V9(1):International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management & Applied Sciences & Technologies

Volume 9 Issue 1 (2018) ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

http://TuEngr.com

THE ROLE OF HERITAGE BUILDINGS IN CONSTRUCTING THE CONTINUITY OF ARCHITECTURAL IDENTITY IN ERBIL CITY THE CREATIVE ROLE OF GREEN ROOF IN INFORMAL AREA: A PROACTIVE AND REACTIVE TOOL FOR PROMOTING, MEASURING, AND GUIDING GREEN ROOF DESIGNS AND IMPLEMENTATIONS EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND AMMONIA ON CORAL HEALTH STATUS: A CASE STUDY OF DISC CORAL (Turbinaria peltata) CHLORIDE INFILTRATION EFFECTS BY REPLACING NATURAL SAND IN CONCRETE MIXTURE WITH RICE HULL ASH, DARK HUSK ASH, AND CRUSHED DUST PRELIMINARY VISUALIZATION OF SURFACE WATER QUALITY BY 5D WORLD MAP SYSTEM FOR BANGKOK

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SHADING PERFORMANCE BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND NEO-MINIMALIST STYLE APARTMENT IN MALAYSIA

Cover photo is Guiding and Monitoring Tool for Green Roof, in a paper published in this issue, entitled THE CREATIVE ROLE OF GREEN ROOF IN INFORMAL AREA: A PROACTIVE AND REACTIVE TOOL FOR PROMOTING, MEASURING, AND GUIDING GREEN ROOF DESIGNS AND IMPLEMENTATIONS, by Reham Ibrahim Momtaz.

2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

International Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, PhD Professor UniversitiSains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

Executive Editor BoonsapWitchayangkoon, PhD Associate Professor Thammasat University, THAILAND

Editorial Board:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Gadi (University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM) Professor Dr.Hitoshi YAMADA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Professor Dr. Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN ) Emeritus Professor Dr.Mikio SATOMURA (Shizuoka University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN) Emeritus Professor Dr.Mike Jenks (Oxford Brookes University, UNITED KINGDOM ) Professor Dr.INyomanPujawan (SepuluhNopember Institute of Technology, INDONESIA) Professor Dr.Toshio YOSHII (EHIME University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.NevenDuić (University of Zagreb, CROATIA) Professor Dr.Dewan Muhammad Nuruzzaman (University Malaysia Pahang MALAYSIA) Professor Dr.Masato SAITOH (Saitama University, JAPAN)

Scientificand Technical Committee & Editorial Review Board on Engineering, Technologies and Applied Sciences:

Associate Prof. Dr. Paulo Cesar Lima Segantine (University of São Paulo, BRASIL) Associate Prof. Dr. Kurt B. Wurm (New Mexico State University, USA ) Associate Prof. Dr. Truong Vu Bang Giang (Vietnam National University, Hanoi, VIETNAM ) Associate Prof. Dr. Fatemeh Khozaei (Islamic Azad University Kerman Branch, IRAN) Associate Prof.Dr. Zoe D. Ziaka (International Hellenic University, GREECE ) Associate Prof.Dr.Junji SHIKATA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Assistant Prof.Dr.Akeel Noori Abdul Hameed (University of Sharjah, UAE) Dr. David Kuria (Kimathi University College of Technology, KENYA ) Dr. Mazran bin Ismail (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA ) Dr. Salahaddin Yasin Baper (Salahaddin University - Hawler, IRAQ ) Dr. Foong Swee Yeok (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA) Dr.Azusa FUKUSHIMA (Kobe Gakuin University, JAPAN) Yasser Arab (Ittihad Private University, SYRIA)

©

2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies Volume 9 Issue 1 (2018) http://TuEngr.com

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES THE ROLE OF HERITAGE BUILDINGS IN CONSTRUCTING THE CONTINUITY OF ARCHITECTURAL IDENTITY IN ERBIL CITY THE CREATIVE ROLE OF GREEN ROOF IN INFORMAL AREA: A PROACTIVE AND REACTIVE TOOL FOR PROMOTING, MEASURING, AND GUIDING GREEN ROOF DESIGNS AND IMPLEMENTATIONS

1

13

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND AMMONIA ON CORAL HEALTH STATUS: A CASE STUDY OF DISC CORAL (Turbinaria peltata)

31

CHLORIDE INFILTRATION EFFECTS BY REPLACING NATURAL SAND IN CONCRETE MIXTURE WITH RICE HULL ASH, DARK HUSK ASH, AND CRUSHED DUST

43

PRELIMINARY VISUALIZATION OF SURFACE WATER QUALITY BY 5D WORLD MAP SYSTEM FOR BANGKOK

49

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SHADING PERFORMANCE BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND NEO-MINIMALIST STYLE APARTMENT IN MALAYSIA

59

Contacts & Offices: Professor Dr. Ahmad Sanusi Hassan (Editor-in-Chief), School of Housing, Building and Planning, UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA, 11800 Minden, Penang, MALAYSIA. Tel: +60-4-653-2835 Fax: +60-4-657 6523, Sanusi@usm.my Editor@TuEngr.com Associate Professor Dr. Boonsap Witchayangkoon (Executive Editor), Faculty of Engineering, THAMMASAT UNIVERSITY, Klong-Luang, Pathumtani, 12120, THAILAND. Tel: +66-2-5643005 Ext 3101. Fax: +66-2-5643022 DrBoonsap@gmail.com Postal Paid in MALAYSIA/THAILAND.

i

©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

THE ROLE OF HERITAGE BUILDINGS IN CONSTRUCTING THE CONTINUITY OF ARCHITECTURAL IDENTITY IN ERBIL CITY Salahaddin Yasin Baper

a*

a

Department of Architecture, Engineering College, University of Salahaddin-Erbil, Kirkuk road, Erbil City Kurdistan Region, IRAQ

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 20 November 2017 Received in revised form 04 January 2018 Accepted 10 January 2018 Available online 14 January 2018

Keywords: Empirical study; Continuity concept in architectural identity; Influence of heritage building; Morphological analysis; Identity Achievement Mechanism.

A B S T RA C T

This paper is an empirical study for the concept of continuity in architectural identity. The aim of this paper is to measure the degree of continuity in commercial buildings design, in term of architectural identity. Furthermore the study will illustrate the influence of heritage buildings' in constructing the continuity of architectural identity in Erbil city. The construction of the theoretical framework will rely on a procedure of two directions, the first direction will establish a comprehensive theoretical framework (multi-dimensional model) for the concept of continuity in architecture, while the second part will analysis the role of heritage buildings in constructing architectural identity in commercial buildings in Erbil City. The finding of the study indicates that the heritage buildings visual elements and its architectural cues playing a tangible role in constructing architectural identity in buffer zones of the city but this effect is gradually decrease in other sectors due to adopting the hybrid approach by melting modern technology within architectural features of the city. © 2018 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction Academic researchers in the field of architectural design classify transformation in architectural identity into two directions, preservation and destruction. The first refers to stabilization forces (continuity) whereas the second (discontinuity) is related to changing forces Researchers (Atalan, 2016; Ginting, & Julaihi, 2015; Philokyprou, 2015; Uddin Khan, 2015; Kim, 2015; Ujang, 2012) shed the light on the issues of continuity and change as two contrast poles in the architectural identity phenomenon. They explain that the architectural identity in Erbil city passed through different eras which produced different stylistics features in the appearance of its building façades.

In this context, Baper (2011) explains that the continuity of architectural identity in Erbil city *Corresponding author (S.Baper) Tel/Fax: +964-7504091111. E-mail: salahaddin.baper@su.edu.krd. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/001.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.1

1

depends on stabilization forces which reflect, in most cases, the tradition and heritage of the city, whereas Salama (1999) clarifies that the architects and urban designers in developing countries trying to reassess the issue of architectural identity to create a meaningful environments through two different scenarios either by emphasize a locality or reflect an international trend.

2. Heritage Buildings as a Physical Reference In Erbil City, as a result of the free economy, rapid changes in commercial street buildings become a visible phenomenon which merges between the desire toward traditions (the spirit of heritage) and the aspiration of new technology. This has led to a state of chaos of architectural appearance of commercial buildings and created various challenges in the architectural expression.

It is interesting to note that in last decades, architecture in Erbil city (See Figure 1), passed through rapid transformations due to the conflict tension between the desire towards globalization and conserving approaches of the historical heritages (Baper 2011). In this regards, Salama (2014) stated that a productive land opportunities and an operating environment will liberate for new challenges in architectural forms due to plurality of schools of thoughts.

Figure 1: (Left) Modern construction (Source: Wikimedia, 2014); (Right) Heritage values (Source: Phoenix, 2011).

In the other hand, scholars in the field of architectural design (Kermani & Alalhesabi, ,2016 ; Mansouri & Torabi,2015; Derya & Alkan,2015; Kiera,2011; Mansoori& Jahanbakhsh,2014; ) focus on physical aspects of heritage buildings as evidence of past civilizations which have a significant architectural and historical value . In general, heritage is a term that is used to illustrate a set of values, and principles, of the past. It is a slippery term that includes a vast range of paradoxical meanings which is in fact a very difficult concept to define (Figure 2). It is basically traditions that get carried down generation to generation by sustaining the continuity of the social and cultural values. It is what creates a sense of identity and assures rootedness and continuity.

Heritage and historical buildings are the sources and physical references of past cultures and settlements. The Oxford English Dictionary identifies heritage as ‘valued things such as historic buildings that have been passed down from previous generations’.

2

Salahaddin Y. Baper

Figure 2: Erbil city heritage citadel (Courtesy of Getty Images, 2014).

3. Process of Continuity The socio-cultural and socio-economic structures of different societies urge scholars in the field of architecture to study factors that have direct impact in constructing and expressing architectural identity. In this regards (Baper, 2012) studies the most crucial factors that affecting architectural continuity, the study proved statically that (mass and articulation, openings, architectural detail, materials) factors have a crucial impact on the continuity of architectural identity. The study results revealed that the “Mass & Articulation” factor and “Architectural details” factor are the most influential in interpreting the continuity of architectural Identity.

In parallel Torabi and Brahman (2013) investigate factors shaping the architecture identity in three sections: terminology of identity, architecture identity and comparative study of contemporary works of architecture. The study results show that seven factors of spatial organization, time organization, semantic organization, general design principles, building shape and form, building materials and relationship with context are considered as effective factors in creating architecture identity.

In this regards, KIM (2015) explains that the study of continuity in architecture can be done through two different strategies: firstly, it is the study of physical materials in terms of the articulated forms, the study of the physical settings which formed by materials that confine spaces, while the second is the study on the archaeological remain formed by the contexts of times. The study clarifies that the continuity of form is a significant design method to create the meaningful form for the spatial existence in the course of time. In this sense, Nooraddin (2012) clarifies that each nation has different approaches to produce its own architectural identity. These approaches *Corresponding author (S.Baper) Tel/Fax: +964-7504091111. E-mail: salahaddin.baper@su.edu.krd. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/001.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.1

3

can be classified in three directions which are: an architectural movement, a particular local culture and way of life. The study explains that the issue of identity is a living process which mixing between desires towards new styles within the local identity traditions whereas Kim (2000) argue that the theoretical model of identity concentrate on five dimensions of identity of place which are: continuity, uniqueness, significance, compatibility, and cohesiveness.

Hence, Identity is a product of continuity. It can be achieved through common memories, traditions, and mutual feelings. For Welz (2005) identity is the sense of continuity; it is selfconstancy in the route of life-changes. Hence, Atalan (2016) explains that the continuity of architectural elements preserves the identity of the city. This process will guide toward sustainable conservation as the traditional features of heritage buildings are tangible cultural components that emphasize the continuity of its architectural identity.

Based on the above, Identity can be defined as a process of continuity as Hall (1996) explains that identity is a production which is never complete, always in process, and always constituted within representation. Accordingly, Castells (2004) argues that cultural identity is the process by which social actors build their own meaning according to cultural attributes. Meanwhile Philokyprou (2016) clarifies that vernacular architecture is generally characterized by a continuous process over time.

Consequently, continuity in architecture is related to the conservation approach. This approach concretizes the need to certify continuity by preserving existing signs. In this sequence formation of identity relies on the idea of locality. It aims to bind the culture, the climate and the lifestyles together and use these as a basis for urban form.

4. Morphological Analysis The term “morphology� (from the Greek means form) is used in a number of scientific disciplines to refer to the study of the structural relationships between different parts or aspects of the object of study. In this context, Kropf (2014) defines morphology as a study of the shapes and patterns of the built environment of human settlements in order to clarify the diversity and complexity of architectural forms. The study of the architectural morphology investigates the geometric structures and configuration of units through time. It seeks to understand the underlying structure of an object, by examining the patterns of the elements that compose it, as part of the process of their development.

In this study the morphological analysis focused on following aspects (the study of shape, size, texture, source of design, connectivity with architectural identity of the city, design strategies , types of change with the main source, process of continuity, identity achievement mechanism and connectivity with heritage buildings).

4

Salahaddin Y. Baper

Figure 3: Commercial buildings in Erbil City.

5. Methodology For the purpose of the study, the multi-dimensional model based on the theoretical framework (Table 1) establishes a sense of structure for a particular research problem.

It provides the

background that supports the concept of continuity in constructing the architectural identity. It includes the variables (source of design, connectivity with architectural identity of the city, design Strategy , process of Continuity , identity achievement mechanisms and connectivity with heritage buildings) that intend to measure the continuity of architectural identity. The theoretical framework is developed through a review of previously architectural knowledge as well as the literature review of the variables involved. The multi-dimensional model presents a conceptual framework to realize the role of heritage buildings in constructing architectural identity in commercial buildings in Erbil city. For the purpose of the study, 10 identified commercial streets on main axes in Erbil city have been selected. In each street, 12 cases samples were selected accordingly the total selected sample number is 120 cases (see Figure 4). The objectives of this paper intend to emphasize on the concept of continuity by studying the role of heritage buildings in constructing the architectural identity in Erbil city.

It investigates the stylistic features of commercial buildings visual elements .The

analytical methodology used in this paper relies on visual properties of a building facades. It discusses the building visual elements in terms of the continuity of architectural identity.

The study emphases on two types of analyses, the first is related to the Morphology analysis (the study of shape, size, texture and source of design, Connectivity with architectural identity of the city) while the second is syntax analyses (the study of design strategies, process of continuity, identity achievement mechanism and connectivity with heritage buildings). *Corresponding author (S.Baper) Tel/Fax: +964-7504091111. E-mail: salahaddin.baper@su.edu.krd. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/001.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.1

5

Table 1: Multi-dimensional model/theoretical framework for the concept of continuity in architecture Variables

Possible values Historical values from Heritage buildings

Source of design

Connectivity with architectural identity of the city

Design Strategy

Type of change with the main Source

Process of Continuity

Policy /Identity achievement mechanisms

Connectivity with heritage through

Classical Architecture Approach Modern Style Approach Imitation of contemporary buildings Dynamic environmental approach Mixed styles Unknown style(non defined style) Others No connectivity Using modern approach Using extraordinary materials Different building Forms Different building texture Partial Reshaping an object within the context connectivity Changing pattern of element relationships Imitation through Visual Shifts of elements Adaptation of cultural structure Entire Copying of an existing feature from heritage connectivity Using similar facade materials Using similar vernacular architectural details Juxtaposition of building masses Human scale and unity of elements Connectivity through roof shape of masses Similarity of building Heights(skyline) Others Preserving local existing signs conservation approach Environmental approach Binding the culture with lifestyle Search for roots to link the past with the present.

Mixing different approaches Power of expression (Modernity approach) No change(Copy and paste) Imitation(Partial change) Total change (No connectivity) Continuity by Contiguity of units Continuity by elements regularity Continuity by mass heights Continuity by Facade finishing materials Continuity by repetition of elements Continuity by Size of openings Non-Continuity Reservation of Personal Boundaries Preserving existing signs Preserving existing architectural details Preserving existing element relationships Separation between inside and outside Diversity of experiences Self-expression/Cultural value Using similar facade elements Facade elements relationships Unity and human scale Juxtaposition of building masses Similarity of building Heights(skylight) Continuity of Roof shapes Using similar facade materials Using vernacular Architectural details

6. Findings The second objective of this study is to examine the influence of heritage buildings' in creating the continuity of architectural identity in Erbil city through following parameters (factors):

6

Salahaddin Y. Baper

Enkawa

Gulan

Shorish 40m Sultan 60

Koy

m

Peshawa /

Peshawa /A

Rasti

Figure 4: Commercial streets in Erbil city (Erbil Municipality, 2017)

6.1 Source of Design: Results in Table 2 illustrate that heritage building with historical values is the source of design in 21.67% of the cases, while 35% of cases have modern style approach, only one case out of 120 have classical architectural style, 26.6% of cases are mixed styles, Moreover, there are no indications for

dynamic environmental approach or classical architectural approach and only

8.33% of the cases have imitation of contemporary buildings whereas only two of the cases is listed under unknown style (non defined style).

Table 2: Sources of design.

No. of cases Percentage Parameter Values Historical values from Heritage buildings 26 21.67% Modern Style Approach 42 35 % Mixed styles 39 32.5 % Sources of Design Imitation of contemporary buildings 10 8.33% classical architectural style 1 0.83% Unknown style(non defined style) 2 1.67 % Total 120 100% *Corresponding author (S.Baper) Tel/Fax: +964-7504091111. E-mail: salahaddin.baper@su.edu.krd. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/001.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.1

7

6.2 Connectivity with architectural identity of the city Quantitative results show that most of cases (as an average of 81.4%) in erbil city commercial buildings have partial connectivity with architectural identity of the city. In general the overall results are as follow: 6.2.1 No connectivity Results indicate that 25 of cases (as an average of 20.83%) are out of any connectivity with architectural identity of Erbil city. The non-connectivity of these case is related to following sub variables:19 cases are using modern approach without any attention to the architectural values of the city, 5 cases using different building forms within the context of the city streets, and only two cases have no connectivity by using different building textures. It is interesting to note, that the main reason behind this factor (no connectivity) is the problem of tightness of time during implementation process, where

cases used readymade solutions based on advanced technological

solutions 6.2.2 Partial Connectivity Results indicate that 85 (as an average of 70.83%) of cases are merging between modernity and identity through one of the following approaches: reshaping an object within the context ,changing pattern of element relationships, Imitation through visual shifts of elements or adaptation of cultural structure. At this point, it is significant to designate that most of the commercial buildings within erbil city main streets adopted the hybrid approach by melting modern technology within architectural features of the city. The contribution of new technology is effected positively to enhance the rapid growth of commercial buildings within the body of traditions.

6.2.3 Entire Connectivity Results indicate that only 10 cases (as an average of 8.33%) have entire connectivity through one of the following measures: copying of an existing feature from heritage building directly, using similar vernacular architectural details, Juxtaposition of building masses, human scale and unity of elements, connectivity through roof shape of masses or similarity of building heights(skyline).The results from this sub variable is matching with Atlan (2016) perspectives, that each region represent a particular culture through its components .The entire connectivity will create a symbolic feature to make continuity in architecture due to the role of heritage buildings in constructing architectural identity in commercial buildings in Erbil city.

6.3 Design Strategy The third parameter of the study is studied through six values which are :preserving local existing signs conservation approach, environmental approach, binding the culture with lifestyle, search for roots to link the past with the present, mixing different approaches, Power of expression (Modernity approach). The quantitative results indicate that the most popular design strategy is related to mixing different approaches as a rate of 62.50%) meanwhile only 10% of the cases are searching for roots to link the past with the present.

8

Salahaddin Y. Baper

6.4 Type of Change with the Main Source The fourth parameter of the study is designed to measure the type of change with the main source, for the purpose of the study the main sources is clarified through the analysis of first parameter. Scholars in the field of architectural design studies classified three type of changes namely: no change(Copy and paste), imitation(Partial change) and total change (No connectivity) .Qualitative results illustrate that partial change is the most common strategy for designer (as an average of 79.16%) of cases. rarely the strategy of copy and paste where noticed.

6.5 Process of Continuity The fifth parameter assess the continuity of buildings within selected streets .this parameter includes following values: continuity by contiguity of units, continuity by elements regularity, continuity by mass heights, continuity by facade finishing materials, continuity by repetition of elements, continuity by size of openings, and finally non-continuity. Quantitative results in Table 3 show that the (continuity by contiguity of units) is the most popular values in measuring this parameter. The study recorded 33 cases as an average of 27.5 %.

Table 3: Process of Continuity Parameter

Process of continuity

Values

No. of cases

percentage

33 11 21 10 8 12 25 120

27.5% 9.16 % 17.5 % 8.33% 6.67% 10% 20.8 % 100%

Continuity by contiguity of units Continuity by elements regularity Continuity by mass heights Continuity by facade finishing materials Continuity by repetition of elements Continuity by size of openings Non-continuity Total

6.6 Identity Achievement Mechanisms The sixth parameter of the study is intended to study identity achievements mechanism through following values: reservation of personal boundaries, preserving existing signs, preserving existing architectural details, preserving existing element relationships, separation between inside and outside, diversity of experiences, and self-expression/cultural value.

For the purpose of the study only cases which have entire connectivity or partial connectivity with architectural identity of the city is deliberated. Hence non connectivity results from item (1-a) are extracted from analysis and recorded as non connectivity cases. Quantitative results (Table 4) show that (preserving existing architectural details) is the well-liked value in assessing this parameter as an average of 19%.

*Corresponding author (S.Baper) Tel/Fax: +964-7504091111. E-mail: salahaddin.baper@su.edu.krd. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/001.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.1

9

Table 4: Identity achievement mechanisms Parameter

Values Reservation of Personal Boundaries Preserving existing signs Preserving existing architectural details Identity Preserving existing element relationships achievement Separation between inside and outside mechanisms Diversity of experiences Self-expression/Cultural value Non connectivity Total

No. of cases 8 12 23 17 12 10 13 25 120

Percentage 6.6 % 10 % 19.1 % 14.1 % 10 % 8.3 % 10.8% 20.8 % 100%

6.7 Connectivity with Heritage The results specify that connectivity with heritage buildings (heritage building with historical values) in 26 cases. These cases where connected with heritage building through following values: using similar facade elements, facade elements relationships, unity and human scale, Juxtaposition of building masses, similarity of building heights(skylight), continuity of roof shapes, using similar facade materials, using vernacular architectural details. Figure 7, the study find out that the most popular value for this parameter is using similar facade elements due to special regulation of buffer zone regulations from Erbil city municipality.

Figure 7: (Left) Sultan M. Street; (Right) Rasti district Table 5: Connectivity with Heritage.

Values No. of cases Using similar facade elements 2 Facade elements relationships 11 Unity and human scale 1 Connectivity Juxtaposition of building masses 3 with heritage Similarity of building Heights(skylight) 1 Continuity of roof shapes 3 Using similar facade materials 5 Using vernacular Architectural details 0 Total 26 Parameter

7. Conclusions Despite theoretical claims that heritage is the one of the most important sources of architectural 10

Salahaddin Y. Baper

identity which connects man to his origins through the process of continuity, the research findings discovered that only one fifth of commercial buildings in erbil city is connected to the heritage buildings (as source of design). In other words, modernity as globalization force made several architectural forms within commercial streets in Erbil City. The generation of these forms is related to lack of special regulations for commercial building in Erbil city municipality. This dialectic relationships and contradictions between the desire toward modernity and belonging to local traditions lead to a state of chaos of architectural forms. The study indicates that the heritage buildings visual elements and its architectural cues playing a tangible role in constructing architectural identity in buffer zone of the Erbil city. The municipality building regulations within these zones affected positively the overall feature of commercial buildings in term of continuity of architectural identity. Hence it is strongly recommended to apply these regulations in other sectors of the city.

8. References ATALAN, O. (2016). Continuity of regional identity: A case study of facade elements in traditional Çeşme houses act, ITU A|Z , 13 (2): 121-131 Baper, S., & Hassan, A. (2012). Factors Affecting the Continuity of Architectural Identity, American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences 1(3), 227- 236.

Castells , M. (1997). The Power of Identity In The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture (Vol. II, pp. 6). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Castells, M. (2004). The Relationship between Globalization and Cultural Identity in the early 21st Century.

Retrieved 5 October, 2017, from http://www.barcelona2004.org/www.barcelona2004.org/eng/banco_del_conocimiento/dialo gos/ficha30cc.html?IdEvento=167 Derya Oktay,D.& Alkan Bala,H.,(2015). A holistic research approach to measuring urban identity: Findings from girne (kyrenia) area study, Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research, 9(2),201 - 215.

Ginting, N., & Julaihi, W. (2015). Effective Exploring Identity’s Aspect of Continuity of Urban Heritage Tourism, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 202 , 234 - 241.

Hall, S., (1996) Who needs identity?, in Questions of cultural identity S.H.a.P.d. Gay, Editor., Thousand Oaks, CA :Sage. p. 1 - 17 Kermani, A., Charbgoo, N., & Alalhesabi, M. (2016). Developing a model for the relation between heritage and place identity, International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:10, No:3, 1(2),391 - 396.

Kermani, A., & Alalhesabi, M. (2016). Developing a model for the relation between Heritage and place identity, International Journal of Civil, Environmental, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering 10 (3), 391 - 396.

Kiera, A. (2011). The local identity and design code as tool of urban conservation, a core component of sustainable urban development – the case of Fremantle, western Australia, City & Time 5 (1), 3 - 17.

Kim, J. (2000). Understanding elements of local identity of place: physical vs. personal-social *Corresponding author (S.Baper) Tel/Fax: +964-7504091111. E-mail: salahaddin.baper@su.edu.krd. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/001.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.1

11

attributes, 88th ACSA Annual Meeting Proceedings, Heterotopolis, 451 - 456.

Kim, M., (2015). The matters of the continuity in architecture, GSTF Journal of Engineering Technology (JET) 3 (3), 77 - 84.

Kropf, K. (2014), Ambiguity in the definition of built form. Urban Morphology, 18(1), 41-57.

Mansoori,S.& Jahanbakhsh,H., (2014). Factors affecting the measurement of place identity in urban space (case study: Modares street Kermanshah), International Journal of Engineering Sciences 3(9), 94 - 98.

Mansouri, R. & Torabi,Z., (2015). Explaining the concept of identity and sense of place in residential environment and lifestyle, Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review 4, (5). 27 - 43.

Marshall, S. (2015), An area structure approach to morphological representation and analysis.

Urban Morphology, 19(2), 117-134 Nooraddin, H. (2012). Architectural Identity in an Era of Change, Developing Country Studies, 2 (10), 81 - 96.

Philokyprou, M. (2015). Continuities and Discontinuities in the Vernacular Architecture, Athens Journal of Architecture 1(2),111 - 120.

Salama, Ashraf M. A. (1999), "Contemporary Architecture of Egypt: Reflections on Architecture and Urbanism of the Nineties." Paper presented at the Regional Seminar of Architecture Reintroduced: New Projects in Societies in Change, Beirut.

The Oxford English Dictionary. Vol. 5 Oxford University Press, 1970, p.242.

Torabi , Z., & Brahman, S. (2013). Effective Factors in Shaping the Identity of Architecture, Middle East Journal of Scientific Research 15 (1): 106 - 113 .

Uddin Khan,H. (2015). Architectural conservation as a tool for cultural continuity: a focus on the built environment of islam, Archnet-IJAR, International Journal of Architectural Research, 9(1),1 - 17.

Ujang, N. (2012). Place attachment and continuity of urban place identity, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 49, 156 - 167.

Welz, F. (2005). Rethinking Identity: Concepts of Identity and ‘the Other’ in Sociological Perspective. The Society. An International Journal of Social Sciences, Varanasi, U.P., India, (1), 1- 25.

Dr. Salahaddin Yasin Baper is a lecturer in the Department of Architecture at University of Salahaddin-Erbil, Kirkuk road, Erbil City Kurdistan Region, IRAQ. He obtained his BS in Architecture from University of Technology, Baghdad Iraq with Honors. He continued his M.Sc. in architectural technology at University of Technology, Iraq. He earned his PhD in theory of architecture in School of Housing, Building and Planning-USM Malaysia. He works as a Consultant Architect and designed several important projects in Erbil city like supplementary buildings in Erbil International Airport and Sami Abdurrahman Park.

12

Salahaddin Y. Baper

©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

THE CREATIVE ROLE OF GREEN ROOF IN INFORMAL AREA: A PROACTIVE AND REACTIVE TOOL FOR PROMOTING, MEASURING, AND GUIDING GREEN ROOF DESIGNS AND IMPLEMENTATIONS Reham Ibrahim Momtaz a

a*

Department of Architecture Engineering, Modern Academy, EGYPT

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 20 October 2017 Received in revised form 08 January 2018 Accepted 12 January 2018 Available online 15 January 2018

Keywords: Design Guidelines; Deteriorated Urban Fabric; Monitoring Tool; Environment; Modular tray systems.

A B S T RA C T

The urban growth of Cairo over the last few decades has resulted in a deteriorated urban fabric.

So, many comprehensive environmental problems have occurred. The utilization of green roofs in informal areas reduces pollutants in the atmosphere and also compensates the lack of green areas at the urban level. The paper aims to provide a tool that can be applied on any form of green roof design especially on the buildings exciting in the informal areas. In addition, landscape designers can use it as a guiding and monitoring tool during the design process to achieve the maximum social, environmental and economic benefits. The paper concluded that an expected shift of interest regarding the ecological and social human dimensions have been noticed and also, improving the environmental aspects.

Therefore, the design of green roofs is a multidimensional process that includes environmental, aesthetic, social and economic aspects. © 2018 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction Cairo has experienced a tremendous urbanization in the form of informal settlements in the past five decades.

This has resulted in a deteriorated urban fabric and many comprehensive

environmental problems. Therefore, green roofs are considered a solution in informal areas to promote and contribute social and environmental aspects.

The utilization of environmentally friendly green roofs is becoming a popular alternative to conventional roofing systems, which were identified lately as one of the most promising fields for promoting social-environmental solution; however, there are few studies have been conduct on green roofs in informal areas. *Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

13

2. Green Roofs – Definitions Green roofs, also known as vegetated green roofs or eco-roofs, are nascent, somewhat isolated, anthropogenic patches consisting of membranes, engineered substrate, and assemblages of plants placed atop buildings or other structures (Cutlip, 2009).

Green roofs have appeared due to

advanced building materials, evolving design techniques and emerging ideas about how to make our built environment more sustainable and humane(Getter & Rowe, 2006; Weiler & Scholz, 2009).

Places where green roofs have been promoted include cities with pressing environmental problems and/or compelling visions about creating more resilient and beautiful infrastructure (Richard, 2015).

2.1 Benefits of Green Roofs There are many potential benefits of green roofs. These may be considered to fall into three main categories, social, economic and environmental benefits, which improve the surrounding climate change, biodiversity and increase green spaces in urban areas.

2.1.1 Environmental benefits Green roofs present the opportunity to expand the presence of green areas by covering concrete roofs of buildings. Hence, improve climactic conditions, reduce urban heat island temperatures and retain the rainwater.

Thermal Reduction & Energy Saving

Green roof can reduce the heat flow through the roof by 70% to 90% in summer and 10% to 30% in winter, which reduces the consumption of the energy demanded in the building up to 75% (Liu and Bass, 2005). Not only does the green roof positively affect the conditions within the building, but also it reduces electricity costs, improves climactic conditions and reduces Heat Island Effect (Santamouris, M. 2014).

Water Management

Green roofs decrease the rate of runoff from the roof (Frazer et al.2008), Based on studies 75% of rainwater could be retain, through releasing it back gradually into the atmosphere via condensation and transpiration, while retaining pollutants in their soil (Hathaway, et al., 2008).

Eco- Friendly

There are limited green areas in high density urban settings which, face shortages of natural habitat such as some species of plants, insects, and animals. It has been found that green roofs can attract beneficial insects, bees, birds, and butterflies through integrating the natural environment on the roof and providing habitats for these species (Townshend, D. 2006).

Reduce Urban Heat Island effect

Urban heat Island effect (UHI) is described as the difference in temperature between densely populated cities and the surrounding countryside. Cities are generally hotter than the countryside Reham I. Momtaz 14

because of the lack of vegetated areas. Moreover, the large number buildings with heat production properties and the insufficient natural cooling, result in blocking the wind (Townshend, 2006).

Vegetation –whether on ground or roof- can have a cooling effect by decreasing some of the city's heat through the process of evaporation and transpiration, plant materials absorb heat and produce oxygen, resulting in lower ambient temperatures (Oberlander, 2002).

2.1.2 Community and Social Benefits Based on scientific studies, living in green environment reduces symptoms stress and provides a positive effect on social cohesion. Simply having a view of greenery provides a spiritual connection to nature that missing in the current city (Ulrich,1984).

Aesthetics & New Amenity / Recreational Space Dense urban environment has limited regions of green areas so the utilization of green roofs in these areas provides several benefits , for instance by providing a suitable green eco-friendly area this will offer opportunities for social interaction between neighbors, resulting in a better healthy living. The sights, scents and sounds of a green roof add infinitely to the richness of experiences , quality of life , satisfactory and wellbeing (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001).

Visual Aesthetic Value An obvious and significant benefit of a green roof is the attractive view offered to overlooking buildings. This is of great importance in densely urban areas, where the views of roofs are often associated with grey concrete slabs and mechanical equipments (Kuo & Sullivan, 2001, Sullivan, et al., 2004) Improved Health and Horticultural Therapy The accessibility of outdoor space and views of natural settings has proven to have a positive impact on human health. Psychological Studies have found that even visual access to a natural environment results in reduction of stress, sickness and ailments. Furthermore, it has improved overall health, job satisfaction, productivity, and reduced violence (Ulrich, 1984). The interaction of individuals with a natural environment has been shown to increase pride of place and encourage social and physical activity (Fettig, 2006).

2.1.3 Economic Benefits A green roof is a big investment, and the return on that investment may not seem obvious at first. But in fact, the economic benefits of a green roof are quite substantial. Some types of green roofs affect the owner's financial position as well as it has a positive impact on the local economy.

(Krajčovičová & Šprochová, 2007; Santamouris, et al., 2007): • • • •

Prolonged membrane durability and longevity - protecting the roof Local job creation Energy saving Reduce community resistance to new developments.

*Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

15

2.2 Green Roof Types There are three main types for green roofs: extensive green roof , intensive green roof and semi intensive green roof . It has been discovered that there are many differences between these types, which contain a broad range of private and public considerations , that must be investigated at beginning of the design process , such as the maximum load , maintenance, plant selection, and the expense budget , which are corresponding to the desired green roof type.

2.2.1 Extensive Green Roof Extensive green roof considers as a good choice for large areas with maximum benefits such as, lower maintenance requirement, lower nutrient levels and little irrigation requirement (Zinco, 2014). Moreover, Extensive green roofs include: modular tray systems (rolls of growing medium vegetation) and loose laid systems (varying depths of growing medium in basic layers of green roof) which, require a substrate depth of 60 - 200 mm and can placed on existing roofs of either a sloped or flat roof . Sedums , grasses and some wildflower species are the best choices of plants that can be utilized in Extensive green roof (Tolderlund , 2010).

2.2.2 Semi-Intensive Green Roof (Hybrid Green Roofs) As the name implies, hybrid roofs are a combination of extensive and intensive roofs which requires a substrate depth of 120-200 mm which are considered as the best of both green roof types due to versatility for different roof styles and can be utilized variety of plants (Grass, Herbs and Shrubs) with less maintenance and cost compared with intensive roof. Nutrient levels, irrigation and maintenance requirements are periodically needed in this type (Annika, 2010).

Table 1: The comparison between different types of green roofs.

Variables Irrigation Maintenance Plant communities System build-up height Weight Costs Use

Extensive Green Roof Rarely Low Moss-Sedum-Herbs and Grasses 60-200 mm 60 - 150 kg/m2 Low Ecological protection layer

Hybrid Green Roofs Periodically Periodically Grass-Herbs and Shrubs 120-250 mm

Intensive Green Roof Regularly High Perennials, Shrubs and Trees 250-400mm on underground garage > 1000 mm 120 - 200 kg/m2 180 - 500 kg/m2 Middle High Designed Green Roof Park like garden

2.2.3 Intensive Green Roof / Roof Garden Intensive green roofs are containing grasses, ground covers, flowers, shrubs and even trees that providing a biodiversity, recreational and amenity spaces on the roof, which requires a substrate depth above 250mm. Hence, fertilization, irrigation and maintenance requirements are permanently required in this type (Townshend, 2006; Quesnel, 2011). Moreover, they often include paths and walkways allowing movement between different architectural features. Benches, tables, planter boxes, greenhouses, ponds and fountains offer people places to relax, dine or work in a garden-like settings (Sidonie, 2011). Table 1, the criteria can be used to characterize three different types of green roofs.

16

Reham I. Momtaz

2.3 Design and Implementation Considerations of a Green Roof The design and implementation of a green roof project is relatively straight forward, when the following standards are considered which promote climate change, biodiversity , health and wellbeing for humane as well as it will increase green space in urban areas.

All green roofs require some degree of accessibility. Some green roofs might only be accessible for maintenance and other green roof gardens are designed specifically for daily use, which are implemented with accessibility of disabled and high volumes of visitors and users.

2.3.1 Soil used for agriculture (agricultural environment) The selection of soil used for agriculture is crucial to ensure the success of all types of green roofs in short and long terms. So, it should be lightweight substrate with a high ratio of inorganic and organic material. The factors to be considered are: load of garden, climatic conditions of the building site, drainage works, and plant species (Quesnel, 2011).

2.3.2 Vegetation Architect and agronomist should together decide which plant species suitable to be used, this decision will be taken according to several considerations such as, client budget, investment allocated for maintenance, available resources, aesthetic features, functional purpose of the roof, climate for the construction site, construction loads, green roof type, plant growth rates and consumption rate, agricultural fertilizers, supplies and availability of materials (Carpenter, 2008).

2.3.3 Green Roof Maintenance All traditional and green roofs need maintenance. One of the main reasons for the failure of the green roofs is the lack of adequate maintenance for the first five years. Maintenance is critical of the green roof design requirements and functional purpose for which it is built (Annika, 2010). Owners and users should know the value of maintaining the roof garden and know its short and long term results .The following should be considered during design development to ensure ease of maintenance for green roofs during and after installation (Tolderlund , 2010): • • •

Access for equipment and inspections following construction.

-Irrigation system, growing media and plant selection -long-term maintenance requirements and survival of the green roof vegetation.

2.3.4 Structural Standards Understanding structural load are one of the most important factors affecting the design of a roof garden .structural integrity of the building must be verified prior to consideration of retrofitting the building with a green roof. For both existing and new construction, it is essential that a multidisciplinary team of structural engineers, and landscape architects be involved early in the process to ensure that the buildings structural characteristics and site conditions are appropriate for green roof installation(Tolderlund , 2010).

During construction the temporary placement of heavy components such as trees, growing media, concrete cast-in-place planters, walls and furniture need to be carefully planned and *Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

17

calculated. Structural load bearing capacity analysis should include the following(Tolderlund , 2010): • • • • • •

Waterproofing membrane (Green roof retrofit will also more than likely need a new membrane) Plant weight at maturity Fully saturated growing medium and drainage layers Weight of all components including dead and live weights for all phases of the green roof.

Function and type of green roof Plant selection.

3. Review of Experience the green roofs internationally and locally The paper aims to study the integration of green roof with buildings according to international strategies as an approach to energy saving, reduction of heat island effect and other environmental benefits. On the other side a local experience has been studied which, known as "productive gardens on the roofs of Egyptian housing".

3.1 Urban Greening, Shanghai Urbanization has created serious environmental problems in Shanghai, including its climatic and ecological effects and environmental pollution. Urban areas have higher air temperature, more hot days, and lower relative humidity. the large scale construction of urban green system “urban greening” launched by Shanghai government has to mitigate the heat island as shown in figure(1) (Linli &Jun,2012), where green roofs help Shanghai city breathe, cleaning environmental pollution while at the same time offering a place of peace and relaxation for residents. By 2020, Shanghai is planning to plant two million square meters of extensive green roofs will be added to the roofs top and walls of Shanghai’s buildings.

Figure 1: Urban greening concepts. (Source: University of Greenwich, UK)

3.2 Ahmadabad slums , India Mahila Housing Trust team (MHT) roof projects in Ahmedabad and Bhopal have demonstrated that modular roofs can reduce temperature by 5-6° Celsius. The roofs were painted white which reduce temperature 2° Celsius and utilizing climbing plants on the walls and adding a green roof above kitchen to cool homes too as shown in Figure 2, all these solutions led to reduce the energy consumption and electricity costs (Mahila Housing Sewa Trust).

Reham I. Momtaz 18

Figure 2: Implement cooling roof solutions

3.3 Al-Zawya Al-Hamra, Cairo There are many different methods to plant the roofs. In Egypt, extensive green roof is used on the roofs of the buildings known as “container gardening” which considered to be less formal and cheaper than other methods. In container gardening, few modifications are made on existing roof structures. The planters are using Containers which made from plastic or recycled-wood, and filling it with soil and plants as shown in Figure 3. This system is producing leafy crops such as parsley, radish, and carrots (Attia and Mahmoud, 2009).

Figure 3: Al-Zawya Al-Hamra green roof farms (Source: Central Laboratory for agricultural climate, 2006)

4. Towards to Design Guidelines for Green Roofs The paper managed, through conducting a profound theoretical review, to define Design Guidelines for Green Roofs which play an important role in the development of informal areas in a suitable way for the Egyptian society as shown in Table 2.

4.1 Case Study Like most informal settlements, Tora has began its land transformation by substandard commercial subdivision with small dimensional plots, building on the overall area without leaving minimum construction setbacks. The urban fabric is very compact as shown in Figure 4. The small surface areas result in a tight living spaces that usually contradict with the number of inhabitants per family. *Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

19

Table 2: Proposed Design Guidelines for Green Roofs

Design Standards Easy access on to building's roof Availability of lighting elements Accessibility of the disabled to the building's roof Access of used materials to building's roof

Stable surfaces that are slip resistant Soil quality is proportional to local climate conditions Plant life is commensurate with climatic conditions Water elements Type of roof garden Different types of plants Environmental Standards Plants grow at normal rate

Construction Standards Waterproofing membrane Saturated weight of the green roof components Imposed loads such as access by people Remove excess water through a closed cycle to recycle Use of recycled water in irrigation Effect of pergolas on loads Plant weight at maturity

Economical Standards Availability of material for maintenance in relation to financial budget Climate factors, evaporation rate and drought Prices of seeds, seedlings and fertilizers suitable for impact budget Temperature Regulation – Reduction of Heat Island Suitable budget for green roof type to be designed Effect The environmental purpose to be achieved from the Reduce and ease routine maintenance. green roof Social Standards Aesthetic Elements Public Health Availability of Shades Community Integration Visual Aesthetic Value Increase correlation to place.

Other aesthetic elements (sculptures, carving, stones) Encourage social activity Encourage physical activity .

Having a sense of place

Figure 4: Location Study (Left photo: courtesy of Google Map) 4.1.1 Land Uses Analysis Figures 5 and 6, the residential and commercial residences represent 74% of areas, craftsman residences represent 16%, while entertaining, religious, and educational places represent 1% each.

Open spaces in Tora are limited to streets with minimum pedestrian walkways as well as the markets (Souq) which are usually created in the collective nodes found in main streets that the daily pedestrians routes in and out of Tora.

20

Reham I. Momtaz

3%

1% 1%

1% 4%

1%

0%

16% 73%

Figure 6: the percentage of land uses

Figure 5: Land use of Tora 4.1.2 Building condition of Tora

Although Tora is considered as an unplanned area, as shown in figure (7,8) ,the analysis concluded that 9% of the buildings are in good condition, while 48% are in moderate condition, and 43% are in bad condition. In addition, 67% of the constructed buildings in Tora are concrete structures, This construction consists of light weight reinforced concrete frame and local red bricks for the construction of walls, older houses represent30% which using the walls bearing system.

9% 43% 48%

Figure 8: The percentage of building condition Figure 7: Building condition of Tora

4.2 Questionnaire Analysis The questionnaires were designed by editing a set of questions which investigate and determine the significance of Proposed Design Guidelines for Green Roofs. One hundred questionnaires' copies were distributed equally to civil engineers, architects and Tora's residents. The researcher had to explain and clarify the questionnaire type every time, but without clarifying the purpose of the questionnaire to avoid directing the answers to a certain direction. All questionnaires were manually tabulated, and information was processed on the computer using the statistical research program "SPSS" in preparation for performing the following statistical process: *Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

21

Descriptive analysis was used to determine the central tendency of the sample, where a variable are collected in the scales. It was used to calculate the values of the different variables of the questionnaire. Standard deviation: It shows the degree of dispersion and distribution of the values of the variables, i.e. the extent of dispersion of these values with respect to a variable, i.e. the degree of proximity or distance among them as well as the frequency through which it shows the number of experts who chose the relative weight of the question between (1-5) as (1) is the lowest relative weight, and (5) is the highest relative weight and (0) is inappropriate.

Component Analysis (Factor Analysis)Analysis of the residents , architects and

experts’

opinions on the bases of Proposed Design Guidelines of garden roofs in Tora (variables) to determine the weight and significance of each variable and to be able to reduce the variables to less ones. If the number is greater than 0.5, the variable is strong, and if it is less than 0.5., the variable is weak.

4.2.1 Analysis of experts and architects' questionnaires From Table 3, the highest percentage was Construction standards (27.35%) which indicated that structural integrity of the building must be verified prior to consideration of retrofitting the building with a green roof. the design standards were the second rank and the environmental standards were at the third.

Table 3: Descriptive analysis of the importance the main standards in design guidelines The main standards in design guidelines Design standards Construction standards Economic standards Environmental standards Social standards Aesthetic Elements

Mean % 21.92 27.35 10.76 15.96 13.65 10.36

Std. Deviation 4.073 8.660 6.188 8.747 5.783 0.453

Frequency % 21.417 21.25 57.46 54.7 42.35 22.41

Illustrated by Figure 9, through the analysis of design standards of informal areas, the strong and weighty mean were Availability of lighting elements, extensive green garden (modular tray systems), stable surfaces that are slip resistant, and soil quality is proportional to local. On the other side, the buildings were not equipped for Accessibility of the disabled to the building's roof.

According to analysis of construction standards, the weakness points are represented in remove excess water through a closed cycle to recycle and use of recycled water in irrigation.

In Figure 10, through the Descriptive analysis of economic, environmental and social standards of informal areas, the most variables were significant and important except encouraging physical activity, according to aesthetic elements analysis, the roof design could always be guided to integrate types of plants planted with other softscape features that could provide an aesthetically pleasant view of the roof.

22

Reham I. Momtaz

Table 4: Descriptive and Component Analysis of the Design Guidelines for green roofs in informal areas

Aesthetic Social Standard Environmental elements standards

Economic Standards

Construction Standards

Design Standards

Design Guidelines for Green Roofs Easy access to building's roof Availability of lighting elements Accessibility of the disabled to the building's roof Access of used materials to building's roof Stable surfaces that are slip resistant Soil quality is proportional to local climate conditions Plant is commensurate with local climatic conditions Water elements Type of roof garden: Extensive green roof (modular tray systems) Intensive green roof Semi- intensive green roof Different types of plants waterproofing membrane Remove excess water through a closed cycle to recycle saturated weight of the green roof components Imposed loads such as access by people Effect of shades on loads structural integrity of the building Plant weight at maturity Availability of material for maintenance in relation to financial budget Prices of seeds, seedlings and fertilizers suitable for budget Suitable budget for green roof type to be designed Reduce and ease routine maintenance.

Plants grow at normal rate Climate factors, evaporation rate Reduction of Heat Island Effect the environmental purpose to be achieved from the green roof Public Health Community Integration Increase correlation to place . encourage social activity Encourage physical activity .

Having a sense of place Availability of Shades Visual Aesthetic Value Other aesthetic elements

Descriptive analysis Mean Variance 4.017 337.1 4.465 1.389 2.522 2.769 2.600 1.217 4.225 1.594 5.300 1.472 5.620 1.927 3.956 1.282 2.771 1.378

Component Analysis 1 2 .597 .369 0.583 0.565 0.249 0.075 .483 -.096.839 -.070.851 .392 .886 .031 .519 -.112.213 .711

5.050 1.462 2.442 5.563 7.134 6.154

1.851 1.632 1.934 1.356 1.662 1.773

.834 .177 .397 .753 .677 .432

-.153.375 .782 .365 -.009.663

8.002 7.806 5.852 8.026 7.806 13.65

2.657 1.563 2.367 0.764 2.137 1.219

.835 .519 .566 .432 .850 .726

-.272-.112.412 .676 .096 .065

14.75

1.449

.761

-.217-

9.05 12.55 13.1 14.25 9.13 13.52

0.607 1.446 1.315 1.823 3.255 1.456

.574 .741 .755 .787 .634 .730

.665 -.045.063 .073 .396 .275

9.727 8.619 9.228 8.859 4.848 8.719 16.63 20.61

1.325 1.132 1.387 1.227 1.477 1.494 1.283 1.505 2.915

.843 .832 .856 .848 .519 .835 .419 .721 .489

.086 .282 .104 -.117-.110-.306-.115-.029-.238-

12.76

*Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

23

0

Economic standards

24

Reham I. Momtaz

Reduce and ease routine maintenance

Environmental standards

Social standards

guide architects during design and implementation process.

Other aesthetic

Visual aesthetic

Availability of shades

Having a sense of place

Encourage physical activity

Encourage social activity

Increase correlation to place

Construction standards

Plant weight at maturity

Saturated weight

Use of recycled water

Effect of pergolas on loads

Imposed loads

Structural integrity

Waterproofing membrane

Different types of plants

Intensive green roof

Semi-Intensive green roof

Extensive green roof

Water elements

Plant life

climate conditions

Soil quality

Stable surface

Access of used material

Accessibility of the disabled

Design standards

Community Integration

Public Health

The environmental purpose

Reduction of Heat island effect

Climate factors

Plants grow at normal rate

t

Lighting elements

Easy access

0

Suitable budget for green roof

Prices of seeds and fertilizers

Availability of material

10

8

6

4

2

Figure 9: Shows a Descriptive analysis (Mean) of Design and Construction Standards

25

20

15

10

5

Aesthetic Elements

Figure 10: Shows a Descriptive analysis (Mean) of Economic ,Environmental ,Social standards and Aesthetic Elements

4.2.2 Analysis of Tora Residents' Questionnaires Tora residents' questionnaires contained social, economic, and aesthetic standards, which

might be considered the importance standards for residents and could be contributed positively to

Table 5: Descriptive and Component Analysis of Tora residents opinion for green roofs Design Guidelines for Green Roofs.

Economic criteria Availability of material for maintenance in relation to financial budget Prices of seeds, seedlings and fertilizers suitable for budget Suitable budget for green roof type to be designed Reduce and ease routine maintenance.

Social criteria Public Health Community Integration Increase correlation to place . encourage social activity encourage physical activity .

Having a sense of place Aesthetic Elements Availability of Shades Visual Aesthetic Value Other aesthetic elements (sculptures, carving, stones)

Descriptive analysis Mean Variance

Descriptive analysis 1 2

10.67

1.325

.68

-.271-

10.12

.9568

.612

-.407-

10.33 18.88

1.6793 1.9648

.618 .888

.562 .028

10.89 6.58 7.22 10.31 5.72 9.275

.9564 1.2378 1.0251 1.5780 1.4489 1.2160

.860 .774 .786 .885 .618 .872

-.250.238 .168 .028 .562 .186

14.71 18.70 16.58

1.3290 1.1749 1.8594

.878 .890 .883

.047 .083 .268

20 15 10

Economic standards

Social standards

Other aesthetic elements

Visual Aesthetic

Availability of Shades

Having a sense of place

encourage physical activity

encourage social activity

Increase correlation to place

Community Integration

Public Health

Reduce and ease routine maintenance

Suitable budget for green roof type

Availability of material for maintenance

0

Prices of seeds,

5

Aesthetic Elements

Figure 11: Shows a Descriptive analysis (Mean) of Economic ,Social standards and Aesthetic Elements Illustrated by Figure 11, Through the Descriptive analysis of Economic ,Environmental ,social standards and Aesthetic Elements of informal areas, according to Tora's residents' opinions , the most variables were significant and important except encouraging physical activity and The residents expected fulfill the aesthetic objective of green roofs.

5. Finding and Recommendation The paper managed, through conducting a profound theoretical and practical analysis, to define design guidelines of roof garden especially in informal areas and to provide a tool that can be applied on any form of green roof design in existing buildings which was shown in two stages: *Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

25

The first stage composes of theoretical review of green roofs' Types, benefits of green roof, and review of international and local experiments for utilizing green roofs. the main aim of this stage is to determine Proposed design guidelines for green roofs as shown in Table 2.

The second stage composed of detailed analysis of informal area (Tora), which had covered the land uses, building condition, and investigating quality and quantity of open/green space.

Figure 10: Illustrate the difference between current situation and proposed design Also, the case study depended on descriptive and component Analysis of the Proposed design guidelines of green roofs, as shown in table (3).The proposed vision for “ green roofs in Tora � focused on buildings with good condition to provide extensive green roofs(modular tray systems), some shade areas and visual aesthetic value for residents. Utilizing extensive green roofs in Tora are suitable for roofs with little load bearing capacity and sites, which requires low maintenance, suitable for the financial position of residents, easily adapt to different designs and also can contribute to environmental, social and economic return for residents living in areas that lack adequate open spaces. Furthermore, residents' amenity had to be taken into consideration during the green roof design processing, through provided shades and shelter from wind and sun, to promote comfortable use, see Figure 10.

The defined variables, utilized and conducted from analytical study, that aim to provide a tool that can be applied on any form of green roof design in existing buildings especially informal areas, as presented in Figure 11, among the findings of this study are the following: 26

Reham I. Momtaz

Social-economic Standards Social standards represent 13.65% of design guidelines, due to improve the function of rooftops which, mainly used for storing old and unused stuff and promote social returns through Improving public health (2.87%), having a sense of place (2.35 %), community integration(1.9%) and encouraging physical activity (1.5%). On the other side, Economic standards represent 10.76% of design guidelines that achieve through availability of material for maintenance, suitable prices of seeds, seedlings and fertilizers and possibility of reduces routine maintenance.

Construction Standards Construction standards represent 27.35% of design guidelines that include dead loads and live loads which are the most significant indicators for retrofitting the building with a green roof. For existing buildings, the architects must verify the structural integrity of the building(4.6%), investigate the imposed loads( 4.5%), saturate the weight of the green roof components ( 4.3%), and the effect of shades on loads (3.9%).

Aesthetic Elements Aesthetic elements represent 10.36% of design guidelines, that can be achieved through availability of shades (3.44%), visual Aesthetic value (4.27%) and other aesthetic elements such as sculptures, carving, stones, etc. (2.4%).

Figure 11: Guiding and Monitoring Tool for Green Roof Environmental standards Environmental standards represent 15.96% of design guidelines. Extensive green roof *Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

27

(especially modular tray systems) is considered as the best utilizing green roof type in informal areas. Even though, modular tray systems may have lower effect on reduce urban heat island effect comparing to the other green roof types. Climatic factors, evaporation rate and drought impact (4.5%), plants grow at normal rate (4.1%), surrounding environment and temperature regulation are essential determinants of the success of a green roof. Moreover, the environmental purpose to be achieved from the green roof represent 4.3% of environmental standards.

Design standards Design standards represent 21.92% of design guidelines, that can be achieved through achieving easy access to building's roof (1.76%), availability of lighting elements (1.96%), accessibility of the disabled to the building's roof (1.11%), accessibility of used materials to building's roof (1.14%), soil quality is proportional to local climate conditions(2.32%), plant life is commensurate with local climatic conditions(2.46%), water elements (1.37%), select the suitable green roof type according to the building condition(3.93%) and utilize Different types of plants(2.44%).

6. References Annika M. (2010).Green Roofs in Seattle, a survey of vegetated roofs and rooftop gardens, the University of Washington.

Attia, S., Mahmoud, A., (2009) Green Roofs in Cairo: A Holistic Approach for Healthy Productive Cities, Conference Proceeding on Greening Rooftops for Sustainable Communities, June, Atlanta ,USA .

Retrieved from: http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/167604.

Carpenter, S. (2008). Green Roofs and Vertical Gardens. The Pratt Foundation/ISS Institute Overseas Fellowship, November. retrieved from: http://issinstitute.org.au/wp-content/media/2011/05/ISS-FELREPORT-S-CARPENTER-Low-Res.pdf Cutlip, J. (2009). Green Roofs: A Sustainable Technology, Sustainability and the Built Environment UC Davis Extension.

Earth Pledge (2005). Green Roofs : Ecological Design and Construction. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing.

Fettig,

T. (2006).

The Green Machine (Video), http://www.pbs.org/e2/episodes/103_the_green_machine_trailer.html.

Retrieved

from:

Frazer-Williams R., Avery L., Winward G., Jeffrey P., Shirley-Smith C., Liu S., Memon F.A., Jefferson B. (2008). Constructed wetlands for urban grey water recycling. International Journal of Environment and Pollution. 33:93-109.

Getter K. L. & D.B. Rowe. (2006). The Role of Extensive Green Roofs in Sustainable Development .HortScience. 41:1276–1285.

Hathaway A.M., Jennings G.D., Hunt W.F.(2008). A field study of green roof hydrologic and water quality performance. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers. 51:37-44 Kuo, F.E. & Sullivan, W.C. (2001). Environment and crime in the inner city - Does vegetation reduce crime?.

Environment and Behavior, 33 (3), 343-367.

28

Reham I. Momtaz

Krajčovičová D., Šprochová K. (2007). Extensive roof garden as a thermal insulator, Folia Oecologica, Institute of Forest Ecology, Zvolen; Slovakia. pp. 24-29.

Linli C. ,Jun S.,(2012). Urbanization and its environmental effects in Shanghai, China, Urban Climate, ELSEVIER , Volume 2, p 1-15.

Liu, K.; Bass, B. (2005). Performance of green roof systems. National Research Council Canada, p.7.

Mahila Housing Trust team's (MHT). Retrieved from: http://mahilahousingtrust.org Oberlander, C. & Matsuzaki, E. (2002). Introductory Manual For Greening Roofs For Public Works And Government Services In Canada . Public Works and Government Services Canada December. Retrieved from: http://www.bluestem.ca/pdf/PWGSC_GreeningRoofs_wLink_3.pdf Quesnel, A. (2011). “ Solutions from Above: Using Rooftop Agriculture to Move Cities Towards Sustainability “ School of Engineering Blekinge Institute of Technology Karlskrona, Sweden 2011.

Richard K. Sutton.R. (2015).Green Roof Ecosystems .Springer International Publishing Switzerland, R. Sutton (ed.) Ecological Studies 223, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14983-7_1 Santamouris, M. (2014). Cooling the cities –A review of reflective and green roof mitigation technologies to fight heat island and improve comfort in urban environments. Solar Energy, 103(Supplement C), 682– 703.

Santamouris M., Pavlou C., Doukas P., Mihalakakou G., Synnefa A., Hatzibiros A., Patargias P. (2007).

Investigating and analyzing the energy and environmental performance of an experimental green roof system installed in a nursery school building in Athens, Greece, Energy (Oxford), Elsevier, Oxford; UK. 1781-1788.

Sidonie, C. (2011), President Green Roofs Australia, Design & Installation of Green Roofs, September.

Spolek, G. (2008). Performance monitoring of three eco-roofs in Portland, Oregon. Urban Ecosystems. 11:349359 Sullivan W.C., Kuo F.E., DePooter S.f. (2004).The fruit of urban nature: Vital neighborhood spaces.

Environment and Behavior 36(5):678-700.

Townshend, D. (2006). “Study on Green Roof Application in Hong Kong- Final Report” URBIS limited, Architectural services department , December, Retrieved from: http://www.archsd.gov.hk/media/11630/green_roof_study_final_report.pdf Tolderlund, L.(2010). Design Guidelines and Maintenance Manual for Green Roofs in the Semi-Arid and Arid West, Environmental Protection Agency Region 8,Urban Drainage and Flood Control District ,Colorado State University,6-7.

Ulrich, R.S. (1984). View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science. 224:420–421.

Weiler, S.K. & K. Scholz, Barth. (2009). Green Roof Systems: A Guide to the Planning, Design & Construction of Building Over Structure. Wiley.

Zinco, (2014). System Solutions for Thriving Green Roofs: Planning Guide. Zinco , GmbH. Nuertingen , Germany.

Associate Professor. Dr. Reham Ibrahim Momtaz is currently an Associate Professor in the Architecture Engineering Department of Modern Academy for Engineering and Technology, Cairo, Egypt. She obtained Bachelor and Master of Architecture from Cairo University, Egypt. She was awarded a PhD degree from Cairo University, Egypt. She has embarked on a few researches in the areas of sustainable and green architectures.

*Corresponding author (R.Momtaz). Tel: +201115005605 E-mail: reham.momtaz@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/013.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/itjemast.2018.2

29

©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE AND AMMONIA ON CORAL HEALTH STATUS: A CASE STUDY OF DISC CORAL (Turbinaria peltata) a

Bussapakorn Udomsap , Petchporn Chawakitchareon a b

a*

, Sompop Rungsupa

b

Department of Environmental Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, THAILAND Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, THAILAND

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 30 January 2018 Received in revised form 15 March 2018 Accepted 19 March 2018 Available online 20 March 2018

Keywords: Seawater temperature; Ammonia concentration; Coral health status; Active polyps; Lethal concentration.

A B S T RA C T

This research focused on the effects of temperature and ammonia on the coral health status of disc coral (Turbinaria peltata) by using acute toxicity testing (50% Lethal Concentration: LC50). The acute effects of temperature and ammonia on disc coral were monitored at 24 and 48 hrs.

The experiments were carried out in triplicate at temperatures of 30ºC and 33ºC. The concentrations of ammonia were varied at 0, 0.05, 0.07 and 0.1 mgN/L, respectively. The active polyp percentages of disc coral was analyzed with comparison to the health status percentages. According to the findings at 30ºC and at 24 and 48 hrs, and at 33ºC and 24 hrs, the acute toxicity of coral bleaching (LC50) could not be investigated. This is because the coral health status was insufficiently low due to decline, or the mortality percentages were not below 50 percent. On the other hand, at 33ºC and 48 hrs, the acute toxicity of coral bleaching (LC50) could be evaluated. The experimental results strongly indicate that the mortality percentages exceeded 50 percent. These findings were confirmed by Zooxanthellae density in seawater equaling 109.4 cell/ml. Therefore, the LC50 at 48 hrs in this study was equal 0.075 mg N/L. © 2018 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction Corals are marine invertebrates. Classified in the phylum Cnidaria, the structural sequence of limestone results in shapes such as tabulate, massive and branching. Corals acquire food through suspension and autotrophic feeding by Zooxanthellae algea with which the corals share what is called a mutualistic symbiosis. Algae accelerate the formation process of limestone and coral colors. In the other ways, corals provide a residence for algae. Corals grow well at water temperatures between 25-30˚C (Chankong, 2014). When the marine environment changes or conditions become unsuitable, such as when seawater temperatures rise (above 30˚C) or salinity has *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/031.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.6

31

dropped (Rungsupa et al., 2016 and 2018), algae will produce substances that are toxic to coral tissues. Corals become stressed and drive algae out from the coral tissues. This will result in a loss of coral pigment volume (Fitt et al., 2000). Apart from the effects of temperature and salinity changes on coral, other factors contribute to coral health degradation. Ammonia is one of the factors potentially affecting stress and causing toxicity for corals (Hansuebsai et al., 2018). Current increases in seawater temperature are the most important factors involved in coral health degradation. Moreover, is has been reported that the coral areas in Sichang Island, Chonburi Province, Thailand, have been affected by high ammonia concentrations exceeding set standards (more than 0.07 mgN/L) because the marine ecosystems of Sichang Island have been contaminated by wastewater from municipal activities, cargo ships, human activities, and etc. that increase ammonia concentrations in the area (Regional Environment Office, 2016 and Coverdale et al., 2013).

In addition, current information about the safety effects of ammonia for invertebrates remains limited. Therefore, careful application of the same criteria as that used for fish is currently recommended (Lawson, 1995). Thus, the present study is focused on the effects of temperature and ammonia on the health status of disc coral (Turbinaria peltata) by coral health evaluation with the coral health chart that is a standardized, inexpensive, flexible color reference card anyone can use for rapid, broad area assessment of changing coral conditions (Siebeck et al., 2006). The acute toxicity of ammonia concentrations resulting in bleached coral at more than 50% (50% Lethal Concentration: LC50) was calculated by Probit analysis and photographic assessment was used for analysis of the active polyp percentages of Turbinaria peltata compared with health status percentages.

2. Methodology 2.1 Acute Effects of Temperature and Ammonia The experiments were conducted at Sichang Island, Thailand. Acclimated disc coral (Turbinaria peltata) was kept in a filtered seawater pond with continuous water flowing for 7 days before starting the experiments which were carried out in triplicate. The selected coral sizes were between 3-4 cm. Coral health was compared with the coral health chart at Levels 5-6; no bleaching was found on the pieces of coral (Figure 1.). The corals were placed in glass cases with filtered seawater that was aerated with temperatures set at 30ËšC and 33ËšC with a glass heating rod (Figure 2.). Salinity and pH were controlled to remain constant (30 ppt, pH 8). Ammonia concentrations were varied at 0, 0.05, 0.07 and 0.1 mgN/L, respectively.

32

Bussapakorn Udomsap, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

Zooxanthellae density (Lenore et al., 2012), salinity, pH, temperature and coral health status were measured and recorded at 0, 12, 24 and 48 hrs before changing to regular seawater without adding ammonia. Coral health status was recorded at 24 and 48 hrs with the aim of monitoring coral health recovery which was lower than Level 3 or corals with bleaching on both pieces and parts.

Figure 1: Turbinaria peltata

Figure 2: Experiment kit example

2.2 Coral Health Status Evaluation Coral health status was evaluated by the using the coral health chart (Figure 3.). The colors determination was divided into 4 groups and classified into 6 levels (Siebeck et al., 2006) In which Level 6 is representative of coral in good health (best health) and Level 1 is representative of declining coral health (worst health). After evaluating the coral health status based on colors, the status was then calculated into percentages as shown in Table 1.

Figure 3: Coral health chart (Siebeck et al., 2006) *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/031.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.6

33

2.3 Data Analysis Pictures and amounts of coral with colors lower than Level 3 were recorded. Next, the recorded data was converted into health status categories and mortality percentages in order to calculate the acute toxicity test (LC50) at 48 hrs by using Probit analysis (Finney, 1952). Finally, the correlations between health status percentages and Zooxanthellae density in seawater were determined.

Table 1: Health status and mortality percentages from the coral health chart.

Level

Remark

1 2 3 4 5 6

Worst health Poor health Declining health Fair health Good health Best health

Health status percentages 16.67 33.33 50.00 66.67 83.33 100.00

Mortality percentages 83.33 66.67 50.00 33.33 16.67 0.00

2.4 Active Polyp Percentages The authors found that it was difficult to observe any stress in Turbinaria peltata. Therefore, active polyps were recorded by camera, converting true color into 256 gray scales. Fragment areas were selected and counted for active polyps (extend polyps), white spots and non-active polyps and red spots from 256 gray-scale picture (Rungsupa et al., 2018).

Active polyp percentages by calculated = 100*active polyp number/(total polyp counted)

(1)

3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Effects of Temperature and Ammonia In testing at temperatures of 30˚C and 33˚C, the health status and mortality percentages of corals at ammonia concentrations of 0, 0.05, 0.07 and 0.1 mgN/L are shown in Tables 2 and 3. The results indicate that coral health statuses ranged from fair to good at 30˚C and 24 and 48 hrs.

(Colors higher than Level 3) and can be calculated at percentages of 74.1-83.3% and 68.5-79.6%, respectively.

At 33˚C and 24 hrs, coral health statuses ranged from poor to good and could be calculated at 54.2-76.7%. Mortality percentages less than 50% would prevent the calculation of ammonia concentrations and their effects on coral bleaching or LC50. At 48 hrs, the coral health statuses ranged from poor to good and could be calculated at 36.7-75.0%.

At 33˚C and 48 hrs with ammonia concentrations of 0.07 and 0.1 mgN/L, the coral health’s sensitivity increased the mortality percentages by more than 50% which can be calculated as LC50.

The ammonia concentration at 0.1 mgN/L had the highest mortality percentages at 63.3%. When the mortality percentages of the corals exceeded 50% LC50 could be calculated by using Probit analysis (Figure 4.). At 33˚C, ammonia concentrations had the effect of coral bleaching or 50percent coral mortality at 48 hrs which was equal to 0.075 mgN/L. This was related to the Typical 34

Bussapakorn Udomsap, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

Surface Ocean guideline at less than 0.1 mgN/L (Kallqvist and Svenson, 2013) and LC50, which is close to Marine Water Quality Standards for coral reef conservation that are determined not to exceed 0.07 mgN/L. Moreover, the above findings are related to the Nozawa, (2012) study which found temperatures exceeding 30˚C to have the effects of decreasing the Zooxanthellae density in the coral tissue and increasing seawater temperatures by approximately 1-2˚C, which will result in coral bleaching (Nozawa, 2012 and Buchheim, 2016). In 2010, Thailand reported that the seawater temperature surrounding Phuket Island rise from normal temperatures from 29˚C to 33.5˚C for thirty consecutive days. Consequently, bleaching was observed in all of the corals in the area (Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, 2013).

Table 2: Health status and mortality percentages at 30˚C. 30˚C Ammonia (mgN/L) 0 0.05 0.07 0.1

33˚C

Healthy Status (%)

Mortality (%)

0 hr.

12 hr.

24 hr.

48 hr.

48 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

85.19 85.42 81.48 83.33

79.63 83.33 79.63 74.07

79.63 77.08 75.93 68.52

20.37 22.92 24.07 31.48

Table 3: Health status and mortality percentages at 33˚C. Healthy Status (%)

Ammonia (mgN/L) 0 0.05 0.07 0.1

Mortality (%)

0 hr.

12 hr.

24 hr.

48 hr.

48 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

80.00 91.67 83.33 80.00

66.67 76.67 54.17 60.00

63.33 75.00 47.62 36.67

36.67 25.00 52.38 63.33

y = 3.3583x + 8.772 R2 = 0.9287

Figure 4: Calculating LC50 using Probit analysis at 33˚C.

3.2 Effects of Temperature and Ammonia According to the measurement of the Zooxanthellae density in seawater at 30˚C and 24 hrs with ammonia concentrations of 0, 0.05 and 0.07 mgN/L, the Zooxanthellae density was between *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/031.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.6

35

12.7-15.0 cells/ml, and the ammonia concentration was 0.1 mgN/L. The Zooxanthellae density was equal to 26.6 cells/ml. At 33˚C, the Zooxanthellae density at all ammonia concentrations was higher than the Zooxanthellae density at 30˚C. At the ammonia concentration of 0.1 mgN/L, the highest Zooxanthellae density was equal to 45 cells/ml. When compared with the ammonia concentrations at 24 hrs, the temperature was 30˚C at 48 hrs and the Zooxanthellae density increased, except when the ammonia concentration was 0 mgN/L whereby the Zooxanthellae density would decrease. With the passing of time, corals can adjust to new conditions and stop processing mucus secretions. At 33˚C and an ammonia concentration of 0.1 mgN/L, the Zooxanthellae density was equal to 109.4 cells/ml which was correlated with a decline in coral health status (Figure 5.).

Figure 5: Graph shows the correlations between health status (%) and Zooxanthellae density at a) 30˚C_24 hrs. b) 30˚C_48 hrs. c) 33˚C_24 hrs. d) 30˚C_24 hrs.

According to the observations, corals under stressful conditions would active a defense mechanism caused by unstable conditions by using mucus secretions (Kellog, 2004). If the temperature and ammonia concentrations rise, the corals would accelerate the mucus secretion process (Figure 6. a)), which makes the colors of corals fade as a result of the mucus secretions that make coral tissues slip-out. The result is a decreasing the amount of Zooxanthellae in coral tissues (Kerswell and Jones, 2003) (Figure 6. b)). Thus, there is a correlation with Zooxanthellae density 36

Bussapakorn Udomsap, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

measurement in experimental seawater. At 33˚C and 48 hrs with an ammonia concentration of 0.1

mgN/L, coral health status declines. The Zooxanthellae density is measured, the value of density is 109.4 cell/ml, which indicates that corals have the greatest Zooxanthellae slip-out process.

Therefore, ammonia is another factor causes coral bleaching or coral health decline, which is a find that concurs with the findings of Baohua et al. (2004), in a study showing that, at a temperature of 32˚C, corals have the highest slip-out rate after 18 hrs and ammonia results in more coral bleaching than nitrate (Baohua et al., 2004). Moreover, whether coral bleaching can recover in full or in part depends on the cause of the bleaching, including the severity of stress causing damage inside corals (Arthur et al., 2006). In this experiment, however, the corals were unable to recover from bleaching.

Figure 6: a) Mucus secretion process b) Coral tissue slip-out (at 33˚C and 48 hrs with an ammonia concentration of 0.1 mgN/L)

3.3 Active Polyp Percentages For Turbinaria peltata, a disc coral, the other photographic assessment can be used for analysis of stress values (Winter et al., 2009). In this study, active polyp percentages (Table 4) (Figure 6) were compared to health status percentages (Table 5). Determining the active polyp percentages involved counting the polyps which was not exceeding the extend number or fixed area.

33˚C Ammonia (mgN/L) 0 0.05 0.07 0.1

Table 4: Active polyp percentages for Turbinaria peltata.

Active polyps

Non active polyps

Active polyp percentages

12 hr.

24 hr.

48 hr.

12 hr.

24 hr.

48 hr.

12 hr.

24 hr.

48 hr.

57 60 11 12

23 11 7 4

16 7 1 0

1 7 30 48

35 55 30 56

56 65 40 60

98.94 90.11 26.67 21.36

39.70 17.65 16.29 5.97

21.52 8.83 1.45 0.51

Figure 6: Active polyp percentages for Turbinaria peltata.

*Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/031.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.6

37

33˚C Ammonia (mgN/L) 0 0.05 0.07 0.1

Table 5: Comparison of health status and active polyp percentages

12 hr.

Health status Active (%) polyps (%) 59.26 49.61 87.03 47.08 59.26 20.95 83.33 8.28

24 hr.

Health status (%) 48.89 79.63 53.70 51.85

Active polyps (%) 43.06 39.83 1.88 1.75

48 hr.

Health status (%) 48.15 31.48 27.78 25.93

Active polyps (%) 38.33 35.07 1.88 1.75

33˚C and 12 hrs.

100.00 80.00

98.94 80.00

91.67 90.11 83.33

80.00

60.00 40.00 20.00 0.00

Health status (%)

26.67

21.36

Active polyps (%)

0 0.05 0.07 0.1 Ammonia concentrations (mgN/L) 33˚C and 24 hrs.

100.00 80.00

66.67

76.67 54.17

60.00 40.00

Health status (%)

39.70

20.00 0.00

60.00

17.65

Active polyps (%)

16.29

5.97

0 0.05 0.07 0.1 Ammonia concentrations (mgN/L) 33˚C and 48 hrs.

100.00 80.00 60.00 40.00

63.33

75.00 47.62

36.67

Active polyps (%)

20.00 0.00

Health status (%)

0 0.05 0.07 0.1 Ammonia concentrations (mgN/L)

Figure 7: The correlation between health status and active polyp percentages at 33˚C and 12 hrs, 24 hrs, and 48 hrs for Turbinaria peltata.

38

Bussapakorn Udomsap, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

According to Table 5 and Figure 7, health status percentages is correlated with the active polyp percentages. If health statuses are low, the active polyps will be high (Figure 7.). Otherwise, the active polyps will be low when corals have their defense mechanism triggered by unstable conditions (high ammonia concentration). Therefore, these results are correlated with Rungsupa et al. (2018) other studies finding that corals in low salinity with have active polyp percentages at less than or equal to 0.

4. Conclusion In this study, the results of the temperature and ammonia effects on the coral health status of disc coral (Turbinaria peltata) by acute toxicity testing calculated (50% Lethal Concentration: LC50) with Probit analysis at temperatures of 30˚C and 33˚C and time durations of 24 hrs and 48 hrs together with ammonia concentrations of 0, 0.05, 0.07, and 0.1 mgN/L indicated temperatures of 30˚C and 33˚C with ammonia concentrations can increase the bleaching or decline of coral health status and the severity will be determined by follow-up on ammonia concentrations. Moreover, at 33˚C and 48 hrs with an ammonia concentration of 0.1 mgN/L, the highest mortality percentages of coral will occur at 63.3%, which is related to the Zooxanthellae density in seawater equal to 109.4 cell/ml. Thus, it is indicated that corals have to secret mucus to drive algae out from coral tissues and LC50 at 48 hrs can be calculated at 33˚C, because corals have to bleach or decline in coral health by more than 50%. After calculations, LC50 at 48 hrs was equal to 0.075 mgN/L, but bleaching exceeding 50% could not be found on corals under other conditions in which LC50 could not be calculated.

Measuring active polyp percentages is a useful method for monitoring the health status of coral under any stressful conditions. High temperatures, high ammonia concentrations, low salinity and community waste are highly threatening stress factors for shallow water coral. This study reported a correlation between health condition percentages and active polyp percentages. Turbinaria peltata, a disc coral, was successfully analyzed for stress value by using active polyp percentages.

5. Acknowledgements This research was supported by the 90th Anniversary of Chulalongkorn University, Rachadapisek Sompote Fund academic year 2017. The authors would like to thank the staff of Sichang Marine Science Research Station, Chonburi, Thailand, for their assistance and support in the experiments. The authors also would like to express their appreciation for the equipments support from Global Environmental System Leaders Program, Keio University, Japan.

6. References Arthur, R., Done, T. J., Marsh, H., and Harriott, V. (2006). Local processes strongly influence postbleaching benthic recovery in the Lakshadweep Island. Coral Reefs 25: 427-440. *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/031.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.6

39

Baohua, Z., Guangce, W., Bo, H., and Tseng, C. K. (2004). Effects of temperature, hypoxia, ammonia and nitrate on the bleaching among three coral species. Chinese Science Bulletin 49 (18): 1923-1928.

Buchheim, J. (2016). Coral Reef Bleaching. Odyssey Expeditions-Marine Biology Learning Center Publications. Retrieved from http:// www.marinebiology.org/coralbleaching.htm.

Chankong, A. (2014). Biodiversity of inververtebrate in Thailand sea: Corals. Conference 2014 International Day for Biodiversity: Island Biodiversity, June 22-24 2014: Walailak University, Nakhonsithammarat, Thailand.

Coverdale, T. C., Herrmann, N. C. Altieri A. H., and Bertness, M. D. (2013). Latent impacts: the role of historical human activitiy in coastal habitat loss. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment, January 2013: 69-74.

Department of Marine and Coastal Resources. (2013). Coral bleaching. Retrieved from http://marinegiscenter.dmcr.go.th/km/coral-blenching/#.WS55qmiGPIV Finney, D. J. (1952). Probit Analysis (2nd Ed). Journal of the Institute of Actuaries 78 (3): 388-390.

Fitt, W. K., McFarland, F. K., Warner, M. E., and Chilcoat. G. C. (2000). Seasonal patterns of tossue biomass and densities of symbiotic dinoflagellates in reef corals and relation to coral bleaching. American Society of Limnology and Oceanography 45: 667-685.

Hansuebsai, A., Rungsupa, S., Kiyoki, Y., Sasaki, S., and Chawakitchareon, P. (2018). Study the effect of Ammonia by Image Analysis on Healthiness Detection for Coral Quality of Life.

Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXIX, IOS Press, 2018, Volume 301: 343-353.

Kallqvist, T., and Svenson, A. (2013). Assessment of ammonia toxicity in tests with the microalga, Nephroselmis pyriformis, Chlorophyta. Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Kjelsas, Oslo, Norway. Water Research. 37(3): 477-484.

Kellogg, C. (2004). Coral Mucus Goes Mainstream-New Discoveries in Microbial Communities.

Journal Marine Ecology Progress Series 273: 81-88.

Kerswell, P. A., and Jones, J. R. (2003). Effects of hypo-osmosis on the coral Stylophora pistillata: nature and cause of low salinity. Marine Ecology Progress Series 253: 145-154.

Lawson, T. B. (1995). Fundamentals of aquaculture engineering. Chapman & Hall, New York. 355 pp.

Lenore, S. C., Arnold, E. G., and Andrew, D. E. (2012). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater 22nd Edition, 10200-Plankton: 1992-2019.

Nozawa, Y. (2012). Annual variation in the timing of coral spawning in a high-latitude environment: influence of temperature. The Biological Bulletin 222 (3): 192-202.

Regional Environment Office. (2016). Reports from the environmental quality situation in Eastern of Thailand at 2015. Regional Environment Office 13 (Chonburi). 106 p.

Rungsupa, S., Chawakitchareon, P., Hansuebsai, A., Sasaki, S., and Kiyoki, Y. (2018).

Photographic Assessment of Coral Stress: Effect of Low Salinity to Acropora sp .Goniopora sp .and Pavona sp . at Sichang Island, Thailand. Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXIX, IOS Press, 2018, Volume 301: 137-148.

40

Bussapakorn Udomsap, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

Rungsupa, S., Sesulihatien, W. T., Hansuebai, A., Chawakitchareon, P., Sasaki, S., and Kiyoki, Y. (2016). The Early Step of Healthiness Detection for Coral Quality of Life at Sichang Island, Thailand. The proceedings of 5th International Conference on Environmental Engineering, Science and Management, Environmental Engineering Association of Thailand, The Twin Towers Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand, May 11-13, 2016. (11R5-11).

Siebeck, U. E., Marshall, N. J., KlĂź, A., and Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2006). Monitoring coral bleaching using a colour reference card. Coral Reefs 25 (3): 453-460.

Winters, G., Holzman, R., Blekman, A., Beer, S., and Loya, Y. (2009). Photographic assessment of coral chlorophyll contents: Implications for ecophysiological studies and coral monitoring.

Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology: 25-35.

Bussapakorn Udomsap is a graduate student in Department of Environmental Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. She earned her bachelor degree in Environmental Science from Mahidol University, Thailand. Her research encompassed coral health related to environmental changes.

Dr.Petchporn Chawakitchareon is an Associate Professor in Department of Environmental Engineering at Chulalongkorn University. She received her B.Sc. (Med.Tech) and M.Sc.(Biochemistry) from Mahidol University. She obtained her PhD in Environmental Engineering from ENTPE-LyonI, France. Dr.Petchporn current interests involve utilization of industrial waste for environmental engineering applications and environmental data mining applications.

Dr.Sompop Rungsupa is a researcher at Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. He got his B.Sc. (Marine Science), M.Sc. and Ph.D. (Environmental Science) from Chulalongkorn University. His current research is related to bio-aquatic plants and animals. Dr.Sompop also focuses on the impact of water quality related to circulation system in Thai Abalone (Haliotis asinina).

*Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/031.pdf. https://doi.org/10.14456/ITJEMAST.2018.6

41

:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Call-for-Papers: ITJEMAST invites you to submit high quality papers for full peer-review and possible publication in areas pertaining to our scope including engineering, science, management and technology, especially interdisciplinary/crossdisciplinary/multidisciplinary subjects.

Next article continues on next page ďƒ¨

©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

CHLORIDE INFILTRATION EFFECTS BY REPLACING NATURAL SAND IN CONCRETE MIXTURE WITH RICE HULL ASH, DARK HUSK ASH, AND CRUSHED DUST Phongphoom Sornchomkaew

a*

b

, Boonsap Witchayangkoon , and Sayan Sirimontree

b

a

Department of Civil Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Rattanakosin Wang Klai Kang Won Campus, Prachaup Kiri Kan 77110, THAILAND b Department of Civil Engineering, Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Pathumtani 12120, THAILAND ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 12 January 2018 Received in revised form 04 March 2018 Accepted 16 March 2018 Available online 20 March 2018

Keywords: Pozzolanic reaction ; Colorimetric technique; Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM); chloride infiltration depth.

A B S T RA C T

This research studied the infiltration effects of chloride in concrete mixed with rice hull ash, dark husk ash and crushed dust to replace sand.

The experiment carried out by making cylindrical concrete specimens with mixture of rice hull and dark husk ash instead of cement at the consequent percentages of 0, 10, 20, and 30 by weight and also the use of crushed dust instead of sand at the consequent percentages of 0, 10, 20, and 30 by weight. These concrete specimens have been soaked in marine environment at Cha-Am Beach, Petchburi province of Thailand for 90 days, tested for chloride infiltration in the concrete specimens by Colorimetric technique. The finding stated that chloride infiltration in all concrete samples was at 50% compared with the standard concrete. The best resistance of chloride infiltration was the one sand 10% replacement of crushed dust. According to the study, it showed that concrete specimen with rice hull ash and dark husk ash mixture caused Pozzolanic reaction effecting for more density, durability and thus decreasing of chloride infiltration in long term. © 2018 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction Rice hull ash and dark husk ash remained from burning of rice hulls biomass at temperatures 800–900 degrees Celsius for electricity production which made good quality ash, but the real use of this ash was still less because of sizes and Pozzolanic quality. This ash was applied in this study by using it as mixture in concrete, together with cement, fine aggregate or sand, coarse aggregate or gravel, water and other mixture. One main mixture in concrete was sand which has similar physical quality to crushed dust. Many research studies in the past showed good results in using crushed dust to replace sand in mixing concrete that made porous in finished concrete. It was assumed that *Corresponding author (P. Sornchomkaew) Mobile: +66-86-330-3806.

E-mail: phongphoom.sor@rmutr.ac.th. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/043.pdf.

43

the concrete with mixture of crushed dust might cause grater chloride infiltration than concrete mixture with sand even crushed dust could resist better in compression. So this study tested this quality by mixing crushed dust into concrete as well as rice hull ash and dark husk ash then evaluated according to ASTM standard test.

2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials

Rice hull ash and dark husk ash from burning of rice hulls biomass from electricity production

plant in Phanom Sarakham district, Chachoengsao province, and crashed dust from crushing plant in Saraburi province.

2.2 Materials testing

The conclusion of materials testing was as following 1) Testing of materials’ specifications; appearances of rice hull ash and dark husk ash by

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and chemical compositions.

2) Testing for grain size distribution of the ash by sieve analysis (Sieve Analysis) to compare sizes of crushed dust which used instead of sand, then classify for consistency coefficient and curvature coefficient. [1] 3) Testing of cement specification; test of specific gravity of Portland cement type 1 and test of specific gravity of rice hull ash and dark husk ash according to ASTM C188 standard. [2] 4) Testing of standard slump test and test of concrete mixed with rice hull ash, dark hull ash and crushed dust instead of sand according to Department of Public Works and Town & Country Planning’s standard.

5) Testing of unit weight and voids in the aggregate by ASTM C29 Standard. [3]

2.3 Concrete mix design

The design for proportion of rice hull ash and dark hull ash mixture to replace cement in

concrete mixture in the ratio percentage of 0, 10, 20, and 30 were coded in R00, R10, R20, and R30 alternatively. The mixture of crushed dust to replace sand in the ratio percentage of 0, 10, 20, and 30 were coded in D00, D01, D02 and D03 consequently comparing to standard concrete coded PC.

Figure 1: Concrete specimens in marine environment.

2.4 Specimens soaked under marine environment

The area used for testing of samples in marine environment was at fishing pier in Cha Am

44

Phongphoom Sornchomkaew, Boonsap Witchayangkoon, Sayan Sirimontree

District, Petchburi Province which caused natural sea tide as in Figure 1. The specimens were left in this environment for 90 days then tested for Chloride infiltration in samples by cut the concrete specimen in half, in order to identify the depth of Chloride infiltration.

2.5 Testing for the depth of Chloride Infiltration by Colorimetric Technique

The concrete specimens were cut in half vertically and sprayed by Silver Nitrate with the

intensity of 0.1 N. thorough the inside surface which changed into purple color. Then the Chloride infiltration was observed and measured for depth, length and conditions of infiltration [4] as in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Concrete specimens soaked for 90 days under marine environment.

3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Scanning electron microscope

From Figure 3, the study of rice hull ash and dark hull ash appearance were showed by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) from Electron Microscope and Analysis Microscope laboratory conducted at the National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC). The

enlarged photos of 500, 1,000, 5,000, and 10,000 expansions demonstrated rice hull ash and dark hull ash appearance as tough edged angle particles with different sizes and uncertain forms.

Figure 3: Rice hull ash and dark hull ash appearances at 10,000 expanded enlarged photos;

3.2 Chemical compositions

The chemical compositions of rice hull ash and dark hull ash shown in table 2 demonstrated the

total SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 with highest at 75.75% had the SO3 less than 4% with the quantity of LOI (Loss on ignition) at 10.90%. It was assumed that the higher LOI quantity caused by the lower temperature in burning which might cause incomplete combustion and this affected to water *Corresponding author (P. Sornchomkaew) Mobile: +66-86-330-3806.

E-mail: phongphoom.sor@rmutr.ac.th. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/043.pdf.

45

molecule in rice hull ash and dark hull ash volatile at 550 degree Celsius and affected to higher LOI [5] as in Equation (1): đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľ đ?‘Žđ?‘Žđ?‘Žđ?‘Ž 550℃

đ??śđ??śđ??śđ??ś(đ?‘‚đ?‘‚đ?‘‚đ?‘‚)2 �⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯� đ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??ś + đ??ťđ??ť2 đ?‘‚đ?‘‚(Gas)

(1)

According to the chemical compositions of rice hull ash and dark hull ash toward ASTM C618 Standard, it could be classified as Pozzolan Class N. Table 2: Chemical compositions of rice hull ash and dark hull ash.

Oxide % by Weight Oxide % by Weight Na2O 0.19 MnO 0.35 MgO 0.81 Fe2 O3 4.48 Al2 O3 2.19 Cuo 0.02 SiO2 69.08 ZnO 0.04 P2O5 0.89 Br < 0.01 SO3 0.66 Rb2O 0.01 Cl 0.69 SrO 0.03 K2O 2.97 ZrO2 0.03 CaO 6.40 PbO 0.01 TiO2 0.19 10.90 LOI. At 1025°C Cr2O3 0.02

3.3 Testing for grain size distribution of fine aggregate

Comparing grain sizes of crushed dust used to replace sand in this study in the percentage

proportion of 0, 10, 20, and 30 consequently were coded in S100D00, S90D10, S80D20, and S70D30 respectively. It was found similar sizes of these two materials in the beginning. During the sieving process, the crushed dust showed bigger size than sand which left on the sieve as more as the quantity of crushed dust. Finally, the two materials had similar left mass on the sieve in all proportions as showed in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Grain size distribution of fine aggregate of crushed dust to replace sand;

3.4 Results of compared depth in chloride infiltration

This research was designed to mix rice hull ash and dark hull ash to replace cement in concrete

mixture in the percentage proportion of 0, 10, 20, and 30 by weight which coded ranges for P100R00, P90R10, P80R20 and P70R30 and also the use of crushed dust to replace sand in concrete mixture in the percentage proportion of 0, 10, 20, and 30 by weight which coded ranges for Phongphoom Sornchomkaew, Boonsap Witchayangkoon, Sayan Sirimontree 46

D00, D10, D20, and D30. The designed mixture in this study was compared to the standard concrete mixture in order to investigate the chloride infiltration in concrete by the implication of Colorimetric Technique.

Figure 5: The depth of chloride infiltration into concrete mixed with rice hull ash, dark hull ash and crushed dust to replace sand.

The depth of chloride infiltration into sample concrete specimens which mixed with rice hull ash, dark hull ash and crushed dust to replace sand and placed in the marine environment for 90 days was less than in standard concrete. From Figure 5, the depth of chloride infiltration in standard concrete was 2.11 cm. only 0.73 to 1.00 cm. in the samples. The results significantly identified less of chloride infiltration in sample concrete specimens, than the standard concrete.

4. Conclusion From the experiment, the following can be concluded 1) Testing of the grain size distribution in mixed materials which used crushed dust to replace sand in all proportion showed fine purified mixture with very less organic substances and the quantity of silt was less than 5% by the regulation of Engineering Institute of Thailand.

2) The study of particles appearance in rice hull ash and dark hull ash by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) in Electron Microscope and Analysis Microscope laboratory at National Metal and Materials Technology Center (MTEC) at the enlarge of 10,000 times demonstrated the appearances of rice hull ash which were tough edged angle particles with different sizes and uncertain forms.

3) The Chloride Infiltration in concrete specimens mixed with rice hull ash, dark hull ash and crushed dust to replace sand showed the least infiltration at 0.73 cm. in depth in the sample coded P100R00D20 which was the concrete specimen mixed with 0% of rice hull ash and dark hull ash by weight and mixed with 20% of crushed dust by weight.

4) The percentage of chloride infiltration in concrete specimen mixed with rice hull ash, dark hull ash and crushed dust was slightly decreased more than 50%. The least infiltration was at 0.73 cm. in depth or 65.4% compared to the chloride infiltration in standard concrete.

*Corresponding author (P. Sornchomkaew) Mobile: +66-86-330-3806.

E-mail: phongphoom.sor@rmutr.ac.th. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/043.pdf.

47

5. Acknowledgements This research was financially supported in Research Support Project by Rajamangala University of Technology Rattanakosin.

6. References [1] ASTM, C. (2006). C136, Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates, Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

[2] ASTM, C. (2003). C618, Standard specification for fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use as a mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete, Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

[3] ASTM, C. (1997). C29,Test Method for Bulk Density (“Unit Weight”) and Voids in Aggregate. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.

[4] Ninrat, P., & Chalee, W.) 2015). Evaluation of long term chloride penetration in concrete under marine environment by Bulk diffusion test method. Burapha Science Journal, 20(1), 42-57.

[5] Jaturapitakkul, C., & Cheerarot, R. (2003). Development of bottom ash as pozzolanic material. Journal of materials in civil engineering, 15(1), 48-53.

Phongphoom Sornchomkaew is a lecturer in Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Rajamagala University of Technology Rattanakosin Wang Klai Kang Won Campus, Prachaup Kiri Kan, Thailand. He holds a Master of Engineering degree from Thammasat University. His research focuses on technology applications to facilitate and foster civil engineering study.

Dr. Boonsap Witchayangkoon is an Associate Professor of Department of Civil Engineering at Thammasat University. He received his B.Eng. from King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi with Honors. He earned his PhD from University of Maine, USA in Spatial Information Science & Engineering. Dr. Witchayangkoon current interests involve applications of emerging technologies to engineering.

Dr. Sayan Sirimontree earned his bachelor degree from Khonkaen University Thailand, master degree in Structural Engineering from Chulalongkorn University Thailand and PhD in Structural Engineering from Khonkaen University Thailand. He is an Associate Professor at Thammasat University Thailand. He is interested in durability of concrete, repair and strengthening of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures.

48

Phongphoom Sornchomkaew, Boonsap Witchayangkoon, Sayan Sirimontree

©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PRELIMINARY VISUALIZATION OF SURFACE WATER QUALITY FOR BANGKOK BY 5D WORLD MAP SYSTEM a

Khoumkham Ladsavong , Petchporn Chawakitchareon b

Yasushi Kiyoki , and Shiori Sasaki a b

b

a*

,

Department of Environmental Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, THAILAND Graduate School of Media and Governance, Faculty of Environment and Information Studies, Keio University, Shonan Fijisawa Campus, Kanagawa, JAPAN

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 30 January 2018 Received in revised form 15 March 2018 Accepted 19 March 2018 Available online 20 March 2018

Keywords: 5DWM System; water quality conditions; surface water quality; visualization

A B S T RA C T

This paper presents a preliminary visualization of surface water quality by 5D World Map (5DWM) system of three canals i.e. Bang Sue Canal, SamSen Canal, and Bang Krabue Canal in Bangkok Capital, Thailand. Seven sampling sites were selected and 13 parameters were analyzed i.e. temperature, pH, DO, BOD, COD, H2S, SS, TKN, NH3-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, TP, and Salinity. The previous data selected from 2007 to April 2017. Those parameters were analyzed and visualized by 5DWM system. The results indicated the 5DWM system visualized those parameters of each water sampling site in term of different colors and graphs that they indicated the water quality conditions change from past to present due to the system can show the water quality states in time series. © 2018 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction The availability and quality of water either surface or ground, have been deteriorated due to some important factors, such as increasing population, urbanization, etc. (Effendi, 2016). Urban development without a proper plan often results in environmental issues or causes human pollution and activities to increase and surrounding environment to be polluted (Lee et al., 2017). For this reason, the natural resources requirement for the production or manufacturing in the industrial is increased too. Therefore, the environment issues have absolutely followed us, such as water quality pollution, air pollution, namely. For the river water quality can be contaminated by human activities in two way as point source and non-point source (Gyawali et al., 2013). Point source pollutants are involved pollution from a single concentrated source that can be identified, such as an *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/049.pdf.

49

outfall pipe from a factory or refinery (Ngwira and Lakudzala, 2018). Non-point source pollutants are washed from the earth’s surface by storm runoff and enter water bodies of their own accord (Zampella et al., 2007). Thailand also faces those environment issues because in the big city has crowded area as Bangkok Capital. This city is a capital city of Thailand thus it is a crowded area and has the factories that restricts the concentration levels of chemicals and metal pollutants in wastewater being dumped into the environment. Form these few activities made the water quality pollution in Bangkok, such as the physical and chemical of water quality characteristic of canals is changed.

Therefore, the water quality characteristics of canals must usually measure and monitor. The Department of Drainage and Sewerage is responsible to observe, measure, monitor, and analyze the water quality of the canals in Bangkok Area. It is a department of Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA), Thailand. The BMA is usually collected and analyzed the water quality in terms of physical, chemical, and biochemical characteristics of each sampling point monthly from the past up to present. Therefore, in this research, we would like to gather and visualize the data of water quality that BMA collected and analyzed. In this case, the researchers selected 7 sampling points in 3 canals i.e. Samsen, Bang Sue, and Bang Krabue Canal that they are very close to Chao Phraya River. The physical and chemical characteristic of surface water quality and 13 parameters (temperature, pH, DO, BOD, COD, H2S, SS, TKN, NH3-N, NO2, NO3, TP, and Salinity) are selected and visualized by 5DWM system.

2. Materials and Methodology 2.1 5D World Map System 5DWM system is a tool for visualizing the data information to the map which can display and encourage the similitude of multidimensional data. It has introduced the architecture of a multi-visualized and dynamic knowledge representation system (Kiyoki et al., 2016; Kiyoki et al., 2012; Sasaki et al., 2010). Besides that, 5DWM has SPA function that SPA is a fundamental concept for realizing environmental system with three basic functions “Sensing, Processing, and Analytical Actuation” to design a global environmental system with Physical-Cyber integration.

Application of 5DWM system for visualization of water quality educated as a case study in Vientiane Capital, Lao PDR (Ladsavong et al., 2017) and Sichang Island, Chonburi Province, Thailand (Chawakitchareon et al., 2018). For the 5DWM system is indicated in figure 1.

2.2 Data Collection The data in this research collected from three canals i.e. Samsen, Bang Sue, and Bang Krabue Canal, Bangkok Capital, Thailand. The previous data of the water quality was selected from 2007 to 2017 or 11 years. Thirteen parameters are selected, including temperature, pH, DO, BOD, COD, H2S, SS, TKN, NH3-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, TP, and Salinity. From these parameters, 889 records were selected.

50

Khoumkham Ladsavong, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, Yasushi Kiyoki, and Shiori Sasaki

Figure 1: 5D World Map System

2.3 Data Preparation and Uploading The collected data is prepared in CSV file by manual method. The prepared files must be in the 5DWM system required format. In this case, we prepared 98 files of 7 sampling sites for uploading to 5DWM system. If the files are correctly prepared, they can absolutely upload to the system. After the uploading completed, the data will display as shown in Figure 2, the system can visualize the surface water quality data, and can analyze the surface water quality of the canals from the past to present.

Figure 2: Data Completed uploading in 5DWM system

3. Proposed Method In the water filed as environmental have many parameters in term of physical, chemical, and biochemical characteristic of monitoring and analysis. So, in this step, we aimed to visualization surface water quality at Bangkok Capital, Thailand with existing data and creating the *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/049.pdf.

51

multi-dimensional semantic space for multi-parameter of water quality. The sampling sites location is indicated in Figure 3 and Table 1.

Figure 3: Location of sampling sites Table 1: Location of sampling points with latitude and longitude Site Canal Latitude Longitude 1 Samsen 13.78444 100.50830 2 Samsen 13.78300 100.51100 3 Samsen 13.75700 100.55000 4 Bangsue 13.79613 100.57430 5 Bangsue 13.79604 100.55040 6 Bangsue 13.80004 100.52120 7 Bangkrabue 13.79189 100.51600 In this research, water quality parameters i.e. temperature, pH, DO, BOD, COD, H2S, SS, TKN, NH3-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, TP, and Salinity were visualized and displayed by 5DWM system in term of single parameter and multi-parameter.

4. Results and Discussion The parameters of water quality characteristic are in terms of physical and chemical were visualized and displayed by 5DWM system in different color as shown in figure 4. For overview of parameters that the system displayed in yellow and green color that they indicated the parameters values of each sampling site are different. The visualizing of each parameter is indicated in figure 5.

Figure 4: Overview of visualization of multi-parameter 52

Khoumkham Ladsavong, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, Yasushi Kiyoki, and Shiori Sasaki

Temperature

pH

DO

H2S

BOD

COD

SS

TKN

NH3-N

NO2-N

NO3-N

TP

Salinity

Figure 5: Single parameter visualization with 5D World Map system From Figure 5, the temperature indicated that seven sampling points displayed in green color.

Thus, 7 spots have the similar temperature values. For pH values of 7 spots were similar because the 5DWM system visualized in the same color (Green).

The DO values of 7 sampling points were different because the system displayed in orange and red. In this case, the red color means the DO values were nearly zero or zero and the orange spots mean the DO had the values of 5 to 6 mg/L. On the other hand, a big red spot means the DO was higher than another spot.

The 5DWM system visualized the H2S in term of red and orange color. The small red spots mean the H2S values were nearly zero or zero, the orange spots shown that the H2S values were low, and the big red spot indicated the H2S value was higher than another spot.

*Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/049.pdf.

53

The BOD was displayed in term of light green and yellow. In this case, the big green circles had the highest values than another circle, the yellow circles had the higher values than the small green circle, but they were less than the big green circles. For this reason, the BOD values of each sampling site were different. The COD values of each sampling point were similar because the system visualized in term of same color (Green) and the size of circles are also nearly the same.

The SS values of those sampling points were so different because the 5DWM system displayed the SS values in term of different color and size of the circles. The big yellow circle had the highest value than another circle. The small circles had the less values than another spot. For green circles were between the big and small circle.

The TKN values of the sampling points were different because the system visualized the sampling points in different color. In this case, the big red circle had the highest value than another circle and the small yellow circle had the less value than another spot. For orange circle was between the big red and small yellow circle.

The NH3-N values of each sampling point were very different because the system displayed them in term of difference color. In this case, the big red circle had the highest value and the small red circles had the less values than another circle. For orange circles were between the big and small red circle.

The NO2-N values of each sampling point were different because they had different color. In this case, 7 sampling sites had very less values because the circles size are very small. The red color circles had the NO2-N values between 0 to 0.49 (mg/L as N) and the orange circles had the NO2-N values between 0.5 to 1 (mg/L as N). The NO3-N values of each sampling site were different because they were different color. The yellow color circles had the highest values than the orange circles. The TP values of each sampling point were very low because the circles sizes were very small. The orange circles had the highest values than the red circles.

Finally, the Salinity values of each sampling point were different because they had different circles colors and sizes. In this case, the big red circle had the highest value and the small red circle had the less value than another circle. In case of single parameter visualization, the NH3-N is selected to display from 2007 to 2017 for finding the water quality conditions changing. The results indicated in Figure 6.

From Figure 6, the b NH3-N changed from 2007 to 2017 that indicated in the sampling sites colors and sizes of circles because the big circles had high values and small circles have less value.

The NH3-N in 2008 was different from another year and it had less values due to the sizes of circles were small. The red circles had higher values than orange circles. From displaying of 5DWM system, the ammonia concentration is found in the canals.

54

Khoumkham Ladsavong, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, Yasushi Kiyoki, and Shiori Sasaki

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Figure 6: Visualization of NH3-N from 2007 to 2017.

In addition, the 5DWM system can visualize the multi-parameter together and displayed in term of graphical (Sasaki and Kiyoki, 2018). The results indicated in figure 7, this figure indicated that 13 parameters were different when we looked at the graphs, but the temperature and pH values were quite similar in 7 sampling sites. The 5DWM system visualized and displayed 13 parameters in term of graphs that easier for data analysis or water quality analysis from the past to present because this system can display in the time series which made the users can analyze and compare the surface water quality of each sampling point directly. Therefore, this system is good for the visualization and interpretation of surface water quality in this research.

For clearly visualization to know the water quality changing from 2007 to 2017, the sampling site 6 is selected to display in the time series, the results indicated in Figure 8.

*Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/049.pdf.

55

Sampling Site 1

Sampling Site 2

Sampling Site 3

Sampling Site 5

Sampling Site 6

Sampling Site 7

Sampling Site 4

Figure 7: Multi-parameter Visualization with 5D World Map system along 7 sampling sites

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Figure 8: Multi-parameter visualization with 5D World Map system in sampling site 6.

56

Khoumkham Ladsavong, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, Yasushi Kiyoki, and Shiori Sasaki

Figure 8 indicated that temperature and pH were quite similar from 2007 to 2017. The NH3-N concentration had higher values in 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, and 2017. For other parameters were also changed from 2007 to 2017. Therefore, the water quality of the canals was absolutely changed from the past to present.

5. Conclusion The 5DWM system is a good system for surface water quality analysis and monitoring because it gathered the data in the past up to present for visualizing and displaying that facilitate the users for direct analysis and explain about the water quality conditions due to this system can visualize multi-parameter of the water quality characteristic together. Moreover, this system can monitor the water quality in the real time because it has sensing. Therefore, the 5DWM system can apply to environmental analysis and monitoring. For the next step, we will educate the temporal-data mining of surface water quality for applying the world-wide rivers or canals.

6. Acknowledgement This work is supported by AUN/Seed-net Collaborative research scholarship and Collaborative research between Chulalongkorn University and Keio University. This research is also in part support

by GESL program, Keio University, Japan and Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA, Thailand) for providing data information.

7. References Chawakitchareon, P., Ladsavong, K., Yasushi, K., Shiori, S., and Rungsupa, S. (2018). Global Sharing Analysis and Visualization of Water Quality by 5D World Map: A Case Study at Sichang Island, Thailand. Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXIX, IOS Press, vol. 301, pp.

216-227.

Effendi, H. (2016). River water quality preliminary rapid assessment using pollution index. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 33, pp. 562-567.

Gyawali, S., Techato, K., Yuangyai, C., and Musikavong, C. (2013). Assessment of relationship between land uses of riparian zone and water quality of river for sustainable development of river basin, A case study of U-Tapao river basin, Thailand. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 17, pp. 291-297.

Kiyoki, Y., Chen, X., HeimbĂźrger, A., Chawakitchareon, P., and Sornlertlamvanich, V. (2016).

Cross-cultural and Environmental Data Analysis in Data Mining Processes for a Global Resilient Society. Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXVII, IOS Press, vol. 280, pp.

281-298.

Kiyoki, Y., Sasaki, S., Trang, N. N., and Diep, N. T. N. (2012). Cross-cultural multimedia computing with impression-based semantic spaces Conceptual Modelling and Its Theoretical Foundations (pp. 316-328): Springer.

Ladsavong, K., Chawakitchareon, P., Kiyoki, Y., Veesommai, C., and Sasaki, S. (2017). Global Sharing Analysis and Visualization by 5DWorld Map (5DWM): A Case Study of Vientiane, Lao *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon). Tel: +66-2-2186674 E-mail: petchporn.c@chula.ac.th. Š2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/049.pdf.

57

PDR. The Proceedings of the 9th AUN/SEED-Net Regional Conference on Environmental Engineering, at the Zign hotel, Chonburi, Thailand, January 23-24, pp. 507-512.

Lee, I., Hwang, H., Lee, J., Yu, N., Yun, J., and Kim, H. (2017). Modeling approach to evaluation of environmental impacts on river water quality: A case study with Galing River, Kuantan, Pahang, Malaysia. Ecological Modelling, 353, pp. 167-173.

Ngwira, L., and Lakudzala, D. (2018). Assessment of the quality of SOBO industrial wastewater and its impact on water quality in Nankhaka River. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C. Sasaki, S., and Kiyoki, Y. (2018). Analytical Visualization Functions of 5D World Map System for Muti-Dimensional Sensing Data. Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXIX, IOS Press, vol. 301, pp. 71-89.

Sasaki, S., Takahashi, Y., and Kiyoki, Y. (2010). The 4D World Map System with Semantic and Spatio-temporal Analyzers. Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases XXI, IOS Press, vol.

206, pp. 1-18.

Zampella, R. A., Procopio, N. A., Lathrop, R. G., and Dow, C. L. (2007). Relationship of Land‐ Use/Land‐Cover Patterns and Surface‐Water Quality in The Mullica River Basin. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 43(3), pp. 594-604.

Khoumkham Ladsavong is a graduate student in Department of Environmental Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. He earned his bachelor degree in Environmental Engineering from Laos University, Laos.

His research encompassed surface water quality monitoring and visualization.

Dr.Petchporn Chawakitchareon is an Associate Professor in Department of Environmental Engineering at Chulalongkorn University. She received her B.Sc. (Med.Tech) and M.Sc.(Biochemistry) from Mahidol University. She obtained her PhD in Environmental Engineering from ENTPE-LyonI, France. Dr.Petchporn current interests involve utilization of industrial waste for environmental engineering applications and environmental data mining applications.

Professor Dr. Yasushi Kiyoki has been with Department of Environment and Information Studies at Keio University and from 1998 and he is currently a professor. Since 2011, he is a chair and coordinator of “Global Environmental System Leader Program (GESL)” in KEIO University. His research addresses semantic computing, environmental engineering, data mining, multimedia database systems, and knowledge base systems. He serves as the editor-in-chief on Information Modelling and Knowledge Bases (IOS Press). He was a keynote speaker in 7th IEEE International Conference on Semantic Computing, Sept. 2013, as the title of “A “Kansei: Multimedia Computing System for Environmental Analysis and Cross-Cultural Communication.”

Dr. Shiori Sasaki received her M.A. degree in Law & Politics and Ph. D. degree in Media and Governance from Keio University. She is a Project Assistant Professor of Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University from 2004. Her research interests are in the field of Information Modelling, Knowledge Database, Multimedia Retrieval and Analysis and Information Visualization. With research experiences in the field of International Relations and Information Technology, she has engaged in several interdisciplinary research projects which propose multimedia data analysis methods for the field of humanities and social science. She is a Program Co-Chair of an annual joint-conference between Indonesian and Japanese young researchers on Knowledge Creation and Intelligent Computing (KCIC) from 2012.

58

Khoumkham Ladsavong, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, Yasushi Kiyoki, and Shiori Sasaki

©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON SHADING PERFORMANCE BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AND NEO-MINIMALIST STYLE APARTMENT IN MALAYSIA Yasser Arab a b

a, b*

a

, Ahmad Sanusi Hassan , and Bushra Qanaa

b

School of Housing Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA Faculty of Architecture, Ittihad Private University, SYRIA

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 09 September 2017 Received in revised form 14 March 2018 Accepted 19 March 2018 Available online 21 March 2018

Keywords: Apartment façade; Traditional Architecture; Neo-minimalist Architecture; Sunlight Shading; Sun path diagram.

A B S T RA C T

This study compares shading performance on the front façade of two different architectural style apartments in a tropical region. The front façades of two high-rise apartment buildings in Putrajaya and Penang, Malaysia are selected in this study. The first case study is a sixteen stories apartment building with traditional architectural style located at Precinct KE P16 in Putrajaya. Putrajaya is the administrative city for the federal government, and it is considered the latest new city in Malaysia which showcases postmodern design which exhibits a range of complex geometric elements blending with colonial, modern and traditional architectural style. The second case study is Bayswater condominium with neo-minimalist style, a twenty six stories apartment located at the east cost of Penang Island, Malaysia. The research concludes that the shading elements and the façade design such as having recessed wall with the balcony and roof overhang make traditional architectural style is very sufficient and effective to provide good shading system during all the simulation hours except for the first and the last hour of the day due to the sun position angel. © 2018 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION This research discusses the sunlight shading performance and comparisons of the results between traditional and neo-minimalist architectural style apartment façade. This study tries to propose a guideline for architects to overcome the problems of brightness and overheating due to the insufficient façade design in term of shading performance (Bakhlah & Hassan, 2012; Arab & Hassan, 2015). This research focuses on the traditional and neo-minimalist apartment architectural style and examines the shading performance of the façade design as they are very common styles in Malaysia. One of the recent studies was by Ismail and Idris (2002) , and Lim, Ahmad and Ossen (2013) issues on heat gains due to exposure of modern and contemporary high rise building facades to direct sunlight. The other study was by Abdul Rahman (1995) and Omer (2008) on housing *Corresponding author (Yasser Arab).. E-mail: yasserarab2005@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/059.pdf.

59

design related to thermal comfort with integration of passive design solution to tackle solar radiation. The study will be based on computer software to do the simulation in order to get the sunlight shading, this study will be limited to two architectural style apartments in Malaysia the Traditional and Neo-Minimalist style which are presently the most popular styles in this region.

2. CASE STUDIES Two high-rise apartment buildings were selected as the case studies for the simulation on shading performance in this study. The first case study is a traditional architectural style apartment in Putrajaya the administrative city for the federal government, the city of Putrajaya as mention earlier is new city with Post-Modern design style which shows varieties of architectural style such as Colonial, Modern and Traditional Architectural styles (Hassan, 2005 & 1999). The selected building is a traditional style apartment consists of sixteen stories and located in Precinct KE P16 in Putrajaya (Figures 1 and 2)

Figure 1: First case study Traditional 1 apartment.

Figure 2: First case study Traditional 1 apartment (Left: section AA, Right faรงade) (Arab & Hassan, Malaysia, 2015) 60

Yasser Arab, Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, and Bushra Qanaa

On the other hand the second case is Waterbay condominium a Neo-Minimalist style, the twenty six stories apartment is located at the east cost of Penang Island, Malaysia. Penang (latitude 5° 25' 0" N, longitude 100° 19' 0" E) is the considered to be the second important state in Malaysia, which witnessed great developing progress during the last decade Figure 3 (Arab & Hassan, 2015).

The study is limited to the door section of the living room of each case study as the residents spend most of the day time in this room.

Figure 3: Waterbay condominium of Minimalist style (Left: Photo, Right: Section)

3. METHODOLOGY The extent sunlight penetration results will be calculated using SunTool computer simulation software, the goal of this study is to get the extent of sunlight penetration and façade shading area when the buildings expose to the maximum level of direct sunlight in the day time, the simulation will be done when the sunlight rays are perpendicular to the building’s façades (the east façade during the morning hours and the west façade in the afternoon and evening hours), then the survey will be able to discuss the efficiency of facade’s shading design (Mazloomi, Hassan, Bagherpour, & Ismail, 2010). The study will be limited to the changing of the sun path to get the perpendicular of the sunlight to the east (90°) and west (270°) Table 1 and Figure (4) in order to get the results at the maximum exposure level, and also the other limitation is that there are at certain times and dates that the sun path’s azimuth is not possible to have perfectly at 90° (Hassan & Arab, 2013; Arab & Hassan, 2012). In these cases, the closest azimuths nearest to 90° will be used when the simulation is made from 8:00 am to 6:00 pm, which are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Time, date and azimuth of the sun when the sunlight extent penetration of façade was calculated for cases in Malaysia. (Hassan & Arab, 2014) Orientation

East 90°

Time 7 am 8 am 9 am 10 am 11 am 12 pm

Date 23 March 25 March 27 March 28 March 29 March 29 March

Azimuth 90° 90° 89.8° 90.1° 90° 92.2°

Orientation

West 270°

Time 1 pm 2 pm 3 pm 4 pm 5 pm 6 pm

Date 16 September 29 March 18 September 26 March 24 March 22 March

*Corresponding author (Yasser Arab).. E-mail: yasserarab2005@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/059.pdf.

Azimuth 90.5° 89.8° 89.8° 89.9° 89.9° 89.9°

61

Figure 4: Sun path diagram shows the position of the sun perpendicular to the house facade from 7am to 12pm at orientation of 90° (left) and from 1pm to 6pm at orientation of 270° (right). Source: SunTool Software. (Hassan & Arab, 2014) In order to get the correct building orientation and positions, all locations, times, dates and orientations data will be keyed in the SunTool software to do calculate the percentage of the façade shading area (Figures 5 and 6), and then the facade’s dimensions such as depth of exterior shading device, height, wall’s width and sill height will be keyed in the SunTool software. The software will be able to do the simulations after drawing the façade section and enter all required data.

Figure 5: SunTool software (window section) (Arab & Hassan, 2015)

4. SUNLIGHT SHADING The main areas of the facade are opaque and glazing areas made from reinforce concrete columns and beams cladded with bricks and glasses windows. The amount of shading area of opaque and glazing areas will be calculated by 'SunTool' program (Figure 6) the amount of shading and exposed area will be calculated based on the following formula:

62

Yasser Arab, Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, and Bushra Qanaa

SGA = SGH x GW

(1),

where: SGA = Shaded glazing area, SGH = Shading Glazing Height, GW = Glazing Width, SOA = SH x L - SGA

(2),

where: SOA = Shaded opaque area, SH = Shading Height, L = Length of façade, EOA = TOA - SOA

(3),

where: EOA = Exposed opaque area, TOA = Total Opaque Area TOA = FH x L - TGA

(4),

where: FH = Floor Height, TGA = Total Glazing Area TGA = GH x GW

(5),

where: GH = Glazing Height EGA = TGA - SGA

(6),

where: EGA = Exposed glazing area, TGA = Total Glazing Area.

Figure 6: Formulas’ abbreviation on facade and section in the calculation of the amount of shading area (Arab & Hassan, 2015)

5. RESULTS ANALYSIS This study analysis compares the façade sunlight shading performance of two different architectural style apartment, the first is with traditional style in Putrajaya, while the other case study has neo-minimalist façade design located in Penang, Malaysia. The comparison will be between the living room door sections in both case studies. Table (2) and Figures 7 show the results of the shading area both case studies.

*Corresponding author (Yasser Arab).. E-mail: yasserarab2005@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/059.pdf.

63

Table 2: Shading Area percentage in both case studies.

Time 8:00 AM 9:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM 6:00 PM 7:00 PM

Traditional Style 8% 25% 48% 82% 100% 100% 100% 100% 79% 46% 23% 7%

Neo-Minimalist Style 6% 22% 42% 72% 100% 100% 100% 100% 67% 38% 23% 7%

Table 2 and Figure 7 show the simulation results of the sunlight shading of both of traditional and neo-minimalist case studies. The results show that the traditional style has slightly better performance during the early morning hours, starts with 8% total shading area at the first simulation hour and then increases to 25%, 48% and 82% shading area at 9:00, 10:00 and 11:00 am respectively. On the other hand the neo-minimalist style apartment starts the day with 8% shading area and goes up from 9:00 to 1:00 am with 22%, 42% and 72% total shading area in order. The noon hours show an excellent façade shading performance in both of traditional and neo-minimalist architectural style with 100% façade shading from 12:00 to 3:00 pm.

Figure 7: Sunlight Shading Performance in Traditional and Neo-Minimalist architectural style.

6. FINDING From the analysis, this study compiles with the finding as follows: •

The simulations show that both case studies have similar shading behaviour during afternoon and late evening hour.

•

The sunlight shading area is in minimum amount during the early morning and late evening hours, while the maximum during the noon hours.

•

Both of the case studies façade have an excellent shading performance mostly from 12:00 until 3:00 pm with 100% façade shading area.

•

The minimum shading area in the early morning and late evening hours is due to the small sunlight angle.

64

Yasser Arab, Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, and Bushra Qanaa

•

The results show that the façade of the Traditional style apartment has slightly better shading performance than Neo-Minimalist style apartment during the first three simulation hours.

•

The findings show that the Traditional and Neo-Minimalist façade design have same simulation results in the afternoon and late evening hours.

7. CONCLUSION The study concludes that the traditional architectural style building has better shading design than the new-minimalist building style, the early morning and late evening hours show the minimum level of façade shading area in both of traditional and neo-minimalist building because of the very small angle of the sun rays and the sun position in the sky at these hours (Landry & Breton, 2009; Arab & Hassan, 2015), the results show that both case studies have similar façade shading area behavior in most of the simulation hours. However, the simulations find that the Traditional architectural style has better shading performance during most of the day time. The recessed wall with balcony and other shading elements are very effective in the Traditional style façade design to prevent the extent of sunlight penetration from getting inside the house deeply except for the first and last hour of simulation because of the angle of sun position and provide good shading areas on the east and west facades of the building. This study will provide a good example and guideline for the architects and designer for better façade shading design.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to express appreciation for the financial support under Research

University Grant by Universiti Sains Malaysia.

9. REFERENCES

Arab, Y., & Hassan, A. S. (2012). Daylighting analysis of pedentive dome’s mosque design during summer solstice with case studies in Istanbul, Turkey. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 167-183.

Arab, Y., & Hassan, A. S. (2015). The Extent Sunlight Penetration Performance in Neo-Minimalist Style Apartments in Penang, Malaysia. International Conference on Biological, Civil and Environmental Engineering (BCEE-2015) (pp. 1-3). Bali, Indonesia: International Institute of Chemical, Biological & Environmental Engineering.

Arab, Y., & Hassan, A. S. (2015). The Sunlight Shading Performance in Traditional Style Apartment, Case Study of Putrajaya, Malaysia. American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences, 119-128.

Arab, Y., & Hassan, A. S. (2015). The Sunlight Shading Performance in Traditional Style Apartment: Case Study of Putrajaya, Malaysia. American Transactions on, 4(2), P 119-128.

Bakhlah, M. S., & Hassan, A. S. (2012). The study of air temperature when the sun path direction to ka’abah: with a case study of Al-Malik Khalid Mosque, Malaysia. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 185-202.

Hassan, A. S. (1999). Putra Jaya: The Direction of Malaysian New Town. Proceedings of the 5th International Congress of Asian Planning Schools Association (APSA) (pp. 165-175).

Seoul, South Korea: Seoul National University.

Hassan, A. S. (2005). Konsep Rekabentuk Bandar di Semenanjung Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur dan *Corresponding author (Yasser Arab).. E-mail: yasserarab2005@yahoo.com. ©2018 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 9 No.1 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V09/059.pdf.

65

Bandar-Bandar di Sekitarnya. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia Press.

Hassan, A. S., & Arab, Y. (2014). The Extent of Sunlight Penetration Performance on Traditional Style’s Apartment Façade in Putrajaya, Malaysia. Modern Applied Science, 8(5), 132.

Hassan, A. S., & Arab, Y. (2013). The essence of design with light: Single pedentive dome mosque in Turkey and Bosnia Herzegovina during winter solstice. In S. Omer, & A. S. Hassan, From Anatolia to Bosnia: Perspectives on Pedentive Dome Mosque Architecture. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia Press.

Hassan, A. S., & Arab, Y. (2014). The Extent of Sunlight Penetration Performance on Traditional Style’s. Modern Applied Science, 8(5), 132-142.

Ismail, A. M., & Idris, M. F. (2002). Issues in tropical architecture: High-rise buildings and wind driven. Proceeding of The 2nd Civil Engineering National Seminar. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia.

Landry, M., & Breton, P. (2009). Daylight simulation in Autodesk 3ds Max Design 2009-advanced concepts. Autodesk Inc. Mazloomi, M., Hassan, A. S., Bagherpour, P. N., & Ismail, M. R. (2010). Influence of Geometry and Orientation on Flank Insolation of Streets in an Arid Climate City. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Pages 540-544.

Omer, A. M. (12.9 (2008)). Energy, environment and sustainable development. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 2265-2300.

Rahman, A. M. (1995). Housing design in relation to environmental comfort: A comparison of the traditional Malay house and modern housing including work in the tripartite programme between Universiti Sains Malaysia, the Welsh School of Architecture and the UK building research. Building research and information, 23(1), 49-54.

Professor Dr. Ahmad Sanusi bin Hassan teaches in Architecture Programme at the School of Housing, Building and Planning, University Sains Malaysia (USM). He obtained Bachelor and Master of Architecture from the University of Houston, Texas, USA. He was awarded a PhD degree from the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom. He was promoted to Associate Professor and later Full Professor. His research focuses on computer simulation on daylighting and thermal comforts, architectural history and theory, and housing in urban design. He is one of the nine regional writers involved in the preparation of Guideline: Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries: A Discussion Document, which was launched at The Earth/World Summit, Johannesburg in September 2002. At the university, he lectures in architecture courses related to urban design, studio, history, Computer Aided Design (CAD), and computer movie animation. He has integrated all these specialisations into his research, teaching, consultation and publications. He had designed several architectural projects such as mosque, USM guest house and a proposal for low-cost houses for fishermen community.

Yasser Arab is a research assistant and currently pursuing his PhD in sustainable architecture on Resident’s Satisfaction and Sun Shading Model of Apartment Façade in Penang at school of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, Malaysia, he is teaching Studio For first year student and involved in supervising student of Master of architecture. He obtained his Master degree in Sustainable Architecture from Universiti Sains Malaysia, his research was related to natural lighting in Turkish Mosques. He got his bachelor of architecture from Ittihad Private University, Aleppo, Syria. He is registered Architect in the Syrian Engineers Union.

Bushra Qanaa is an architect; she obtained her bachelor of architecture from Ittihad Private University, Aleppo, Syria. She is a registered Architect in the Syrian Engineers Union. She worked for two and half years with Midmac company in Aleppo, Syria.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All products names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification purposes only. Use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering, Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th November 2017.

Yasser Arab, Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, and Bushra Qanaa 66

:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Call-for-Papers: ITJEMAST invites you to submit high quality papers for full peer-review and possible publication in areas pertaining to our scope including engineering, science, management and technology, especially interdisciplinary/crossdisciplinary/multidisciplinary subjects.

More Research Publication Available at

http://TUENGR.COM

Submit your science research today.

:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies