl1e circt1111stances, si11ce nothi11g i 11 the law compels it to fJroceed i 11 0 11e rather tl1a 11 in tl1e other way. All tl1at may be said is t11at the second n1etl1od 1nigl1t l1ave tl1e effect of conft1sir1g the issues. It iniglit also be regarded as inco11siste�t witl1 Art. 142 (if th� latter were . to be interpreted strictly), 1111der \xrl1ich tl1e 1 nJL1_red party plays 111s part after _ the case for the JJrosectttion is concluded, for 1t m1gl1t then be contendecl that the s te des tion sui osi des ten,oins la dep ,..

"A : 335 .

Art , elle n1in cri tion 17 .::iee e. .g. code d'instruc , , , velop c et a 1 ont us le n ser end e ent et ge ur cur le pro et l sei con son .. , la parlie civile ou • II . peront Les rnoyens qui appuient /,acci,sation

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J OURNAL

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· IOPI ,A N LA .\Y/ ETli

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pt ed ce l ex ucl 11c te af co t rio r he is 11 tio cu se . o JJr e tl, r fo ss e,,idei,ce of a '\Viti,e s 1 lii 1 01 ten ed i11 sta a1n -ex re e11ls y, ar ss ce 11e e 1er \vl , 1d 1 l1as be en cross-ex•a111ined a regarding the c1·i111i11al case.

11 es tio giv cL1 se Jro evide11 ce tl1e r fo I ess tn \X'i l1 a 1ic ,x,l \X'l1atever tl1e ti1ne at tl1ot1gl1 it \X'ere given i11 suJJport of tl1e claim, sL1cl1 evide 11ce will be tal<e11 as 11ess will tl1L1s e i11 a civil case, ,xritl1out i 11terfere11ce by tl1e }Jrosecutor. 'fl1 wit be exan1i11ed-i11-cJ1ief by the plaintiff (the i11jL1red JJarty), cross-exa111i11ed by .the defe11da11t (tl1e accused) a11d may be re-exa1 11i 1 1ed by the plai11tiff. Tl1e .accL1sed 11·1a)' object to tl1e JJutti 1 1g of a qL1estio11 to a wjtness testif}'ir1g as to tl1e civil clain1 0 11 tl1e grou11d tl1at it is irrelevar1t, arid tl1e objectio11 ,vill be disposed of i11 accorda1 1ce witl1 Art. 146.< 18) The JJrovisions of Art. 147 regarding tl1e recor­ di 1 1g of evicle11ce \'<rill afJJJly to evide 11ce give11 on tl1e questio11 of co1n1Jer1sation.

2. After tl1e ,vit11esses for tl1e 1Jrosecutior1 l1ave bee11 l1eard, and whetl1er or 1 1ot tl1ey l 1 ave beer1 exa111ir1ed 011 the c111estio1 1, of co1n1Je11satio 1 1, the i11jt1red 1)a1iy ,x,ill prodttce l1is ow 11 evide11ce, if a11y, c)n tl1e civil claim, anci call sucl1 \X1itnesses as may l1ave bee11 sum1no11 ed to ap1Jear at l1is reqt1est. However, it 1nt1st be re111er11bered tl1at tl'lis \X'ill 11ot occur wl1ere tl1e cot1rt co11siders t111cler f\1·t. 141 tl1at tl1ere is r10 case for tl1e JJrosect1tio11 a11cl tl1at tl1e accusecl 11eed 11ot e11ter 11po11 l1is defence. for tl1e cot1rt n1t1st i1 1 sucl1 a case acquit the accused a 1 1cl, ,ts l1as bee 1 1 1 11e11tio11ed before, 110 jt1dgrne11t ma), be give11 0 1 1 tl1e civil liability of tl·1e acctised t111 less l1e be co 11victed (Art. 158). Tl1erefore, it is onlj' \x1l1e11 tl1e court is of tl1e opi11ion tl1at tl·1ere is a case for tl1e accL1sed to a 11s\ver tl1at tl1e i11jt1rec1 party ,viii be callee{ 011 to prodLtce evide11ce or additional evide 1 1ce, as tl1e case n·1ay be, 011 tl1e civil claim. ·St1ct1 evidence will be taken i11 the 1nanr1er described above, i.e., tl1e witnesses \Xlill be examir1ed-in-chief by il1e fJlai11tiff, cross-examinecl by the acct.1sed a11d, wl1ere appropriate, re-exa1nined 11 )' t 11 e JJI ai 11tiff.

-----·

18. Th_is n1ay �ccur in JJarticular wl1e:e t!1e injured IJarty cloes not restrict his questions to points_ sho\v111g that the accu.sed 1s liable to pay co1npensation. Indeed, injured parties son1et1111es tend t� act. as ass1stant-1Jrosecutors and to produce evidence such as to sho�, !hat i?e _ acc11�ed 1s guilty. 1-\ny such evidence, if adduced, by tlie JJ!aintiff, is naturally 1na�n11ss1ble. 1nasmuch _as . he tile� . endeav_?urs to act outside the scoi:,e of the order �1av111g grante? the a Jpl1cat1on f_or 01nde:. 1 rue enough, it niay !ll n,any cases .be difficult 1 � t� draw the l1ne bet\'leen \Vhat 1s acl1n1ss1ble a ncl \V�at is not, si!1c e the injtired party 111ay . , \'< ant to J)rove e.g., that_ the defendant a�t�d 1nt.e11t1011 ally, this being of \'.>articular in,por· tance \Vhere co1111Jensat1011 for 1noral 1n1ury 1s clai111 ect ( .A.rt.

2 I 06 Civil Code). But · · one 111ust recall that, ho\x1ever poorly tt1e JJrosecution is co ct ct n u ct e , the InJured party · · · .

0 · has no r1e:.I1 t t o remec1 y t11e 1r11slakes rnade by the prosectitor I i afon and ct:ua11 y I1as no ·JUSt·f· for doing so \X'hereas, if the accused is acquiited or di.sci , ch arge � in conse quence � � sut o n1istakes, this does not prejudice the decision that tn"' b e rnade on th e quest1011 f · · «Y , sat·1011 b y t l1e civil court 10 \x:hich the clac itn wi·11 l cornpen . 21491ave to be referred .(Art .

Civil Code)

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J -0l.'NDER OF �CRIM INAL AND .CIVIL .RROCEE DIN0

3. ·Wl1er1 ·the c· as.e -f-or the - 1· nJt1r . · e d parry , :ts · c .oncluded .tl1e case Efor tl1e . . _ cl=efe11ce will ,01J1111 .a11: cl rth:e accused \Viii call · 1· · 11s > •tne-s'.ses ·\v110 w1l-1 .ghv:e , w 1 . . . · e.\,ct l e ice on . tl1e crttn111al . ca . s.e _as jJ.rov . icled by ,Art. 142 _(2) �a11d (-3). 5tteh : � \"1tt11esses fo r the .defence as ma,J, also 11ave. bee11 ca11ed by ti1e ·rr1Jure. d pant y · • • • • · .

111 · 5�1 PIJO.rt of tl1e .ci,v�l claim will, 011 cornpleting their statem ents 011 ,the _ cr1m1n al .case, be ·exn111111�d-in-cl1ief 011 tl1e claim ·by tl1e p . lai11tiff, cross-exa1nine.d . by rtl,e ,defendant ai,d, tf 11.e ed be, re-examined b)' ithe (Jlai11tiff. 0 1 1 .the o . ther 11.a·nd, ,vl1�re tlie �c L•s d l1as called \Vit11esses for the IJ.ll17JJose of ·t. estifying ,on � � _ _ tile qt1est1011 o-f .c1v 1l l1ab1!1ty, · st1cl1 witr1esses will be l1eard after tl1e ta-king ,oi _ tl1e :e\.·1dei,ce for tl1e defence 011 tl1e cri111i11al case a11cl will be exa1ni11ed-i1 1-cl1ief b)' .tile accL1secl, :cross-exa1nined b)' ,tl1e .i11jL1red iJart)' and may be ;re�examined bj' tl·1e ·accLtsecl.

4. Tl1e i11jL1red JJarty 111ay fl1en, i11 accordance \Vitl1 A 1 t. 156 '(2), address tl1e coL1rt 011 tl1e qL1estio11 of co1npe11satio11, ex1Jlai11i11g \vl·1y tie cor1siders tl1.e civil liability of the acc11 sed to l1ave bee11 establisl1ed arid \Vil)-' lie regards l1i111self as bei11g entitled to tl·1e a111ot111t of comJJe11satior1 lie clai111s. U11cler tl1e la\v, tl1is address is n1acle ''at tl1e close of case for tl1e defence'' a11d the accL1sed l1as the right to reJJly. Does it n1ea11 tl1at tl1e injL1red JJarty addresses the cot1rt <after tl1e taki11g of tl1e evide11ce for tl1e defer1ce or after tl1e accused !·1as rnade J·1is fi1 1al speecl1 as IJrovided by, Art. 148 (2) ? The latter solL1tion is ,(JresL1mab.l_y the correct 011e (see .also Art. 149 (1) ). l11cleecl1 if tl1e addresses .were made in a cliffere11t orcler, tl1ere \VOLtld l1ardly be a1�3/ 11eed to pres.cribe .tl·1at .tl1e accus.ed 1nay re1Jly or1 tl1e question of com1Jer1satio11, si11ce l1e cot1ld do so \vl1ile mal<i11g l1is fi11al SJJeecl1. At tl1is stage1 tl1erefore 1 it seems 1tl1at .tl1e ordi11ary sequer1ce (1Jrosecutor-i11j.L1red party-acctLSe(l) is r.e1Jlaced _qy . a .differe11t seque11ce (fi11al speecl1 .of pro.sect1tor-fi11al SJJeecl1 o-f accused-acldress ,of pla11tiff-re1Jly of accuseci) ·\x1itl1 -a vie\v to av.oidi11g· a co11fL1sion of issL1es.

5. 1\1\.ost of the above expla11atio11s1 \vl·1icl1 a(JfJly in jJL 1 blic fJroceedi11gs \xrhere evide11ce is prodt1ced, l1old good in private jJrosect1tio11s or in fJrocee­ dii1gs \xrl1ere 110 evide11ce for tl1e 1Jrosect1tion or defen.ce is JJrodL1cecl. a) 111 .a private prosecution wl1ere tl1e injt1red 1Jarty does not act as JJrjvate prosectttor, tl1e civil case \vill be dealt \vith in tl1e same ma11r1er as in -pt1blic jJroceediiigs. Q11 tl,e other l1and, wl1ere the pl,ri11tiff ·also co11ducts tl1e prosecu­ tion· t1 e \vill first cal l l1is wit11ess· es 011 the crimin·al case a11d the11 his ·\vitnesses on tl,e -'civil case: provided tl1at, \v\1ere tl1e forn1er ca11 also testify 011 tl1e claim, tli�y will ·be heard iii ·c_onnectio11 tl1ere\vith_ after l1a�i11� been � ��ss-exa1uined 1 _ al . e 111 se tl1 1111 ca g cr in rd ga re anti re-exa111111ed or1 tl1e1r stateme11ts 19. ·one will bear in n1 incl tl1 at all the indications given \v.ith regard .to the-o rcler in_ .:which eral ren1ark ·11,ade l1ere1nbefore gen the to ice jt1d pre t hou wit 'are ed duc JJro e is enc evid _ience. _1se for JJUrposes of 1 conven concerning tl,e court's pow.er to decide other\x

JOURN1\I_

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1 )' s ilt ad 1 e 111a;' be gu ple d , se cL1 ac e tl1 e er 1 \x,l re, fo be b) As pointecl OLtt ed uc r od l1e JJr eit be by the to 1g 1 vi l1a e nc ide ev t 1 L a tl10 \Vi JJle ecl on l1is ict conv . d . · t (2o) · TI 1 1. s, o f COL1rse, 1J rosecutor or tl1e defe11ce, L111less tl1e coL1rt otl1e1 wise 11 ec s.

1• Co11 seqL1e 11tly, lie \'(/ill 0 Je11 t) 1Jar d L1re i11j tl1e 1 of l1ts rig ice tl1e jL1d to pre is 11ot _ l1is case before tl·1e prosecL1tor acldresses tl1e co11. rt 011 se11te11ce 111 accordance <\' 1itl1· Art. 149 (3). If tl1e 1Jlai11tiff i11te11ded son1e of tl1e wit11esses \X1l10 \VOL1lcl l1a\ e give11 e\1ide11ce for the 1JrosecL1 tio11 c>r tl·1e clefe11ce, l1ad the accL1sed 11ot bee11 co11\. icted fortl1\vitl1 , to testify 011 tl1e civil clai1n, SL1cl1 \xrit 11 esses v1ill be l1 earci i11 tl1e ordi11ary 1nan11er, tl1e 011 !)' differe11 ce bei11g tl1at evicle11ce 011 the cl<tin1 \Vill tl1e11 lJe tal<e11 after a11d r1ot before co11 \rictio11. Tl1e i11jL1 red fJart1, also retains tl1e rig·l1· t to address tl1e coLtrt 011 tl·1e questio11 of ci\1il liabilit)' - ancl tl1e accused is tl1 e11 entitled to re1)ly - 11ot\'<fitl 1 star1cli11g tl1at 110 fi11al Sf)eeches l1ave been 1nade b}r tl1e j)rosecLttor a11d tl1 e accL1secl L1 11der 1-\rt. 148.

1

1

Ill - JLJDGlv\ti\"I"

l. A'fter tl1 e j)rosecL1tor and tl1e accL1sed l·1ave 111acle tl·1eir fir1al Sj)eech, if a11y, and tl1e i11jt1 recl J)arty 1·,as adclressecl tl1e coL1rt 011 l·1is clai111, jt1dgr11ent \'fill be give11 (Art. 149 (1) ), ct11d tl1e se11te11ce \viii be 1Jassed LI!)On tl1e sL1b111issio11 s 011 se1 1te11ce tl1at l1ave bee11 r11ade (Art. 149 (5) ).(22> As 111e11tioned before, tl1e cot1rl r11a�>' 11ot adjuclicate tl1e civil clai111 i.111less tl1e accL1sed is fou11d gL1ilt 11 (Art. 158) a11cl tl·1e jJlai11tiff \Vil! l1ave t() i11stitL1te f:-esl1 proceedi11gs i11 a ci\1il court if tl1e accL1secl is 11 ot co11victecl.(22 ) \X!l1ere tl1e cot1 rt C<)11siders tl1at tl1e i 11jL1red J)arty l1as 1Jro\1 ed l1is case, its jL1dg111er1t \x,ill co11tai 11 : (a) as regards tl1e crin1i11al case, tl1e JJarticL1lars reqL1ired by f\rt. 149; ai1d (b) as regarcls tl1e ci\ril case, tl1e 1Jarticulars reqt1ired by Art. 159.(23)

20. J-lo,x1ever, evidence as to lhe character ancl antecedents of the accused n1a)' none-the­ less be produced afier ci>11victio11 ( ;-\rt. I 49 (3) and (4) ).

21. This is \vithout prejudice to !he above- mentioned case \v'here, the accused being convicted his plea of guilty, the plaintiff does not address tl1e court before the conviction provided for by Art. 149 (l), but after conviction ancl before sentence.

22. It is doubtful w �ether ,A.rt. :2143 (2) Civil Cocle (li111itatio 11 of actions based 011 criininal offences) rnay �l1ll be _in\•·okecl in cas �s of acq �iltal since one can then no longer properly _ _ otfence. The frenc h Court of Cassation, speak of a claun ar1s111g fron, a cr1r111nal 11o�ever, rulecl (J�111e 1 � , 1 ?4!) rhar, nol\'(/ ithsta11di11g the acquittal, the civil claini re111ai 11s _ L_ J)eriocl or l1rn1tal1011 JJrescrrl)ecl for Ille offence ii1 resiJect to \x1hich th e to the Ject sub _ order of acqu i ttal \t'a.S recorded.

23. Ari. 159 is incon1pl�te, as a judg111ent \'<'hereby a crirninal court J!SI) (.,iecides 011 a civil c1ai1n should contain witl1 reQ'a · 1'f � rd to such clairn all t·lie par 1·1cu I ars it ,x,oulc I con1·a1n it bad been gi\ren �y a civil court ( the reasons fnr the court's decisio n, the J)rovisions of the la,"· uncler \Vhtch the decision is made, and the like).

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JOINDER OF CRIMINAL. AND CI.VIL PROCEED1-NO

. · naI court are . a ) The powers of tl1e er1m1 · restricted to the qt1est1011 of . .com pe11sat10 · · 11 011ly ' a11d the cou rt may not decide on any other c1v1l· co11se· qt1e11ces tl1at 1nay flow from a cr1m · 24 1na · I o ff ence .( · co11v > 1cfor ce, 1nsta 1 011 1 . · t1ng tl1e accused of rape' the court n1ay not, .wh ere ti 1e v1c t·1m of ti 1e offence . alleges t0 b. e_ or to l,ave been made preg11a11t as a resttlt thereof, declare under ,., Civil Code that tl1e co11vi Art. �':JS cted person is the father of the cl1ild tl,us _ _ co11ce1ved. Similarly, \xrhere in an adttltery case evidence is produced which wot1ld te11d to show that the injt1red fJarty can11ot be tl1e fatl1er of a child, the cotirt tnay not gra11t such fJarty tl1e permissio11 to i 11 stitt1te an actio11 to diso\v11 fJrovided b)' Art. 782 Civil Code• · b) Tl1e cottrt may grant co111pensatio11 for sucl1 damage only as rest1lts from tl1e offence. for example, wl1ere a11 offence of homicide b)' neglige11 ce has also cat1sed damage to property, co111pe11satio11 may be a\varded for loss of life only, and 11ot for damage to property; indeed, any such damage, if cattsed by 11eglige11ce, does 11ot give rise to a criminal liability• as indicated

by Art. 653 Pe11al Code, whicl1 011ly pe11alizes damages i11tentionally caused.

There bei11g tl1en no civil liability arising from a criminal offe11ce, tl1e ge11eral conditions set ottt i11 Art. 100 Penal Code so tl1at a cri111i11al cot1rt may' award comJJensation are , tl1e refore, not fulfillect.<25) 1

c) In gra11ti11g co111pe11sation, the court will I,ave regard to sucl, rttles as are laid dow11 in the Civil Code regardi11g tr1e assessment or 1Jay1ne11t of compe11satior1. for i11sta11ce, where compensatio11 is claimed by tl1e relatives of a person wl10 died i11 co11se que11ce of the offe11 ce, the cot1rt may 11ot order the payment of a lt1mp sum and is bot111d to order tl,e JJayme11t of an alimony (Art. 2095 (2) Civil Code). Wl1ere com1Jet1satio11 is claimecl for 1noral injttry, the amot111t of co1npe11sation awardecl may not exceed 1000 dollars (Art. 2116 (3) Civil Code). ct) Wl1ere tl1e i11jured party sttcceeds in his claim, the acct1sed will I,ave to pay sucl1 court fees a11d costs as \VOttld be }Jayable if tl1e claim had bee11 tried by a civil court (Art. 159 and 222), but where tl1e i11jt1red party fails in his claim, he \viii be liable for such payme11t,'"f and the c osts \vil l include the .

.

110 joi�d:r has been reque­ e e wh . ven lies app ich wh : ple nci pri � l era gen a ly is ual is act 1 TI 24. al not y rt ma , m1n cou ble cr1 a ns1 spo 1rre d use acc the ing fi11d on tts, Tll d. \ve sted or allo . cle s to 111a be y ion n1a e ept exc som er eth \Vh de.

Co il Civ 351 .

Art der interdict hiin un . ble ata ce, deb t sa11 is 1en of nui ten aba for ers ord lar iicu par in s ard reg this princiJJle, as 63 Penal t.

Ar o ng the ani hin· me wit es enc off � ed bin com of es cas in d, 25. On tl1e other han ore­ unf the 1n ed ttlt ty has res 1Jer pro to age dam of e enc off al ion ent Code w}1ere an int d nte for n be gra y tio ma nsa 11Je , con ng bei n ma hu a of ath de seen ' albeit foreseeable dam�ge to fJroperty a; \veil as loss of life.

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t. n a· No fe nt de me as ion )' ci-t pa ca is 1 �� I i11 d se cu ac e tl1 costs ;incurred by _ . is tli ing of fil e 1c JJl tl, ap 013 e bl at1011 ya fJa t 11o � e ar cl1 l1i (w s t fee t1-r co w f ho 1na.,Gie -;Q : 1 ee s g1�e11 on .the l1a t en m dgi 1 j1.. ? er aft ly 11 0 � t bu _ . '{1) 4 15 t. for joinder _ Ar .

1s 1111 n1s cla 1s1 e tl1 e 1er sed wl id � pa i 11 re a . sts co d an (c} 9 (1) 15 t. _ Ar itn cla , 1t o m ; ne 1gl ed rg co l1a c . dis r o er sid itte 1 1.. acq ing be : ? sed ccu a . � co11seqi:rence of tl1e _ _ . t t o jec p sub a ty, l rt1a ecl r P u 111,r or the by d , • r:iaii be 11 o t � tl1e : t gl1 ou y t a tl1e n. t,l '. _ _ eds cce 1 In his clairn s1..

1ff 111t IJla tl1e ere \Vl1 d use acc tl1e 11t by 1ne total re. imburse after filiog the same in a ,civil court. e) Wl1ere judgn1ent is giver1 011 botl1 tl1e crimi11al case and questio11 of compensation, tl1e .injured _party wl10 does not also act as JJrivat-e prosecutor 26 ) All l1e may do is to a nce.< sente or 1Jpeal may 1101 apfJeal against co11viction a,gai11st the court's .-refusal to grant compensatio11 (Art. 186 (1) ) or, wl1ere com­ pe11sation l1 as bee11 granted, agai11st the a111ou11t a\varded (Art. 186 (3J ), tl1e ap.JJeal bei11g i11 tl1e latter ·case st1bject to the -co11ditio11s laid do\vn in Art. 2153 Civil Code. As for tl1e accu· sed, l1e may, ·\X1itl1out afJpeali11g against convictio11 or sentence, a_pfJe.al ·again:st tl1e court's decision to g·rant comper1satio11 or, on tl1e sa 1ue cor1ditions as tl1e i11jt 1red i:;. >art)', against tl1e an1ount of compensation awarded (Art. 186 (2) ). Ar1y a1Jpeal 011 tl1e question of compe11satio11 will follow tl1e appeal agai11st co11victio11 or se11tence(27) or, \vl1ere 110 aJJfJeal is n1ade on the crin1ir1al ,aspect of the case or it is \:vi.tl1draw11, will be .lodg·ed with tl1e civil court l1aving apJJellate jurisdictio11 {Art. 186 (4) ). · w11e11 a11 appeal regarding compensatio11 is .l1eard -by a crin1inal ·cotLti, tl1e pri11ciple tl1at co1npensation may 11ot be awarded unless tl1 e .accused ;is convi-cted remai11s natt1 rally applicab1e.

Th. is e.11tails tl1at, wl1ere tl1e accused -afJf)eals against conviction and sentence ,and a11 apJJeal is also made on the questio11 of compensation, a11d tl1e court of apJJeal acquits the acct1sed, it will dismiss the aJJpea'l regarding compensatio11 1

26. If, in public proceedings taken 0!1 an .offence fJunisl1able on con1plaint, the public prosecntor refuses to appeal, he n1ay .not' give the injured JJarty a certificate authorizing hin1 so to appe al. Ar�. 44 (1) o�ly applies in cases of refusal to prosec1.1te, ancl not at a later s�ate . rr public P :oceed1ngs have been institt1ted, the decisior1 to apJJeal or not . lies with th� public prosecutor exclusively. furthern1ore, Art. 185 111akes it clear that an �ppeal touching the criminal side of the case may only be m ade by those who are interested � n � or affected ·by, the dectsion given fhereon, i. -r., the prosecutor and the accused; ·th e 1 1:'Jttred party who ·does not act as pri vate prosecutor 'i's concerned but \Vith the civil sid e of the case and his right to appe al is dealt with tinder a distinct pro vision• nan1ely · Art 1.Sfi.

27. 1'he decision of the court of first instance to allow a joitlder binds the appe'llate cour t, and the latter may n-0t refuse to accept an .apJ)ea I on :the quest1011 ation on · com pens of . the ground th a� th e hear,ing of the ap·peal' regardir1g th e civ ase would c il sid of the e delay or complicate the hearing of the appeal again st con,,iction or sentence .

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JOINDER OF Cn nJMINAL AND CIVIL· P RO , CEEDINO

. ,xrt1icl1 appeal will then have to be lodgect 11 · 1 t1le c1v1.l cot1rt havi11g appellate J·urisdiction fr om tl1e court wl1ich 011 tl1e civil claim macle the decisio11 aoain st 0 ,vhich the a1Jpeal is jJreferred.(28) . f ) To tl1e exte11t tl1at it ac1·Jttct1· cates a . . c1v1l claim and for tl1at matter' • · costs ' tl1e J·L1do . ' court fees and 1::. ne11 t g1v .· e11 b y tl1e cr 1m1nal cottrt 1s to be exec11ted • as tl1oug l -i it l iacl been give11 b y a civ1·1 cot1rt (Art• 210) Tl11s · far · a1JP 1·1es 1nso · co th e nv as ict e d fJerso11 is carJable of payir1g tl1e amou11t of con11Je11sation 1ly 01 awarcled. I 11 otlier cases, tl1e rules laid do\vr1 i 11 Art. 1 O l Pe11al Code sl1ould afJjJly ai,d co1'.1 fJei1satio11 �bLtt riot cottrt fees a11d costs) sl1ottld, if tl1e i11j11recl party so reqti1res, be JJatd 011t of tl1e fJroceeds of the sale of confiscated articles, st1r1 1s deposited as SLtreties or paid by way of fines, and the Iike.<29) 0 11 _ tl 1e rnal<1r1g o:f s11cl1 a reqt1est1 tl1e co11rt ot1gl1t to orcler an i11quir)' i11to the co11victed jJerso11's reso11rces, sitnilar to tl,e i1 1quiry made in cases where legal aid is apJJlied for, a11d sl1011ld 11ot direct tl,at com1Jensatio11 be paid as JJrovided

by Art. 101 Pe11al Code t 111less it is satisfied from the restilts of tl1e i11q11ir y tl1at tl1e co11victed perso11 is a fJat11Jer. If tl1e reqt1est is gra11ted, the State tv ill be sttbrogated to tl1e plaintiff's rig l 1ts as agai11st tl1e judg1nent-debtor (Art. 101 (3) Pe11al Code).

1

2. These are t l1e n1ai11 JJrobler11s that 1nay arise i11 co11nectior1 wit1-i a joinder

of cri1nir1al a 11d civil proce.edi11gs. I Iowever, otl1 er diffict1lties, thot1gl1 of lesser imJJorta11ce, 111y be er1cot111tered as regarcls in 1Jartict1lar tl 1e trial of a civil clai1n i11 cases of discontint1a1-ice (011 grou11ds otl1er tha 11 tl 1ose clealt witl1 herein­ before) of tl1e cri111i11al IJrc>ceedi11gs i11 ,vl1ich tl1e i11jured party l1acl bee11 allo\ved to joi11. Tl1ese diffict1lties 111ay JJresent tl1e111selves i11 cases of cleat!, of tl1e acct1sed or granti11g of a11 a11111esty, bt1t can easily be solved by aJJplyi11g tl1e general 1Jri11ciples gover11ir1g joi11der.

k an u on ittecl al acqu appe s sed en ta accu the re \Vl1e arise � may tion � situa iliar fJect A 28. against conviction and sentence only, and n_ ?t ag �1nst con1pensat1on. _Shoulcl then tl1e appellate cotirt quash the decision on the c1v1l cl�11� 1, thou�h . the parties are appare�tly satisfied \'v'ith it on the grouncl that Art. 158 JJroh1b1ts a cr1n11nal court from awarding compensation 1 ;nless tl1e accused is convicted? !h� ans\ve� probably is _ in the neg�tive. _ ts l poin 1ttec not cate d subm for . adJu s1on dec1 , rule � firstly, a court of appeal n1ay not, as a _ ce tl1e ffen 1ng the and cla tr urt � �m fron1 � Secondly, f\rt. J 58 merely prohibits the c? granting compensation where the accused 1s acquitted or discharged. An acquittal and the payn1ent of comJJensation 111ay, therefore, not.be orclered by o_n� and _ the s�1ne cot�rt.

But nothing in the Ja,v JJerniits saying tha t a 1udg111ent on a �1v1l cla�n1 against ,vh1ch no appeal is 111ade shoulcl not re1n !in . ,vhere the accu�ecl 1f acqt11tted by another court than the one \Vhicl1 gave the said Jt1dgn1ent. face d e ady . iste of 18 Art the r i11 Pre a x e Cod l al Pen QI I . � Art in out le set cip 29. The prin . ed 111 tl1e absence of of the 1930 Penal Cocle. It is doubtful whetl1er it can be enforc further subsidiary legislation.

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VOL.

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1� right to prosecti tl , ion vict co11 to r f)rio ) dies n erso te cl ttse acc a ) \X/llere a11 l s e cl tig oc y e fJr ma tl1 d t Co no l na Pe � � 3 22 be t.

Ar by d ide ov s; fJr as la1Jse _ �� _ . ver, o il pi civ we Ho ) d.( sse fJa be _ ot 1 1 y ma �eed111gs may ce 1 ten conti 11t1ed a11 d a se1 be co11tinued against tl1 e l1eirs of tl1e acct1 se? (Ar�. 2144 (3). Civil Code), and 111 la1 d ha the 1ch 1 wl en be n 1 t ur co filed l 11a mi � cri tl1e r he 1et one n1ay wonder \vl _ ans�er 1s _ 1n tl1_e. affir1native 1 nay decide tl1ereo11. Unlike i 1 1 fra11 ce, wl1 ere tl1� .

(Court of Cassatio11, March 7, 1936), tl1e ans\ver 1n Etl1 101J1a 1s def 1 n1tely in the 11egative; wl1ereas a cri1 ni11al co11 rt may 11ot adj11dicate a q11estio11 of com1Jer1sation Ltnless tl1e accused is co11victed, it is at1 to1natically deprived of its civil juris­ diction in cases of joi11der wl1ere tl1 e accused dies before l1avi11g bee11 found gt1ilty. But the ci,,il claim tl1en· re1nains st1bject to tl1 e period of li1nitation JJrescribed for tl1 e offence in resJJect to· \vl1icl1 cri1ninal JJroceedi11gs l1ave to be cliscontinued, for 011e ca11not say tl1at sucl1 a claim does not arise from a crimi11al offence.

b) Wl1ere a law of am11esty is tJassed, it ''disco11tinues a11 y prosecution from tl1e 111ome11t of its JJromulgatio11'' (Art. 240 (2) Pe11 al Code). Tl1 e soltttion is tl,en tl1e same as in cases of deatl1. I-lowever, si11ce a 11 a1nnesty ''cancels the ir1dictmer1t'' (Ibid.) a11d l1as, tl1erefore, tl1e effect tl1at tl1e act i11 res1Ject to \x,l1icl1 crin1i11al proceedi1 1gs l1ad bee11 instituted is deemed 1 1ever to l1 ave been t11 1la \vful, it follo\vs tl1at any civil claim based on sucl1 act can no Io11ger be said to l1ave its source i11 a criminal offe11 ce, a11 d tl1is e11tails that sucl1 claim is no longer subject by virtue of Art. 2143 (2) Civil Code to the periods of li1nitation laid down by JJe11al laws; it is sttbject to tl1e ordinar)' limitation JJeriod 1Jrescribed by Art. 2143 (1) Civil Code. As for a 1 1 an1nesty voted, or JJardo11 g·ranted, after convictio11, tl1is \Viii 11ot affect ''civil reparation and the 1Jayme11t of damages to injured tJerso11 s'' (Art. 241 (1) Penal Code).

Tl1e S) stem of joi11der of proceedings, which i 1 1 Etl1 iopia like in many otl1er countries l1as historical justifications, is of unquestionable adva11tage to tl1ose \vho have been injt1red by crimi11al offences. I-lo\vever, in afJplying the perti11ent JJrovisions of the Cri111i11al Procedure Code, one \Vill remember tl1at, as has been said by a fre 11cl1 jurist, ''il s'agira avant tout d'assurer Ia prepon­ dera11ce de l'interet general sur les interets prives e11 cause''.

1

30. On the other hand, if the in !tt:ed party dies, tlte civil JJroceedings may be continu �d by his heirs (Art. 2144 (1) C1v1l Code), unless the right to sue does not survi ve bun (Art. 2144 (2) Civil Code). \

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