ITJEMAST @13(5)2022 Research Articles

Volume 13 Issue 5 (2022) ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

http://TuEngr.com LC/MS Profiling of Shilajit Extract for Antimicrobial & Antifungal and Cytotoxic Activities

Method of Improving Designs of Built Local Schools According to Iraqi and International Criteria An Experimental Based Approach Using Artificial Intelligence Algorithm for Determining the Surface Roughness by Milling Process Accounting Disclosures of Related Parties Transactions and Investment Risks Tackling the Pandemic: A Knowledge Management Perspective

Microorganisms Cultures Screening with High Proteolytic Properties and Capable Fix Atmospheric Nitrogen to Speed up the Poultry Manure Biodegradation

Roles of Variation in Architectural Programming Approaches in Architectural Designs

Some Legal Issues About Fintech in Payment Activities in Vietnam

School Travel Behavior Research Milestone (1979-2021): A Bibliometric Review Analysis

Privacy Regulations in the Middle East: Challenges & Solutions

The Effect of Consumption Values on Customer Satisfaction of Living Room Furniture in Saudi Arabia

The Relationship between Physical Self-Concept and Job Satisfaction among Physiotherapists in Saudi Arabia Large-Scale Laboratory Modeling of the Performance of the Stone Column Group in Improving the Behavior of Sandy Soils Impact of Applying Artificial Intelligence on Decision-Making Quality:A Descriptive Study in Saudi Arabian Private Sector Organizations Measuring New Normal Strategy of Brands on Digital Branding during Covid-19

Effects of Polypropylene Fibres on the Properties of Reinforced Structural Lightweight Concrete Made With Expanded Clay Aggregates A Survey on STEAM Education in Saudi Arabia: Early Childhood Russian Experience of Export Regulation of Food Flows Modelling and Design of Deep Drawing Tools with Using Logopress Bird Droppings Biodegradation and Its Use as Fertilizer for Tomato Cultivation Human Resource Management through an Islamic Len: A Systematic Review & Research Agenda and Practical Implications

©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Gadi (University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM) Professor Dr.Hitoshi YAMADA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Professor Dr. Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN ) Professor Dr.Mikio SATOMURA (Shizuoka University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN) Emeritus Professor Dr.Mike Jenks (Oxford Brookes University, UNITED KINGDOM ) Professor Dr.I Nyoman Pujawan (Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, INDONESIA) Professor Dr.Toshio YOSHII (EHIME University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Neven Duić (University of Zagreb, CROATIA) Professor Dr.Dewan Muhammad Nuruzzaman (University Malaysia Pahang MALAYSIA) Professor Dr.Masato SAITOH (Saitama University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Sergei Shlykov (Stavropol State Agrarian University, RUSSIA)

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Professor Dr.CH V K N S N Moorthy (Vasavi College of Engineering, INDIA) Associate Prof. Dr. Paulo Cesar Lima Segantine (University of São Paulo, BRASIL) Associate Prof. Dr. Kurt B. Wurm (New Mexico State University, USA) Associate Prof. Dr. Truong V.B.Giang (Vietnam National University, Hanoi, VIETNAM) Associate Prof. Dr. Fatemeh Khozaei (Islamic Azad University Kerman Branch, IRAN) Associate Prof. Dr Ahmad Abdulwahid Dhannoon (University of Mosul, IRAQ) Assistant Prof.Dr. Zoe D. Ziaka (International Hellenic University, GREECE) Associate Prof.Dr. Junji SHIKATA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Associate Prof.Dr. Sillapaporn Srijunpetch (Thammasat University, THAILAND) Assistant Prof.Dr. Akeel Noori Abdul Hameed (University of Sharjah, UAE) Assistant Prof.Dr. Rohit Srivastava (Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, INDIA) Assistant Prof. Dr.Muhammad Yar Khan (COMSATS University, PAKISTAN) Assistant Prof. Dr. David Kuria (Kimathi University College of Technology, KENYA) Dr. Mazran bin Ismail (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA) Dr. Salahaddin Yasin Baper (Salahaddin University - Hawler, IRAQ) Dr. Foong Swee Yeok (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA) Dr.Azusa FUKUSHIMA (Kobe Gakuin University, JAPAN) Dr.Yasser Arab (Dhofar University, OMAN) Dr.Arslan Khalid (Shandong University, CHINA) Dr.Viktor S. Kukhar (Ural State Agrarian University, Yekaterinburg, RUSSIA)

©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

Volume 13 Issue 5 (2022) http://TuEngr.com

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES

Method of Improving Designs of Built Local Schools According to Iraqi and International Criteria

13A5A

An Experimental Based Approach Using Artificial Intelligence Algorithm for Determining the Surface Roughness by Milling Process

13A5B

Accounting Disclosures of Related Parties Transactions and Investment Risks

13A5C

Tackling the Pandemic: A Knowledge Management Perspective

13A5D

Roles of Variation in Architectural Programming Approaches in Architectural Designs

13A5E

School Travel Behavior Research Milestone (1979-2021): A Bibliometric Review Analysis

13A5F

The Effect of Consumption Values on Customer Satisfaction of Living Room Furniture in Saudi Arabia

13A5G

Effects of Polypropylene Fibres on the Properties of Reinforced Structural Lightweight Concrete Made With Expanded Clay Aggregates

13A5H

A Survey on STEAM Education in Saudi Arabia: Early Childhood

13A5I

Russian Experience of Export Regulation of Food Flows

13A5J

Modelling and Design of Deep Drawing Tools with Using Logopress

13A5K

Bird Droppings Biodegradation and Its Use as Fertilizer for Tomato Cultivation

13A5L

i

Human Resource Management through an Islamic Len: A Systematic Review & Research Agenda and Practical Implications

13A5M

LC/MS Profiling of Shilajit Extract for Antimicrobial & Antifungal and Cytotoxic Activities

13A5N

Microorganisms Cultures Screening with High Proteolytic Properties and Capable Fix Atmospheric Nitrogen to Speed up the Poultry Manure Biodegradation

13A5O

Some Legal Issues About Fintech in Payment Activities in Vietnam

13A5P

Privacy Regulations in the Middle East: Challenges & Solutions

13A5Q

The Relationship between Physical Self-Concept and Job Satisfaction among Physiotherapists in Saudi Arabia

13A5R

Large-Scale Laboratory Modeling of the Performance of the Stone Column Group in Improving the Behavior of Sandy Soils

13A5S

Impact of Applying Artificial Intelligence on Decision-Making Quality:A Descriptive Study in Saudi Arabian Private Sector Organizations

13A5T

Measuring New Normal Strategy of Brands on Digital Branding during Covid-19

13A5U

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

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Method of Improving Designs of Built Local Schools According to Iraqi and International Criteria Asma H. Al-Dabbagh1*, Muthanna A. Mahmood1 Department of Architecture, University of Mosul, IRAQ. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +964-7721280936. Email: asma.dabbagh @uomosul.edu.iq).

1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5A Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 24 October 2021 Received in revised form 26 March 2022 Accepted 07 April 2022 Available online 16 April 2022

Keywords:

Schools design; Functional performance; Iraqi criteria; International criteria; Functional components; Educational spaces; Social spaces; Cultural spaces; Sport spaces; Supportive spaces; Administration spaces.

Local schools in Iraq suffer from low functional performance caused by several reasons, including; increasing the number of students, changing curriculum, and the developing methods of learning, as well as high economic consequences of demolition for these schools, which cast a shadow on the functional performance of these schools. Therefore, their design needs to be improved to match these changing factors. This paper tries to study this problem by following two steps; Firstly, delineation of built types of local schools, delineation of functional components with the area, then comparing these functional components and their areas with that in Iraqi and International standards, to discover the shortage quantitatively and, to satisfy the needed necessities, secondly, the step of preparation (design alternatives) for each type, by using mechanisms as addition, subtraction, and substitution. The research was able to put forward possible alternatives to built types of local schools, the adoption of design solutions to address the shortage for each type and try to come up with multiple alternatives, then choose the best alternative of them, and by using evaluation criteria qualitatively, the best alternative selected. Hence, the Double Courts alternative in primary schools seems to be the best one, depending on five criteria; a ratio of satisfying necessities, orientation as an environmental request, financial economy, ratio of modification, and design flexibility.

Disciplinary: Architecture, Education ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Dabbagh, A.H.A., Mahmood, M.A. (2022). Method of Improving Designs of Built Local Schools According to Iraqi and International Criteria. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5A, 1-9. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.85

1 Introduction The development of teaching methods and the change of educational curricula in the world and Iraq have made school buildings unable to meet this development. The old type of schools in Iraq and especially in Mosul city hurt the educational achievement of students and the staff

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performance. Further in, the economic consequences of replacing the existing school buildings (which represent a large number of school buildings as a repetitive model all over Iraq) with others, was a motive for this research. Previous studies did not state design strategies to develop the buildings of the local school, another motive, is to satisfy the needed necessities quantitatively and qualitatively, and to achieve the client goals from an economic, functional, and environmental point of view. Our objective is to identify design strategies to meet the existing shortage in local schools and meet future needs and requirements, to provide a flexible school building that encounters the rapid developments in teaching methods and curriculum (Al-Masoudi., 2019; Valkiria, 2008). Initially, the shortage in the local schools was determined through comparisons between the functional components of those existing schools, on the one hand, and international and Iraqi standards on the other, to determine the scale of the problem, and then give accurate strategies to solve these problems.

To achieve this objective, by following the next methodology: - Define the international and Iraqi area standards for the primary school buildings and define their different types and sizes to determine the local reality of primary school buildings and diagnose defects in them.

- make a comparison between the functional components in local schools and that within the international and local standards and determine the nature of the shortage.

- Giving design alternatives and then choosing the best one according to several criteria.

2 Literature Review Nasser and Shaayi (2018) exhibited the capacity of the class are 30 students for primary schools, and 25 students for secondary schools, with the provision of a cafe’, waiting for space for students and parents, and sports spaces (basket, flying, and ping pong), also stated 2.5m² per student as the minimum area for primary schools, 10m² per student for secondary schools.

Al-Etabi (2011) focused on local schools by making the outer spaces more sustainable, by proposing design solutions for them, such as changing their forms and their furniture, because of their role in education and social interaction.

Moore (2013) addressed the relationship between educational outputs and the architectural design of educational social and support spaces, and the impact of a physical characteristic of primary schools upon educational performance, such as class size, school size, and the number of students. Also, they pointed out that small schools offer an opportunity for student gathering and this enhances interactive education, also indicated the importance of the small classes and the relatively low density in enhancing interactive education and educational results outputs.

Al-Masoudi (2019) provided a set of solutions to address the reality of technological development and changing teaching methods in school buildings, by correcting disadvantages in the functional program and space organization and giving solutions to the complementary educational spaces. Moreover, the study identified indicators for the design of attractive and flexible spaces that correspond to the changing in educational curriculum, as well as responding to

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rapid developments in information technologies, through minor modifications to the old spaces, as the design of multi-use spaces to meet the functional requirements of the educational process (Heritor, Jose, 2008, Zhang, 2015; Mohammed, 2020).

Heritor & Jose (2009) concerned with developing the plans of existing schools in Portugal by the change in the educational curriculum and laws, also classified the school spaces functionally; the educational spaces used during official hours; social spaces such as a library, meeting rooms, theatres that can be used out of official working hours; and support spaces such as service spaces, administration spaces, and others.

Finn and Achilles (2016) referred to the educational environment, its appropriate scale, and its role in enhancing the educational outdoor education, by dividing it into parts proportionated to the human dimension of children, also indicated the importance of social spaces to increase social interaction, which improves the educational process.

These studies stated the different kinds of spaces in the school, which are devoted to many purposes, and addressed some affecting characteristics, such as school and class sizes according to student number (Finn, 2016).

3 Method 3.1 Investigation Steps 1- Selection of samples from (built types of local schools) in Mosul city, the sample was tested based on the most prevalent sample after holding a questionnaire at the Nineveh Education Directorate. (Figure 1) 2- Analysis of this sample (primary schools) to determine the functional shortage in the school’s components quantitatively and qualitatively. The space allocated to each student in each classroom was calculated according to the number of students occupying the educational space and social spaces, and according to the function allocated to each space, it was also clear that there is no space allocated for cultural Spaces in schools that are executed. Calculating the total area of administrative spaces and percentages of the total area of movement spaces, storerooms, and construction structures, showing the extent of the problem by comparing to the school buildings around the world according to local and international standards. (See Table 1) 3- Analysis of international examples of schools, which meet the modern trends in International learning methods, to identify its components quantitatively and qualitatively.

4- Classify local and international standards specialized in schools. Where Table (2) clarifies the quantitative deficiency by comparing the spaces allocated to each student with what is being implemented in international schools to keep pace with the development in educational methods and advanced education curricula and finding the qualitative shortages at local schools and calculating the spaces allocated to them. The sum represents a quantitative deficiency in building spaces. (See Table 2) 5- Make a comparison to determine the shortage in local schools in terms of functional components (quantity and quality). Table (3) represents a comparison of the spaces and functions available in local schools with the average of the International and local standards ((quantitively and qualitatively)) to diagnose the real deficiency in those schools, which in turn affects the educational process. The areas allocated to each student in educational spaces or recreational Spaces or other supportive activities in comparison to a minimum international and local standards .as shown in Table 3.

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(a)Site plan (b) Ground Floor (c) First Floor Figure 1: Chosen sample plan for the most prevalent pattern for primary schools in the city.

3.2 Treatment Step Identify the design strategies to fulfill the shortage of built types of local schools, using the “addition, subtraction, and substitution” mechanisms to generate several design alternatives.

Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5 show the design alternatives.

4 Result and Discussion 4.1 Analyzing a Sample Analyzing a sample of the built type of local school (quantitatively and qualitatively), and calculating the area allocated to each student, the total area of the chosen samples is equal to 1650 m. (see Table 1).

Table 1: Analyzing a sample of a local school to determine functional components quantitatively and qualitatively.

Type of spaces

Sub- Type of spaces

Area (m2)/ Student

Educational spaces

Classrooms Scientific Laboratories Art Studio Courtyards Open spaces

1.6 1.6 1.4 1.1 4.1 0.0 20 15% 15% 0.5 % 15 15 20

Social spaces Cultural spaces Sport spaces Supportive spaces

Administration spaces

Open sport spaces Circulation spaces Structure Stores Administer room Assistant room Teachers’ rooms

4.2 Mechanisms to Treat the Shortage The architects used many mechanisms to produce many new solutions (alternatives), that differ from their original forms, these mechanisms are Addition, Subtraction and Addition, Repetition, Division, Rotation, Displacement, and Internal modification. Applying treatment mechanisms to the (built types of local schools), to produce four alternatives according to probable orientation.

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Table 2: ‘Identifying components in international schools quantitatively and qualitatively Type of spaces

Sub-Type spaces

Educational spaces

Classrooms Scientific Lab. Laboratories Open classrooms Art Studio Courtyards Open spaces Café & Restaurant Waiting Halls Interior Halls Library Poetry Club Painting Studio Music Studio Acting Studio Dancing Studio Open sport spaces

Social spaces

Cultural spaces

Sport spaces

Close sport spaces

Supportive spaces

Administratio n Spaces

Open swim. Pool Close swim. Pool Multi-purpose hall Theater Bathroom Circulation Structure Parking Stores Manager room Assistant room Teachers rooms Advisor rooms Offices

Mohammad Mean according Al-durra to international school standards (m2) 1.6 2.4 1.6 2.5 0.0 2.3 0.0 2.4 1.4 3.2 1.1 3 4.1 4.2 0.0 1.7 0.0 0.3 0.0 2.3 0.0 2.4 0.0 2.5 0.0 3.8 0.0 0.95 0.0 0.95 0.0 0.95 20 24 0.0 13.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.35 0.0 2.2 1.2 1.3 15% 25 % 15 % 22.5% 0% 12.5% 0.5 % 8.5% 15 28 15 23 40 50 0.0 15 0.0 20 Total area Shortage

Number of students

Shortage within standards (m2)

360 students 60 to two classes 60 to two classes 60 to two classes 60 to two classes 90 students 360 students 360 students 180 students 90 students 60 students 30 to one class 30 to one class 30 to one class 30 to one class 30 to one class 60 students 60 students 0 0 220 persons 220 persons 20 persons ----------------1 person 2 room 3 room 2 room 2 room

0.8 0.9 2.3 2.4 1.8 1.9 0.1 1.7 0.3 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.8 0.95 0.95 0.95 4.0 13.9 0.0 0.0 2.35 2.20 0.1 10% 7.5% 12.5% 8% 13 8 10 15 20

Total Shortage (m2) 288 54 138 144 108 171 36 612 54 207 144 75 144 144 144 144 240 834 0.0 0.0 517 484 2 10% 7.5% 12.5% 8% 13 16 110 30 40 6752 m2

Criteria for evaluation of alternatives: Functional: Ratio of achieved area, the achieved area / the required area.

Functional: The future expansion, in means of horizontal one only, where vertical expansion has excluded since it is equal in all alternatives.

Economic: Ratio of subtracted areas to add other spaces / total areas.

Economic: Ratio of added areas / total areas.

Environmental: Orientation, a ratio of classrooms at good orientation, a ratio of classrooms at acceptable orientation, a ratio of classrooms at non-acceptable orientation.

To state the relative priorities between previous criteria, a questionnaire was held for the Architects at (the office of Education in the governorate of Nineveh) and discovered that the sequence (Economic criteria, then Functional, then Environmental) represents the Office’s priorities according to many reasons (see Table 4). The ratio of achieving the area, The ratio of classrooms in good orientation, Accessibility in terms of movement, The ratio of added areas (minimum costs), The ratio of subtracted areas to add other spaces, and the future expansion.

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Table 3: Finding quantitative and qualitative shortages compared to international standards of schools Type of spaces

Sub- Type spaces

Mohammad Aldurra school

Minimum built area

Educational spaces

Classrooms Scientific Lab. Laboratories Open classrooms Art Studio Courtyards Open spaces Café & Restaurant Waiting Halls Interior Halls Library Poetry Club Painting Studio Music Studio Acting Studio Dancing Studio Open sport spaces Close sport spaces Open swim. pool Close swim. pool Multi-purpose hall

1.6 m2 1.6 m2 0.0 0.0 1.4 m2 1.1 m2 4.1 m2 …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……

20 m2 …… …… …… ……

35 m2 51 m2 0.0 0.0 35 m2 350 m2 Not designed …… …… …… …… …… …… …… …… ……

600 m2 …… …… …… ……

Theater Bathroom

……

Each25 student=1 w.c 15% 15% …..

0.5 % 15 m2 15 m2 40 m2 …… ……

……

Number 15

Social spaces

Cultural spaces

Sport spaces

Supportive spaces

Circulation Structure Parking Stores Manager room Assistant room Teachers rooms Advisor rooms Offices

Administration Spaces

…… …… …… ……

15 m2 15 m2 40 m2 …… ……

Mean of the area according to standards 2.0 m2 2.2 m2 2.3 m2 2.0 m2 3.5 m2 2.1 m2 4.2 m2 1.2 m2 0.5 m2 2.0 m2 2.4 m2 2.5 m2 3.8 m2 3.8 m2 3.8 m2 3.8 m2 24 m2 13.9 m2 …… ……

2.35 with a size of 225 person ……

Each 20 students=1 w.c 22 % 12.5% Number 23 1.6 % Number 1=28 Number 2=23 Number 5=30 Number 2=15 Number 2=20

Minimum area 60 m2 75-80 m2 70-80 m2 60-70 m2 90-100 m2 600-700 m2 designed 150 -200 m2 150 m2 200 m2 200 m2 50 m2 70 m2 70 m2 70 m2 70 m2 700 m2 400 m2 …… ……

517 m2 ……

Number 18=25 12.5% 22 % 460 m2 1.6% 28 m2 46 m2 150 m2 30 m2 40 m2

It turned out that the economic factor is one of the most important criteria for evaluating alternatives because of the deterioration of our country in the economic situation. The sample chosen represents a large number of schools implemented in the city.

Table 4: ‘‘The result: evaluation of alternatives according to the priorities of criteria’’ Criteria

Alternative Alternative1 Alternative2 Alternative3 Alternative4

Criteria 1 The ratio of the achieve d area 18%

Criteria 2 The ratio of classrooms in good orientation

Criteria 3 The future expansion

Criteria 4 Accessibi lity in terms of movemen t

Criteria 5 The ratio of subtracted areas to add other spaces

Criteria 6 The ratio of added areas (minimu m costs)

Average Ratios

17%

13%

5%

22%

25%

100%

Credit

16 19

9 11

3 10

4 4

14 21

13 20

59 85

17 17

14 14

3 7

4 4

16 16

15 15

69 73

Addition Subtract And Addition Mirror Addition And Rotation

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Treating Mechanisms

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(a) Ground Floor

(b) First Floor Figure 2: Design Alternative#1.

(c) Second Floor

(a) Ground Floor

(b) First Floor Figure 3: Design Alternative#2.

(c) Second Floor

(a) Ground Floor

(b) First Floor Figure 4: Design Alternative#3.

(c) Second Floor

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(a) Ground Floor

(b) First Floor Figure 5: Design Alternative#4.

(c) Second Floor

5 Conclusion The research stated many strategies with its mechanisms to improve the designs of local schools, satisfy the needed necessities, and cover the shortage. The research stated many alternatives deferent in their attitudes, functionally, environmentally, and economically speaking.

The client emphasizes economic then functional then environmental criteria, therefore the Architect can orient the designing process according to the initial objectives. The research offered the potential to manipulate the design according to different attitudes. The “Double Courts” alternative in “Primary schools” seems to be the best one, depending on five criteria. This methodology can help to improve other local school types, in the different attitudes.

6 Acknowledgment The authors appreciate the scientific and financial support from Mosul University. We can only extend our thanks and appreciation to the Nineveh Education Directorate and the members responsible for managing the school buildings and their employees for their untiring efforts in enriching us with sufficient information to make the research successful. As we especially thank and appreciate the administrator of the primary schools, for their action legging assistance in standing up to the reality of the situation of those schools, determining the capacity of the student’s momentum, and providing us with the data required to complete the research.

7 References Nasser, A., Shaayi, H. (2018). Evaluation of breeding facilities according to the foundations and strategic criteria and its impact on the urban development of the city of Nasiriyah. DhiQar University Journal of Engineering Science, 9(1), 50-52.

Moore, T., Lockney, A. (2013). School Design for Educational Performance and Design Applications. Center for Architecture and Urban Planning Research: An International Journal, 5(2) 95-99.

Al-Masoudi, A. (2019). The Reality of School Buildings and Their Impact on the Educational Reality of The Holy City of Karbala according to the Comprehensive Quality Standards. College of Basic Education for Educational and Human Sciences, 43(2), 2034-2038.

Heritor, T., Jose, S. (2009). Portugal secondary school modernization programmer.

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Finn , J ., Achilles , C . (2016). Answers and Questions About Class Size: A Statewide Experiment. American Educational Research: An International Journal.27(3), 557-577.

Valkiria, N. (2008). School Building Condition for School Attendance and Academic Achievement. Journal of Environmental Psychology: An International Journal. 43(2), 2034-2038.

Zhang, Y. (2015). Clever Classrooms. Report on HEAD Project. 14(1), 74-81.

Mohammed, A. (2020).

Creative unconventional solutions to https://albenaamag.com

develop educational buildings.

Dr.Asma H.Al-Dabbagh is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Architecture College of Engineering, University of Mosul, Iraq. She got a Doctoral degree in Architecture and Theory of Architecture, Iraq. Her research is devoted to Architectural Theory and Building Type.

Eng.Muthanna A. Mahmood is a master's candidate at the Department of Architecture College of Engineering, University of Mosul, Iraq. He got his Bachelor’s degree in Architecture Engineering from the Mosul University of Iraq. His research focuses on the Architectural Design of Educational Buildings.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

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An Experimental Based Approach Using Artificial Intelligence Algorithm for Determining the Surface Roughness by Milling Process Afrim Gjelaj1, Besart Berisha1*, Wojciech Sitek2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Prishtina, Prishtina, KOSOVA. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, POLAND. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +383 49 135 073, Email: besart.berisha@uni-pr.edu).

1

2

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5B Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 14 January 2022 Received in revised form 19 March 2022 Accepted 29 March 2022 Available online 16 April 2022

Keywords:

Milling; Surface roughness model; Testing of material; Optimization; Artificial intelligence.

Surface roughness plays an important role in the machining area. This work aims to investigate surface roughness with the use of main machining parameters. Steel C35 is used as workpiece material while performing experimental work with twenty-one experiments, and coolant is taken as constant. The experimental model considers two ways to analyze the surface roughness using Artificial Intelligence. The first is the measurement of surface roughness after machining, and the second is to compare the measurement in a theoretical way.

Disciplinary: Mechanical Engineering. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Gjelaj, A., Berisha, B., Sitek, W. (2022). An Experimental Based Approach Using Artificial Intelligence Algorithm for Determining the Surface Roughness by Milling Process. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5B, 1-11. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.86

1 Introduction The purpose of the experiment is to verify the coefficients and exponents based on the Taylor expression, for the surface roughness during the milling process in universal milling machines. In this way, it is possible to determine the optimal main machining parameters for conducting the experiment. The workpiece material for the case of our research will be investigated for steel C35.

The most influential factors in the research of surface roughness for prismatic workpieces are: v - cutting speed, f - working step and a - cutting depth, as influencing factors of the process.

Other factors such as the refrigerant, the geometry of the metal cutting tool, and the rigidity of the

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processing system, and so these parameters in this paper are kept at a constant level because they are not the subject of their research [1-4].

Two models are developed for surface roughness depending on main machining parameters where one of the models is based on the regression model while the other model was developed with the help of artificial intelligence such as Neural Network and error of validations for this case are obtained with values 4.01% [5]. The authors present the predictive models for surface roughness Ra during the ball-end milling process which were developed using RSM, GA, and GWO algorithms.

After that the validity of the model was confirmed using ANOVA methods, so the model accuracy for surface roughness was around 10% due to the setup of the experiments [6].

The authors have developed the predictive models for surface roughness both for metal and aluminum using high-speed milling operation [7], also other research has used artificial intelligence to predict the surface roughness into deep drilling for some steel components [8].

Effect of Various Microstructures Obtained from Heat Treatment on Machinability Behavior of Ti6Al-4V Alloy, by drilling process [9]. This study investigates the surface roughness properties of specimens that were machined mechanically in a different way before the measuring in order to achieve a different roughness. Workpiece materials and research methods by milling machining are determined to choose the milling tool, main machining parameters, positioning of the workpiece, analytical model to compare the results and to predict the best surface roughness Ra with utilize of Neural Network.

2 Methods and Material The realization of the experiment procedure is described as follows step by step as seen in Figures 1 and 2. These experiments are included the type of material, equipment for testing the hardness of the material, saw machine, milling machine, the main machining parameters, the equipment for measuring the surface roughness, as well as Matlab software for comparing theoretical and practical results and validation of the experiment. The dimensions of the workpiece are bxhxl (62x16x200) mm, the type of material is C35, it is also determined through the device SADT Hartip 300 as in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Portable hardness tester HARTIP 3000.

Table 1 shows the chemical composition of steel C35.

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Table 1: chemical composition of workpiece material C35.

Elements 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Symbols C Si Mn Ni P S Cr Mo

Percent [%] 0.32 – 0.39 Max 0.4 0.5 – 0.8 Max 0.4 Max 0.045 Max 0.045 Max 0.4 Max 0.1

During the experimental approach of milling process emulsion, it is used as coolant regarding in the experiment setup. The setup experiment of surface roughens is presented step by step as follows (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Setup experiment for surface roughness The type of milling tool is staggered-tooth side milling cutters HSSECo5, with dimensions 80x5x27 (mm), and 32 cutting teeth. These cutting tools are utilized for slot milling and parting off, or when only the sides of the workpiece are to be machined in straddle setups, which are described in their characteristics in Table 2 [11, 12].

Table 2: Cutting tool characteristics.

Type Milling cutter design standard Cutting tool material Cutting edge diameter Number of teeth Nz Bore diameter Width of cutting edge

N DIN 1834 HSSE Co5 80 [mm] 32 27 [mm] 5 [mm]

Artificial intelligence such as Neural networks is used for our experiment to determine the surface roughness for the milling process based on the main machining parameters (cutting speed v, feed rate f, and depth of cutting a). The diagram of surface roughness using Artificial Intelligence AI, based on the number of inputs, hidden layers, and till output functions for our case Ra (see Figure 3).

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Figure 3: Diagram of surface roughness Ra, using AI. Matrix plan - for the realization of the experimental part based on the main machining parameters, universal milling machine, metal cutting tool, etc. Table 3 are showed the matrix plan with main machining parameters and experimental plan. Also, are presented the measurement values of surface roughness after the cutting process regarding the experiment, and the measurement value is calculated to compare the practical part of the experiment with the theoretical part.

Table 3: The level of main machining parameters for realization of experiment.

Inputs 1 2 3

Cutting speed (V=X1) X1max = 255 X1mid = 160 X1min =100

Feed rate (f=X2) X2max = 0.3 X1mid = 0.2 X1min = 0.13

Depth of cut (a=X3) X3max = 1.5 X1mid = 1.0 X1min =0.5

Determining the surface roughness function and selecting the level of input sizes as well as determining the mathematical model for the surface roughness of the milling process as output function is given by the expressions as 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐵𝐵 · 𝑣𝑣 𝛽𝛽1 · 𝑓𝑓𝛽𝛽2 · 𝑎𝑎𝛽𝛽3

(1).

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐵𝐵 · 𝑋𝑋1 ^𝛽𝛽1 · 𝑋𝑋2 ^𝛽𝛽2 · 𝑋𝑋3 ^𝛽𝛽3

(2).

The expression can take the form as follow:

In Table 4, V is showed the tensile strength for nominal thickness like our experiment with dimension 200x62x16mm, and measurement of hardness with mid-value HB=166, as showed in Table 4, as well as from a theoretical aspect it is read the value of tensile strength Rm as in Table 4, with value 550 Mpa.

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Table 4: the tensile strength RM. Nominal thickness [mm] Rm [Mpa]

To 16

16 – 100

100 - 250

250 – 500

550

520

500

470

3 Results and Discussion In the following steps are presented the results for testing material and surface roughness.

Using the device HARTIP 3000, it makes nine measurements and after that is automatically calculated the middle value and is compared with Vickers hardness (HV), hardness Brinell (HB) and Rockwell hardness HRB. Measurement of hardness Brinell (HB), by a plate with a nominal thickness of 16 mm, after nine measurements have been achieved the average value of nine measurements HB = 166, based on Figure 1, when determining the type of steel as C35. Hardness measurements for the material selected for the surface roughness analysis, then the nominal D values of the hardness measurements are given below and also compared to HV, HB and HRB as in Table 4.

Table 4: Hardness measurement for nominal value D and HV, HB, HRB. Test nr.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Mid value

D 662 682 671 620 656 682 630 670 683 662

HV 169 191 179 127 162 191 136 181 192 169

HB 166 188 176 126 160 188 135 178 189 166

HRB 85.6 90.7 88.0 71.6 83.9 90.7 75.5 88.5 90.9 85.6

This work measures surface roughness Ra, Rt and Rq, whereas we have the choice to present and analyze surface roughness Ra. As a device for measurement of surface roughness it utilizes the measuring tool from the company Mitutoyo type SurfTest SJ-301, also some input data are determined into the device as Standard ISO 1197, range AUTO, profile R, N = 5, Cut-off = 2.5, filter Gauss [10].

Scientists and engineers mainly collect the data in order to determine the nature of a relationship between theoretical and practical experiments. The experiment thus generates various data that could be denoted (x1, xn, . . . , xi+1), based on the machining parameters. The equation can be used for many purposes in the field of manufacturing such as surface roughness, measurement of temperature, cutting force, etc [15].

After some calculation of regression coefficient (B = 1.085; β1 = 0.096; β2 = 0.022; β3 = 0.011) and combination of value for main machining parameters the expression is obtained, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 1.085 · 𝑋𝑋1 ^0.096 · 𝑋𝑋2 ^0.022 · 𝑋𝑋3 ^0.011

(3).

The investigation of the measured profile and R-Profile of surface roughness is presented with values Ra11 = 1.50 µm, Rz11 = 9.0 µm and Rq11 = 1.86 µm. Completely based on the input data of

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the Mitutoyo measuring device such as Profile R, cut-off 2.5 mm, filter gauss and range AUTO as seen in the output of measurements in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Measurement of surface roughness with Mitutoyo device.

Table 5 presents an experimental measurement of surface roughness Ra, Rq and Rt. Table 5: Measurement of surface roughness Ra, Rq and Rt. Nr. Exper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

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Spindle speed n [rpm] 100 100 100 160 160 160 255 255 255 160 160 160 160 160 100 100 160 160 255 255 255

Feed rate f [mm/min] 13 13 13 13 13 13 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 33 33 13 33 13 21 33

Depth of cut [mm] 0.5 1 1.5 1.5 1 0.5 0.5 1 1.5 1.5 1 1 1 1 0.5 1 0.5 1 0.5 1.5 1.5

Ra [µm] 1.03 1.26 1.69 1.78 1.43 1.59 1.41 1.70 1.84 1.79 1.50 1.18 1.71 1.42 1.91 1.42 1.75 1.69 1.29 1.16 1.20

Rq [µm] 1.30 1.58 2.07 2.28 1.73 2.03 1.89 2.06 2.26 2.12 1.86 1.51 2.06 1.87 2.33 1.72 2.23 1.99 1.63 1.37 1.56

Rt [µm] 6.41 7.73 8.13 12.66 7.77 9.92 11.07 8.91 10.69 9.93 9.00 6.86 9.98 10.41 10.33 7.98 11.53 8.43 7.97 6.72 8.35

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The model is significant when it fulfilled the conditions, and when the surface roughness prediction error is taken with five (5) percent as a value for orientation Ft = 10.01 and calculation of Fr, with value 2.406, as 𝐹𝐹𝑟𝑟 < 𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡

(4).

2.406 < 10.01

(5).

After the calculation, the results are achieved as

Table 6 showed the matrix plan and results of the natural logarithm of measurement surface roughness only for parameter Ra. Table 5: Measurement of surface roughness Ra, Rq and Rt. Nr. Exper.

X1

X2

X3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

-1 -1 -1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 0 1 1 1

-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 -1 1 -1 0 1

-1 0 1 1 0 -1 -1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 -1 0 -1 0 -1 1 1

Measurement value Ra [µm] 1.03 1.26 1.69 1.78 1.43 1.59 1.41 1.70 1.84 1.79 1.50 1.18 1.71 1.42 1.91 1.42 1.75 1.69 1.29 1.16 1.20

Natural algorithm Y = lnRa 0.03 0.231 0.525 0.577 0.358 0.464 0.344 0.531 0.61 0.582 0.405 0.166 0.536 0.351 0.647 0.351 0.56 0.525 0.255 0.148 0.182

Theoretical value Ra [µm] 1.401 1.41 1.419 1.484 1.475 1.466 1.549 1.558 1.568 1.584 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.431 1.44 1.466 1.506 1.533 1.568 1.584

Table 6 presents the analysis of relative errors, squares validation, mean squared and absolute errors using the Matlab software, such as the neural network.

Table 6: Analysis of relative errors.

Analysis of errors and squares Relative mean error (RME) R-squared validation Mean squared (MSE) Mean absolute errors (MAE)

Values 1.8093 -28.24 3.2737 0.47333

A new method of measurement of surface roughness is presented based on a color distribution statistical matrix, also as an optimal selection of machining parameters for the milling process is described [16, 17].

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Figure 5 shows the 21 experiments of surface roughness that are generated in depend on measurement data, where blue points presented the practical measurement and yellow points are a predicted model in a theoretical way.

Figure 5: Comparison of the surface roughness value Ra for theoretical and practical.

Results are explained in Figure 6 for four measurements and their comparison from practical to theoretical way. Figure 6(a) shows the measurement of surface roughness 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎1 which depended on the measurement of surface roughness in a practical way 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎1𝑝𝑝 =1.03 µm, regarding the

theoretical value of surface roughness 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎1𝑡𝑡 =1.401 µm. Also, the diagram of Figure 6 is obtained

depending on the main machining parameter as cutting speed (Vc m/min), depth of cut (mm), and feed rate (f mm/min) in this case is constant.

Figure 6(b) presents also surface roughness 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎2 , in the function of cutting speed and depth

of cut, where feed rate is taken as constant.

Figure 6(c) shows the measurement of surface roughness for experiment number Ra11, where the main machining parameter (cutting speed = 40 m/min, feed rate = 0.20 mm/min, and depth of cut = 1mm), are get for this case with a middle value. With these parameters are realized four experiment 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎11 = 1.50 µm, 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎12 = 1.18 µm, 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎13 = 1.71 µm and 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎14 = 1.42 µm. Whereas, the

theoretical value for these experiments will be as follows 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎11 =𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎12 =𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎13 =𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎14 = 1.49 µm.

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a)

b)

c) d) Figure 6: (a) Measurement of surface roughness 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎1 = 1.401 µm (where cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut are taken by minimum level); (b) Surface roughness by experiment 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎2 = 1.41 µm (where cutting speed and feed rate is taken as minimum level afterward depth of cut is taken at middle level); (c) Obtained results of surface roughness 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎11 = 1.49 µm, where three levels of main machining parameters are taken as the middle level ; (d) Surface roughness by experiment 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎17 = 1.466 µm (where cutting speed is taken as middle level, afterward feed rate and depth of cut are taken by minimum level).

However, practical values are almost never the same and their comparison with theoretical ones is variable. Figure 6(c) showed the diagram in the function of cutting speed Vc (m/min) and feed rate f (mm/min) as follows.

The measurement of surface roughness Ra17 is presented in the function of cutting speed (V) and feed rate (f) Figure 6(d).

Also the expression for calculation of surface roughness for the case of 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎11 and

𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎17 is shown as follows, regarding Tables 4 and 5.

The calculation of 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎1 with level code (X1min, X2min and X3min),

𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎1 = 1.085 · 𝑋𝑋1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.096 · 𝑋𝑋2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.022 · 𝑋𝑋3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.011 = 1.401 [𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 ]

(6).

The calculation of 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎2 , based on the level code of the table (X1mid, X2min and X3mid) 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎2 = 1.085 · 𝑋𝑋1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.096 · 𝑋𝑋2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.022 · 𝑋𝑋3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.011 = 1.41 [𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 ]

(7).

𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎11 = 1.085 · 𝑋𝑋1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.096 · 𝑋𝑋2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.022 · 𝑋𝑋3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.011 = 1.49 [𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 ]

(8).

The calculation of surface roughness with utilize of level code,

Utilize of calculation for case of level code based on Table 5 (X1mid, X2min and X3min),

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𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎17 = 1.085 · 𝑋𝑋1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.096 · 𝑋𝑋2𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.022 · 𝑋𝑋3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ^0.011 = 1.466 [𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 ]

Mathematical

modeling

and

multi-response

optimization

is

(9).

used

for

improving

machinability with using of artificial intelligence [18].

Figure 6 shows the 3D diagrams regarding the measurement and calculations based on the Equations above.

4 Conclusion The paper mainly is focused on analyzing surface roughness also and another problem is measurements of the hardness of steel C35. Measurement of surface roughness with device Mitutoyo for the case of a milling operation is presented. This work performs twenty one measurements depending on the main machining parameters. Where are taken maximal, middle and minimal values for cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cutting, also are combined and for experiments Ra11,…, Ra14 are taking the middle value for three machining of parameters.

Measurement of hardness steel for material C45 is obtained through device Hard tip Tester 3000, with value HB = 166. The measurement of value for nominal hardness is compared from practical to the theoretical way such as Hardness Brinell (HB), Hardness Vickers (HV) and HRB. The best value of surface roughness is for case one Ra1 = 1.03 µm. Afterward are presented diagrams for four experiments Ra1, Ra2, Ra11, Ra15 and Ra17, which are depending on the main machining parameters.

5 Availability of Data And Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6 References [1] Hanief M, Wani MF. Effect of surface roughness on wear rate during running-in of En31-steel: Model and experimental validation. Materials Letters. 2016;176:91-3. DOI: 10.1016/j.matlet.2016.04.087

[2] Pfeifer T, Kurokawa S, Meyer S. Derivation of parameters of global form deviations for 3-dimensional surfaces in actual manufacturing processes. Measurement. 2001;29(3):179-200. DOI: 10.1016/S02632241(00)00038-5 [3] Altintaş Y, Budak E. Analytical prediction of stability lobes in milling. CIRP annals. 1995;44(1):357-62. DOI: 10.1016/S0007-8506(07)62342-7 [4] Simunovic G, Simunovic K, Saric T. Modelling and simulation of surface roughness in face milling.

International Journal of Simulation Modelling. 2013;12(3):141-53. DOI:10.2507/IJSIMM12(3)1.219 [5] Sekulic M, Pejic V, Brezocnik M, Gostimirović M, Hadzistevic M. Prediction of surface roughness in the ballend milling process using response surface methodology, genetic algorithms, and grey wolf optimizer algorithm. Advances in Production Engineering & Management. 2018;13(1):18-30. DOI: 10.14743/apem2018.1.270 [6] Stephenson DA, Agapiou JS. Metal 10.1201/9781315373119

cutting

theory and

practice.

CRC

Press;

2018.

DOI:

[7] Flores V, Keith B. Gradient boosted trees predictive models for surface roughness in high-speed milling in the steel and aluminum metalworking industry. Complexity. 2019. DOI:10.1155/2019/1536716

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[8] Bustillo A, Correa M. Using artificial intelligence to predict surface roughness in deep drilling of steel components. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing. 2012;23(5):1893-902. DOI: 10.1007/s10845-011-0506-8 [9] Noghani, M, Bayat, O, Moghadam, O, Mehrizi, V. Effect of Various Microstructures Obtained from Heat Treatment on Machinability Behavior of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy. International Journal of Engineering.

2022;35(1):184-190. DOI: 10.5829/ije.2022.35.01A.11 [10] Mitutoyo. Europen Metrology Solutions from Mitutoyo. 2022. https://mitutoyo.eu/en_us (accessed January 2022).

[11] Kibbe, R, Meyer, R, Stenerson, J, Curran, K. Machine tool practices. 11th Ed.; Pearson, Boston, 2020:497-558.

[12] Orion.

Narrow disc milling cutter HSSE Co 5: Type https://media.witglobal.net/stmedia/hahnkolb/documents/LANG_en/HK-14103365.pdf

N.

2017.

[13] Matras A. Research and Optimization of Surface Roughness in Milling of SLM Semi-Finished Parts Manufactured by Using the Different Laser Scanning Speed. Materials. 2019;13(1):9. DOI: 10.3390/ma13010009 [14] Wang Y, Wang Y, Zheng L, Zhou J. Online Surface Roughness Prediction for Assembly Interfaces of Vertical Tail Integrating Tool Wear under Variable Cutting Parameters. Sensors. 2022; 22(5):1991. DOI: 10.3390/s22051991 [15]

Navidi WC. Statistics for Engineers and sciences. 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2014:592-658.

[16] Liu J, Lu E, Yi H, Wang M, Ao P. A new surface roughness measurement method based on a color distribution statistical matrix. Measurement. 2017;103:165-78. DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2017.02.036.

[17] Narooei, KD, Ramli, R. Optimal Selection of Cutting Parameters for Surface Roughness in Milling Machining of AA6061-T6. International Journal of Engineering. 2022;35(6):1170-1177. DOI: 10.5829/ije.2022.35.06c.08 Dr. Afrim Gjelaj is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Manufacturing and Automation. He got his Doctoral degree (Dr.Sc) in the field of Manufacturing and Automation frm the University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Maribor, Slovenia. His researches are Machining Processes, Modern Manufacturing, Reverse Engineering, CAD/CAM, CNC and additive Technology.

Dr. Wojciech Sitek, is an Associate Professor at the Department of Fundamentals of Machinery Design, at Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland. His researches are Mechanical Materials, Artificial Intelligence, Composite Materials, Manufacturing Processes, and Modelling.

MSc. Besart Berisha (Ph.D. student) is a Teaching Assistant at the Department of Manufacturing and Automation, University of Prishtina, Kosova. He got his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Prishtina, Kosova. His research focuses on the Manufacturing and Design of Products, Hydraulics and Pneumatics.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Accounting Disclosures of Related Parties’ Transactions and Investment Risks Anass Hamad Elneel Adow1* College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, KINGDOM of SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: anass.hamad @gmail.com).

1

Abstract

Paper ID: 12A5C Volume 12 Issue 5

The company provides accounting information by various mandated and different means. These accounting disclosures are compulsory by Received 19 January 2022 Received in revised form 30 the national legislation, government regulations, accounting GAAPs, and March 2022 international financial reporting standards (IFRS) with the objectives of Accepted 09 April 2022 financial reporting. However, ‘Accounting disclosures’ are the primary Available online 18 April sources of providing information to the stakeholders and Investors. It helps 2022 the users in decision-making to achieve the best possible allocation of Keywords: available economic resources, investment of funds, and accessing investment Accounting disclosure risks. This study examines the impacts of accounting disclosure of related information; Investment risk, Support investment parties’ transactions on the regular investment risks and irregular investment risks and also the competitive advantage. The result indicates decision; Regular that there is a positive correlation between the disclosure of the related investment risk; parties as an independent variable, regular investment risks, and irregular Irregular investment risk; Competitive investment risk as a dependent variable.

advantage; Impact of accounting disclosure.

Disciplinary: Management Science (Investment and Finance Management). ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Adow, A. H. E. (2022). Accounting Disclosures of Related Parties’ Transactions and Investment Risks.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5C, 1-6. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.87

1 Introduction Accounting disclosure is sharing accounting information and financial data for clear and reliable reporting to the investors and stakeholders. For making transparency, and complete reporting, accounting disclosures are necessary. It is also necessary for the investors and other stakeholders to interpret the accounting data and analyze risk and forecast future profit on investment. The International Accounting Standards (IAS)-24

focuses on ensuring that the

financial statements of a company include the disclosures required to emphasize the fact that “its financial position and profit or loss could have been affected by the existence of related parties and by transactions and outstanding balances, including liabilities, with related parties”.

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However, Accountants are the gatekeepers of the financial markets (Wallman, 1995).

'Accounting Disclosures' gives information about the financial policies of a business. It is useful for both the present investors and also for potential investors. The accounting disclosure includes balance sheets, income statements, cash flow statements, changes in equity statements, and notes.

According to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), all the accounting policies are to be publicized. It allows transparency in the system and helps investors access the risk before the investment. Accounting disclosure is an effective way of exchanging information between management and external users, considering the separation of ownership from control. The consequence of information asymmetry and agency issues between management and investors is the need for accounting disclosure (Healy and Palepu, 2001).

2 Literature Review Lambert et al. (2007) examined the relationship between accounting information and the cost of capital. The researchers are developing a model compatible with the pricing model for capital assets and multiple securities. The model shows that both directly and indirectly, the consistency of accounting information influences the cost of capital. Whereas, The relationship between the environmental influences selected (the degree of economic growth, the shape of the economy, the size of the equity market, the operation of the equity market, and the dispersion of equity ownership in the equity market) and the disclosure criteria for 35 stock exchanges in various countries. The overall results show that stock exchange disclosure criteria relate to the environmental factors selected in different countries (Adhikari & Tondkar, 1992). The real effect of accounting measures and disclosure on real decisions focuses on a firm's investment efficiency, derivative transactions, and assets portfolios. The results concluded that accounting standards and empirical study are necessary to find the real effects of accounting measures to generate sharper and novel insights. (Kanodia & Sapra, 2016).

On the other hand, the research on the impact of accounting disclosure on value significance in multiple levels of the firm life cycle was being investigated on 101 companies listed on the Tehran Stock Exchange (Iran) between the years 2005 to 2011 were chosen as samples. In the business life cycle, the sample firms were classified as Introduction, growth, maturity, and ShakeOut (decline) in four phases by taking advantage of the cash flow trend as a proxy for the business cycle (Mashayekhi et al., 2013). Similarly, the disclosure practices of corporate annual reports in the five ASEAN countries. The study aimed to reveal that the accounting disclosures are conducive to accounting harmonization in the ASEAN region. The result indicates that the public companies in ASEAN thought likely to benefit from operating the business (Craig & Diga, 1998). Cooke (1998) reviewed a variety of improvements, including the protocol for Rank Regression. Due to the inherent properties of ranks and their use in regression analysis, an extension is proposed, providing an alternative mapping that replaces the data with their standard scores. The usual approach to scores retains the benefits of using ranks, however, particularly in testing hypotheses, it has other desirable features. Regressions based on untransformed data, the log odds ratio of the

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dependent variable, and the ranks and regressions using standard ratings are applied to information disclosure data in the annual reports of companies in Japan and Saudi Arabia.

Regression using usual scores has several benefits over ranks, which partially depend on the data structure. (Cooke, 1998).

Pavlopoulos et al. (2019) examined the association between the quality of integrated reporting disclosure and a firm's valuation. The study found a positive relation between firm performance and integrated disclosures. In addition, the researchers concluded that there is a positive association between earning quality and integrated reporting. Ahmed et al. (2011) discussed the disclosure or reporting practices of accounting changes in the annual report of a listed finance company on the Dhaka (Bangladesh) stock exchange (DSE). The study examined the practices of DSE-listed companies on accounting change flow for the period of one decade (1999 to 2008). The study also discussed reporting accounting changes, changes in equity, earnings per share, firm size, and audit firm. The study found a significant relationship between disclosure and audit firms. Hossain (2008) did an empirical analysis of the degree to which the listed banking companies in India have both mandatory and voluntary disclosure. The results of the relationship between company-specific attributes and complete disclosure of the sample firms, i.e., compulsory and voluntary, are also published. However, the study indicated that when disclosing mandatory items, the mean score is 88, while the average score for voluntary disclosure is 25. The findings also indicate that scale, profitability, board composition, and market discipline variables are relevant, and other factors such as age, business maturity, and asset-in-place are negligible to explain the degree of disclosure.

The research aims to study the concept and impact of the accounting disclosure of related parties' transactions and regular investment risks and irregular investment risks. This study also investigates the impacts of accounting disclosure on related party transactions and the competitive advantage. Thus, this study evaluates to test the validity of the hypotheses: H#1: There is a relationship between the disclosure of related parties and regular investment risks.

H#2: There is a disclosure of related parties and irregular investment risks.

Accounting Disclosure Independent Variable

Investement Risk

Competitive Advantage

Dependent Variable

Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Variables and Hypothesis

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3 Research Methodology The study follows the deductive approach in formulating the problem, hypotheses, and study dimensions. The inductive approach was applied in testing the study's hypotheses, whereas the descriptive analytical approach was applied in the field study.

3.1 Data collection For the research, primary data were collected through the questionnaire from various banks placed in Khartoum city during 2019, while the secondary data sources were books, references, periodicals, and university thesis.

The study population includes accountants in Sudanese

commercial banks in Khartoum city,165 questionnaires were distributed, and 150 questionnaires were retrieved, with a 91% recovery rate.

4 Results 4.1 Reliability Test Alpha-Cronbach coefficient test was used to measure the stability of questionnaire questions, and simple linear regression was used to test the study hypotheses.

The value of the Cronbach's rat for all the study axes is greater than (80%), which means a high degree of "internal stability" for all the questionnaire hypotheses, whether this is for each axis separately or for all the axes of the questionnaire. This confirms that the study's measures enjoy internal stability for their phrases, which enables us to rely on these answers in achieving the study's goals and analyzing its results.

4.2 Regression Analysis The formulated hypothesis for the given study has been tested by using a regression model through SPSS software. In this study, hypotheses have been formulated and analyzed to meet the research objectives. To validate H#1, a simple linear regression is used in constructing the model where the disclosure of the related party as an independent variable (X), and the regular investment risks (Y) as a dependent variable, and Table 1 shows.

Table 1: Simple linear regression analysis results for the first hypothesis Regression Coefficients 2.083

T-test

Sig.

Statistical significance

7.032

0.000

Significance

β̂1

0.492

7.075

0.000

Significance

(R)

0.507 0.457

β̂ 0

2

(R ) (F) test

100.058 Y1= 2.083 + 0.492x

The result of Table 1 shows a direct correlation between the disclosure of related parties as an independent variable and regular investment risks as a dependent variable, where the values of the simple correlation coefficient (0.507). The coefficient of determination value reached (0.457),

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and this value indicates that the disclosure of related parties (independent variable) impacts (45.7%) of regular investment risks (dependent variable). Whereas, the simple regression model was significant, as test value (F) reached (100.058), which is a function of significance level (0.000) at β=2.083. Average regular investment risks when disclosure of related party is zero at β1 =0.492. In case of increased disclosure of related parties by one unit, the competitive advantage will increase by 49.2%. From the above, it is clear thatH#1 has been validated (sig. <0.05).

To validate H#2, a simple linear regression is used in constructing the model where the disclosure of related parties independent variable (X), and irregular investment risks (Y2) as a dependent variable, and Table 2 illustrates this.

Table 2: Simple Linear Regression Analysis results for H02 Regression Coefficients 2.051

T-test

Sig

Statistical significance

7.544

0.000

Significance

β̂1

0.498

7.793

0.001

Significance

(R)

0.485 0.354

β̂ 0

2

(R ) (F) test

119.727 Y2= 2.051 + 0.498x

Table 2 indicates a direct correlation between the disclosure of related parties as an independent variable and irregular investment risks as a dependent variable, where the values of the simple correlation coefficient (0.485). The coefficient of determination value reached (0.354), and this value indicates that the disclosure of related parties (independent variable) impacts (35.4%) of irregular investment risks (dependent variable). The simple regression model was significant, as the test value (F) reached (119.727), which is a function of significance level (0.001) at β=2.051. The average irregular investment risks when disclosure of related party zero at β1=0.498: Increased disclosure of related party, one unit, which increases the irregular investment risks by 49.8. The result indicates that H#2 has been validated (sig. <0.05).

5 Conclusion The present study has evolved the view on accounting disclosures of related parties in regular and irregular investment risks. The study is concerned with the stakeholder's accounting disclosures and their impact on the investment risks. The result of the study proves that average regular and irregular investment risks have a positive relationship. In other words, the accounting disclosure of the related party increases the irregular investment risk by 49.8 on one unit and the regular income effect by 49.2 on a single unit. However, this research has many limitations. In the study on 150 Sudanese commercial banks in Khartoum city chosen disclosure items are the report's subject. In addition, the choice of things does not reflect the degree of significance perceived by users of financial statements, and the coding strategy is subject to coder bias. The study is confined only to the Sudan country in banking companies and economies. Therefore, the findings and

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conclusions' implications should be interpreted with caution despite these possible limitations.

Future research should discuss the disclosure of investments risk in other developed countries and examine both the quality and quantity of the disclosure of investments risk.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding authors.

7 Acknowledgments This research is supported by the Deanship of Scientific Research at Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University Alkharj under the Project No. 18260/02/2021

8 References Adhikari, A., & Tondkar, R. H. (1992). Environmental factors influencing accounting disclosure requirements of global stock exchanges. Journal of International Financial Management & Accounting, 4(2), 75105.

Ahmed, A. A. A., Wahiduzzaman, K., and Shakawat, H. M. (2011). Reporting Practice of Accounting Disclosure on Changes in Listed Companies of Bangladesh. ASA University Review, 5(1), 83-96.

Cooke, T. E. (1998). Regression analysis in accounting disclosure studies. Accounting and business research, 28(3), 209-224.

Craig, R., & Diga, J. (1998). Corporate accounting disclosure in ASEAN. Journal of International Financial Management & Accounting, 9(3), 246-274.

Healy, P. & Palepu, K. (2001). Information Asymmetry, Corporate Disclosure, and the Capital Markets: A Review of Empirical Disclosure Literature. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 31, 485-520.

Hossain, M. (2008). The Extent of Disclosure in Annual Reports of Banking Companies: The Case of India.

European Journal of Scientific Research, 23(4), 660-681.

Kanodia, C., & Sapra, H. (2016). A real effects perspective to accounting measurement and disclosure: Implications and insights for future research. Journal of Accounting Research, 54(2), 623-676.

Lambert, R., Leuz, C., & Verrecchia, R. E. (2007). Accounting information, disclosure, and the cost of capital.

Journal of accounting research, 45(2), 385-420.

Mashayekhi, B., Faraji, O., Tahriri, A. (2013). Accounting Disclosure, Value Relevance and Firm Life Cycle: Evidence from Iran. International Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 1(6), 69-77. DOI: 10.11648/j.ijebo.20130106.1 Pavlopoulos, A., Magnis, C., & Iatridis, G. E. (2019). Integrated reporting: An accounting disclosure tool for high-quality financial reporting. International Business and Finance, 49, 13-40.

Wallman, S. M. (1995). The future of accounting and disclosure in an evolving world: The need for dramatic change. Accounting Horizons, 9(3), 81.

Dr.Anass Hamad Elneel Adow is a Lecturer at Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia. He holds a PhD from Alzaiem Alazhari University, Sudan. His research areas are Accounting and Finance, Business Administration and Economics.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Tackling the Pandemic: A Knowledge Management Perspective Mahmoud Ibrahim Fallatah1* Department of Business Administration, College of Business, Umm Al-Qura University, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: mifallatah@uqu.edu.sa) 1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5D Volume 13 Issue 5

The current coronavirus pandemic represents a huge challenge for nations and organizations around the world. The present paper Received 03 January 2022 Received in revised form 01 discusses how knowledge management could be applied to guide April 2022 organizations during such a traumatic event. Specifically, building upon Accepted 07 April 2022 Mitroff’s model of crisis management, the paper asserts that the acquisition, Available online 19 April creation, sharing, utilization, and storing of knowledge are essential for 2022 organizations as they deal with the pandemic. The paper suggests some Keywords: required organizational, team, and individual requirements that, when Coronavirus; COVID-19; appropriately available, should help organizations in their knowledge Knowledge sharing; management efforts.

Knowledge creation; Knowledge acquisition; Crisis management.

Disciplinary: Management, Knowledge Management, Crisis Management, Technology and Innovation ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Fallatah, M. I., (2022). Tackling The Pandemic: A Knowledge Management Perspective. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5D, 110. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.88

1 Introduction The coronavirus pandemic (Covid-19) and its subsequent variants represent a once-in-alifetime crisis that organizations of all kinds need to overcome. It has unfolded with an extreme speed and is characterized by a high level of uncertainty that increases the already-huge challenges usually associated with crises (Baker et al, 2020). In the business world, many organizations of all sizes have been struggling. Some have been closed, and others have been forced to mass layoffs (Alfaro et al, 2020; Bartik et al, 2020). To survive, leaders around the world must have the selfawareness to react quickly and have a solid system in their organizations to cope with such traumatic events (Carmeli & Schauboerck, 2008; Dwivedi, 2020; Garcia, 2006; He et al., 2021).

In the current paper, knowing the importance of knowledge as a source of competitive advantage and the role of organizations to integrate specialized knowledge (Grant, 1996), I discuss

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the role of knowledge management in managing traumatic crises. Knowledge management, defined as the organizational process of acquiring, creating, sharing, and storing knowledge (Alavi & Leidner, 2001; Darroch, 2003), has been growing rapidly as a field of study (Serenko & Dumay, 2017). Specifically, its impact on managing crises has been much discussed in the literature (e.g.

Wang & Belardo, 2005).

The Mitroff crisis management model is used to illustrate the phases that organizations go through in crises (Mitroff, 1994). The role of several knowledge management activities in managing crises is explained in the extant paper to act as a guideline for organizations.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Crisis Management in Organizations An organizational crisis is defined as a low-probability, high-impact event that threatens the viability of an organization, which suggests a swift decision (Pearson & Clair, 1998). According to the literature, two conditions surround crises (Pauchant & Mitroff, 1992). First, they disturb the entire system, and the manager's assumptions are challenged. Second, they cause a serious threat to the survival of the organization. The coronavirus pandemic is, indeed, a crisis that threatens organizations and requires quick decisions. Therefore, managing such a crisis effectively is essential for organizations to survive (Mitroff et al., 1987). Pearson and Clair (1998) define crisis management as “a systematic attempt by organizational members with external stakeholders to avert crises or to effectively manage those that do occur.” It is impossible to prevent all crises, but organizations can build a systematic way to manage them effectively (Mitroff et al, 1987).

Learning

4.Recovery

3.Damage Contain

1.Signal Detection

2.Preparation/ Prevention

Figure 1: Mitroff’s Five Phases of Crisis Management The literature suggests that crisis management goes through five phases: signal detection, preparation and prevention, damage containment, recovery, and learning (Mitroff, 1994; Pearson & Mitroff, 1993). Figure 1 depicts the five phases of crisis management.

As explained in the literature (Mitroff, 1994; Pearson & Mitroff, 1993), the Signal detection phase focuses on how organizations can monitor and assess early warning signs to prepare and prevent crises before they occur. The second phase, Preparation and Prevention, involves managers actively looking for risk factors and taking necessary measures to reduce any potential damages to

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the organization. Next, in the third phase, Damage Containment is a phase after the crisis already has occurred. It involves making sure the crisis is contained and as many areas of the organization are safe. The fourth phase is Recovery, which emphasizes returning to normal operations as soon as possible. Lastly, after recovering from the crisis, Learning is the final phase, where the crisis should be reviewed and analyzed so the organization can improve its crisis management skills for future events.

During crises, organizations need to act quickly to mitigate the damages. Making timely decisions requires having the right knowledge at the right place and time. Hence, knowledge management is key in crisis management.

2.2 Knowledge Management in Organizations The knowledge-based theory of the firm asserts that knowledge is one of the most valuable resources and that firms are repositories of knowledge that needs to be integrated (Kogut & Zander, 1996; Grant, 1996). Knowledge could be acquired from the environment or created by the organization internally.

The literature informs us that knowledge resides within individuals (Polanyi, 1962; 1966), and that creation of new knowledge comes about through interactions among individuals (Fleming, 2001; Nonaka, 1994; Nelson & Winter, 1982; Polanyi, 1966; Rosenkopf & Nerkar, 2001; Schumpeter, 1934). Such interactions lead to the exchange of diverse information that each individual holds (McFadyen & Cannella, 2004; Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998; Zack et al., 2009). At the firm level, knowledge-based theories assert that the main role of firms when it comes to knowledge management is to combine, coordinate, and integrate individual knowledge to form a cumulative firm knowledge (Grant, 1996; Nelson & Winter, 1982, Kogut & Zander, 1996; Roos et al., 1997).

That being said, firms are not equal in their abilities to manage knowledge, and the literature suggests that some critical resources are behind such differences. Those resources are related to the three dimensions of knowledge: human, relational, and structural (firm) knowledge (Bontis et al., 2000; Edvinsson & Malone, 1997; Sveiby, 1997) First, as stated earlier, knowledge resides within individuals (Polanyi, 1962; 1966). It follows that human capital, defined as the stock of knowledge that individuals within the firm possess, is paramount for organizations (Bontis et al, 2000; DeCarolis & Deeds, 1999; Smith, Collins, & Clark, 2005). It is based on the quantity and quality of individual knowledge that firms are able to find basic knowledge to combine or integrate in order to have an overall firm knowledge. Hence, firm knowledge is influenced, at least partially, by the stock of knowledge of their employees.

Second, the relationships that employees have among each other within the firm also represent an integral resource for organizational knowledge. While the relational capital in the knowledge management literature focuses, for the most part, on the knowledge that organizations receive from external stakeholders (Roos et al, 1997), employees could gain knowledge from each other, whether from other employees from the same functional unit or other units within the organization. In the network literature, such relationships are depicted as ego networks, defined as

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the set of alters to which each employee is directly tied (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998). Networks are critical for knowledge acquisition, sharing, and creation because they represent a key element for knowledge exchange (Bouty, 2000; McFadyen et al., 2009; Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998; Wang, 2016).

Specifically, networks facilitate the process of knowledge flow among employees and provide a mechanism through which employees can share their distinctive knowledge. Accordingly, firms in which employees are well-connected and have effective relationships to exchange information tend to be more likely to acquire, share, and create knowledge.

Third, structural capital refers to organizational knowledge that is embedded in its routines, processes, and systems (Bontis et al, 2000; Roos et al, 1997). Hence, it is an essential capital that enables firms to manage knowledge. Firm routines are integral not only in facilitating knowledge flow among individuals but also in storing and organizing the employees’ collective knowledge to form organizational knowledge (Hargadon & Fanelli, 2002). Importantly, when employees, especially knowledge workers, leave an organization, their tacit knowledge is typically lost (Fallatah, 2020). Yet, firm routines and processes tend to mitigate the effect of such a loss, because each individual’s knowledge is embedded within those routines (Nelson & Winter, 1982; Roos et al, 1997). This is better articulated by resource-based theory (Barney, 1991), which states that the resources that each firm possesses are the main drivers of their performances. Thus, the routines that each firm goes through in the knowledge management process are firm-specific and, as a firm resource, are influential in the effectiveness of firms’ knowledge management.

2.3 Knowledge Management During Crisis Crises have different phases, and managing knowledge requires different types of knowledge management activities in each phase. Table 1 illustrates the roles of various knowledge management activities during the crisis management phases.

Table 1: The Role of Knowledge Management in Crisis Management KM Activity Knowledge Acquisition

Knowledge Creation

Knowledge Sharing

Knowledge Utilization

Knowledge Storing

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Definition an organization’s ability to identify and acquire externally generated knowledge that it needs the generation of new knowledge that did not exist before the provision of know-how to help others and collaborate with others to solve problems

Organizational Requirement - Potential absorptive capacity in all phases - Flexible structure - Social capital - Appropriate structure for SECI - Solid knowledge base - Supportive organizational culture - Supportive management - Adequate technology - Appropriate team, interpersonal, and individual characteristics - Effective KMS - Supportive Organizational culture and routine -Organizational memory

Turning existing knowledge into beneficial ends and putting it into an operational context where it becomes meaningful Recording knowledge in the organizational memory SECI = Socialization, Externalization, Combination, and Internalization

Phases All phases

Preparation/Prevention Damage Containment

Damage Containment

Recovery Learning

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First, in the signal detection phase, organizations need to acquire relevant knowledge to detect any useful signal of a potential crisis. In the preparation and prevention phase, organizations still need to look for knowledge about risk factors and other relevant knowledge that might be needed to prepare for the crisis. Additionally, creating valuable knowledge becomes necessary to inform prevention decisions. The third phase, damage containment, is a phase where organizations still need to create knowledge, but also need to share timely knowledge amongst their different departments and individuals. The last two phases, Recovery and Learning, require monitoring what has been transcribed in the aftermath of the crisis and storing relevant knowledge in organizational memory (Al-Hashem et al., 2021). Below is a brief overview of the different knowledge management activities and a discussion on how they could be used effectively in crisis management.

2.3.1 Knowledge Acquisition Knowledge acquisition refers to an organization’s ability to identify and acquire externally generated knowledge that it needs (Zahra & George, 2002). As a valuable resource, and especially throughout the coronavirus pandemic and similar crises, knowledge should be continuously sought after by organizations. During health-related pandemics like the coronavirus, firms must seek knowledge from health associations at the local, national, and international levels. It is also key to acquire external business-related knowledge about their products and the technology required to produce them. Generally, all related knowledge that could help the decision-making process is essential to acquire during a pandemic.

While all organizations would like to have knowledge at their disposal, some organizations are better equipped to acquire it than others. Absorptive capacity (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990), especially potential absorptive capacity (Lane & Lubatkin, 1998; Zahra & George, 2002), is essential for organizations in their effort to identify and acquire external knowledge (Pan et al., 2020). Another important element for organizations to improve their knowledge acquisition capabilities is having a flexible structure that enables employees to receive and process new external stimuli (Lyles & Baird, 1994; Lyles & Salk, 1996). Research has also emphasized the role of social capital in acquiring external knowledge (Kogut & Zander, 1992; Robertson et al., 2019).

Social capital facilitates the exchange of knowledge amongst partners through frequent interactions (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998), given that partners are willing to share and exchange knowledge (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990; Dyer & Singh, 1998).

Overall, starting from detecting signals of a potential crisis, to receiving updated knowledge throughout the crisis, organizations need the capacity to identify and acquire new external knowledge. Such capacity requires a high level of potential absorptive capacity, flexible structure, and a high level of social capital.

2.3.2 Knowledge Creation The importance of creating knowledge for firms is well-established in the literature (Grant,

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1996; Nonaka, 1994; Fallatah, 2018). During crises where informed decisions are needed promptly, the importance of creating knowledge increases. While knowledge acquisition is a continuous process that lives throughout the pandemic and beyond, knowledge creation is another important activity that organizations need during the probing and prevention, and the damage consignment phases.

Knowledge creation refers to the generation of new knowledge that did not exist before (Nonaka, 1994). The literature suggests that knowledge resides within individuals (Polanyi, 1966), and that creation of new knowledge comes about via exchanging diverse information in frequent interactions (Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998; Nonaka, 1994; Nelson & Winter, 1982; Polanyi, 1966). At the organizational level, knowledge-based theories assert that the role of firms is to combine, coordinate and integrate individual knowledge to form overall firm knowledge (Grant, 1996; Kogut & Zander, 1996). That being said, organizations differ in their ability to create new knowledge, and the literature suggests that certain critical resources are behind such differences. Those resources are based on the three dimensions of knowledge: human, relational, and structural (firm) knowledge (Bontis et al., 2000).

Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) introduced the knowledge creation model, in which they described how the two types of knowledge, explicit and tacit, are converted into organizational knowledge. Tacit knowledge, defined as intangible knowledge that cannot be codified, could be converted into other tacit knowledge via Socialization, and into explicit knowledge, defined as tangible and codified knowledge, via Externalization. On the other hand, explicit knowledge could be converted into other explicit knowledge via Combination, and into tacit knowledge via Internalization.

Therefore, it is paramount for organizations to have a structure and a system that allows individuals to socialize, externalize, internalize, and combine in order to create new knowledge.

Additionally, since new knowledge is a byproduct of existing knowledge, it is concluded that organizations with more existing knowledge are more likely to create a new one (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). It is also important to note that knowledge is not equally valuable and that more valuable knowledge leads to higher performance (Fallatah, 2018).

2.3.3 Knowledge Sharing Knowledge sharing refers to the provision of know-how to help others and collaborate with others to solve problems (Wang & Noe, 2010). During a pandemic, I argue that knowledge sharing is paramount throughout the pandemic, especially in the first three phases. Organizations need to share knowledge amongst their various units (Abdolshah & Abdolshah, 2011). For example, to make a critical decision about shutting down a business or relying on e-commerce only, healthrelated information about the severity of the disease and whether employees could be easily infected, should be shared with the Human Resources (HR) and marketing departments to examine the possibility of laying off some employees and to make sales projections, respectively.

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To have an effective knowledge sharing mechanism, research suggests that organizational culture that supports knowledge sharing along with management and technological support is key (Carmeli & Schauboerck, 2008; Wang & Noe, 2010). Also, several team and interpersonal characteristics are found to be necessary for a smooth knowledge-sharing process. For example, gender diversity and the structure of social networks within the organization are positively related to effective knowledge sharing (Sipior, 2020; Wang & Noe, 2010). At the individual level, especially knowing that knowledge resides within individuals (Polanyi (1966), employees play a critical role in the success of the organizational knowledge management system. For example, it has been found that employees who are open to experience (Cabrera & Cabrera, 2006) and those with higher education and longer work experience are more likely to share knowledge with their colleagues (Constant et al., 1994).

Thus, during a crisis such as a coronavirus pandemic, organizations should focus on exploiting a culture that encourages knowledge sharing among employees (Hendryadi et al., 2019), allowing for a quick and trusted knowledge-sharing process. Additionally, organizations with the right individuals who are characterized by knowledge-sharing traits, and those organizations with a structure that supports team diversity, are more likely to handle knowledge management in a crisis.

2.3.4 Knowledge Utilization In the knowledge management literature, knowledge utilization has been defined as turning existing knowledge into beneficial ends and putting it into an operational context where it becomes meaningful (Oluikpe, 2015). During a traumatic crisis such as the coronavirus pandemic, acquiring, creating, and sharing knowledge should equip managers with utilizable knowledge to make informed decisions. For organizations, Knowledge is expected to be utilized mainly in the probing and preventing phase, and the damage containment phase.

The effectiveness of knowledge utilization depends mostly on the knowledge value (Fallatah, 2018), the quality and reliability of the knowledge management system (Alavi & Leidner, 2001), and the organizations’ culture and routine that enables easy and quick knowledge sharing.

2.3.5 Knowledge Storing It is critical for organizations to store all acquired and created knowledge. Essential to storing knowledge is organizational memory, a construct that is composed of the structure of its retention facility, the knowledge contained in it, and the process of knowledge acquisition and retrieval (Walsh & Ungson, 1991). Organizations should store knowledge routinely in their memory and retrieve it when needed (Al-Hashem et al, 2021; Huber, 1991). Such knowledge includes operational knowledge on how to do things, as well as the knowledge required for reporting purposes. Importantly, tacit knowledge that is considered a source of competitive advantage should be stored to avoid losing it when key knowledge workers leave the organization.

In crises, storing knowledge in organizational memory is vital during the later phases.

During the recovery phase, organizations deal with the outcomes of their decisions. In this phase, it

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is important to take notes of what went right and what went wrong. Storing such information in the organizational memory is essential for learning, the last phase of crisis management. An organizational memory with all knowledge acquired, created, shared, and stored in the current crisis, with the right culture and a reliable KMS, should be retrieved easily in future crises.

3 Conclusion Knowledge management plays a vital role in managing crises such as the coronavirus pandemic (Wang & Belardo, 2005). Acquiring relevant and updated knowledge during the life of the crisis, especially early on, should help in detecting signals of a potential crisis. Additionally, building on existing knowledge, organizations should strive to create a new one. All acquired and created knowledge would not be useful enough without a system that enables knowledge sharing.

During the peak of the crisis in the probing and prevention, and the damage containment phases, effective knowledge creation and sharing are of utmost importance. Equally important is having an organizational memory where knowledge is stored and then retrieved by managers to utilize them and make informed and timely decisions. Organizational memory is also useful for organizations to retrieve knowledge for future cases.

4 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Roles of Variation in Architectural Programming Approaches in Architectural Designs Ferdous F. AL-Shalche1,2, Asma H. Al-Dabbagh1* Department of Architecture, University of Mosul, IRAQ. Department of Projects, Municipalities of Nineveh, IRAQ. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +964-7721280936, Email: asma.dabbagh@uomosul.edu.)

1 2

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5E Volume 13 Issue 5

Architectural programming is the process of gathering, organizing, evaluating information, and making decisions that identify problems, Received 24 November and different architectural programming approaches. First, the knowledge2021 Received in revised form based approach, Agreement-based approach, Value-based approach, and 09 March 2022 Participate- approach. This paper focused on revealing the nature of applying Accepted 06 April 2022 two approaches and comparing them in specific aspects. The application Available online 19 April consists of examining the programming process within functionally similar 2022 real examples to identify the advantage of each approach of architectural Keywords: Architecture approach; programming and its role in the design. So, the results revealed the similarity Value-based approach; (between the applications of Agreement-based and Value-based approaches) in employing specific knowledge based on research and physical facts. Most Agreement-based approach; Physical fact; importantly, the results revealed the difference in considering functions as a Knowledge-based start point and a limited sequence of stages and depending on the importance approach; Caudill of the facts in decision-making within the Agreement-based approach, which Rowlett Scott (CRS). produces a non-integrated relationship with the designer. The value-based approach depends on the most important value and varied sequence of stages depending on the situation, which produces an integrated relationship with the designer, by spiral development, the possibility of developing the client.

The ability to invest potentialities of the designer and rely on the most important values in decision-making.

Disciplinary: Architecture. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Shalche, F.F.A., Dabbagh, A.H.A. (2022). Roles of Variation in Architectural Programming Approaches in Architectural Designs. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5E, 1-12. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5E.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.89

1 Introduction The term architectural programming (Briefing) appeared in information extraction in Germany, as for the term (Architectural programming). It has become common in America as it

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expresses methods of collecting, analyzing and synthetic the required data in the design process for decision-making (Kelly et al., 2006).

Also, the architectural designer initially used the intuitive. The importance of architectural programming appears when the complexity of information increases in the sixties of the twentieth century, especially after World War 2. With the development of technology, the need arose to find a way to reduce and evaluate information to reduce its processing (Edith, 1999; Hasnain & Thaheem, 2016; Hershberger, 2017). As well as being a key factor in reducing costs compared to the cost required by the programming process, where the cost of programming is 1.5% of the total cost, and this is considered small if compared to the cost that can be reduced to 80% if you use programming(Al-Dabbagh, 2014; Faatz, 2009). Different architectural programming approaches (with many steps) emerged. Firstly, the knowledge-based architectural programming approach.

Secondly, the (Agreement-Based Architectural programming) and (participator) approaches. The value-based approach and the participator approach each with steps (Al-Dakheel, 2006). Then in the sixties of the twentieth century, the Knowledge-Based programming appeared by social and behavioral scientists who be careful with the built environment, so an (environmental sociology approach emerged), followed by Agreement-Based-architectural programming), which is followed one of the most important American programming companies (the Caudill Rowlett Scott (CRS)), and Pena the most famous programmers, and's participator approach (Edith, 1999), The valuebased approach that emerged and became popular in Britain as a result of the community's need, then developed by Hershberger who pay attention to contemporary values (Hershberger, 2017).

The research will compare programmers' dependence on the two main approaches in influencing the architectural output. The research will uncover this role by analyzing architectural examples that mention programming literature relying on these two approaches. The analysis will be according to the vocabulary that has been identified (the nature of knowledge, the stages of programming, development, and decision-making), and then drawing the results and discussing them to conclude.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Knowledge-Based Programming Approach Sociologists developed it, including Edward Hall 1966 and Sommer, who presented personal space and studies on privacy and special needs. It appeared in the sixties by the trend of behavioral and (environmental sociology) drew their attention to the built environment within the organization (EDRA) and its steps: Determine goals based on research and interviews, and make questionnaires to determine the social requirements The data are collected, statistically analyzed, and summarized in the program document (Hershberger, 2017) The disadvantage of the knowledge-based approach:

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• Neglecting designer-related problems knowledge approach • The time spends in holistic thinking time that takes all kinds of facts and analyzes them.

The advantage of the knowledge-based approach • Helpful in developing new knowledge.

• Provides all necessary information following spiral thinking (Edith, 1999).

2.2 Agreement-based Programming Approach CRS follows it under the guidance of Williams Pena (seeking the problem), where the mission was to complete a matrix of physical information that includes five stages on the assumption that each problem falls within four determinants (functional, formal, economical, and time), (Alomari et al., 2013; Edith, 1999) taken from the sessions with the customer, then he determines the pragmatic ideas that pertain to the building and facilities, then the design requirements (Pena, 1977)as well as the possibility of discovering and adding facts extra and pragmatic ways to deal with problems he puts a fifth column that represents the comments of the design team representative to ensure that the customer and the engineer understand the problem (Alomari et al., 2013) The role of the programmer is first to define the goal within the four determinants by testing the size of the most significant information that relates to it(Peña & Steven, 2012), so the knowledge adopts a linear thinking style that reduces the possibility of feedback and thus the development of the client and the designer, and in this way, it is he emphasizes the separation between the programming and design process (Edith, 1999; Hershberger, 2017), and he does not take all the samples as he emphasized that programming is an analysis of information and the installation process is within the design stage and as William Pena said "programming is an analysis and design is synthesis" (Edith, 1999) Third, value-based programming approach: developed by programmer Robert Hershberger, as he expanded the circle of values and linked them to a set of contemporary facts and the approach tries to collect and develop the information related to the most important value of the goals (the highest value at the lowest cost), (Hasnain & Thaheem, 2016), but the values are variable according to the evolution of time and change of place, the most famous of which is the eight values that Duerk used, it tries to discover and analyze the most important value of the project and translate it into design facilities by completing a matrix, that begins by defining the goals and then collecting facts related to the most important value and then defining the design requirements either for the client or designer, where he tries to meets the users, he discovers the most important values (Hershberger, 2017), as for the phases of the curriculum, the value approach emphasized the integration between programming and design by combining valuable ideas with physical design ideas, the programmer extracts information from the client through the interview, in order to define goals, budget, site analysis, climate and external influences, this enables him to define the project issue in the early stages of programming in an attempt to search for the purposes for which

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facilities originate. Also, this approach adopts spiral thinking methods that allow feedback and then develop client and designer information (Edith, 1999); as for the decision-making mechanism, it is based on values and priorities considered to assess and reduce information.

2.3 Value-based Programming Approach It is adopted by Durek and developed by programmer Robert Hershberger, as he expanded the circle of values and linked them to a set of contemporary facts (Hershberger, 2017). The approach tries to collect and develop the information related to the most important value of the goals. Thus it reduces the detailed wasted information (the highest value at the lowest cost (Hasnain et al., 2016), but the values are variable according to the evolution of time and change of place. The most famous of which is the eight values that Duerk used, it tries to discover and analyze the project and translate it into design facilities by completing a matrix, that begins by defining the goals and then collecting facts related to the most crucial value and then defining the design requirements either for the client or designer, where he tries to meets the users, the value approach emphasized the integration between programming and design by combining valuable ideas with physical design ideas. The programmer extracts information from the client through the interview to define goals, budget, site analysis, climate, and external influences; this enables him to define the project issue in the early stages of programming to search for the purposes for which facilities originate. Value-based programming may adopt knowledge-based methodological measures at some stages. Also, this approach adopts spiral thinking methods that allow feedback and then develop client and designer information (Cherry, 2009); as for the decision-making mechanism, it is based on values and priorities considered as means of assessing and reducing information.

2.4 Participator-Based Programming Approach It is a development of the Agreement-Based Architectural programming approach, and one of's most widely adopted approaches is to use pragmatic analyses. The types of knowledge collected are the physical and social facts that can be obtained from building, analysis, site, and client. The aggregate approach is based on six phases, the first being research on the project pattern. Then defining the goal and issue of the project, defining strategies, calculating quantitative requirements, and completing the program (Edith, 1999; Kelly et al., 2006) thinking patterns within the inductive and deductive approaches (Cherry, 1999) and emphasizes that programming must continue to the design stage (Edith, 1999). The process of evaluating depends on social and physical information and defining the most important goals and issues (function, form, economical, time) (Faatz, 2009).

2.5 Differences between the Agreement-based Approach

Value-based

Approach

and

the

Comparing the value-based approach and the agreement-based approach, the differences are

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1. (resource of knowledge). It is possible to combine the values of the designer and the client in one matrix within the value-based approach, while in the Agreement-Based approach, it is difficult to combine the values of the designers and clients in one matrix.

2. (Development). The Agreement-Based approach establishes a list of goals, facts, and concepts, and the appropriate needs for each consideration, followed by a summary of the problem.

However, the value approach avoids developing programmatic concepts, presents the problem in a scalable way and assists in developing the design and client information.

3. (kind of knowledge). The kinds of facts obtained in the Agreement-based approach are physical, but in the value approach are valuable information. The value-based approach uses the two modes of linear and total Thinking, a helical thinking approach.

4. (Decision making). The programmer must define the most important variables, as in the Knowledge-based approach. The Agreement- based approach defines the most important variables within four considerations. The Participatory-Based approach tried to reduce information by collecting social variables and translating them into considerations. The value-based approach reveals the most important values and translates them into the design facilities.

5. (Relationship with the designer). The Agreement-Based approach is segregated to design, where the programming process separates between programming and design and follows linear thinking methods that do not allow the feedback process and do not include all information. In contrast, the value-based approach is an integrative approach to design and uses helical Thinking that includes all the information(Edith, 1999).

3 Method This study uses the quantities method with the following steps.

The nature of knowledge

Inclusiveness

Comprehensive Specific Client Designer Researches values Physical facts Social facts function The most important value Social considerations Specific Depending on the issues Integrative Non-integrative

Source of Knowledge

kind of knowledge

Programming stages

Starting point

Sequence of considerations Relationship with the designer

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 

     

participatory approach (Cherry & Faatz)

Defined values

The value-based approach (Duerk & Hersh- Berger)

Variable

Agreement-Based approach (Pena)

Vocabulary

Knowledge-Based approach Institute( EDRA)

Table 1: Checklist illustrating vocabularies, variables, and defined values to compare the four approaches.

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Development

Linearity Helical Not possible Possible Not possible Possible Depending on the most important values

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

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Depending on the size of the facts



The nature of development The possibility of developing the client Investing the designer's capabilities in creativity

Decision making

Evaluation

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  

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- Delineation of the main vocabularies that define each approach by observing its variables and its defined values and collecting them in a checklist table to hold a comparison between them; (Table 1).

- Choosing two approaches; "Agreement-based" and "Value-based" approaches.

- Analyzing architectural case- studies that programming literature mentions their relying on these two approaches. According to the matrix of each approach and its measuring, the semantic analysis will be according to the vocabularies identified (nature of knowledge, stages of programming, development, and decision-making). These case- studies are functionally similar to exclude the functional impact on results.

- Drawing the results and discussing them to draw conclusions, which identify the advantages of each approach of architectural programming and its role in the design.

4 Result and Discussion The observing vocabulary and variables from the approaches' literature review are shown in table No1, and the case studies analysis according to its matrices is shown in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2: Analysis of case studies according to the Agreement-based approach matrix (based on (Edith, 1999)) Project title

"State record centre" Museum

function

Project activities, , So it needs Functional Analysis and review of standers, and the archive is the most important space (Edith, 1999)

form

The site is narrow and long, So it needs analysis of the possibility of vertical design more than the horizontal

economi c time

the analysis is sufficient to cover operating costs

The possibility of future internal and external expansion is weak

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Fish gallery (Aquarium) Events include the organizational purpose of the project and afunctional analysis of the activities, which includes a pyramid drawing, and the exhibition spaces The biological movement system of the park, so Design facilities should impress visitors and gives the flexibility to view, and analyze the design pattern The spaces, volumes, and budget needed and capable of growth The operating cost is high and can be increased It is not possible to divide the project into phases, and The building must be able to grow

Harley Motor Factory and Gallery.

The expansion of university classes and laboratories

The work stages are determined by the activities of manufacturing and displaying.

Facts about the site and vacant space files, an analysis of the ease and clarity of movement, and The possibility of expansion

Flexibility to change depending on the surroundings, site Impact Analysis This reduces the impact of the entrance, and classification according to the mental image Analysis of the necessary costs for each space

Express a coherent entity despite expansion it needs Analysis of the regional style (the university's regional style)

Technologies must express sophistication and modernity.

The work can be divided into stages

The construction period is not limited due to a lack of financing.

The solution should be economical, and Funding is currently unavailable

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Table 3: The analysis of case studies according to the "Value-based" approach matrix project name

goals

facts

values

"Lincoln Museum" (Hershberger, 2017)

Watch the statues freely Expression of the Lincoln era and compatibility with contemporary context The desire of the designer To distinguish the internal gallery from the closed structure

Symbolic Function

Humanity

Systems

"The American Pavilion at the Montreal World " (Hershberger, 2017, p.

125)

"University of Arizona Krivantos Old Man Building" (Hershberger, 2017, p. 140)

Returning to traditions as a reaction to glass usage, which led to an increase in the operating costs of adapting to climate by benefiting from traditions

Add the College of Aviation Engineering

Adding a new building within the context of the site while expressing the contemporary Providing spaces that express the stages of production, expressing the shape of mountains

"A fertilizer plant in Northern California" (Hershberger, 2017, p76)

The direction of project development design requirements Analysis of the Lincoln era reign (Expressing the reign of King Lincoln while respecting the contemporary context of the site)

The formal aspects embodied in it High building Writing the words of King Lincoln on the walls Easy movement system

Technologi cal

Analysis of the capabilities of structural systems to express designer goals

Use lightweight steel joists to build the famous geodesic dome

Contempor ary

Analysis of the traditional means of adaptation and the possibility

Tilted roofs, shaded arcades, the central courtyard, lofts, and traditional building materials, high windows and pavements

Permanence

Contempor ary

Analysis of the possibility of expansion and the context of the surrounding buildings

Symbolic Function

Humanity

Building activity analysis Customer requirements analysis

A vertical and horizontal motion system that can be expanded and modern structure Segmented formation Each part looks like a mountain

Sustainability

Moreover, the study measures the variables in the case studies shown in Tables 5 and 6.

Then it made a comparison between the approaches according to the tables' results (Table 6), (Table 7). Finally, it makes another comparison between Case-studies within the same function (Table 8).

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Table 4: Measurement of variables in the case studies of the "Agreement-based" approach matrix" -Museum" State record centre" (Edith, 1999, p. 250) -"The expansion of university classes and laboratories" (Edith, 1999, p. 264) - Fish gallery" An Aquarium" (Edith, 1999, p. 230) -"Harley's Motor Show Factory and Gallery" (Edith, 1999, p. 252)

the AgreementBased approach Measured values specific

Variable

Vocabulary

The nature of knowledge

Comprehensiveness

The programmer's duty to determine information by comparing it with environmental, physical facts and relationships between facilities, for example, in administrative buildings, reflects information about growth, movement, and project activities(Edith, 1999)

Its resource

Volumes are calculated by reviewing the functional program that depending on the users' need to determine the most influential space (Edith, 1999)

Research and standards

It is kind

The physical analysis includes building analysis in terms of location, dimensions, interior projection, structural system, mechanical system, operational cost, and architectural pattern (Edith, 1999) The functional goals analysis was the starting point which proved that the archive is the space that requires focus on it (Edith, 1999)

Physical facts

Sequence of considerations

The CRS methodology maintains the sequence of the four categories (Function, form, budget, time) (Hershberger, 2017)

Specific

Relationship with the design

The programming process does not continue to the design stage) (Hershberger, 2017)

Not integrative

Nature of development

Difficult to go back and adjust information (Edith, 1999)

linearity

Investing the designer's capabilities in creativity

It is difficult to combine the values and requirements of designers and customers in one CRS programming matrix ) (Hershberger, 2017)

Not possible

Evaluation

The amount of information related to a consideration determines the most important consideration (William_ Pena, 1977)

Depending on the size of the facts

Programming stages

Starting point

Development

Make the decision

function

Table 5: Measuring the variables in the case-studies of the "Value-based" approach -"Lincoln Museum" (Hershberger, 2017, p76).

-"The American Pavilion at the Montreal World Exposition " (Hershberger, 2017, p125) -"University of Arizona Krivantos Old Man Building & Add the College of Aviation Engineering" (Hershberger, 2017, p104) -"North California Fertilizer Factory" (Hershberger, 2017, p76)

The valuebased approach

variable

vocabulary

The nature of knowledge

Comprehensiveness

Measurem ent values Specific

Its resource

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The programmer has to define the most important information using the value system criteria (Edith, 1999). In some issues, the symbolic functional issue was deemed to need development (Hershberger, 2017) Values and levels related to the client and designer The functional program can be obtained from the user and similar buildings, but there are kinds of values we need to obtain from the designer (Edith, 1999; Hershberger, 2017)

Science research

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Programming stages

Development

Make the decision

it is kind

Physical and human analyzes that relate to the number of users, their activities, their behavior, and their human values and determine the architectural style (Edith, 1999)

Knowledg e is physical and valuable Function

Starting point

Linear Thinking is a step-by-step way of Thinking that is fixed in direction and has a point of direction and has been adopted by Western Americans (Edith, 1999)

Sequence of considerations

Priorities affect the most important issue identification, so the sequence of considerations is not specified (Edith, 1999)

Not specific

Relationship with the design The nature of development Investing the designer's capabilities in creativity Evaluation

The programming process continues to the design stage (Hershberger, 2017)

Integrativ e

The approach has the possibility of returning and modifying information (Edith, 1999)

Helical

The ability to combine the values and requirements of designers and customers into one matrix (Hershberger, 2017)

possible

The value system determines the most important information and determines the quality of the building (Edith, 1999)

Dependin g on the most important values

Table 6: Results of Measuring the variables of Architectural Programming

Its resource

It is kind

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expansion of the university's Classrooms and laboratories

 

Gallery of Fish and Aquarium

Factory and Gallery of Harley Motor

Comprehensi veness specific client The designer researches values Physical facts Social facts

-studies of the "Agreementbased" approach Museum of "State record centre."

Its Comprehens iveness

Lincoln Museum

The nature of knowledge

Case studies of the "Valuesbased" approach The American Pavilion at the Montreal World Exposition

Possible values

Expansion of the University of Arizona

variable

Factory of, North California Fertilizer

vocabulary

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Table 7: "Results of the comparison between Case-studies within the same function" Programming stage

Starting point

Sequence of considerations Relationship with the design Development

Make the decision

The nature of development The possibility of developing the client Investing the designer's capabilities in creativity Evaluation

Function The important value Social consideration Specific According to the issue Antigravity Not antigravity Linear Helical Not possible Possible

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Not possible Possible

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Depending on the most important values Depending on the size of the facts

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Table 8: The desiccation of the results of the comparison between Case studies within the same function Case studies follow the AgreementBased approach Scroll Museum of Manuscripts

Case studies follow the Agreement-Based approach follows the values-based approach Lincoln Museum

The conclusion Fish gallery and Aquarium

The American Pavilion at the Montreal World Exposition

The conclusion expansion of the university's classrooms and laboratories

University of Arizona Krivantos Old Man Building Add the College of Aviation Engineering

The conclusion

Harley Motor Factory and Gallery

The conclusion

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Factory of, North California Fertilizer

The issues

In the Agreement-Based approach, the programmer decided to solve the problem of the movement system, then the form expressed by the most important areas, volumes, economics, and work stages, As for the value approach, when determining the most important value extracted from the analysis of the client's desires, the building was expressing the King-Lincoln era model.

It turns out that the analysis carried out by the Agreement-Based approach programmer was a traditional functional analysis. In contrast, the client's values (value) analysis produced an interest in the symbolic aspects.

In the Agreement-Based approach, the programmer decided to solve the problem 0f the movement system, then the form.

As for the value-based approach, when determining the most important value extracted from analyses of the client's desires to distinguish between the interior hall, the designer tried to take advantage of the technological development of construction systems and thus used two structural systems as a solution.

It turns out that the analysis carried out by the (compromise) programmer was a traditional functional analysis. In contrast, the analysis of the client's (value) desires led the designer to adopt a hybrid construction system, which gave a different solution.

In the Agreement-Based approach, when the programmer decided to solve the desired problem to expand the university, he analyzed (the movement system), then the form, As for the value approaches, when determining the most important value extracted from analyzes of the client's desires in addition to functional and character analyses or character and structural traditions, the designer took advantage of traditions to achieve sustainability, such as the use of patios, ponds, and corridors. , As well as express the context of the local climate of Arizona and contemporary desert using the modern structural structure It turns out that the analysis was done by the In the Agreement-Based approach, the programmer was a traditional functional analysis, and the solution to the expansion problem was carried out within narrow limits.

It turns out that determining the most important value led to the adoption of contemporary values such as sustainability and the modernity of the structural structure, which allowed expansion in both directions.

In the Agreement-Based approach, when the programmer decided to solve the problem, which is the factory activities, he analyzed (the movement system) and the necessary equipment, and he determined the form.

As for the value approach, when determining the most important value extracted from analyzes of client desires in addition to functional analyzes, the result was a building that reflects the stages of production.

Despite the results’ similarity of programming in both approaches (Agreement and value) in the formality appropriate to the job. The question of the relationship with the surrounding context (value) has emerged

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5 Conclusion The "Agreement-based" approach adopted the traditional analysis specific to the function, as physical facts, drawn from studies and research, which excluded the role of the client, and negatively affected the possibility of its development, by excluding the advantages of the designer's creative capabilities, given the fact that the process is linear.

On the other hand, the "Value-based" approach distinguished the programming of function, structural systems, the relationship with the context, and searching for contemporary values and symbolic aspects. As the most important value taken from the client and given that the process is a spiral and includes customer development, this allows reliability with the designer and the possibility of investing his creative capabilities.

Analysis of case studies within the two approaches (Agreement-based and Value-based) confirmed the previous programming literature about the advantages and disadvantages of both, making it easier for programmers to choose the appropriate approach and facilitating its application to obtain the best results.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 References Al-Dabbagh, A., & Alhayale, M. M. (2014). Delineation of Programming Goals for Sustainable\The app for architectural projects Norman Foster. First International Scientific Conference, 78–92.

Al-Dakheel, R. M. (2006). Improving Architectural Programming Teaching Methods (Case Study at King Saud University). Studies, Engineering Sciences, 33(2), 93-104.

Alomari, H. R., Al-Sheikh, S., & Younis, G. M. (2013). Architecture Programming Approaches in Practical Research of Fifth-year Thesis- specialists of Local Architecture Department. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 102, 368-385. DOI: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.752 Edith, C. (1999). Programming for design from theory to practice. 10th Ed., John Wiley.

Faatz, S. (2009). Architectural programming: providing essential knowledge of project participants' needs in the pre-design phase. Organization, Technology & Management in Construction, 1(2), 80–85.

Hasnain, M., Jamaluddin, T., & Muhammad. (2016). Best Value Procurement in Construction and its Evolution in the 21st Century: A Systematic Review. Journal for the Advancement of Performance Information and Value, 8(1), 11–25. DOI: 10.37265/japiv.v8i1.44 Hasnain, M., & Thaheem, M. J. (2016). Best Value Procurement in Construction and its Evolution in the 21 st Century : A Systematic Review. Journal for the Advancement of Performance Information and Value, 8(1):11-25, 1–21.

Hershberger, R. (2017). Architectural programming and predesign manager. In Architectural Programming and Predesign Manager. Routledge. DOI: 10.4324/9781315645728 Kelly, J., Morledge, R., & Wilkinson, S. (2006). Best Value in Construction. Black Well Sciences.

Pena, W. (1977). Problem Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 1st Ed.

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Peña, W., & Steven, P. (2012). Problem Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer. 5th Ed., John Wiley & Sons.

Ferdous F.AL-Shalche is a student at the Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Mosul, Mosul 41002, IRAQ. She got her Bachelor's degree in Architecture.

Dr.Asma H. Al-Dabbagh is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Mosul, Mosul 41002, IRAQ. She got her Doctor's degree in Theory of Architecture from the University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq. Her research focuses on the Theory of Architecture and Buildings types.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

School Travel Behavior Research Milestone (19792021): A Bibliometric Review Analysis Mukhlis Nahriri Bastam1,3*, Muhamad Razuhanafi Mat Yazid2, Muhamad Nazri Borhan2 Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, MALAYSIA. Smart and Sustainable Township Research Centre, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, MALAYSIA. 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Bina Darma, INDONESIA. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +62 811 787 1022, Email: p91991@siswa.ukm.edu.my).

1 2

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5F Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 15 January 2022 Received in revised form 05 April 2022 Accepted 14 April 2022 Available online 20 April 2022

Keywords: School travel; Mode choice; Bibliometric; science mapping; PRISMA bibliometric analysis; Publication trend; Citation trend; Research trend.

The expansion of automobiles in the field of transport has fundamentally changed the travel patterns of mankind throughout the world. Disruption in the rhythm likewise impacts school travel, floating concerns of transportation, and child issues. This article aims to map and cluster current knowledge concerning school travel behavior topics by utilizing metadata from prior publications, using The Bibliometrix R-package instrument to perform bibliometric analysis on 513 metadata of scientific documents from Scopus and Web of Science databases between 1979 and 2021. The PRISMA criterion diagram is employed for the metadata searching and validating procedure. The study revealed a plethora of scientific documents and citations, particularly in the recent decade, and the countries from the western hemisphere continue to prime state-of-the-art research on this topic.

Disciplinary: Transportation Engineering (Modelling, Behavior). ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Bastam, M.N., Mat Yazid, M.R., and Borhan, M.N. (2022). School Travel Behavior Research Milestone (19792021): A Bibliometric Review Analysis. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5F, 1-16. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.90

1 Introduction Since the emergence of the motorized vehicle in the 18th century, transportation has seen dramatic revolutions. The active travel pattern shifted to a more passive one through the escalation of motorized vehicles. Disruption in grown-up travel behavior involved children worldwide, particularly school travel behavior. Currently, children are extra prospective to commute to school using passive mode (motorized vehicles) than active mode (walking and cycling). Meanwhile,

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parents have various concerns about authorizing their children to travel independently. This fact raises the issues of transportation (sustainability) and children (health and well-being).

To the author's knowledge, numerous review analyses on travel behavior have been conducted previously. However, there are only a few bibliometric analysis documents explicitly on school travel behavior. The first article (author's claim) performing a bibliometric analysis of this topic presents 343 metadata of scientific documents between 2001 and 2021 from Web of Science and PubMed databases (Jing et al., 2021). This article attempts to map and cluster knowledge from a different perspective. Analyzing the metadata of documents on school travel behavior published between 1979 and 2021 from Scopus and Web of Science databases using the Bibliometrix RPackages tool to present a comprehensive sight of school travel behavior.

2 Literature Review Children's travel behavior is distinct from adults' (Lin & Chang, 2010; Mackett, 2013; McMillan, 2005; Milne, 2009; Yarlagadda & Srinivasan, 2008). Elders make their transport modes, whereas children, particularly on their journey to school, are encouraged by their parents or other elder family members. Adolescents have begun to make transportation choices independently, while parents typically provide those for their younger children (He & Giuliano, 2017; Johansson et al., 2012; Singh & Vasudevan, 2018).

School travel significantly impacts overall urban travel patterns (Müller et al., 2020; Singh & Vasudevan, 2018; Xiong et al., 2019). The total traffic volume will increase during the hours of entering or leaving school. The expanding use of private vehicles for school travel in both developed and developing countries, as well as the decline in active mode use, contribute to urban traffic concerns (Ermagun & Samimi, 2018; He & Giuliano, 2018; Mehdizadeh et al., 2017; Nordfjrn & Zavareh, 2017). Worldwide, parents are increasingly escorting their children to school due to concerns regarding travel safety and a hostile travel environment (Muller et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2017). Children's mobility independence has a consequence on their level of physical activity.

Physical activity is critical for the health and well-being of children (Wilson et al., 2018). School travels are performed by individuals with fragile and complicated traits, which piques the curiosity of policymakers, planners, traffic engineers, researchers, parents, and school authorities interested in studying them (Agyeman & Cheng, 2020; Distefano et al., 2019; Hao et al., 2019). Adult travel behavior is the subject of most research on travel behavior, while children's travel behavior receives insufficient attention (Jing et al., 2018).

3 Method For comprehensive performance, the author applied a five-stage standard of science mapping (bibliometrics) approach (Zupic & Cater, 2014): 1. Study Design; 2. Data Collection; 3.

Data Analysis; 4. Data Visualization; and the last, 5. Interpretation.

3.1 Study Design The authors generate the following research questions for this analysis: 1. What basic details

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are available (annual production; document type; most prominent countries, authors, sources, affiliated institutions, and most cited documents)? 2. How is this topic's conceptual framework and research paradigm analyzed?.

The Bibliometrix R-Package is used to conduct the analysis, following a systematic procedure based on Aria and Cuccurullo's paradigm (Aria & Cuccurullo, 2017). Aria and Cuccurullo created Bibliometrix as an open-source application for comprehensive science mapping analysis.

3.2 Data Collection This research was conducted using the Scopus database (http://www.scopus.com) and the Web of Science Core Collection (http://www.webofknowledge.com). Authors collected, filtered, and evaluated the feasibility of metadata of publications using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) criteria table, as seen in Figure 1. Table 1 illustrates an advanced search with numerous criteria for inclusion and exclusion. The search timeframe is 19792021, with database access beginning on December 7, 2021, to obtain a complete picture of this study issue. Additionally, authors collect English-language publications primarily for the sake of readability. Authors perform advanced-level searches by categorizing phrases into four categories: population, behavior, travel destination, and mode of transportation (see Table 2). The metadata search uses standard Boolean operators ("OR" and "AND") to connect each term into a search string. The database's search function uses the title, keywords, and abstract fields for each page (Savoy, 2005).

Table 1: Inclusion and exclusion criterion Criterion Source Types of Literature Subjects' Characteristics Year of Publishing Language of Literature Intriguing Phenomenon

Inclusion database in Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection the phenomenon's relevant studies/literature student, pupil, child, teen, youth, young adolescence, juvenile, kid, parent 1979 until 7 December 2021 English mode choice for school a travel activity

Exclusion all other databases university, college, and academy students all after 7 December 2021 all other languages all other activities

Table 2: Search string for data collection Database Scopus and Web of Science Core Collection

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Search String Population : (student* OR pupil* OR child* OR teen* OR youth* OR young* OR adolescen* OR juvenile* OR kid* OR parent*) AND Behavior : (“mod* choice*” OR “ choice* of mod*” OR “transport* mod*” OR “ mod* of transport” OR “trip mod*” OR “mod* of trip” OR “travel mod*” OR “mod* of travel” OR “commut* mod*” OR “mod* of commut*” OR “mobility mod*” OR “ mod* of mobility” OR “journey mod*” OR “mod* of journey”) AND Travel Destination : (“school transport*” OR “school trip” OR “school travel” OR “school commut*” OR “school mobility” OR “school journey” OR “transport* to school” OR “trip to school” OR “travel to school” OR “commut* to school” OR “mobility to school” OR “journey to school”) AND Mode of Travel : (walk* OR cycl* OR bik* OR cycl* OR bicycl* OR bus* OR train* OR car* OR motorcyl* OR scooter* OR taxi* OR rapid* OR transit* OR “ride-hailing transport*” OR "ride-sharing transport*” OR “car* pool*” OR “on-demand transport*” OR “transport* app*” OR escort* OR accompan* OR chauffeur* OR independent OR unaccompan* OR “self-determine*”)

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Identification Screening

Records retrieved using databases (Scopus n = 442) (Web of Science n = 436 ) ∑n = 878

Records excluded due to published in non-english (n = 17)

Included

Eligibility

Total records after Screened (n = 861 )

Full text records assessed for eligibility (n = 545 )

Duplicates records are removed (n = 316 )

Full text records exluded, with reason (n = 32)

Articles included (n =513 )

Figure 1: PRISMA flowchart for bibliometric analysis of school travel behavior research The first phase is identification; a database search generates 878 metadata, containing 442 from Scopus and 436 from Web of Science. The screening process (second phase) deleted 17 metadata in non-English and 316 duplicate metadata, the remaining 545 for the next phase. The third phase is an assessment of the metadata's feasibility. Thirty-two sets of metadata linked to students at the university level and equivalent were discarded due to their incompatibility with the criteria. After this stage, 513 metadata are generated for inclusion in the bibliometric analysis.

3.3 Data Analysis and Interpretation Data analysis involves descriptive statistical analysis and network analysis. Bibliometrix RPackages (http://www.bibliometrix.org) were employed to analyze the data attained in the previous step. This application provides a tool for quantitative analysis in bibliometrics and scientometrics.

In Figure 2, the systematic working order of Bibliometrix is described. After the metadata collection process from the database is complete, the following process is to load and combine the metadata collection into bibliometrix and convert it into a file extension supported by the application for analysis.

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The Bibliometrix R-Package provides nonprogrammers with data analysis capabilities. The procedure begins automatically once the metadata file is loaded into the application without being knowledgeable in programming languages. The primary operations are descriptive statistical analysis and network extraction. As a result, a descriptive data matrix and network visualization are produced.

DATA ANALYSIS

DATA COLLECTION

DATA VISUALIZATION

PCA, MDS, MCA, Clustering Normalization

Descriptive Bibliometric Analysis

Data Loading & Converting

Document x Attribute Matrix Creation

Data Reduction

• Factorial Map • Dendrogram • Semantic Map Mapping

Normalization

• Network Map • Historiograph

Network Matrix Creation Bibliographic Coupling, Co-Citation, Collaboration, Cooccurrence, and Historiographic Analysis

Figure 2: Bibliometrix workflow diagram (Aria & Cuccurullo, 2017)

4 Result and Discussion 4.1 Overview Main Attributes Table 3 shows general information about the attributes in the metadata collection. After the documents were combined and duplicate titles were eliminated, there were 513 metadata from 172 sources from 1979 to 2021. See Figure 3; these documents are divided into eight types, namely, articles 445 or 87.74%; proceedings 37 or 7.21%; reviews 20 or 3.90%; book chapter 7 or 1.36%; note, erratum, correction, and early access each amounted to 1 or 0.19%. Authors related to these documents are 1324 authors with an average number of 2.58 and 0.387 documents per author Table 3: Descriptive analysis: Primary attributes of the collection Description Interval Sources Records Average years from publication Average citations per records Authors Author Appearances Authors of single-authored records Authors of multi-authored records Records per Author Authors per Records Co-Authors per Records Collaboration Index

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1979 - 2021 172 513 5.94 28.24 1324 2103 29 1295 0.387 2.58 4.1 2.7

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4.2 Publication

and

Citation

Trend

of

School

Travel

Behavior

Research Since the first article (Rigby, 1979) was cataloged in the search database, additional articles were cataloged in 1999 or two decades later. The school travel behavior research publishing trend began to increase progressively after that. Between 2001 and 2010, a total of 83 documents were published.

The analysis of school travel behavior over the next decade (2011 - 2021) reveals a rising tendency in the following decade. That period saw the publication of 427 documents. Annual growth rates of 18.64% are shown in Figure 4 for the annual publications on school travel behavior.

Figure 5 shows the total number of citations per year (TCPY) for 42-year-old documents. The total number of citations ranges from 14,488 to 513 documents, with a trend toward increasing total citations per year (TCPY), an average of 28,24 citations per document. These two graphs demonstrate an upward tendency in the mode of school travel study.

The study's exploration is still in its infancy, particularly in geography, where developed countries in the western hemisphere dominate. Understanding the factors that influence school travel behavior in developing countries remains a challenge.

Figure 3: Record type in school travel behavior (1979-2021)

Figure 4: Publications per year on school travel behavior (1979 - 2021).

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Figure 5: Citations per year in school travel behavior (1979-2020).

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4.3 Prominent Authors, Institutions, and Countries This section assesses the most prominent authors, institutions, and countries in school travel behavior research based on publication production. In Figure 6, Ron Buliung from the University of Toronto, Canada, is the most prominent author with 25 documents on this topic.

These documents were cited 1331 times during 2009 - 2021. The document entitled "Active school transportation in the Greater Toronto Area, Canada: An exploration of trends in space and time (1986-2006)" was the most cited, namely 209 times, in 2021. The point of the study is to examine spatially and temporally changes in mobility for school trips in the Greater Toronto Area, Canada's populous city region. Buliung discovered a decline in active modes of transport to and from schools between 1986 and 2006. The order of the ten most prominent authors based on publication production after Ron Buliung is Guy Faulkner (University of British Columbia, Canada) with 23 documents, Palma Chillón (University of Granada, Spain) with 19 documents, Ashley R Cooper (University of Bristol, UK), Sandra Mandic (University of Otago, New Zealand), Raktim Mitra (Ryerson University, Canada), Esther van Sluijs (University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine) with 12 documents each, Alireza Ermagun (Mississippi State University, US), Richard Larouche (University of Lethbridge, Canada), Emilio Villa-González (University of Granada, Spain) each with 11 documents. All authors on the theme of school travel behavior come from developed countries in Europe, North America, and Oceania. Their studies mainly highlight active school transportation due to the declining use of this mode of transportation locally and globally.

Figure 6: Descriptive analysis: The list of top 10 most prominent authors

Figure 7: Descriptive analysis: The list of the top 10 most prominent countries.

Following that, a list of countries that contribute the most to document production in school travel behavior research is provided in Figure 7. Eight of the ten countries named are developed countries (the United States, Canada, England, New Zealand, Australia, Spain, Netherlands, and Germany). Additionally, two emerging economies (China and Iran) (United Nations, 2016). The United States, with 138 documents or 17.6% of the total number of documents, is the most prominent country in producing school travel behavior documents. Canada is next with 132 documents or 16.8%, Next is United Kingdom with 73 documents or 9.3%, New Zealand 56

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documents or 7.1%, Australia 44 documents or 5.6%, Spain 34 documents or 4 .3%, China 31 documents or 4.0%, Netherlands 22 documents or 2.8%, Iran 21 documents or 2.7%, and Germany 20 documents or 2.6%. Of the total number of school travel behavior documents, two countries from North America (the US and Canada) contributed 34.4%, four countries from Europe (UK, Spain, Netherlands, and Germany) 19%, two countries from Oceania ( Australia and New Zealand) 12.7%, and two countries from Asia (China and Iran) 6.7%. Most school travel behavior documents are produced from the western hemisphere. Based on the metadata collected, the first article on this study came from the United Kingdom titled “A Review Of Research On School Travel Patterns And Problems” (Rigby, 1979).

Figure 8: Worldwide records distribution in school travel behavior (1979-2021).

Figure 9: Descriptive analysis: The list of the top 10 most prominent institution In a scientific article, the institution is the author's affiliation. school travel behavior is a field of study to which numerous developed countries have made significant contributions. The ten most prominent institutions that contributed to the study are listed in Figure 9. To begin with 67 contributing documents, the University of Toronto in Canada became the most notable institution.

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The University of Granada in Spain 45 documents; Auckland University of Technology in New Zealand and the University of Otago in New Zealand 32 documents each; the University of Bristol in the United Kingdom 25 documents; the University of British Columbia in Canada 22 documents; the University of California in the United States, the University of Southern Denmark in Denmark, and the University of Minnesota in the United States 16 documents each; Ghent University in Belgium 15 documents.

4.4 Influential Articles and Sources Table 4 shows the ten most influential articles in the School travel behavior research. The article cited the most was working (McDonald, 2007), with 461 citations in 2021. The work discussed trends in active transportation use among students in the United States. Next is the work (McMillan, 2007) on the factors of urban structure in the United States on the mode of children's travel to school, cited 384 times. (Cooper et al., 2003) analyzing the relationship between walking to school and the level of physical activity in children in the UK has been cited 324 times. Still (Cooper et al., 2005) compared the level of physical activity in Danish children who walked, cycled, and were sent by car to a school that had been cited 297 times. (Schlossberg et al., 2006) revealed that urban structure and distance to the choice of transportation to school in the United States were cited 295 times. (Tudor-Locke et al., 2001) identified sources of physical activity in American children, one of which was active trips to school citations 275 times. Still, in the United States (Ewing et al., 2004), the focus on school location as a determinant of the choice of mode of transportation to school has been cited 273 times. A similar work (McDonald, 2008) also discussed the influence of school location and distance in the United States as determinants of 214 citations.

The article from Buliung et al. (2009) highlighting the trend of active travel in Canada over a while, was cited 209 times. Moreover, finally, from the UK (Panter et al., 2010) attitudes, social support, and perceptions of the environment as predictors of school trips have been cited 183 times.

Table 4: Descriptive analysis: The list of top 10 most prominent records Author McDonald (2007) McMillan (2007) Cooper et al. (2003) Cooper et al. (2005) Schlossberg et al. (2006) Tudor-Locke et al. (2001) Ewing et al. (2004) McDonald (2008) Buliung et al. (2009) Panter et al. (2010)

Source American Journal of Preventive Medicine Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice American Journal of Preventive Medicine American Journal of Preventive Medicine Journal of The American Planning Association Sports Medicine Transportation Research Record Transportation Preventive Medicine Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health

TC 461 384 324 297 295 275 273 214 209 183

TC per Year 30.73 25.60 17.05 17.47 18.44 13.10 15.17 15.29 16.08 15.25

From 172 sources containing school travel behavior documents, Table 5 lists the ten most prominent sources based on the number of documents on that topic. The first order, the Journal of Transport and Health (JIF = 2.80), published 53 articles or 10.3% of 513 documents. Then the Journal of Transport Geography (JIF = 4.99) with 28 articles or 5.5%. The International Journal of

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Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity (JIF = 6.46) and the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (JIF = 3.39) each had 24 articles or 4.7%. Transportation Research Record (JIF = 1.56), 20 articles or 3.9%. Preventive Medicine (JIF = 4.02) with 18 documents or 3.5%. Transportation (JIF = 5.19) 17 documents or 3.3%. BMC Public Health (JIF = 3.30) and Transport Policy (JIF = 4.67) each had 16 documents or 3.1%. Finally, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice (JIF = 5.59) with 12 documents or 2.3%.

Table 5: Descriptive analysis: The list of top 10 most prominent sources Sources Journal of Transport and Health Journal of Transport Geography IJBNPA IJERPH Transportation Research Record Preventive Medicine Transportation BMC Public Health Transport Policy Transportation Research Part A

No. of Records 53 28 24 24 20 18 17 16 16 12

% of records 10.3 5.5 4.7 4.7 3.9 3.5 3.3 3.1 3.1 2.3

JIF 2.80 4.99 6.46 3.39 1.56 4.02 5.19 3.30 4.67 5.59

4.5 Cluster Analysis and Thematic Mapping This section describes concepts often used in school travel behavior studies from 1979 to 2001. The concept analysis was carried out using 973 keywords from 513 records. Bibliometrix Rpackage provides analysis output in the form of a co-occurrence network, such as the visualization of Figure 10. The network describes the clustering of concepts most frequently discussed in school travel behavior research throughout the search period. The larger the circle in the image, the more often the concept appears in the document. The lines in the figure show the relationships between concepts. Colors indicate the division of concepts in the cluster. Table 6 shows the division of clusters and the items contained in them. This cluster can help researchers, especially novice researchers, determine their research position within the more extensive research network.

Researchers can also see items related to the research topic. Cluster 1 relates to school travel behavior, namely the choice of school travel mode and its determinants. Cluster 2 emphasizes walking and cycling as an active modes of schooling. Cluster 3 discusses children and adolescents' physical activity and health-related to active school trips. Cluster 4 discusses the factors that support and hinder an active school journey.

Table 6: Cluster and concept items Cluster 1 2 3

4

Concept items Children; school travel; mode choice; active transportation; bicycling; school trips; neighborhood; travel behavior; gender; attitudes; school transportation; travel Walking; cycling; built environment; active travel; active school travel; safety; walkability; safe routes to school; gis; students; commuting; school children; active school transportation Physical activity; active commuting; transportation; child; youth; schools; adolescent; active; commuting to school; environment; health; obesity; exercise; adolescence; fitness; public health; accelerometer Active transport; school; adolescents; transport; distance; parents; barriers; independent mobility

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No.items 12

color Red

13

Blue

16

Green

8

Purple

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Figure 10: Co-occurrence network by author’s keywords

Figure 11: Thematic map The upper right quadrant is the motor theme. This quadrant is characterized by high density and centrality. "school travel" is a growing theme and has become the main focus. This theme

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relates to other concepts, such as "environment", "gender", "perceptions", "active travel to school", "walk", "bike", "car choice", "built", and "children independent mobility". . In addition, there is the theme of "neighborhood" which is connected to the concepts of "public health", "risk perception", "behavior change", "community", "parent attitudes", "spatial behavior", and "urban design".

Furthermore, the theme of "school transportation" is connected with the concepts of "space syntax", "global positioning system", "multinomial logit model", "school choice", and "weather".

The upper left quadrant is the niche theme. This quadrant shows high density but with low centrality. The significance of the field is low compared to the previous theme. The theme with the closest significance is the theme of “public transport,” which is connected with the concepts of “travel behavior”, “urbanization”, “theory”, “mode share”, “models”, and “lifecycles”, and “cohort”. Next is the “active” theme, which is connected to the concept of “travel modes”. “primary school” and “escorting” are themes with lower significance in this quadrant.

The lower left quadrant is emerging or declining themes with low density and centrality.

There are two possibilities, whether the theme is emerging or, on the contrary, declining. The theme of “evaluation” is in this quadrant. Evaluation of school travel behavior metadata includes the evaluation of programs or policies (Baslington, 2010; Hinckson & Badland, 2011; Hoelscher et al., 2016; Johnston et al., 2006; Kipping et al., 2008; Levantis, 2010; Perez-Martin et al., 2018; Rodriguez et al., 2019), measurement tools or instruments (Pocock et al., 2020; Sersli et al., 2019; Stewart et al., 2015), group of population(Mendoza et al., 2014), effects on children non-physical health (Ramanathan et al., 2014), school status (Yan et al., 2019), routes (Spallek et al., 2006) (Woods & Nelson, 2014), barriers (Fallah Zavareh et al., 2020), data reliability and validity (McDonald et al., 2011).

The lower right quadrant is the basic theme - fundamental, and interdisciplinary subjects.

These themes span several research areas and include a broad range of subjects. Some basic concepts related to the theme of "school travel" include the concepts of "children", "walking", "mode choice", "active transport", synonyms "active commuting to school", "walkability", and "safety".

5 Conclusion School travel behavior research has increased in the last decade. This trend is shown by the increasing annual production and citation of scientific documents. The western hemisphere still dominates the state-of--of-the--the-art contribution in this field, from productions, authors, institutions, and cited documents.

The limitations of this review are a challenge for future researchers. This bibliometric analysis only reveals general information about descriptive attributes in metadata and conceptual structures (co-occurrence network and thematic map) in the school travel behavior research.

Future research can analyze intellectual structures (co-citation networks and historiography) and social structures (collaboration networks and maps).

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6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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Muhamad Razuhanafi Mat Yazid is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment. His research areas are in Transportation, Transportation Planning, Transportation Systems, Public Transport.

Muhamad Nazri Borhan is a Senior Lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment. His research areas are in Structural Equation Modeling, Physical Properties, Tensile Strength, Injury Prevention, Civil Engineering, Safety Engineering, Public Transport.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

The Effect of Consumption Values on Customer Satisfaction of Living Room Furniture in Saudi Arabia Fattwo AbdulRahman Makkawi1,2*, Ahmad Hariza Hashim1, Jasmine Leby Lau1 Department of Resource Management and Consumer Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, MALAYSIA. 2 Department of Home Economics, Universiti of Bisha, Bisha, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +601111762599, Email: fattwo.makkawi1437 @gmail.com).

1

Paper ID: 13A5G

Abstract

The living room in Saudi Arabia context is the centre of the house and makes up the main space, and is the most used room by Saudi women.

Received 20 December 2021 Received in revised form 7 Hence, satisfaction with furniture is crucial for working women as they carry April 2022 on doing activities as they return from work. This paper investigates the Accepted 14 April 2022 factors that affect a working woman when purchasing furniture for the living Available online 21 April room in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Multistage sampling was employed, in which 2022 350 women working in three government sectors in Jeddah: schools, Keywords: universities, and health sectors were selected for this study. The respondents Functional value; Public received the questionnaire through emails, and reliability and normality organisations; Behavior tests were applied. The multiple regression test examined the consumption Intention; Jeddah; values predictors on furniture satisfaction. The results revealed that Apartment furnishing; conditional, functional, and emotional values significantly correlated with Purchasing apartment; the satisfaction of working women with the furniture in the living room.

Working women’s satisfaction; Living Conversely, epistemic and social values had an insignificant relationship. room; Furniture This paper provides a clearer insight into the prominent consumption values Satisfaction; Conditional variables that significantly affect the furniture satisfaction of working value; Epistemic value; women in their living rooms. Therefore, this study can exhibit and enhance Emotional value; Social the lifestyle of more working women and help them achieve work-life value; Functional value; balance using living room furniture by acquiring better knowledge and Aesthetic furniture. understanding of consumption values.

Volume 13 Issue 5

Disciplinary: Consumer Studies, Economics, Human Ecology. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Makkawi, F. A. Hashim, A. H., and Lau, J. L. (2022). The Effect of Consumption Values on Customer Satisfaction of Living Room Furniture in Saudi Arabia. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5G, 1-12. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.91

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1 Introduction The main space and the centre of every house is the living room, and it is considered a crucial space within the Saudi household in the decision-making process to select and purchase home furniture (Sahab, 2019) since the family finds family gathering value because the family members can meet and share their time and activities. Typically, it has more than one use. It can be used for entertaining purposes, relaxing, and as a play space for children. This space is the most used room by Saudi women for their daily home duties (Shatwan, 2018), in which the furniture is often used for relaxation, some for formal sitting and other pieces of furniture are used only for decoration (Hareri, 2018). The furniture needs to be multifunctional in the living room since more flexibility is required. Several activities day and night occur in the living room (Garip et al., 2019).

For example, the furniture units for sitting in the living room can be used as seats, sofa, coffee table and sometimes as a bed by only displacing them and reconfiguring the modules and components so that the arrangement of furniture and spatial components in the living room affect the satisfaction with the room in terms of efficiency for enhancing usage in daily life activities (Lee et al., 2017).

The social and cultural background also strongly influences the choice and arrangement of furniture in a living room. Therefore, Saudi working women are interested in all design details, and luxurious furniture is positioned in the women's zones to reflect the family's socio-economic status (Alharkan, 2017). A study conducted by Hareri (2018) established that a substantial fraction of the housewives was satisfied with the living rooms and furniture design, but others would choose to renovate because the existing layout and furniture were boring due to overuse. Ergüden (2012) argues that careful and wise selection of furniture is among the most critical factors in attaining a comfortable and relaxed sitting room. Each furnishing should thus be selected to be compatible with the other and coordinated in various ways (Mashhour, 2011). Similarly, Öztop et al. (2008) showed that the most critical factors in women's choice of living room furniture are the aesthetics and functionality of the furniture and usability. Thus, this paper aims to study the consumption value factors that affect living room furniture satisfaction among Saudi working women.

Consumption Values (IV)

Functional Value (FV) Emotional Value (EV) Conditional Value (CV) Social Value (SV) Epistemic Value (SV)

Living Room Furniture Satisfaction (LFS) (DV)

Figure 1: The study's theoretical framework.

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According to Sheth et al. (1991), a theoretical framework was proposed, as illustrated in Figure 1. "Theory of Consumption Values" developed as a better "fit" for home furnishings was considered the theoretical framework for the study. This theory supposes that multiple and independent consumption values influence choice behaviour, focusing on these five elements: conditional values, functional values, emotional values, social values, and epistemic values, where each value contributes differently to different selection situations (Burnsed & Hodges, 2014). Thus, it is an essential factor in women's evaluation of their satisfaction with living room furniture.

2 Research Method This paper aimed to determine the consumption values that influence the satisfaction with living room furniture among Saudi working women in all public organisations for education and health in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Based on this, the underlying values of consumption were (conditional value, functional value, emotional value, epistemic value, and social value).

Accordingly, the survey questionnaire was developed with closed-ended questions to achieve research objectives. Moreover, to select study participants, a multistage sampling method was used in which a process of steps was carried out to select study participants (Taherdoost, 2016).

2.1 Sample Size and Techniques The sample type and size need to represent the general population, allowing generalising the study findings to a broader population (Mohajan, 2020). The working women in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, were the population for this research. Random sample selection is an essential aspect of quantitative research, especially when generalisation is needed of the results on the community (Apuke, 2017; Gravetter & Wallnau, 2013). This study adopted the multistage sampling technique in selecting its respondents, in which a process is implemented in selection through several stages.

It is crucial to have a larger sample to represent the study population. According to Mohamed and Daud (2018), sampling sizes are from 30 and less than 500, which is suitable for most of the research. To calculate the sampling size of this study, the researcher uses the criterion formula used in calculating the minimum requirement for sample for a particular survey design (Bartlett et al., 2001). The resulted samples size was 384. The confidence level utilised in the study is 95%, which correlates to the standard normal distribution of 1.96 (Bartlett et al., 2001). Also, similarly predicted or probable studies are assumed to be 50% because the data set is categorical, while the maximum allowable deviation or estimation error is assumed to be ±5% for categorical data, according to Altman and Bland (2005). Taherdoost (2016) added that, when sending surveys by mail, the sample size will increase from about 40% to 50%, which helps to account for nonresponding and mail errors. In this regard, 45% of the determined sample size was added. Thus, 557 questionnaires were distributed through email, larger than the recommended sample.

2.2 Sampling Procedure Due to the difficulty in data collection, this research adopts a multistage sampling technique because of the population's dispersed nature. The sampled unit was split into secondary units (Ni ),

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and another sample was also randomly chosen. Ni has to be less than N in multistage sampling.

Moreover, when an exhaustive listing of the target population cannot be compiled, multistage sampling is recommended (Sedgwick, 2015). For example, the working women listed in the schools, universities, and hospitals combined in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, do not exist, but a list of the universities, schools and hospitals exists.

Table 1: Number of employment clusters for women in Jeddah Region Employment Cluster Schools Hospitals Universities

Northern Region 190 4 1

Eastern Region 183 2 0

Southern Region 182 2 0

Middle Region 147 6 1

Total 702 14 2

Since there is no information about the number of working women in the target population, the researcher identified the list of the schools, hospitals, and universities in Jeddah region, see Table 1. Since the targeted population sample is homogeneous, this research adopts a purposive random sampling based on a homogenous sampling technique (Palinkas et al., 2015). Furthermore, the two-stage sample method was applied in this research. A sample of schools, hospitals, and universities was selected from the total of combined organisations in Jeddah. This comprises the first stage of the multistage sampling procedure.

Consequently, a random sample of schools, hospitals, and universities was obtained in the second stage. About 185 forms were distributed to working women in each employment cluster in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, at the final phase. The distributed and returned questionnaires number and the response rate are illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The distributed and returned questionnaires and response rate

2.3 Construct Measure The survey questionnaire was divided into three parts (the information about demographical characteristics, consumption values, and living room furniture satisfaction). It was adapted from (Gan and Wang 2017; Chai et al. 2018). The five-point Likert scale was used to measure the independent and dependent variables, ranging from "strongly disagree" (1) to "strongly agree" (5) to respondents' accurate perception of exact questions (Hoe et al. 2018).

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2.4 Data Analysis Method A descriptive analysis using SPSS software was implemented to determine the correlation between the tested variables and analyse multiple linear regression analyses to identify the degree to which consumption values affected the satisfaction of Saudi working women with the living room furniture. Moreover, the distributed data normality and the equality of variances of the variables were checked with normality plots and scatter plots.

2.5 Reliability Analysis This study assesses the internal scale consistency using Cronbach's alpha reliability test since this test is widely accepted as an indicator of reliability (Chen et al., 2017). Moreover, the reliability coefficient ranges from 0 to 1, and the minimum acceptable reliability is 0.70 (Mohajan 2017). Table 2 revealed that the constructs' reliability values are between 0.805 and 0.901. Hence, all reliability values (Cronbach's alpha) for consumption values (conditional, epistemic, emotional, social, and functional value) and living room furniture satisfaction were greater than the recommended values of 0.70.

Table 2: The results of the reliability test Test Variable Living room Furniture Satisfaction Conditional Value Epistemic Value Emotional Value Social Value Functional Value Overall Consumption Values

Number of Items 4 5 6 7 8 10 40

5 - point Likert scale

The score of Cronbach's Alpha 0.901 0.899 0.805 0.872 0.814 0.883 0.887

3 Results Analysis and Discussion The sample study was the working women in public organisations in Jeddah Region, Saudi Arabia. Statistical data on a range of demographic characteristics were provided by the frequency descriptive analysis, including age, level of education, marital status, years of marriage, employment sector, number of family members, house rooms number and average monthly income. The study found that 38.3% of the working women surveyed were aged 34–41 years old.

Women with a bachelor's degree comprise the majority, holding 60.6% of educational degrees. This indicates the increasing interest of women in pursuing a university degree.

Regarding the respondents' marital status, married women constitute the majority (58.3%).

Most working women have been married for eight years or longer (46%), and becoming a wife and mother are their most important priorities. The findings show an almost equal distribution among the three employment sectors, with 34.9% of respondents working in general education, 33.1% working in higher education, and 32% working in the health sector. Most respondents (63.7%) have five rooms in their houses, and 35.4% have four or five family members, where the size of the family is directly correlated with the number of rooms in the house. It was revealed that 55.7% of respondents earned 6000 Riyals or more per month, approximately $1600.

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3.1 Descriptive Analysis According to Bell et al. (2018), descriptive analysis is used to describe data sets' basic characteristics, and it is often used to summarise and inspect large amounts of data. Table 3 indicates that working women are satisfied with their living room furniture. The mean statistic of living room furniture satisfaction is the highest (M = 4.44; SD = 0.52). The conditional value has the second highest mean value (4.23), while the social value has the smallest mean value (3.66). This implies that social value is the least element associated with furniture satisfaction.

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics results Variables Conditional Value Emotional Value Epistemic Value Functional Value Social Value Living room Furniture Satisfaction

Code CV EV EPV FV SV LFS

N 350 350 350 350 350 350

Max. 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00

Min. 2.20 2.14 1.17 2.50 1.50 2.25

Mean 4.23 3.95 3.68 4.22 3.66 4.44

SD 0.60 0.63 0.70 0.52 0.67 0.52

3.2 Correlation Test Analysis The correlation between independent and dependent variables was examined using Pearson's correlation test. According to Table 4 results, the relationship between all independent variables (CV, EPV, FV, and SV) is significant except for the emotional value variable (EV). The conditional value (0.791) and satisfaction with the furniture were significantly correlated.

Therefore, if the correlation analysis shows a positive coefficient, a direct relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables.

Table 4: The results Correlation test between the variables of consumption value and furniture satisfaction in the living room Variables LFS FV EV Living room Furniture Satisfaction (LFS) 1 Functional Value (FV) .538** 1 Emotional Value (EV) .022 -.1001 Social Value (SV) .198** .206** -.017Epistemic Value (EPV) .207** .184** -.064Conditional Value (CV) .791** .435** -.052**. Significant correlation at 0.01 level (2-tailed).

SV

EPV

CV

1 .689** .285**

1 .311**

1

3.3 Normality Test The normal distribution is the most widely used among statistical distributions (Alasmri et al., 2019). The normal distribution shape depends on the results of standard deviation and mean.

The standard deviation results in Figure 3 with a value of about 0.993 are considered closed.

3.4 Linearity Linearity refers to how closely the correlation between the dependent variable change and the change in independent variables (Betemariam & Mesfin, 2018). Figure 4 shows that the collected data exhibits a normal distribution of residuals around a mean of zero since each point lies near or along the regression line. Though, a slight misalignment can be seen at the mid-point and top-right points, which are still within the tolerance range.

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Frequency

Mean = -9.11E-15 SD = 0.993 N = 350

Regression Standardised Residual

Figure 3: Regression standardised residuals plot (Dependent Variable: Living room Furniture Satisfaction).

Expected Cum Prob

Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardised Residual Dependent Variable: Living room furniture satisfaction

Observed Cum Prob

Figure 4: Regression standardised residuals results for living room Furniture Satisfaction

3.5 Test of Multicollinearity Table 5 shows the tolerance and VIF for the latent variables. The diagnostic test for multiple collinearities did not indicate significant collinearities between the study variables, as all values of tolerance are between 0.509 and 0.986 and greater than 0.10. Also, all values of VIF are between 1.015 and 1.966 and less than 10 (Sekaran, 2003).

Table 5: The results of Tolerance and VIF for Variables Collinearity Statistics Code Tolerance FV 0.797 Functional Value EV 0.986 Emotional Value SV 0.515 Social Value EPV 0.509 Epistemic Value CV 0.752 Conditional Value a. Dependent Variable: Living room Furniture Satisfaction (LFS) Variables

VIF 1.255 1.015 1.941 1.966 1.329

3.6 Multiple Linear Regression Analysis Cohen et al. (2003) explain that multiple regression is the sample squared correlation coefficient between the response variable and the predicted value of the regression model. Gujarati (2004) states that the value of the R-square should be a minimum of 60% for all variables. For significant F, the results should be between 0.01 and 0.05 (Blackwell, 2008). The value of Durbin

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Watson should be between 2.5 and 1.5 (Bakon & Hassan, 2013). Table 6 shows that the model result of the adjusted R2 is 0.677, and the R2 value is 0.681, which indicates 68% of the influence on living room satisfaction.

Another 32% of the space is unspecified using the current model with the current independent variables including functional, conditional, emotional, social, and epistemic values.

Therefore, other important variables in explaining furniture satisfaction have yet to be considered in this research. It is suitable for the model with the F of [F (5, 344) = 146.989] and a p-value of less than 0.001; the independent variables describe the dependent variables very well. Using Durbin Watson, the autocorrelation for the sample of respondents picked for this study is 1.780, which should be between 1.5 and 2.5. Hence, all independent variables investigated in this study are strongly correlated with the dependent variable, and they are the factors affecting the satisfaction with living room furniture among working women, as presented in Table 6.

Table 6: Results of Linear Regression Analysis Model 1

Change Statistics Adjusted R Standard Error Durbin-Watson R Square Square of the Estimate F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change Change 0.825a 0.681 0.677 0.29681 0.681 146.989 5 344 0.000 1.780 Predictors: (Constant), Conditional Value, Functional Value, Social Value, Emotional Value, and Epistemic Value b. Dependent Variable: Living room Furniture Satisfaction (LFS) R

R Square

3.7 Multiple Regression Coefficients Analysis The Multiple Regression Coefficient Beta was employed to define the independent variable's predictive ability on the dependent variables. According to Green and Salkind (2005) and Lee (2010), each individual or condition in multiple regression analysis contains scores of the multiple independent and dependent variables. Therefore, independent variables of the multiple linear regression equations are the consumption values; namely, functional value (FV), emotional value (EV), social value (SV), epistemic value (EPV), conditional value (CV), and the dependent variable of the multiple linear regression equations is living room furniture satisfaction (LFS). As shown in Table 7, the collinearity statistics analysis has the VIF value range of 1.015 to 1.966 and a tolerance range of 0.50 to 0.98. Accordingly, the VIF and tolerance values indicate no serious multicollinearity problem with this analysis.

Based on Table 7, the results of the regression analysis referred to the conditional value (B = 0.615, p< 0.05), the functional value (B = 0.253, p < 0.01), and the emotional value (B = 0.067, p < 0.05), which only has a significant influence on working women’s satisfaction with living room furniture. However, working women’s satisfaction with living room furniture was not significantly affected by the two other consumption values, epistemic value (B = -0.024, p > 0.05) and social value (B = -0.024, p > 0.05). The women stated that the furniture's aesthetics and functionality in the living room are two important values. They also emphasised the importance of having appropriate furniture in the living room and enough numbers for their family members. Previous

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studies have similar findings (Öztop et al. 2008; Saruwono et al. 2012; Lee et al. 2017; Hareri 2018; Esen and Uysal 2019).

Table 7: The results of multivariate regression coefficients with the Livingroom Furniture Satisfaction variable Model 1

(Constant) Conditional Value Functional Value Epistemic Value Emotional Value Social Value

Unstandardised Standardised Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 0.681 .192 3.553 .000 0.615 .031 .704 20.061 .000 0.253 .034 .252 7.378 .000 -.024.032 -.032-.747.456 .067 .025 .081 2.634 .009 -.024.033 -.031-.729.466 Dependent Variable: Living room Furniture Satisfaction (HFS)

Collinearity Statistics Tolerance

VIF

0.752 0.797 0.509 0.986 0.515

1.329 1.255 1.966 1.015 1.941

Generally, the regression analysis results revealed that conditional value, emotional value, and functional value significantly influence the satisfaction of working women with living room furniture. Conversely, epistemic value and social value have an insignificant influence on the satisfaction of working women with the furniture in the living room.

4 Conclusion The living room is the centre of the house and makes up the central space within a Saudi household in the furniture purchasing decision-making process. The study reveals that the basic arrangement of furniture is highly controlled by the restricted area of the living room. Due to the minimal space provided, working women need to consider the sizes and types of furniture they choose because it should consider their individuality and reflect their daily lifestyle. The study was conducted to bridge the gap between consumption values and working women's satisfaction with living room furniture. These results reinforce the role of the Theory of Consumption Values in determining living room furniture satisfaction among working women. The study provides insight into working women by investigating values that can influence their satisfaction, such as conditional, functional, and emotional values. Therefore, Saudi women are the key decision-makers in determining the style, shape, design, and colour of the living room furniture to ensure the proper distribution of every piece according to the size and function. The research findings have practical implications in that Saudi working women, in general, can now clearly identify the significant factors that can significantly affect their satisfaction with furniture in the living room. Thus, this study can provide knowledge of consumption values and consequently allow them to improve and display more women's lifestyles and effectively balance work and home activities.

This research can be applied to policymaking with the help of research-based decisionmaking and to develop and implement programs that help working women choose furniture for their homes that best suits their lifestyle and activities at home. Additionally, this study can help professionals interested in designing and marketing furniture (furniture companies, retailers, and designers) by creating markets targeted at increasing furniture sales and women's satisfaction with furniture quality.

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5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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Chai, K. Y. S., Li, Y. Y., Lim, W. L., & Ong, S. P. (2018). Factors influencing consumer satisfaction in online shopping. Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Kampar, Perak.

Chen, L. L., Basit, A., & Hassan, Z. (2017). The Impact Of Customer Perceived Value On Customer Satisfaction: A Study On Malaysian Automobile Industry. International Journal of Accounting & Business Management, 5(1), 93-110.

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Garip, S. B., Onay, N. S., Garip, E., & Güzelci, O. (2019). Flexible and Modular Furniture Design for Changing Living Environments. In C. Söğütlü (Ed.), The XXIX International Conference Research for Furniture Industry (pp. 547-554). Ankara: Gazi University.

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Fattwo AbdulRahman Makkawi is a master's student at the Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia. She obtained a bachelor's degree in General Home Economics from the Education and Home Economics Faculty, Umm AlQura University. Her research areas include Economics & Management, Interior Design, and Sustainable Consumption.

Professor Dr Ahmad Hariza Hashim is a Professor in Housing and Environment at the Faculty of Human Ecology, Universiti Putra Malaysia. Currently, he is the Dean of Post Graduate Studies, Industry and Community Relations. His research focuses on Housing, Environmental Psychology, Sustainable Consumption, Consumer Education.

Dr. Jasmine Lau Leby is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Resource Management and Consumer Studies, University Putra Malaysia. She got her Ph.D. degree in Housing from Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. Her primary research interest involves Housing, Management & Organisation, and Environmental Psychology.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Effects of Polypropylene Fibres on the Properties of Reinforced Structural Lightweight Concrete Made With Expanded Clay Aggregates K.K. Gaayathri1*. K. Suguna1, P.N. Raghunath1 Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, INDIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: gaayathrikk14 @gmail.com) 1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5H Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 14 January 2021 Received in revised form 8 April 2022 Accepted 15 April 2022 Available online 22 April 2022

Keywords:

Compressive strength; Expanded Clay Aggregate (ECA); Flexural strength; Lightweight concrete; Modulus of elasticity; Modulus of rupture; Polypropylene fibres.

All efforts are being made to tailor the properties of concrete by replacing binder and filler with appropriate materials based on the environmental conditions. Many prospective players came into vogue for the purpose. Expanded clay showed promise for use in structural lightweight concrete. The addition of discontinuous discrete fibres proved to be beneficial in further improving the performance of structural lightweight concrete. A comprehensive laboratory investigation has been carried out to assess the influence of polypropylene fibres on the properties of expanded clay-based structural lightweight concrete. Expanded clay aggregates (ECA) have been used in varying percentages of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% to replace coarse aggregates. Polypropylene fibres have been used in volume fractions of 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% and 0,4%. Based on trials, the optimum dosage of expanded clay aggregates for meeting the workability and strength requirements has been obtained. The laboratory results showed that the inclusion of polypropylene fibres improved the properties of structural lightweight concrete appreciably.

Disciplinary: Civil Engineering & Technology (Structural & Construction Materials). ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Gaayathri, K.K., Suguna, K., Raghunath, P.N. (2022). Effects of Polypropylene Fibres on the Properties of Reinforced Structural Lightweight Concrete Made With Expanded Clay Aggregates. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5H, 111. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.92

1 Introduction Structural lightweight concrete is finding its place in many applications such as buildings, bridges, floors and partitions. The inherent characteristics of structural lightweight concrete that make it preferable include lower density, higher specific strength, good thermal insulation and better durability. The density of concrete is of primary concern in the context of the self-weight of

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structural members. In many structures, self-weight forms an appreciable proportion of the total load. Reduced density of structural lightweight concrete results in reduced self-weight of structural members which is quite important in seismic-resistant design. It is relatively understandable that the addition of micro-reinforcement enhances the overall performance in general. The improved mechanical properties of structural lightweight concrete as a result of the inclusion of micro reinforcement makes it fit for use in load-bearing structural members also.

The addition of steel fibre to high strength lightweight concrete is extremely effective in improving the strength and fracture toughness (Jianming Gao et al. 1997). The longitudinal tensile reinforcement ratio compatible with flexural ductility is somewhat lower for LWAC beams when compared to NWAC (Bernardo et al. 2016). The methods contained in the American code of practice (ACI 318-2005 and ACI 213-2003) for LWAC can predict the cracking and ultimate strength quite accurately (Lim et al., 2006). The optimal HPPFs content t of 1.1% and SFs content of 2.0% improved the flexural toughness of plain concrete (Li et al. 2017). The addition of 1.5% polypropylene fibre increased the compressive and split tensile strength. (Sohaib et al., 2018). The use of industrial waste steel wires can be used as micro–reinforcement for improving the mechanical properties of lightweight concrete. (Aghaee et al., 2014).

In this study, efforts have been made to study the behaviour of expanded clay-based structural lightweight concrete with the inclusion of polypropylene fibres in varying volume fractions.

In building systems, the dead load is of greater concern. Attempts need to be made to reduce the dead load as much as practicable. In this context, structural lightweight concrete gains importance (Sakthivel and Saravanan, 2022; Thongjub et al., 2022). The introduction of fibres into lightweight concrete enhances its flexural strength, compressive strength and deformation capacity appreciably.

The sizes of member sections also get reduced leading to an economical solution.

Further the serviceability of member sections also improves through reduced crack widths. Hence an attempt has been made to realise the impact of including polypropylene fibres on the properties of expanded clay-based structural lightweight concrete.

2 Experimental Programme 2.1 Materials 2.1.1 Cement Ordinary Portland Cement of grade 53 conforming to IS 12269: 2013 was used in this investigation. The properties of cement used are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Properties of Cement Property Specific gravity Standard consistency Initial setting time Final setting time

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Value 3.15 33% 55 minutes 380 minutes

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2.1.2 Coarse Aggregate The coarse aggregate used was crushed granite of a maximum particle size of 20mm and conforming to IS 383:2016. Expanded Clay Aggregate (ECA)(Figure2) was used to partially replace coarse aggregate.

Table 2: Properties of Coarse Aggregate Property Specific gravity Water absorption Shape Bulk density

2.1.3 Fine Aggregate

Crushed Granite Aggregate 2.68 0.7 Angular 1600 kg/𝑚𝑚3

Expanded Clay Aggregate 0.57 15.5% Rounded 600 kg/𝑚𝑚3

A combination of natural river sand (R-sand) conforming to IS383: 2016 and manufactured sand (M-sand) was used as fine aggregate in this study. Trials were made to arrive at the combination of R-sand to M-sand. R-sand 55% and M-sand 45% combined were found to be beneficial. The specific gravity of the combine was found to be 2.66.

2.1.4 Polypropylene Fibre Commercially available Recron 3S fibres (Figure3) were used in this study. The fibres are compatible with all admixtures used in concrete which conform to ASTM C1116.

Table 3: Properties of Polypropylene Fibres Property Length Shape Effective Diameter Specific Gravity Tensile Strength Elongation Elasticity Modulus Alkaline Stability

Value 12mm Triangular 40 micron 0.91 4 GPa 90% 4000 MPa Very good

2.1.5 Super Plasticizer An SNF based high range water reducing admixture Conplast SP430 (Figure1) was used to satisfy the workability demand of each mix. The product Conplast SP430 conforms to ASTM C494.

The dosage for all the mixes was arrived at through trials.

Table 4: Properties of Super Plasticizer Property Appearance Colour Specific gravity Chloride content

Value Liquid Brown 1.18 Nil

Figure 1: Super Plasticizer

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Figure 2: Expanded Clay Aggregates

Figure 3: Polypropylene Fibres

2.2 Control Specimens Cube Specimens (3 cubes for each mix) of size 150 X 150 X 150 mm were cast and tested for determining the compressive strength of concrete.

Cylinder Specimens (3 cylinders for each mix) of size 150 X 300 mm were cast and tested for determining the compressive strength of concrete.

Cylinder Specimens (3 cylinders for each mix) of size 150 X 300 mm were cast and tested for determining the elasticity modulus of concrete Prism Specimens (3 prisms for each mix) of size 100 X 100 X 500 mm were cast and tested for determining the flexural strength of concrete.

2.2.1 Preparation of Control Specimens The ingredients were first mixed in a dry state and then fibres were added in smaller quantities to avoid balling of fibres. The prepared wet (water plus SP) concrete was placed in equal layers in the moulds and thoroughly compacted. The specimens were removed after 24 hours from the moulds and then cured continuously for 28 days in a tank. After drying, the specimens were tested for compressive strength, elasticity modulus and flexural strength respectively. The details of control specimens are given in Table 5.

Table 5: Details of Control Specimens Mix No. 1 2 3 4 5

Specimen

w/c Ratio

Water content (kg)

Cement (kg)

Coarse Aggregate (kg)

EC0 EC1 EC2 EC3 EC4

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

175 175 175 175 175

350 350 350 350 350

995.8 995.8 995.8 995.8 995.8

Expanded Clay Aggregate (kg) 52.17 52.17 52.17 52.17 52.17

River Sand (kg)

MSand (kg)

Fibre Volume %

377.85 377.85 377.85 377.85 377.85

309.15 309.15 309.15 309.15 309.15

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

2.3 Experimental Methods 2.3.1 Slump Test The concrete mix has been designed as per IS 10262:2019. The workability test has been conducted for all the five mixes as per IS 1199:2008. The SP dosage used and the slump obtained for

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each mix are presented in Table 6. A standard mould of 300mm height, 200mm base diameter and 100mm top diameter was used. The fresh concrete was filled into the mould in equal layers and well compacted. The subsidence was measured after the removal of the cone.

Table 6: Slump Test Results Sl No 1 2 3 4 5

Designation EC0 EC1 EC2 EC3 EC4

SP % used 0.45 0.60 0.67 0.82 1.05

Slump(mm) 60 57 58 56 57

2.3.2 Compressive Strength Test A total of 18cubes of size 150×150×150mm (control, with 20 % ECA, with 20% ECA plus 0.1% PPF, with 20% ECA plus 0.2% PPF, with 20% ECA plus 0.3% PPF and with 20% ECA plus 0.4% PPF) were tested as per IS516: 1999 in a standard Compression Testing Machine. Each value represents the average result of three specimens in the same group.

A total of 18 cylinders of size 150×300 mm (control, with 20 % ECA, with 20% ECA plus 0.1% PPF, with 20% ECA plus 0.2% PPF, with 20% ECA plus 0.3% PPF and with 20% ECA plus 0.4% PPF) were tested as per IS 516: 1999 in a standard Compression Testing Machine. Each value represents the average result of three specimens in the same group.

2.3.3 Elasticity Modulus Test A total of 18 cylinders of size 150×300 mm (control, with 20 % ECA, with 20% ECA plus 0.1% PPF, with 20% ECA plus 0.2% PPF, with 20% ECA plus 0.3% PPF and with 20% ECA plus 0.4% PPF) were tested as per IS 516: 1999 in a standard Compression Testing Machine. The test set-up with appropriate instrumentation for this experiment is shown in Figure 4. Each value represents the average result of three specimens in the same group.

Figure 4: Elasticity Modulus Test on Cylinder

2.3.4 Flexural Strength Test A total of 18 prisms of size 100× 100 X 500 mm (control, with 20 % ECA, with 20% ECA plus 0.1% PPF, with 20% ECA plus 0.2% PPF, with 20% ECA plus 0.3% PPF and with 20% ECA plus 0.4% PPF) were tested as per IS 516: 1999 in a standard loading frame. Figure 5 shows the test. Each value represents the average result of three specimens in the same group.

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Figure 5: Flexure Test on Prism

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Compressive Strength The compressive strength of expanded clay-based structural lightweight concrete with varying fibre volume fractions of polypropylene fibre is presented in Table 7. The average compressive strength of the expanded clay-based structural lightweight concrete specimens was 23.55 MPa which confirms ASTM 213R-03. There was an increase in compressive strength by 3.77 % and 10.40 % with the inclusion of 0.1% and 0.2% volume fraction of polypropylene fibres respectively. The compressive strength of concrete with 0.3% volume fraction of polypropylene fibres increased appreciably reaching a peak value of 28.22 N/m𝑚𝑚 2 . The increase in cube strength may be due to the strong bond between the PP fibres and the matrix. However, the compressive

strength of concrete with 0.4% volume fraction of polypropylene fibres got decreased. It is apparent that the decrease in compressive strength for this fibre content may be due to difficulty in dispersing the fibres in the concrete. The percentage gain in cube and cylinder compressive strength is shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7.

Table 7: Compressive Strength Test Results Designation

Cube Compressive Strength (MPa)

% Gain in Cube Compressive Strength

EC0 EC1 EC2 EC3 EC4

23.55 24.44 26.00 28.22 25.42

3.77 10.40 19.83 7.94

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Cylinder Compressive Strength(MPa)

% Gain in Cylinder Compressive Strength

18.84 19.58 20.94 22.64 20.37

3.93 11.15 20.17 8.12

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19%

0% 9%

0% 19%

9%

25%

26% 46%

47%

EC0

EC1

EC2

EC3

EC0

EC4

EC1

EC2

EC3

EC4

Figure 7: Cylinder Compressive Strength

Figure 6: Cube Compressive Strength

3.1.1 Failure Pattern The cube specimens were tested in a compression testing machine of 1000 kN capacity The failure pattern of polypropylene fibre based lightweight concrete cube specimens with expanded clay aggregate is shown in Figure 8. In the early stages, the cracks were concentrated on the surface only. With the increase in axial stress level, the cracks formed earlier propagated towards the interior of the cube specimens. Further, Concrete spalling also occurred at this stage. With the inclusion of polypropylene fibres, the failure pattern of cube specimens changed distinctly. The propagation of crack was found retarded. This is because the internally included polypropylene fibres created a confinement mechanism preventing the tendency of concrete to crack and spall.

The volume fraction of polypropylene fibres have been found to influence the failure pattern of cube specimens significantly.

EC0

EC1

EC2

EC3

EC4

Figure 8: Failure Pattern of Cube specimens

3.2 Modulus of Elasticity The elasticity modulus of expanded clay-based structural lightweight concrete with varying fibre volume fractions of polypropylene fibre is presented in Table 8. The results exhibit an increase of 0.86% in fibre reinforced lightweight concrete when compared to non-fibre reinforced concrete.

With the further addition of polypropylene fibres, the elasticity modulus increased. The addition of polypropylene fibres by 0.3% increases the elasticity modulus by 10.17%. Similarly, a 0.4% volume fraction of polypropylene fibre increases the elasticity modulus by11.78%. The modulus of elasticity was found to increase with the increase in polypropylene fibre content due to the fibre bridging affecting the percentage gain in modulus of elasticity are shown in Figure 9.

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Table 8: Elasticity Modulus Test Results Designation

Elasticity Modulus (GPa)

EC0 EC1 EC2 EC3 EC4

24.39 24.60 25.50 26.87 27.26

0% 3%

% Gain in Elasticity Modulus 0.86 4.55 10.17 11.78

EC0 EC1

17%

EC2

43%

EC3 37%

EC4

Figure 9: Modulus of Elasticity of Test Specimens

3.2.1 Failure Pattern The cylinder specimens were tested in a compression testing machine of 1000 kN capacity.

The failure pattern of polypropylene fibre based lightweight concrete cylinder specimens with expanded clay aggregate is shown in Figure 10. In the early stages, a major macro crack was observed over the height of the cylinder specimen. With an increase in axial compressive stress, more longitudinal cracks formed on the specimen surface. With the inclusion of polypropylene fibres, the failure pattern of cylinder specimens changed differently. The crack propagation was found retarded. There was also an increase in crack density. The polypropylene fibres caused a confinement mechanism preventing the tendency of concrete to crack and spall. The volume fraction of polypropylene fibres has been found to significantly influence the failure pattern of cylinder specimens.

EC0

EC1

EC2

EC3

EC4

Figure 10: Failure Pattern of Cylinder Specimens

3.3 Modulus of Rupture The flexural strength test results of different mixes are presented in Table 9. Each test value is the mean value recorded from three test specimens. The flexural strength was found to increase from 4.7 N/m𝑚𝑚 2 to 7.4 N/m𝑚𝑚 2 with an increase in fibre volume fraction from 0% to 0.4%. The rate of increase of flexural strength was 10.64% to 54.45% based on the fibre volume fraction attempted.

The increase in flexural strength with an increase in fibre volume fraction may be due to the fact

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that, after matrix cracking, the polypropylene fibres continue to share the load. The fracture process consisted of progressive fibre debonding during which crack propagation occurred slowly.

The final failure occurred due to unstable crack propagation when the fibres pulled out. Figure11 illustrates the modulus of Rupture of expanded clay-based polypropylene fibre reinforced concrete.

Table 9: Modulus of Rupture Test Results Designation EC0 EC1 EC2 EC3 EC4

Modulus of Rupture (MPa) 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.5 7.4

0%

EC0

8% 44%

% Gain in Modulus of Rupure 10.64 23.40 38.29 57.45

18%

EC1 EC2 EC3

30%

EC4

Figure 11: Modulus of Rupture of Test Specimens

3.3.1 Failure Pattern The prism specimens were tested under four-point bending in a standard loading frame. The failure pattern of polypropylene fibre based lightweight concrete prism specimens with expanded clay aggregate is shown in Figure12. The pattern of failure was found to be the same in the specimens with and without polypropylene fibres except that the time of formation of crack as well as the width of crack was less. The increase in flexural strength with an increase in fibre volume fraction may be due to the restraint to crack growth caused by the PP fibre addition.

EC0

EC1

EC2

EC3

EC4

Figure 17: Failure Pattern of Prism Specimens

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4 Conclusion From this study, the expanded clay-based structural lightweight aggregate concrete showed a maximum of 19.83% increase in compressive strength with the inclusion of 0.3% volume fraction of polypropylene fibre., which may be due to the cracking resistance offered by the fibre reinforcement. The addition of polypropylene fibres is very effective in improving the flexural strength of structural lightweight concrete. A maximum increase of 57.45% has been obtained with 0.4% volume fraction of polypropylene fibres.

The modulus of elasticity increased at the rate of 0.86% to 11.78% as the fibre volume fraction increased from 0.1% to 0.4%. The incorporation of polypropylene fibres not only improves the overall performance of structural lightweight concrete but also helps in preventing the brittle failure of the material.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6 References Aghaee, K., Yazdi, M. A., & Tsavdaridis, K. D. (2015). Investigation into the mechanical properties of structural lightweight concrete reinforced with waste steel wires. Magazine of Concrete research, 67(4), 197-205.

Bernardo, L. F., Nepomuceno, M. C., & Pinto, H. A. (2016). Flexural ductility of lightweight-aggregate concrete beams. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 22(5), 622-633.

Chowdary, A., Chaithra, N, Chethan, K. (2017). A Study on Impact of Polypropylene (Recron 3S) Fibers on Compressive and Tensile Strength of Concrete. International Journal for Innovative Research, 4(3), 13-22.

Gao, J., Sun, W., & Morino, K. (1997). Mechanical properties of steel fiber-reinforced, high-strength, lightweight concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 19(4), 307-313.

Li, J., Niu, J., Wan, C., Liu, X., & Jin, Z. (2017). Comparison of flexural property between high performance polypropylene fiber reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete and steel fiber reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 157, 729-736.

Lim, H. S., Wee, T. H., Mansur, M. A., & Kong, K. H. (2006, September). Flexural behavior of reinforced lightweight aggregate concrete beams. In Proceedings of the 6th Asia-Pacific Structural Engineering and Construction Conference (APSEC 2006) (pp. 5-6).

Sakthivel, S.K., Saravanan, J. (2022). Experimental Assessment over Theoretical Prediction & Analytical Studies on Flexure Behavior of RC Beams with Recycled Coarse Aggregate. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(3), 13A3I, 1-11. http://TuEngr.com/V13/13A3I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.51 Sohaib, N., Seemab, F., Sana, G., & Mamoon, R. (2018). Using Polypropylene Fibers in Concrete to achieve maximum strength. In Proc. of the Eighth International Conference on Advances in Civil and Structural Engineering (pp. 36-42).

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Thongjub, P., Nuakong, P., Jongvivatsakul, P., Raksuntorn, N., Witchayangkoon, B., Raksuntorn, W., Sirimontree, S. (2022). Effect of Crumb Rubber on Properties of High-Calcium Fly Ash Geopolymer Mortars. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & DOI: Technologies, 13(2), 13A2A, 1-10. http://TuEngr.com/V13/13A2A.pdf 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.22 K.K.Gaayathri is a Research Scholar at the Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar, Tamil Nadu. She got her Master’s Degree in Structural Engineering from Annamalai University.

Annamalainagar-608001, Tamil Nadu. Her research is based on the Structural Light Weight Concrete with various percentages of Micro Reinforcements.

Dr.K.Suguna is a Professor at the Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar608001,Tamil Nadu. She got her Master’s and PhD degrees in Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar-608001,Tamil Nadu. Her research focuses on FRP laminates and fibre reinforced concrete.

Dr.P.N.Raghunath is a Professor at the Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar-608001,Tamil Nadu. He got his Master’s and PhD degrees in Structural Engineering, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar-608001,Tamil Nadu. His research focuses on FRP Laminates and Fibre Reinforced Concrete.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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A Survey on STEAM Education in Saudi Arabia: Early Childhood Marwan Albahar1*, Abdullah Alammari2 Department of Science, Umm Al Qura University, PO Box 715, Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

Faculty of Education, Curriculums and Teaching Department, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia. *Corresponding Author (Corresponding Author mabahar@uqu.edu.sa) 1 2

Paper ID: 13A5I Volume 13 Issue 5

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to conduct a survey of recent work related to the perspectives of teachers working in early childhood education settings on Received 15 January 2022 Received in revised form 09 STEAM education. In an attempt to reform education, Saudi Arabia has April 2022 adopted STEAM education as a fundamental reform principle. As a result of Accepted 19 April 2022 the top-down nature of these initiatives, however, little is known about Available online 23 April STEAM education in schools and informal settings. This paper examined the 2022 general education landscape and shared the findings of a study on the Keywords: perspectives of early childhood educators in Saudi Arabia on STEAM STEAM education; education. Finally, we discussed the results and made some Teachers' beliefs ; Early childhood ; Saudi Arabia recommendations for the future.

Discipline: Information Technology in Education ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Albahar, M., and Alammari, A. (2022). A Survey on STEAM Education in Saudi Arabia: Early Childhood.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5I, 1-6. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.93

1 Introduction The number of students majoring in STEM-related fields continues to increase in both developing and developed countries [1]. STEM education is defined in numerous ways. This study seeks to elucidate the perspectives of Saudi educators on incorporating STEAM and how it can be implemented in the classroom. It aims to shift the paradigm of education away from traditional lecture-based methods and toward more interdisciplinary approaches that facilitate meaningful learning experiences to meet the rising demand for skilled and creative individuals. This can facilitate students' acquisition of 21st-century skills [2].

Students in grades K–12 are typically taught using STEAM education, which is a sciencebased, multidisciplinary approach to education. STEAM stands for science, technology,

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engineering, mathematics, and the arts. Children's natural curiosity and excitement for exploration and discovery are fostered by integrating these five critical disciplines into STEAM education.

Simultaneously, students taught in this manner must demonstrate the capacity for critical and creative thinking in order to lay the groundwork for future academic success. To prepare today's children for a successful life and future, educators must adopt a new approach that integrates multiple content areas. Children in the twenty-first century require increased critical thinking training in order to overcome the obstacles they will face. Despite increasing global competitiveness, education is under increasing pressure to prepare students to address recent global issues. Concerns about a shortage of well-prepared students entering STEM-related careers in the United States prompted the establishment of STEAM [3-5]. Despite the numerous studies that have been conducted on STEAM in early childhood education, there is still a lack of research on the various aspects of integrated STEM. This review aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the current state of research on this subject. It also explores the level of progress that has been made in the field over the past few years.

2 Literature Review Saudi Arabia's efforts to modernize its educational system have been hampered by globalization. Saudi Arabia has made significant efforts over the last two decades to reform its educational system. King Abdullah bin Abdul-Aziz’s Public Education Development Project (KAAPEDP) was launched in 2007 in response to the country's extensive economic and social development [6]. Tatweer, an Arabic term for development, was intended to supplant traditional Saudi education with a more innovative and technologically advanced model. This project placed a premium on technology-enhanced learning environments and the qualifications of classroom instructors [7]. In 2015, with the aid of the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), the Saudi Ministry of Education produced the Saudi Early Learning Standards (SELS) [8] addressed preschool-aged children (ages 3–6) with the goal of providing educators, parents, and other caregivers with the most up-to-date information on best practices for that age group. Seven standards for children's learning at all ages were outlined in the document. Teaching measurement and geometry concepts place a premium on spatial awareness and form dimension.

The following subthemes within cognition and general knowledge have a clear connection to STEAM content [9]. (See Table 1).

Table 1: STEAM content and its connection to cognition and general knowledge. subtheme Science & Mathematics Creative Arts & Technology

General and cognition knowledge Students are introduced to topics such as biology and physics in the science curriculum. In mathematics, students will learn numbers, geometry, measurements, and quantity.

The goal of the creative arts program is to give kids a safe place where they can work on improving their bodies, minds, and actions.

In the technology section, the objective is to introduce students to the world of technology and develop their proficiency with interactive and multimedia equipment.

There are several age-appropriate behaviors included in the SELS statement's cognition and general knowledge requirements. Additionally, these activities assist kids in acquiring a strong

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foundation in science, technology, engineering, the arts, and mathematics by fostering critical thinking and problem-solving skills. However, these conceptions express the primary domains of scientific thought as developing activities. It doesn't offer any guidance to educators on how to categorize content integration as a STEAM investigation [9].

1 Contribution & Methodology The goal of this study is to shed light on recent studies conducted on the topic related to Saudi teachers' perspectives on STEAM's role in early childhood education in light of substantial changes to the Saudi educational system's policy and philosophy in recent years. There is a dearth of research on STEAM in early childhood education in Saudi Arabia, despite the fact that multiple studies on Saudi teachers and their perceptions of critical STEAM content have been undertaken [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. The goal of this review is to provide comprehensive knowledge of the various aspects of STEAM education. It also explores the level of advancement that has occurred in the field over the past few years.

2 Method The sources included studies in which all peer-reviewed and published journal articles in English between the years 2018 and 2022 were chosen for eligibility. To be declared eligible for the study, it was found imperative to provide empirical research findings regarding the learning outcomes. The populations studied in the study were all related to STEAM education. The studies where the subjects were not related to STEAM education were dismissed. However, excluding such articles proved to be a limitation of this study. The articles that focused on STEAM education practice rather than the learning outcomes of the curriculum were also excluded. This also included the articles that emphasized the design methodology based on STEAM education to provide enhancement in early childhood settings.

3 Gathering and examining information The resulting Endnote files were then sent to Rayyan. Rayyan is a web application designed specifically to facilitate the process of systematic literature reviews. With the aid of Rayyan's blind review tool, the remaining articles were scrutinized by two authors using the inclusion criteria as a guide. After using the blind review tool to screen the candidate's articles, it was determined that 15 articles were accepted and included by both reviewers, whereas 30 articles were rejected or disregarded and excluded. This indicates that 30 of the 66 articles were not included. In addition, there were further disagreements, which led to the labeling of four more articles as "possible." Two of these four articles were included by the other reviewer, while the remaining two were excluded.

It was determined that 86.5% agreement existed between the two reviewers. If the "maybe" articles were included with the "included" articles, the inter-rater agreement would reach 93.8%. The paper was rejected because of a thorough examination of the articles that could not be classified. After proper population and study type analysis, only three "maybe" articles were included among these.

In the final stage of the reviewing process, only 19 articles were categorized (See figure 1).

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Figure 1: Flowchart Presentation for Selection Process

4 Results The survey revealed that a number of studies focused [12,13,15,17,18,20] on enhancing the STEAM education-related perspectives of Saudi teachers. Additionally, these studies demonstrated that STEAM education enhances the cognitive development and learning capacity of young children. In addition, Saudi Arabian educators had modest views regarding the incorporation of STEAM subjects into the classroom and the planning and execution of lessons at a reasonable rate.

This survey found that instructors lacked STEM knowledge, which was one of its key findings [12,13,14]. Several studies found [11,12,14,15,19,20,21] that there were constraints to incorporating STEAM activities and basic STEAM principles into the curriculum. In fact, according to [10,11,12,13], instructors were familiar with the acronym STEAM, but few knew how to implement it or what skills were necessary. Moreover, a previous study noticed that the majority of educators required additional training and professional development in order to integrate STEAM subjects effectively into their curriculum [11,12,13]. Our survey revealed that teachers lacked the knowledge necessary to implement STEAM principles in the classroom. The teachers' limited knowledge of STEAM's multidisciplinary nature [17] hinders their understanding of the acronym. Several studies showed [9, 11,12,13] that teachers who do not know all STEAM subjects must know at least two STEAM courses to aid the cognitive development of young children. To teach cross-idea STEM integration, emphasis must be placed on theoretical foundations, visual models, and practical integration skills [18, 23]. To teach STEAM-related topics, instructors must integrate multiple disciplines holistically and cognitively [9,11,12]. According to [9,11,1223], STEAM courses must integrate multiple disciplines and permit natural crossovers. STEAM concepts can be taught using interdisciplinarity,

multidisciplinarity,

and

transdisciplinarity.

Transdisciplinarity

entails

combining domains and the space between them to produce novel concepts. This method assists students in establishing connections between seemingly unrelated concepts. However, the lack of familiarity with STEAM education and its procedures hinders progress.

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5 Conclusion According to the findings of this review, many exciting opportunities exist for integrating STEAM education experiences with children and educators. In moving forward, we suggested that this has a greater bearing on early childhood learning and experiences. To empathize more, we reiterated the importance of the arts and play in assisting children to comprehend, explore, and represent their developing STEAM knowledge. The literature acknowledged that young children engage in STEAM experiences and learn through both everyday and planned activities. There is a need for educators to recognize these opportunities and have the aptitude and inclination to seek out, support, and cultivate STEAM education in young children. This review drew several significant conclusions, one of which was that training and professional development are extremely important to the STEAM education experience, prompting further consideration of how STEAM is conceptualized and defined.

6 References [1] Donohue, C. Foreword. (2019). In STEM in Early Childhood Education: How Science, Technology and Engineering and Mathematics Strengthen Learning; Cohen, L., Waite-Stupiansky, S., Eds.; Taylor & Francis: Abingdon, UK. [2] Clerkin, A.; Gilligan, K. Preschool (2018). Numeracy plays as a predictor of children’s attitudes towards math at age 10. J. Early Child. Res, 16, 319–334.

[3] Bybee, R. W. (2013). The case for STEM education: Challenges and opportunities. National Science Teachers Association.

[4] Chen, J.; Hynes-Berry, M.; Abel, B.; Sims, C.; Ginet, L. (2017). Nurturing mathematical thinkers from birth: The why, what and how. Zero Three J., 37, 23–26.

[5] DeJarnette, N. K. (2018). Implementing STEAM in the early childhood classroom. European Journal of STEM Education, 3(3), 18. https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/3878 [6] Alnahdi, G. H. (2014). Educational change in Saudi Arabia. Journal of International Education Research (JIER), 10(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.19030/jier.v10i1.8342 [7] Alyami, R. H. (2014). Educational reform in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Tatweer schools as a unit of development. Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal, 5(2), 1515–1524. https://doi.org/10.20533/licej.2040.2589.2014.0202 [8] Ministry of Education (MOE). (2015). Saudi early learning standards (SELS): Children 3 to 6 years old.

National Association for the Education of Young Children, Tatweer Company for Educational Services.

[9] Alghamdi, A.A. (2022). Exploring Early Childhood Teachers’ Beliefs About STEAM Education in Saudi Arabia. Early Childhood Educ J. [10] Jia, Y.; Zhou, B.; Zeng, X. (2021) A curriculum integrating STEAM and maker education promotes pupils’ learning motivation, self-efficacy, and interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition. Front. Psychol, 8, 3652.

[11] Aldahmash, A. H., Alamri, N. M., Aljallal, M. A., & Bevins, S. (2019). Saudi Arabian science and mathematics teachers’ attitudes toward integrating STEM in teaching before and after participating in a development program.

Cogent Education, 6(1), 1580852. professional https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x2019.1580852 [12] Alghamdi, A. K. H., & Al-Salouli, M. S. (2013). Saudi elementary school science teachers’ beliefs: Teaching science in the new millennium. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education,

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11(2), 501–525. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-012-9353-0 [13] Sulaymani, O.; Fleer, M.; Chapman, D. (2018). Understanding children’s motives when using iPads in Saudi classrooms: Is it for play or for learning? Int. J. Early Years Educ, 26, 340–35 [14] Çetin, M.; Demircan, H.Ö. (2020). Empowering technology and engineering for STEM education through programming robots: A systematic literature review. Early Child Dev. Care, 190, 1323–1335.

[15] Sulaymani, O.; Fleer, M.; Chapman, D. (2018). Understanding children’s motives when using iPads in Saudi classrooms: Is it for play or for learning? Int. J. Early Years Educ, 26, 340–353 [16] Jia, Y.; Zhou, B.; Zeng, X. (2021) A curriculum integrating STEAM and maker education promotes pupils’ learning motivation, self-efficacy, and interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition. Front. Psychol, 8, 3652 [17] Çetin, M.; Demircan, H.Ö. (2020). Empowering technology and engineering for STEM education through programming robots: A systematic literature review. Early Child Dev. Care, 190, 1323–133554 [18] Quigley, C. F., Herro, D., & Jamil, F. M. (2017). Developing a conceptual model of STEAM teaching practices. School Science and Mathematics, 117(1–2), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssm.1220 [19] Simoncini, K., & Lasen, M. (2018). Ideas about STEM among Australian early childhood professionals: How important is STEM in early childhood education? International Journal of Early Childhood, 50(3), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-018-0229-5 [20] Strawhacker, A.; Verish, C.; Shaer, O.; Bers, M.U. (2020). Designing with genes in early childhood: An exploratory user study of the tangible CRISPEE technology. Int. J. Child-Comput. Interact, 26, 100212.

[21] Kewalramani, S.; Palaiologou, I.; Dardanou, M. (2020). Children's engineering design thinking processes: The magic of the ROBOTS and the power of BLOCKS (electronics). Eurasia J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ, 16, em1830 [22] Marsh, J.; Wood, E.; Chesworth, L.; Nisha, B.; Nutborown, B.; Olney, B. (2019). Makerspaces in early childhood education: Principles of pedadogy and practice. Mind Cult. Act, 26, 221–233.

[23] Roehrig, G.H., Dare, E.A., Ellis, J.A. Whalen, E. (2021). Beyond the basics: a detailed conceptual framework of integrated STEM. Discip Interdscip Sci Educ Res 3, 11.

Dr. Marwan Ali Albahar received his B.S. in Computer Science from King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia, and his M.Sc. in Computer Science with Honors from Frostburg State University, USA. Dr. Albahar received his Ph.D. from the University of Eastern Finland. Dr. Albahar a Senior Information Security, Privacy, and Risk Management Professional with a solid technical background and a highly analytical mind. He has been involved in the information security field for the last 3+. His main areas of research are Computer Networks Security, Cybersecurity, and Artificial Intelligence.

Dr. Abdullah Alammari is an Associate Professor of Information Technology in e-Learning. Abdullah is Chair of Academic Tracks of Educational Technology, e-Learning, and Computer Teaching Methods at the Faculty of Education- Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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Russian Experience of Export Regulation of Food Flows Boris A. Kheyfets1,2, Veronika Yu. Chernova3* , and Natalia N. Shurakova2 Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, RUSSIAN FEDERATION. Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, RUSSIAN FEDERATION. 3 People’s Friendships University of Russia, RUSSIAN FEDERATION. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +7-4954335029, Email: veronica.urievna@mail.ru).

1 2

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5J Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 30 December 2021 Received in revised form 7 April 2022 Accepted 15 April 2022 Available online 23 April 2022

Keywords:

food security; food selfsufficiency; food balance; export regulation; sustainable food markets.

In the paper, we discuss wheat export restrictions in Russia in terms of food security. Russia's position in the global grain market and considerable growth in the wheat output generate paradoxes regarding the validity and efficiency of export restrictions. Explanation of emerging phenomena is a goal of our research. To achieve this, we redefine the framework that we use to evaluate food self-sufficiency. We also reveal the relationship between export prices for Russian grain in the foreign market and national wholesale prices. We find that the growth in national retail prices for processed cereal products makes foods less affordable for the population. According to our estimates, in 2020, the volume of grain exported to the global market was significantly lower than the maximumrated level, the overrun of which could damage self-sufficiency. Therefore, we conclude that export restrictions introduced in the grain market do not have true potential for food inflation regulation. Promotion measures in the agri-food sector and currency movements have a larger effect on price movements in the food market. In terms of economy, to bridge such gaps we need to justify scales of export regulation as well as the development of alternatives for control of food flows.

Disciplinary: International Economic Relations, Food Trade. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Kheyfets, B.A.., Chernova, V. Y., and Shurakova, N.N. (2022). Russian Experience of Export Regulation of Food Flows. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5J, 1-13. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.94

1 Introduction Total or partial compensation for the influence of extreme conditions in world markets on the welfare of the population in an exporting country is the main objective of the export restriction

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policy. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries introduced temporary restrictions on exports of certain goods, including grain (20 measures) and products of the flour-grinding sector (16 measures) to reduce potential shortages in national markets (Casey & Cimino-Isaacs, 2021). Of 133 COVID-19-specific trade measures, in G20 countries since the beginning of the pandemic, 37% are restrictive in nature and cover trade in G20 countries to the amount of USD111 billion (WTO, 2020).

From January 2020-June 2021, countries introduced 324+ measures. This includes Germany and the United States (181 measures each), Russia - 168, Japan - 160, South Korea - 156, and France - 153 (Global Trade Alert, 2021). Measures prohibit or restrict exports of certain goods for COVID19-related reasons. Most export restrictions are temporary in nature. Their introduction was at the beginning of the pandemic while cancellation was on 1 April 2021. Their objective is to reduce the dependence of national markets on the unfavorable international situation.

Past supply crises (such as the volatility of global food prices in 2007-2008) show that governments are not only ready to use commercial policy tools to maximize the national supply of basic goods, but also do so without a proper analysis of the efficiency of such measures for (inter)national markets or discuss indirect effects (Hoekman, Fiorini, & Yildirim, 2020). The growth in wheat prices in past periods (the gap between the global supply and demand) was 30% due to export restrictions. As for the rice, the influence reached 45% (Martin & Anderson, 2012). Although the situation in food markets at the beginning of the 2020 pandemic differed significantly from that in 2007 with a higher level of production, lower prices (Espitia et al., 2020) and the high size of stocks exceeding the level of availability as of the end of 2009-2010 (70-100% excess) (Voegele, 2020). In April 2021, the FAO food price index averaged 120.9 points, which is 30.8% higher than in the same period of 2020. The cereal price index had a 26% rise compared to the level of April 2020 (FAO, 2021), which we can compare to 2007 when food prices had a 27% rise (FAO, 2009).

In 2020, Russia announced the introduction of a quota for grain exports and export duty (Interfax, 2021). At the same time, over the past 20 years, Russia has nearly doubled its wheat production, and from an importing country in the past, it turned into the largest exporter reaching a share of 20% of global supply (Durisin & Fedorinova, 2021). Over the past decade, Russia has repeatedly introduced measures to restrict grain exports in cases of growing global prices in the food crisis of 2007-2008, crop failure because of the severe drought in 2010 (Fellmann, Helaine, & Nekhay, 2014), and sudden rouble devaluation in 2015.

On the grain market, the export restrictions that Russia introduced did not have a significant influence on the stabilization of consumer prices in the national market. This brings up the question of whether there is a threat to food security.

These reasons predetermine the research goal, which we state as clarifying the reasons and consequences of restrictions on Russian grain exports in terms of food self-sufficiency and the development of the evaluation framework for food security threats. The objectives of the research are as follows: develop the framework for evaluation of food security threats, evaluate food security

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threats in Russia due to increased grain exports that higher world prices cause, detect the dependence of national grain prices on export prices, and explore implications of export restrictions for participants in the grain food chain.

2 Literature Review Self-sufficiency and stable food prices are a starting point in the food security analysis (Enriquez, 2020; Clapp, 2017; Fellmann et al., 2014; Kuzmin, 2015, 2016). The drive of states toward food self-sufficiency lies in their desire to reduce the vulnerability of national food markets to impacts of macroeconomic and geopolitical shocks, as well as the need for an increase in employment and a decrease in unemployment (Kheifets & Chernova, 2019). In practice, countries often seek to increase national food output in relation to total consumption, but they do so in different ways and rarely completely abandon international commerce. Likewise, few countries ignore national output and only rely on international commerce to meet all their food needs (Clapp, 2017). However, despite the growth in world food output, the average food self-sufficiency of countries has been in a steady decline over the past decades (Schramski, Woodson, Steck, et al., 2019).

The problem of insufficient food security is aggravating because of rapid development in the biofuel industry around the world (Kurowska et al., 2020). Over the past ten years, we have seen a clear increase in biofuel production. This has led to higher demand for non-food applications of agricultural raw materials (Advanced biofuels summit, 2021). In this regard, we have grave concerns about rising food prices and the impact of increased biofuel production on food security (Brinkman et al., 2020).

Target achievement of food self-sufficiency is usually a reason for introducing export restrictions against the background of price instability in world markets (Beckman et al., 2018).

Other reasons for the use of export restrictions relating to the following: cost advantages to local processors of raw materials compared to international competitors (Liefert & Westcott, 2015), increase food output available for consumption in a national market and price reduction (Fellmann et al., 2014), etc. But empirical research shows that export restrictions do not always achieve expected goals and, in many cases, exacerbate food price shocks (Estrades et al., 2017). Moreover, such measures are often ineffective for the whole society (Wright, 2011). Export restrictions narrow international supplies, and if a country is large enough, this leads to higher world prices (Espitia et al., 2020). The consequences of export restrictions are clear in the countries that show heavy dependence on imports (Deuss, 2017).

Losses caused by restrictions of various types largely depend on the price elasticity of demand and supply (Siddhartha & Tim, 2009). The impact of export restrictions on the national market leads to changes in prices, output, consumption, and trade, as well as the welfare of producers and consumers (Aragie et al., 2018).

The literature review shows that economists mostly regard export restrictions as costly and dangerous tools that are a threat to long-term targets in food security. Most contemporary

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researchers focus on the consequences of introduced export restrictions in countries that import agricultural products. The influence of rising food prices in an exporting country (if it applies export restrictions) requires more attention. Export controls can also higher prices for these goods, make them less economically affordable for the population, and depress food security. In this regard, a need arises to find a volume of unregulated exports that would not harm food security in an exporting country.

3 Method According to the 1999 FAO vision, food self-sufficiency depends on the ability to meet food needs from its own national output (FAO, 1999). However, no country would fully provide itself with all the food. Countries import some foods, which is normal (FAO, 2015).

Food self-sufficient countries might specialize their food production to some extent and import some foods. Based on this understanding of food self-sufficiency, we calculate the food selfsufficiency rate (FSSR) as the ratio of national production (DP) to the number of foods available for consumption (DS):

FSSR =

DP × 100%.

DS

(1)

At the same time, the number of foods available for consumption, or the total volume of their supply might calculate in different ways: (a) sum of national output, imports, and stock reduction (Puma et al., 2015); (b) sum of national output, imports, and stock changes; (c) sum of national output, imports, changes in stocks minus exports (Clapp, 2017).

Food independence is a key indicator of Russian food security. It refers to food selfsufficiency and lies in the ratio of the agri-food national output to its national consumption volume (Decree of the President of the Russian Federation, 2020). This causes an incorrect evaluation of self-sufficiency (Kulistikova, 2020). First, this interpretation of food security ignores foreign trade in agribusiness. This prevents us from identifying the relationship between export and food selfsufficiency. Second, food self-sufficiency ignores the fact that growing food self-sufficiency might be not because of the output growth, but because of lower consumption.

We admit that the volume of agri-food national output available to consumers (national supply) is the difference between national output minus losses and exports:

= FSSRF

DP × 100, ( DP − L − E ) + I + ∆St

(2)

where FSSRF is the food self-sufficiency rate at the actual consumption level, DP is the national output of agri-food, L is the level of losses of agri-food that appears from problems in harvesting, food processing, storage, packaging, or transportation, and E is the volume of exports of agri-food products, I is the volume of its imports; ∆St is difference between stocks of agri-foods products at the beginning and end of the year.

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According to the framework within which we make balances of food resources, the change in agri-food stocks over a period is the difference between national output minus agri-food losses, national consumption, and exports:

ΔSt= DP − L − DCΣ − E ,

(3)

where DCΣ is the total national consumption of an agri-food product, which includes industrial consumption volume (PrC), the volume of agri-food product processing (P), and individual consumption (PsC).

Upon transformation, we receive the following:

FSSRF

DP × 100%. ( DP − L − E ) + I + ( DP − L − DCΣ − E )

(4)

To find the volume of exports that will not damage food security, we admit that the selfsufficiency rate is equal to the self-sufficiency threshold ( FSSRF = FSSRD ) and from equation (4) we obtain the equation to calculate the maximum volume of exports at actual consumption ( E FL ) :

1 × 100%.

EFL = DPL −  DPL  − DCΣ + I  2  FSSRD 

(5)

The maximum-rated volume of exports is a part of the national output of agri-food products that remains when the existing volume of product losses that does not damage national food security meet national needs.

When people consume foods at reasonable rates, the total consumption of agri-food products will look like the following:

( P + PsC ) N DC PrC + , = Σ KN

(6)

where DCΣN is the total national consumption of this type of agri-food product with reasonable consumption, PrC is industrial consumption volume, P is the volume of agri-food product processing, PsC is individual consumption volume, and K N is the degree of achievement of reasonable norms.

We calculate the degree of achievement of reasonable norms as the ratio of food consumption per capita (kg per year) to the recommended rate of reasonable consumption (kg per year):

kN =

FCpC , PN

(7)

where FCpC is food consumption by main food groups per capita (kg per year); PN is the reasonable norm of food consumption.

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Using transformations, we get the maximum-rated volume of exports with reasonable consumption ( E NL ):

1 × 100%.

E NL = DPL −  DPL  P + PsC )   ( 2 −  PrC +  + I   FSSR KN D    

(8)

The involvement of the indicator “degree of achievement of reasonable norms” in the calculation of self-sufficiency makes it possible to level the lack of the approach to food selfsufficiency and consider consumption decrease due to the changed purchasing power of the population.

In the research, we calculate the maximum permissible export limit based on the data that Rosstat collected. To do this, we also take into account the actual consumption level and wise consumption.

4 Result and Discussion Russia is the largest exporter of some agri-food products. A share of national exports (cereals) in certain periods approached 50%, while for fish it is over 60% of the total fish catch and production of other water resources (Rosstat, 2021a). The gross grain harvest in Russia since 2000, except for 2003 and 2010, has been higher than national consumption. From 2013-to 2020, this excess was 1.43-1.74 times (Figure 1).

140 120 100 80 60 40 20 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

0

Production (gross harvest in weight after processing) National consumption (industrial, individual, processing) Export

Figure 1: Dynamics of Russian Output, Exports, and National Consumption of Cereals in 1990-2020, Million Tons. Source: Rosstat (2021b).

Consumption of grain crops in the national market over the past five years has shown a 1-2% increase. At the same time, in 2020, national consumption was almost 40% less than in 1990.

Against the background of the weak growth in national consumption, exports of Russian grain in 2000-2020 increased by 48+ times, the export was 62% of the national consumption volume.

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To evaluate threats to food security, we calculate the maximum-rated volume of exports at the actual consumption and maximum-rated exports with reasonable consumption and in accordance with the healthy eating standards (Figure 2).

100 80 60 40 20

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

0

Export maximum-rated at actual consumption Export act Export threshold at reasonable consumption

Figure 2: Maximum-rated and Actual Volume of Exported Russian Grain in 1990-2020, Million Tons.

In 2018, there was a threat to food security related to grain supplies in Russia, when the actual volume of exports (54.8 million tons) was over the maximum-rated volume of exports with the actual consumption of 53.1 million tons. In 2020, foods actually exported from the country (48.7 million tons) were less than the volume that could threaten food security (62.67 million tons) and much less than the volume of exports that would reduce reasonable consumption of grain products in the country. The quota for grain exports in the amount of 17.5 million tons is significantly less than the maximum export volume.

With the volume of Russian supplies in the world market at the level of 20%, export prices of Russian wheat cannot but influence world prices and vice versa. Our research shows that the dependence of the wheat national wholesale price (y) on the export price (x) correlates to 0.8176.

National wholesale wheat price, USD/kg

This means that there is high price interdependence (Figure 3).

0.45 y = 0.9147x + 0.0506 R² = 0.8176

0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.35

0.40

0.45

Export wheat price, USD/kg

Figure 3: Graph of Dependence of the National Wholesale Wheat Price on Export Price Sources: FAO. FPMA (2021a); FAO. FPMA (2021b).

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Introduced export duties and other price regulation measures (in terms of very close dependence of national wholesale prices on export prices) will inevitably lead to higher national wholesale prices.

On the one hand, non-regulated grain exports with high world prices might cause excess grain exports compared to a maximum-rated volume and might damage food security. On the other hand, a food grain chain does not only include end links (farmers-manufacturers and consumers) but also many intermediate links (elevators, flour mills, grain traders, etc.), export regulation with no control over intermediaries’ prices, and internal retail prices do not give an expected effect of price reductions for consumers. Thus, the 9% decrease in the wholesale price in December 2020February 2021 was available together with the increase in retail prices for flour and bread, which, in USD, showed 9.6% and 8.6% increases respectively (Table 1).

Table 1: National Retail and Wholesale Prices for Bread Products and Export Wheat Price Date 12.2019 01.2020 02.2020 03.2020 04.2020 05.2020 06.2020 07.2020 08.2020 09.2020 10.2020 11.2020 12.2020 01.2021 02.2021 03.2021 04.2021

Retail prices Nominal, RUB/kg Realistic price, RUB/kg USD/kg bread flour bread flour bread flour 50.67 36.29 27.81 19.92 0.81 0.58 51.31 36.55 28.05 19.98 0.83 0.59 51.89 36.60 28.27 19.94 0.81 0.57 52.02 36.72 28.19 19.90 0.71 0.50 52.36 38.20 28.14 20.53 0.70 0.51 52.58 38.99 28.18 20.90 0.72 0.54 53.01 39.26 28.35 21.00 0.77 0.57 53.34 39.67 28.43 21.14 0.75 0.56 53.65 39.84 28.60 21.24 0.73 0.54 54.05 39.85 28.84 21.26 0.71 0.53 54.40 40.13 28.90 21.32 0.70 0.52 55.02 40.61 29.02 21.42 0.71 0.53 55.70 41.41 29.14 21.66 0.75 0.56 56.04 41.94 29.12 21.79 0.76 0.57 56.21 42.44 28.98 21.88 0.76 0.57 56.35 42.49 28.92 21.81 0.76 0.57 56.85 43.00 28.98 21.92 0.75 0.56

Wholesale price USD/kg flour 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.22 0.19 0.18 0.18 0.20 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.20

Sources: FAO. FPMA (2021a); FAO. FPMA (2021b).

The population's medium-term demand for cereals and their processed products (2-3 years) is inelastic: the population’s consumption volume for bread and pasta, calculated as flour, for flour, cereals, and legumes was at the level of 119 kg with various price levels in 2011-2012. In 2013-2015, it was 118 kg. In 2016-2017, it was 117 kg, and in 2018-2020, it was 116 kg with various price levels (Rosstat, 2021a). This means that the Russians have more concerns about healthy eating and gradually cut back on excessive consumption of bread products. On the other hand, this suggests that with a changed price and the same consumption, the consumers' gain will only depend on the price difference. This means that consumers’ welfare worsens because of export regulation.

The decline in grain purchase prices (from farmers), which followed the announcement of introduced export restrictions, caused a partial loss of their income. Thus, we might understand the introduction of the export duty as an additional tax for farmers.

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The export growth rates higher than the growth rates of national consumption suggest that export is indeed a catalyst for the development of the grain economy. Reduced incomes of farmers from grain exports to international markets will inevitably reduce the volume of investments in the sector’s modernization and technological development.

Recently, Russia has established export regulation practices. In the framework of it, people consider export a kind of reserve, which in crisis times we use to ensure food security. Its achievement and preservation are key strategic priorities of the government (Ksenofontov, Polzikov, & Urus, 2019). The introduction of export restrictions against the background of export growth as a strategic goal and large-scale investments in the development of export-grain infrastructure established by the Russian government is only reasonable if export becomes excessive and threatens food security. The food security index in 2020 confirmed that there are no real threats to Russian food security. The index was, as The Economist estimates (The Global Food Security Index, 2021), 73.7 points, i.e. 3.4 points higher than in the previous year.

Export restrictions, if economically reasonable, undermine Russia's image as a reliable supplier, hit the competitiveness of Russian grain, narrow Russia's presence in the global market, and worsen investment opportunities in the grain sector (Vorotnikov, 2021). The negative impact of imposed and unwarranted export restrictions with the aim of better food security is a deterrent to investments in agricultural production and export opportunities. This also seriously cuts farmers' income (Clapp, 2017).

In Fellmann et al. (2014), researchers show that wheat exports if reduced by three large exporters (Russia, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine) might lead to a 23% increase in prices on the world market. Although, in the short term, the rise in world prices provides an increase in the incomes of exporters from other countries. For instance, in Canada, wheat exports from 31 March 2020-to 31 March 2021 grew by 28.9% (Cross, 2021). The consequence of this is worse consumers’ welfare and security in the markets of importing countries.

The efficiency of export restrictions for the normalization of national prices of agri-food products and foods is questionable (World Bank, 2018). These measures do not solve the problem that we state as economic and physical affordability of agri-food products for national consumers.

Previous export restrictions in Russia have not resulted in noticeable price damping effects for consumers. When in the spring of 2008, Russia introduced the export duty, the decline in wheat prices did not cause a corresponding decrease in flour prices. Götz, Djuric, and Glauben (2015) show that the 50% decrease in wheat prices in the Central Region of Russia leads to the 5% decrease in bread prices in Moscow only. Thus, the 20%-growth in grain prices for flour mills, for instance, all other things being equal, should not lead to higher retail bread prices (not more than a 3% rise).

Like in the cases of other large exporters, wheat price in the national market directly relates to global prices (Baquedano & Liefert, 2014). In the second half of 2020, the growth in global wheat prices, as in Russia, caused higher national wheat prices. At the same time, this growth was not over the price level of 2019. We can explain wheat production at lower real prices, when wheat

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price growth rates are behind inflation, by sustainable better performance in the grain sector owing to technological and technical improvements.

Agents’ strategic behaviors influence fluctuations in national prices. In anticipation of a price rise, grain traders might prefer stock accumulation instead of sales (Götz, Koester, & Glauben, 2015). Such behaviors of grain market participants reduce a constraining effect of export restrictions on national prices and cause higher growth in national prices for some time (Fellmann et al., 2014). Welton (2011) says that in 2010-2011, the prohibition of exports in Russia did not lead to an expected decline in national food prices.

Thus, the introduction of export restrictions in the grain market has no huge potential for food inflation regulation. Measures to stimulate the agri-food sector and currency movements have a significantly larger effect on the dynamics of prices in the food market.

The consumer subsidy program might be an alternative to export restrictions (Liefert & Westcott, 2015). Another alternative that deserves attention is the establishment of a quota for mandatory supplies of products to the national market at predetermined prices in the amount not lower than the required self-sufficiency level as well as permission to sell any volume of products (more than quotas allow) to the international market at world prices.

5 Conclusion The research on the causes and consequences of Russian grain export restrictions regarding food self-sufficiency shows that in 2020, the Russian economy had no real threat in terms of worsened grain self-sufficiency. At the year-end, the export volume was significantly lower than the maximum-rated one, the overrun of which would damage grain self-sufficiency. At the same time, the growing national retail prices for processed cereal products (bread, flour, and pasta) make foods less affordable for the population, and, consequently, worsen food security. From this perspective, we find reasonable those price regulation measures that the government introduced.

However, as the food grain chain includes many intermediary elements, in the absence of control over agents’ prices and national retail prices, export regulation does not lead to expected lower prices for consumers.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 Acknowledgement The RUDN University’s Strategic Academic Leadership Program supported this study.

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Kulistikova, T. (2020). Security will be provided in a new way. Can a new food security doctrine promote the development of the agro-industrial complex? https://www.agroinvestor.ru/markets/article/33321bezopasnost-obespechat-po-novomu-mozhet-li-sposobstvovat-razvitiyu-apk-novaya-doktrinaprodovolstven/ Kurowska, К., Marks-Bielska, R., Bielski, S., Kryszk, H., & Jasinskas, А. (2020). Food security in the context of liquid biofuels production. Energies, 13, 6247. http://doi.org/10.3390/en13236247 Kuzmin, E. A. (2015). Food security modelling. Biosciences Biotechnology Research Asia, 12, 773–781. DOI: 10.13005/bbra/2095 Kuzmin, E. A. (2016). Sustainable food security: Floating balance of markets. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 6(1), 37–44.

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American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 94(2), 422-427. DOI: 10.1093/ajae/aar105 Puma, M.J., Bose, S., Chon, S.Y., & Cook, B.I. (2015). Assessing the evolving fragility of the global food system.

Environmental Research Letters, 10(2), 024007. DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/10/2/024007 Rosstat. (2021a). Official statistics. http://www.gks.ru Rosstat. (2021b). Official statistics. https://rosstat.gov.ru/folder/10705 RussGov. (2020). Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of January 21, 2020 No. 20. On Approval of the Food Security Doctrine of the Russian Federation. https://www.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc&base=LAW&n=343386&dst=1000000001%2C0# 09263595395042915 Schramski, J.R., Woodson, C.B., Steck, G., et al. (2019). Declining country-level food self-sufficiency suggests future food insecurities. Biophys Econ Resour Qual, 4, 12. DOI: 10.1007/s41247-019-0060-0 Siddhartha, M., & Tim, J. (2009). Agricultural export restrictions: Welfare implications and trade disciplines. IPC Position Paper. https://clck.ru/YdNY7

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Voegele, J. (2020). Three imperatives to keep food moving in a time of fear and confusion. World Bank Voices (April 3, 2020). https://blogs.worldbank.org/voices/three-imperatives-keep-food-moving-time-fear-andconfusion Vorotnikov, V. (2021). Grain export restrictions taking toll. https://www.world-grain.com/articles/15108-grainexport-restrictions-taking-toll Welton, G. (2011). The impact of Russia’s 2010 grain export ban (Oxfam. Research Report, June 2011). Oxfam International, Oxfam.

World Bank. (2018). The impacts of the El Niño and La Niña on large grain producing countries in ECA: yield, poverty and policy response.

World Bank, Washington, DC. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/30191 Wright, B. (2011). The economics of grain price volatility. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 33, 32-58.

DOI: 10.1093/aepp/ppq033 WTO. (2020). WTO report shows slowdown in G20 trade restrictions as COVID-19 impacts world economy. https://www.wto.org/english/news_e/news20_e/trdev_18nov20_e.htm Professor Dr. Boris A. KHEYFETS is a Professor, Chief Researcher, Institute of Economics of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow, Russia); Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation (Moscow, Russia). His professional interests are Economic Globalization, Risks, International Relations, Import-substitution, TNCs, development Strategies, World Economy, Credit Policy, Competitiveness, Economic Partnerships, Industrial Policy.

Dr. Veronika Yu. CHERNOVA is an Associate Professor at the People’s Friendships University of Russia, Department of International Economic Relations. Her interests are World Economy, Marketing of Transnational Companies, Import Substitution,

Natalia N. SHURAKOVA is a researcher, at Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation (Moscow, Russia). Her professional interests are Food Security, Agro-industrial Complex, World Food System.

ORCID ID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7425-5362

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Modelling and Design of Deep Drawing Tools Using Logopress Besart Berisha1, Afrim Gjelaj1* Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Prishtina, Prishtina, KOSOVA. *Afrim Gjelaj (Tel: +383 44 150 859, Email: afrim.gjelaj@uni-pr.edu).

1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5K Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 20 January 2022 Received in revised form 10 April 2022 Accepted 17 April 2022 Available online 25 April 2022

Keywords:

Solidwork; DC03 material; theoretical calculation; simulation of mesh; strain analysis.

This work will present the analysing of the deep drawing process. For the design of the part, we used Solidwork package software. The design of part for deep drawing is described step by step. Material of part is getting for this case DC03, which will be going into the deep drawing process. All required dimensions of the part are given to analyse the problem step by step. The theoretical calculation for deep drawing it is presented for centre of gravity, tolerances for up and down tools, working space of deep drawing, and percentage for a variety of materials. Also, analysing of strain, mesh, stamping force as well as stripper force for deep drawing and will be treated into Logopress software which is compatible with Solidwork.

Disciplinary: Mechanical Engineering (Modelling & Drawing) ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Berisha, B, Gjelaj, A. (2022). Modelling and Design of Deep Drawing Tools Using Logopress. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5K, 113. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.95

1 Introduction Forming processing represents the oldest metalworking method. This is the method of processing where the workpiece is given the desired shape without chip removal, the material is loaded on the limit of elasticity and deformation will be sustained, polystyrene (non-elastic). By deformation, we understand the size and shape of the body or part. The material of part for our investigation is DC03, which includes design, theoretical calculation and simulation into the software Logopress.

At the end of the 19th century, forming processing had great development and for this reason, became a research topic. Some of the ancestors who were taken in this field were Besmer, Parkers, Adamson and Erichsen. Wrinkles, crevices and poor quality in the picture set a boundary in which the deformation process can be realized.

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Özdilli, et al. (2018) have made the comparison of four different steel sheet materials that are mostly used by deep-drawing such as DC01, DC04 and for cold forming they have used DD13, DD14 to analyze the coefficient of friction, using the finite element method, to see which material is more significant.

Focused of their paper is by hydraulics press with double action is an article, a deep-drawing process using a double-action hydraulic press to examine the ability of machine for the shape deformation of a fuel-filter cup from sheet metal SPCC steel (The-Thanh et al., 2019), also they have made a comparison with theoretical and practical experiments, and have achieved that the die shoulder radius is one the more important parameter to realize the cup of the deep drawing process.

This work showed the evaluation of forming process for different kinds of sheet materials regarding the deep drawing process. And to see the effects for different sheets and die/blank holder angle on deep drawing process, for analyzing sheet metal with thickness 0.8mm of SS304 and Brass and 0.9 mm thickness for aluminum material. Where the experiments are presented step by step from designing the deep drawing tools such as die, blank holder, and punch (Reddy et al., 2016).

Amir M. et al. (2013) explained and investigated the effect of a new pulsating blank holder system to improve the forming process of aluminium alloy material 1050. Where simulation of deep drawing have make into environments of ABAQUS6.7 software.

Informing the process of Deep Drawing is very important due to the complexity of the part and the parameters of sheet materials of aluminium alloys (Dwivedi, R. D., et al. 2017).

Zaid (2016) explained the effect of geometry parameters, the radius of punch, which indicates directly the maximum deep drawing force.

The authors have presented an experimental Deep drawing process where a metal blank for radially drawn into a deformation process. Also, their focus was to analyze and control the spring back by deep drawing process, due to some parameters such as speed of punch, lubrication, nose radius of die, and blank holding force where are achieved some results of their studies (Said et al., 2020).

2 Materials and Methods The problem of designing and manufacturing the tool for forming process is quite complicated. This requires the commitment of the staff with superior qualifications and material resources. With the continued growth of production volume with deformation processing, manufacturers of these types of tools are added to numerous requests, such as dependence on quality, the productivity of the economy, and time of production.

Designing new details or existing details where minor modifications are required are made on the basis of the technology experience and with the help of trial and error experiments. This way the design engineers enable a solution but in most cases far from optimal. Costs that are carried out during the design and testing of the tool are relatively high.

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In order to reduce the possibility of working the tool without errors and in this case also decrease the possibility of lowering the tool constructing expenditure is used different strategies based on computer programs where the product of this case and tools followed during all design stages (CAD, CAM, CAP, CAE).

The process of deep drawing enters the group of sheet metal deformation operations, during which the acquired pieces of flat cylindrical details (or non-cylindrical) at the end, which may be crowned or without. Part of deep drawing earned details with walls of flatforms, which generally do not require additional processing.

Depending on the form and the technological qualities of empty walled parts, the deep drawing is divided into: o Deep drawing for symmetrical rotating bodies. o Deep drawing Capturing bodies in tin form. o Deep drawing of bodies in an irregular geometric shape.

Depending on the deformation character, the deep drawing can be divided into: o Deep drawing without reducing the thickness of the walls. o Deep drawing with reducing the thickness of the material, ie with the dilution of the walls.

The scheme of Deep drawing process without and with sheet metal clamps (holder) is presented in Figure 1. The section without sheet metal clamping is used for the production - the cutting of details with low height (shallow) and with large thickness (Lange K. 1985).

a) b) Figure 1: a) Deep drawing without the holder of the sheet, 1 – Die, 2 – Sheet metal, 3 – Punch; b) Deep drawing with the holder of the sheet, 1 –Die, 2 – Sheet metal, 3 – Punch, 4 – Holder of the sheet.

Deep drawing with a holder of sheet metal, is used for the production of parts with greater depth and for the smaller thickness of the material - sheet metal. The deep drawing operation is performed on presses, which can be ordinary (single) or double action and triple action.

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The process of production of sheets is done in machines, presses with double action, respectively in hydraulic presses and presses with a single action.

In addition, presses for deep drawing based on their constructive properties are classified into: o One positional (one phase). o Progressive - with horizontal order of operations.

From Table 1 we can read the value of coefficient “c”, for different types of sheet materials to determine working space by deep drawing.

Table 1: Value of coefficient “c” in depend of steel material.

Sheet material factor [c] Steel 0.07 Aluminium 0.02 Other non-ferrous metals 0.04

Calculation of working elements of deep drawing and cutting tool, as well as working space, is presented in Figure 3 (Whereas in Figure 3 left are showed working elements, in the right side is presented working space for deep drawing) (Tschaetsch, 2006).

Figure 2: Working elements and working space by deep drawing.

The working space between the upper part of the tool and the lower part is calculated with the equation as follows: 𝑑𝑑𝑝𝑝 = (𝑑𝑑 + ∆′′ ∙ ℎ)−𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 = (𝑑𝑑 + 0.2 ∙ ∆)𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿 𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀 = (𝑑𝑑 + 0.2 ∙ ∆′′ + 2 ∙ 𝑓𝑓)+𝛿𝛿𝛿𝛿

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(1), (2).

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The material of the workpiece for our case is DC03, which has wide application for deep drawing, with thickens s = 0.5 [mm]. For our case Solidworks, it designed the part with dimension, as shown in Figures 4, the 2D and 3D design drawings. For this part will be shown the mesh and strain with software logopress and at the same time will be presented the results of the theoretical calculations.

a)

b) Figure 3: a) Design of part into 2D sketch and b) 3D view.

Then with the command to close the sketch (Close sketch) as in Figure 3 a), we close the sketch. Detail created with the help of the Revolved Boss / Base command. Then with the Revolved Boss / Base command the 3D view of the cut part is realized as in Figure 3 b).

3 Result and Discussion Before starting with the software Logopress, it is presented the drawing of parts for the calculation of center gravity. In this paper, research methods will be used based on the analysis and synthesis of various tools mainly from different sources, mathematical methods for calculation.

Modeling and simulating the tool for specific details is accomplished with the help of SolidWorks software and is it integrated to Logopress3.

Figure 4: Dimensioning of center gravity.

Calculation of center of gravity is given through the expressions as follows: This is example 1:

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𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐 =

𝑦𝑦𝑐𝑐 =

𝑥𝑥1∙𝑙𝑙1 +𝑥𝑥2 ∙𝑙𝑙2+𝑥𝑥3∙𝑙𝑙3 𝑙𝑙1 +𝑙𝑙2 +𝑙𝑙3

𝑦𝑦1∙𝑙𝑙1 +𝑦𝑦2 ∙𝑙𝑙2+𝑦𝑦3∙𝑙𝑙3 𝑙𝑙1 +𝑙𝑙2

=

=

23.5∙π∙47+74.25∙49.5+99∙1 π∙47+49.5+1

26∙49.5+26.5∙1 50.5

= 36.58 [𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚]

= 26 [𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚]

(3), (4),

Based on Figure 2, expression (1) and (2) and Table 1, for steel of sheet metal DC03 working space is presented with expression as follow: 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐√10 ∙ 𝑠𝑠 = 0.5 + 0.07√10 ∙ 0.5 = 0.65 [𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚]

(5),

a)

b) Figure 5: a) Material selection (DC03) and b) Logopress round drawn part.

All versions of Logopress are well-integrated into the Solidworks program, and many engineers around the world use logopress for designing tools within the forming process. Working with the Logopress software can start from a detail designed in the SOLIDWORKS program, or from a part imported from another CAD system. For a quarter of a century, Logopress's main goal has

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been the development of software for designing tools in the field of forming processes. The Logopress3 software is currently used in many countries around the world.

With just five simple clicks of the cursor, you can see the workflow and then look at and define the intermediate stages during the job descriptions process. The software Logopress module also provides the ability to determine how many operations can be performed. Where through this two software, we have a shortened time in designing the buyout tool, if they were to be counted manually then they would take several hours or even a few days, and with Logopress's help, this could be done for a few minutes.

In Figure 5, we select the material DC03 which it is seen on the right side in the open window the properties of the material DC03.

After completing the 3D workflow in Solidworks, we move to Logopress, which is integrated in Solidworks with the help of this, we can see the stages of the development process from the initial dimensions of the workflow to the final, rounded, semifinal, the reduction factor for the first operation and for the subsequent operations, the type of material is assigned, the material thickness and the shrinkage ratio determined depending on the operation operations.

Figure 6: a) Step/stage of deep drawing, b) Stage 1 and stage 2 of deep drawing.

After clicking with the command “Round drawn part” as in Figure 6, where are presented the number of operations of deep drawing, for our case deep drawing, is done with two operations.

Also, is presented the display for “Round Draw Part”, wherein this step is choosing the main parameters during deep drawing, in the beginning, it is selected ‘Deep-Drawing Sheet Steel’, at the same time in an automatic way are choice the value of factor K1 and factor KN. Where: o K1 – reducing factor after the first operation,

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o KN – reducing factor in a subsequent operation.

In Figure 6 rights are shown stages of deep drawing: the force for the first stage of deep drawing is achieved F = 812 [daN] and the force for the second stage during deep drawing is obtained with a value F = 953 [daN].

In Figure 7 shows the creation of the strip for cutting, where it is performed initially by clicking on the command "create / edit a strip layout".

Figure 7: Creating the sheet.

Figure 8 shows the bar, where after clicking on the above commands we have the creation of the bar. During the creation of the tape we have achieved the utilization of the material with a value of 75.46%, and only 24.54% loss of the material, as seen in the Figure 8.

Figure 8: Bar of deep drawing.

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By setting the parameter "The entire entity" the uninterrupted force of the sheet metal clamp is achieved, the surface turns red and remains fixed, and click to "The entire entity" command. Figure 9 a), is presented the determination of the size of the mesh where for the first case we took it for the number 4000. Also, are set the material of part DC03, thickness 0.5 mm, c = 0.07 mm, for 3D shape.

Show simulation of how the cut-off part is formed from the starting material in a circle.

Command "2D BLANK" we have the scope of the material. Clicking on the "Play" command then begins the simulation of the duplicated part where from the initial material in the form of a circle, where the duplicated part is formed. Also, in Figure 9 b), the command "Mesh" is presented, when we select the command "Mesh" can be seen the grid formed inside the material.

a)

b) Figure 9: a) determining the mesh parameters, b) simulation of command “Mesh”.

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Figure 10 shows the calculation of those parameters which were defined in the figures above by clicking on the "Compute" command. Also, we can show the simulation of how the cut-off part is formed from the initial material in a circle. Command "2D BLANK" we have the scope of the material. Clicking on the "Play" command then begins the simulation of the copied part where from the initial material in the form of a circle as seen in Figure 10, where the copied part is formed.

Figure 10: Calculation of strain.

In Figure 11, the largest strains in the force transmission area of the copied part are shown.

Also, is obtained the stress as shown below by clicking on the "Stress" command and it can be seen that even the largest stresses are in the area of force transmission.

At the same time Figure 11 b), presented thickness variation of sheet metal parts, during the deep drawing process.

Below are performed the calculation of the variation in sheet metal depending on thickness in the percentages shown in the Figure above where we can see below the calculated values ∆s.

For 80% the equation gives this form: 80%

∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

100%

∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

100%

∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

100%

∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

100%

= 0.4

(5),

= 0.3

(6),

= 0.2

(7),

= 0.05

(8),

For 60% the equation gives this form: 60%

For 40% the equation gives this form: 40%

For 20% the equation gives this form: 20%

For -19% the equation gives this form:

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a)

b) Figure 11: a) Analyzing of stress, b) variation of thickness material. ∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

−19%

∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

−39%

∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

−59%

∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

−79%

100%

= 0.05

(9),

= 0.195

(10),

= 0.295

(11),

= 0.395

(12),

For -39% the equation give this form: 100%

For -59% the equation give this form: 100%

For -79% the equation give this form: 100%

For -99% the equation give this form: ∆𝑠𝑠 = 0.5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∙

−99% 100%

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= 0.495 (9),

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4 Conclusion The main goal of this paper is focused on developing a model of the deep drawing process which includes modeling stages, calculations and simulations of the deep drawing tool. The calculation with expression and simulation with software (Solidwork, Logopress) for our problem has been studied and the results have been obtained.

In the framework of this paper, the process of machining by cutting without sheet metal clamps is treated, and the geometric and physical parameters of the tool are analyzed (working space f, material thickness s, coefficient for type of material c, properties of the base material, etc.).

Also presented are most types of cutting such as sheet metal thickness reduction cutting, deep hydro-mechanical cutting, conical, reversible cutting where most tools for these types of processes of coupons are modelled with SolidWorks software.

With the help of Solidworks software, the design of the tool was realized step by step, starting from the geometric shapes in 2D, then the design in 3D. The advantage of the software is that it enables the integration of Loggopress, where after designing the tool and the geometry of the part to be cut, we can analyze any errors with the help of simulation. Within the Solidwork Loggopress3 software, the real parameters of the coupling coefficients are given, then it is achieved with how many operations the detail to be coupled can be realized. Also, for the part with diameter d = 47.50 [mm], thickness s = 0.5 [mm], inside radius r = 6.5 mm and outside radius r = 2.35 mm and the type of material DC03, are obtained results for stress and forming process.

The results and the change in the thickness of the part walls during the cutting process with the help of Loggopress are also presented. At the same time the structural mesh (Mesh), is achieved as well as the progressive tool simulation.

5 References Dwivedi, R. D., Agnihotri, G. (2017). Study of Deep Drawing Process Parameters. Materials Today: Proceedings 4, 820–826.

Lange, K. (1985). Handbook of Metal Forming. McGraw-Hill.

Mostafapur, A., Ahangar, S., & Dadkhah, R. (2013). Numerical and experimental investigation of pulsating blankholder effect on drawing of cylindrical part of aluminum alloy in deep drawing process.

International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 69(5), 1113-1121. Özdilli, Ö., Erdin, M.E. (2018). Comparison of Common Deep Drawing Steel Sheets in terms of Blank Holder Force and Friction Conditions. International Journal of Automotive Science & Technology, 36-41.

Reddy, P.V., Ramulu, P.J., Madhuri, G.S., Govardhan, D., Prasad, P.V.S.R. 2016. Design and Analysis of Deep Drawing Process on angular Deep Drawing Dies for Different Anisotropic Materials. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 149, 012142.

Said, R., Mehrabi, M. (2020). Parametric Study of Spring-Back Effects in Deep Drawing by Design of Experiment. SAE Technical Paper Series.

The-Thanh, L., Tien-Long, B., The-Van, T., Nguye Duc-Toan, N. (2019). A study on a deep-drawing process with two shaping states for a fuel-filter cup using combined simulation and experiment. Advances in Mechanical Engineering 11, 168781401987267.

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Tschaetsch, H. (2006)., Metal Forming Practise. Springer Verlag Berlin.

Zaid, A.I.O. (2016). Deep drawing mechanism, parameters, defects and recent results: state of the art. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 146, 012009.

MSc. Besart Berisha (Ph.D student) is a teaching assistant at Department of Manufacturing and Automation, University of Prishtina, Kosova. He got his Bachelor's and Master’s degrees in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, at the University of Prishtina, Kosova. His research focuses on the manufacturing and design of products, hydraulics and pneumatics.

Dr. Afrim Gjelaj, is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Manufacturing and Automation. He got his Doctoral degree (Dr.sc.) in field of Manufacturing and Automation at the University of Maribor, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Maribor, Slovenia. His researches are machining processes, Modern manufacturing, reverse engineering, CAD/CAM, CNC and additive Technology.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Bird Droppings Biodegradation and Its Use as Fertilizer for Tomato Cultivation Albina Luneva1*, Yury Lysenko2, Anna Gneush2, Aleksandr Lysenko3, Nadezhda Machneva2, Maria Aniskina2 Department of Parasitology, Veterinary Sanitary Expertise and Animal Hygiene, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, RUSSIA. 2 Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, RUSSIA. 3 Department of Therapy and Pharmacology, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, RUSSIA. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +7-918-8834561, Email: yuraduban45 @mail.ru).

1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5L Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 20 December 2021 Received in revised form 10 April 2022 Accepted 17 April 2022 Available online 25 April 2022

Keywords: Pseudomonas putida 90 biovar a (171); Azotobacter chroococcum 31/8R strains; Manure processing; Decreasing ammonia nitrogen emitting; Organic fertilizer.

This article presents the results of studying the effect of a microbial biological product based on Pseudomonas putida 90 biovar A (171) and Azotobacter chroococcum 31/8 R strains on the process of biodegradation of native litter of broiler chickens and quails. An assessment of the physicochemical and sanitary-bacteriological characteristics of the processed manure showed an improvement in safety indicators. There had noticed that the experimental samples of processed litter, were decreasing ammonia nitrogen emitting and unpleasant odor significant reduction. Also, there had studied the effectiveness of processed manure as an organic fertilizer in tomato cultivation. Agrotechnological experiments have shown that the fruits in the experimental group had increased productivity and better accumulation of sugars and ascorbic acid in their composition.

Disciplinary: Sustainable Agriculture (Soil and Fertilizer), Poultry Science, Horticulture. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Luneva, A., Lysenko, Y., Gneush, A., Lysenko, A., Machneva, N. and Aniskina, M. (2022). Bird Droppings Biodegradation and Its Use as Fertilizer for Tomato Cultivation. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5L, 1-10. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.96

1 Introduction Organic fertilizers are a necessary element of crop cultivation technologies, because of their wide effect on the soil-microorganisms-plant system. They are an important source of mineral nutrients for plants and soil microorganisms, increasing the efficiency of applied mineral fertilizers by 20–30%. In addition, the applied organic fertilizers make it possible to re-engage part of the

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nutrients taken out with the harvest into the cycle (Chew et al., 2019; Daadi and Latacz-Lohmann, 2021).

Organic fertilizers, to some extent, neutralize the negative effects of the use of mineral fertilizers and plant protection products. They contribute to the utilization of pesticide residues, heavy metals, and radioactive substances into compounds inaccessible to plants. Physiologically active substances that activate growth and production processes enter the soil with organic fertilizers (Grenon et al., 2021; Grzyb et al., 2021).

One type of organic fertilizer is bird droppings - a biologically active product containing all the macro-and microelements necessary for plants in large quantities. Microelements released as organic matter decomposes are available to plants for a longer time than microelements of mineral additives (Imas, 2000). There had revealed that bird droppings are a fast-acting organic fertilizer with high nutrient content. Its phosphorus is better absorbed than mineral fertilizer phosphorus (Akhtar et al., 2007; Li et al., 2011).

The major limiting factor in using poultry manure as a fertilizer is the need to ensure compliance with sanitary safety standards (Chastain et al., 2010; Katsura et al., 2021; Muola et al., 2021).

Thus, the use of organic fertilizers based on bird droppings is promising, and the search for means to speed up its natural decomposition process is an urgent direction.

The purpose of the research work is to study the effect of organic fertilizers from a processed litter of broiler chickens and quails on the growth, development, yield, and quality of vegetable fruits, using the example of an open ground tomato.

2 Materials and Methods For bird droppings processing in Krasnodar Region farming, had used a developed 2component bioutilizer comprising a mixture of Pseudomonas putida 90 biovar A (171) and Azotobacter chroococcum 31/8 R cultures.

Table 1: Scheme of a field scientific and economic experiment on tomatoes Group

Type of processed manure

Control 1st experience 2nd experience 3rd experience 4th experience 5th experience 6th experience

‒ from broiler chickens from broiler chickens from broiler chickens from quails from quails from quails

Dose of applying processed manure applied to the soil, kg/m2 ‒ 1.5 3.0 4.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Manure processing was on isolated farm sites equipped with a manure storage facility. There had processed four tons of broiler and quail manure. The research, carried out the physicalchemical and sanitary-bacteriological control of the initial bird droppings and the final product by GOST 31461-2012. Also, studied the ammonia nitrogen level and the total microbial number of the experimental samples (Britt et al., 2002; Kim and Patterson, 2003; Williams et al., 1999).

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There had been studied the impact of the processed manure of broiler chickens and quails on the growth, development, yield, and quality of tomato cultivation. The test organic fertilizer was applied to the area allotted for laying the field experiment on tomatoes, according to the experimental schemes (Table 1).

Shallow plowing to a depth of 10-15cm was introduced into the soil with the applied fertilizers. The accounting area of the plots was 5m2, the repetition was four times. Seedlings at 60 days from germination had been planted in the open ground according to the scheme 70×50cm.

All activities for the care of plants (loosening of row spacings, watering, weed control, harvesting) were done manually. Soil moisture was supported at the level of 75% of the lowest moisture capacity.

The selection of plants to determine growth parameters (plant height, number of branches and leaves, total leaf surface, biomass, and dry mass of aboveground organs) was at the beginning of fruit formation. Fruits harvested were every 3-4 days as they reached biological ripeness with simultaneous structural analysis (determination of the diameter and weight of each fruit). During the period of mass harvesting of fruits, the content of total sugars and vitamin C in them was determined. The yield was determined by the sum of fruits harvested from the accounting area.

As a vegetable crop were tomatoes of the variety «Dar Zavolzh'ya». The «Dar Zavolzh'ya» is a mid-early variety of tomatoes, usually from 103 to 109 days pass from the moment of seed germination to the fruiting period. It's cultivated by seedlings and intended for planting in open ground. An adult plant reaches a height of only 50-70cm. Tomato "Dar of the Volga" is not susceptible to diseases of septoria and alternariosis. The fruits have a rounded shape, the color is red-orange, and the weight of one fruit is on average 80-100g. The fruits have an excellent taste and have good resistance to long-term transportation. On average, the variety's yield is between 4 and 5kg/m2.

3 Results and Discussion 3.1 Soil and climatic conditions during experiments Soil type - leached chernozem. The thickness of the humus horizon exceeds 150cm. In the upper horizon, the soils are rich in phosphorus with a concentration of 0.18%. The main part of phosphorus contains mineral compounds (in the upper horizons by 55–65%, in the lower horizons over 90% of the gross amount). Organic phosphorites are in the amount of 43% in the upper and 8– 10% in the lower horizons. Chernozems have a high water-holding capacity but have a low range of active moisture. Of the total amount of soil moisture, less than 50% belongs to the category of active or productive moisture.

Climate - the area of the experiment (Krasnodar), belongs to the unstable-humid zone.

Moisture coefficient 0.25-0.30, 500-600 mm of precipitation falls per year. Air temperature transition in spring over + 5°C is in the second half of March - early April. A distinctive feature of the spring period of the zone is the rapid temperature rise.

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The weather during the growing season of the studied culture (Table 2) was formed for its growth and fruiting in different ways.

Table 2: Weather during the tomato growing season, 2021 Month April May June July

Air temperature, °С average longduring the term growing season 10.9 16.8 20.4 23.2

11.1 18.0 21.7 25.1

Precipitation, mm average long-term during the growing season 48.0 57.0 67.0 58.0

85.4 64.7 36.1 16.0

Relative humidity, % average long-term during the growing season 69.0 82.0 67.0 71.0 65.7 76.3 64.3 68.0

The optimal temperature and moisture supply during the planting of seedlings (for tomatoes on 12 April 2021) activated the rooting of seedlings and provided a high start for growth processes and fruit formation. However, prolonged high temperatures and air drought (June–July) reduced the initial effect and adversely affected the production process, yield, and fruit quality.

3.2 Compliance of Processed Poultry Manure with Indicators of Regulatory Documentation The results of studies during the processing of native litter got from broiler chickens and quails with the developed biological product are in Tables 3 and 4.

Table 3: Physico-chemical and sanitary-biological parameters of broiler chickens' manure Indicator

Consistency (phase state), visual inspection Mass fraction of moisture, g/kg Mass fraction of organic matter, g/kg Mass fraction of ash, g/kg рНKCI Nitrogen total, g/kg Phosphorus total, g/kg Potassium total, g/kg Lead, mg/kg dry matter Arsenic, mg/kg dry matter Copper, mg/kg dry matter Cadmium, mg/kg dry matter Nickel, mg/kg dry matter Zinc, mg/kg dry matter Ammonia nitrogen, mg/m3 Index coli group bacteria Enterococcus index Index of pathogenic microorganisms Eggs and larvae of helminths (ind./g) Cysts of intestinal pathogenic protozoa (ind./100 g) TMC index, cells/g

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Type of manure Droppings from young broiler chickens Duration of studies, days 0 15 original manure without processing processed physical and chemical indicators viscous Viscous viscous-flowing 664 668 501 341 340 375 84 85 113 7.3 7.4 7.3 12 12 19 14 15 9 9 9 4 73.2 72.6 38.2 11.2 11.4 5.1 124.9 124.3 69.3 1.76 1.74 0.76 62.7 61.5 26.7 253.7 250.3 147.0 74 76 19 Sanitary and biological indicators 4 4 2 4 4 2 Missing Missing Missing 4 4 Missing 1 1 Missing 4 4 *According to SanPiN 1.2.3685-21

10

Requirements according to GOST 31461-2012

viscous-flowing no more 550 no more 350 no more 100 6,8−8,0 at least 15 no more 10 no more 4 no more 130* no more 10* no more 132* no more 2* no more 80* no more 220* not standardized 3 3 Missing Missing Missing not standardized

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Table 4: Physico-chemical and sanitary-biological parameters of quails' manure Indicator

Consistency (phase state), visual inspection Mass fraction of moisture, g/kg Mass fraction of organic matter, g/kg Mass fraction of ash, g/kg рНKCI Nitrogen total, g/kg Phosphorus total, g/kg Potassium total, g/kg Lead, mg/kg dry matter Arsenic, mg/kg dry matter Copper, mg/kg dry matter Cadmium, mg/kg dry matter Nickel, mg/kg dry matter Zinc, mg/kg dry matter Ammonia nitrogen, mg/m3 Index coli group bacteria Enterococcus index Index of pathogenic microorganisms Eggs and larvae of helminths (ind./g) Cysts of intestinal pathogenic protozoa (ind./100 g) TMC index, cells/g

Type of manure Droppings from young quails Duration of studies, days 0 15 original litter without processing processed physical and chemical indicators viscous viscous viscous-flowing 615 612 368 360 121 120 7,5 7,4 14 14 14 13 6 6 47.7 46.8 9.7 9.6 69.6 69.1 1.54 1.50 37.4 36.8 187.5 185.3 67 66 Sanitary and biological indicators 4 4 4 4 Missing Missing Missing Missing Missing Missing 4 4 *According to SanPiN 1.2.3685-21

Requirements according to GOST 31461-2012

viscous-flowing

537 391 142 7,4 21 10 3 25.1 3.7 43.8 1.15 23.9 102.1 13

no more 550 no more 350 no more 100 6,8−8,0 at least 15 no more 10 no more 4 no more 130* no more 10* no more 132* no more 2* no more 80* no more 220* not standardized

1 3 Missing Missing Missing

3 3 Missing Missing Missing

10

not standardized

The bird droppings treated with a 2-component bio-utilizer evanesced their color and state of aggregation during visual observation. Through, a versatile gas analyzer, there had been discovering decreasing ammonia in the ambient environment. Regardless of the type of bird droppings, the experimental batches treated with the biological product met the requirements of GOST 31461-2012. Native litter from broiler chickens and quails, not treated with a biological product, in all experiments during the study did not show results that would meet the regulatory document. The content of ammonia nitrogen in the external environment was 2-3 times higher than in the experimental batches and was above the level of the permissible concentration limit.

The total microbial count in the untreated litter on the 15th day remained the same as in the original by-product. Bird droppings, not treated with the proposed biological product, did not undergo significant changes in performance while retaining a pungent, unpleasant ammonia odor.

Also, in the studies (on the 15th day), had been studying the hazard class of treated and untreated bird droppings (Antonov et al., 2021; Modak et al., 2019; Pokrant et al., 2021). The calculation method had established the danger indicator of untreated broiler chickens’ manure 26.57, of quails’ manure - 22.72, which belongs to the III class of danger (moderately dangerous).

The risk index of manure treated with a 2-component biological product got of broiler chickens was 9.45, and of quails - 8.68, which belongs to the IV hazard class (low-dangerous).

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Thus, native manure treated with a bio-utilizer from a mixture of Pseudomonas putida 90 biovar A (171) and Azotobacter chroococcum 31/8 R cultures improves the physicochemical and sanitary-bacteriological characteristics of the final product. There is also a stimulation of the growth of specific microflora, which ensures its biodegradation and a decrease in the level of ammonia nitrogen in the environment. Together, this reduces the hazard class, which makes it possible to use this by-product of poultry farming as an organic raw material used in the production of fertilizers.

3.3 The Effect of Processed Poultry Manure Development, and Yield of Tomatoes

on

the

Growth,

Vegetables - a source of vitamins, a balanced complex of minerals, fiber, and organic acids play an important role in human nutrition. Tomato fruits contain pectin and nitrogenous substances, sugar 4%, organic acids 0.4-0.9% (citric, malic, oxalic, tartaric), fats and essential oils 0.2%, various mineral salts (especially much potassium and magnesium), and vitamins (B1, B2, B6, K, PP, C 25-45 mg%). High productivity, good taste, and a variety of uses have made tomato a vegetable crop common in Russia (Kuzmitskaya and Kuliakina, 2020).

Vegetable crops consume a lot of nutrients. To get a high- and high-quality yield, they need large amounts of macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S), and small amounts of microelements (B, Mn, Zn, Co, Cu, Mo). It manifested especially prime requirements for the nutritional regime when growing tomatoes through seedlings with an underdeveloped root system (Hidayat et al., 2021; Palumbo et al., 2020; Widyastuti et al., 2019).

Using the tested bird droppings as the main fertilizer provided a constant level of nutrition, better seedling establishment, and optimal conditions for the growth of tomato plants (Table 5).

Table 5: Influence of the use of processed poultry manure in tomato cultivation technology on plant growth Group

Control 1st experience 2nd experience 3rd experience 4th experience 5th experience 6th experience НСР05*

Plant height, cm 46.9 51.1 53.5 52.0 52.8 56.7 54.6 2.2

Number per plant, pcs.

branches leaves 4.0 14.1 4.3 16.7 4.6 18.4 4.5 17.6 4.4 17.3 4.8 20.0 4.7 18.9 0.2 0.8 * ‒ Least significant difference

Leaf area, dm2/plant 12.01 12.72 13.11 12.98 12.92 14.22 13.48 0.59

Mass of aboveground organs, g/plant raw dry 54.12 8.94 60.44 10.58 66.08 11.70 64.35 11.26 62.78 11.11 69.06 12.36 67.24 11.89 2.77 0.49

In the experiment had been discovering that all the experimental variants of tomato plants grew most tall (51.1-56.7cm, in control - 46.9cm), leafier (number of leaves 16.7-20.0 pieces, in control 14.1 pieces; the total area of leaves 12.72-14.22 and 12.01 dm2/plant, respectively). The influence of organic fertilizer had been activating not only growth but also intensifying the assimilation processes. This led to an increase in biomass (60.44–69.06g/plant, in control– 54.12g/plant) and dry weight of aboveground organs (10.58–12.36g/plant, in control–8.94g/plant).

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However, it had been noticed that the strength of the effect of the tested organic fertilizers on plant growth largely depended on the type of bird droppings (broiler chickens or quails) and the applied dose. The maximum absolute growth rates were by using processed broiler chicken manure at a dose of 3.0kg/m2 and processed quail manure at a dose of 1.5kg/m2. Obviously, in these options, the ratio of the nutrients included in the tested fertilizers is optimal, and the content and demand for them for plants suffices to activate growth and production processes to get a high-quality crop.

Table 6: Effect of tested fertilizers on the fruit formation of tomato plants Option Control 1st experience 2nd experience 3rd experience 4th experience 5th experience 6th experience НСР05

Number of tomatoes, pieces/bush 13.1 13.8 15.2 14.6 13.9 15.6 15.1 0.6

Weight of tomatoes, kg/bush 0.824 0.906 1.014 0.966 0.915 1.052 1.005 0.039

Tomatoes parameters diameter, cm mass, g 4.0 62.88 4.3 65.67 4.5 66.70 4.4 66.14 4.4 65.82 4.7 67.44 4.6 66.53 0.2 0.039

The data in Table 6 shows that the tested bird droppings stimulated the process of fruit formation. A greater number of tomatoes was growing in the experimental variants (13.8– 15.6pcs/plant, in the control - 13.1pcs/plant). They were larger (4.3-4.7 and 4.0cm diameter) and with weights (65.67-67.44 and 62.88g). The formation of the bush in the experimental variants of a larger number of larger fruits and their total mass contributed to an increase in the yield and quality of tomato fruits (Table 7).

Table 7: Yield and quality of tomato fruits depending on the use of processed poultry manure in its cultivation technology Option

Productivity, kg/m2

Control 1st experience 2nd experience 3rd experience 4th experience 5th experience 6th experience НСР05

2.390 2.627 2.941 2.801 2.654 3.051 2.915 0.122

Control Gain kg/m2 % – – 0.237 9.9 0.551 23.1 0.411 17.2 0.264 11.1 0.661 27.7 0.525 22.0

Content in tomatoes sugars, % vitamin C, mg % 3.3 35.2 3.5 37.6 3.8 39.4 3.6 38.8 3.6 37.9 3.9 40.7 3.7 39.2

The research results showed that, in the experimental variants, the tomato yield increased significantly (2.627-3.051kg/m2, in the control - 2.390kg/m2, HCP05 - 0.122kg/m2). The maximum yield increase in tomato cultivation technology was 23.1 and 27.7%. It had been in variants with the use of processed broiler chicken manure at a dose of 3.0kg/m2 and quail manure at a dose of 1.5kg/m2. In these variants, the content of total sugars and vitamin C in tomato fruits was maximum (3.8% and 39.4 mg%, 3.9% and 40.7 mg%, respectively, in the control 3.3% and 35.2 mg%).

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4 Conclusion Thus, native manure got from young broiler chickens and quails, treated with a microbial biological product from a mixture of Pseudomonas putida 90 biovar A (171) and Azotobacter chroococcum 31/8 R cultures, improves the physicochemical and sanitary and microbiological characteristics of the final product. There is a stimulation of the growth of specific microflora of the litter, which ensures its biodegradation, as well as a decrease in the level of ammonia nitrogen in the environment. Together, this reduces the hazard class, which makes it possible to use this byproduct of poultry farming as organic raw material. The agrotechnological methods carried out have shown that the high biological efficiency of the tested organic fertilizers (processed litter of broiler chickens and quails) on the studied crop is because of the high yield of high-quality tomato fruits. With a yield in tomato control of 2.390kg/m2, the maximum gains of 23.1 and 27.7% were in variants with introducing processed broiler chicken manure into the soil at a dose of 3.0kg/m2 and processed manure a week before planting seedlings into the soil, quails at a dose of 1.5kg/m2. Also in these options were the tomatoes of the highest quality.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6 Acknowledgement The research was carried out with the financial support of the Kuban Science Foundation and the Organization in the framework of the scientific project № MFI-P-20.1/4.

7 References Akhtar MS, Oki Y, Adachi T, Murata Yand Khan MHR. Relative phosphorus utilization efficiency, growth response, and phosphorus uptake kinetics of brassica cultivars under a phosphorus stress environment.

Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis. 2007;38(7–8): 1061-1085. DOI: 10.1080/00103620701280266 Antonov A, Ivanov G and Pastukhova N. Quail Droppings Utilization System. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2021;666(2):022073. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/666/2/022073 Britt C, Bullard M, Hickman G, Johnson P, King J, Nicholson F, Nixon P and Smith N. Bioenergy Crops and Bioremediation - A Review. Crops. 2002.

Chastain JP, Camberato JJ and Skewes P. Poultry Manure Production and Nutrient Content. Production.

2014.

Chew KW, Chia SR, Yen HW, Nomanbhay S, Ho YC and Show PL (2019). Transformation of biomass waste into sustainable organic fertilizers. Sustainability (Switzerland). 2019;11(8):2266. DOI: 10.3390/su11082266 Daadi BE and Latacz-Lohmann U. Organic fertilizer use by smallholder farmers: Typology of management approaches in northern Ghana. Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems. 2021;36(2): 192–206. DOI: 10.1017/S1742170520000228

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GOST

31461-2012. Poultry dung. Raw material https://docs.cntd.ru/document/1200096492

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Grenon G, Singh B, de Sena A, Madramootoo CA, von Sperber C, Goyal MK and Zhang T. Phosphorus fate, transport and management on subsurface drained agricultural organic soils: A review. Environmental Research Letters. 2021;16(1). DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/abce81 Grzyb A, Wolna-Maruwka A and Niewiadomska A. The significance of microbial transformation of nitrogen compounds in the light of integrated crop management. Agronomy. 2021;11(7):1415. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy11071415 Hidayat H, Rostyanesia and Kurniati YS. Identification of lactic acid bacteria from tomato fruit extract and antibacterial activity test against Klebsiella pneumoniae. In AIP Conference Proceedings.

2021;2370:070001. DOI: 10.1063/5.0062681 Imas P (2000). Integrated Nutrient Management for Sustaining Crop Yields in Calcareous Soils.

Katsura H, Koseki K, Bito T, Takenaka S and Watanabe F. Characterization of vitamin B12 compounds in fermented poultry manure fertilizers. Agriculture (Switzerland). 2021;11(7):627. DOI: 10.3390/agriculture11070627 Kim WK and Patterson PH. Effect of minerals on activity of microbial uricase to reduce ammonia volatilization in poultry manure. Poultry Science. 2003;82(2):223-231. DOI: 10.1093/ps/82.2.223 Kuzmitskaya GA and Kuliakina NV. A comprehensive assessment of tomato collection varieties by yield and parameters of adaptability in monsoon climate conditions. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2020;547:012018. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/547/1/012018 Li SX, Wang ZH and Stewart BA (2011). Differences of Some Leguminous and Nonleguminous Crops in Utilization of Soil Phosphorus and Responses to Phosphate Fertilizers. Advances in Agronomy.

2011;110:125-249. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-385531-2.00003-7 Modak M, Chowdhury EH, Rahman MS and Sattar MN. Waste management practices and profitability analysis of poultry farming in Mymensingh district: A socioeconomic study. Journal of the Bangladesh Agricultural University. 2019;17(1):50-57. DOI: 10.3329/jbau.v17i1.40663 Muola A, Fuchs B, Laihonen M, Rainio K, Heikkonen L, Ruuskanen S, Saikkonen K and Helander M. Risk in the circular food economy: Glyphosate-based herbicide residues in manure fertilizers decrease crop yield. Science of the Total Environment, 2021;750:141422. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141422 Palumbo G, Carfagna S, Stoleru V, Torino V, Romano PM, Letizia F and Di Martino C. Environmental sustainability fruit quality and production in mycorrhizal tomato plants without p fertilizing.

Agronomy Research. 2020;18(4):2535-2549. DOI: 10.15159/AR.20.204 Pokrant E, Yévenes K, Trincado L, Terraza G, Galarce N, Maddaleno A, San Martín B, Lapierre L and Cornejo J. Evaluation of antibiotic dissemination into the environment and untreated animals, by analysis of oxytetracycline in poultry droppings and litter. Animals. 2021;11(3):853. DOI: 10.3390/ani11030853 SanPiN 1.2.3685-21. Sanitary rules and norms: Hygienic standards and requirements for ensuring the safety and (or) harmlessness of environmental factors for humans. https://docs.cntd.ru/document/573500115

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Widyastuti S, Geraldine BAFD, Sunarwidhi AL, Ariyana MD, Prasedya ES, and Sunarpi H. The use of brown algae extract to extend shelf life and improve post-harvest quality of tomato fruit. In AIP Conference Proceedings. 2019;2199:070008. DOI: 10.1063/1.5141322 Williams CM, Barker JC, and Sims JT. Management and utilization of poultry wastes. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 1999;162:105-157. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4612-15288_3 Albina Luneva is a Candidate of Biological Sciences, at the Department of Parasitology, Veterinary Sanitary Expertise and Animal Hygiene, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. Her research encompasses Improving Methods for Diagnosing, Treating and Preventing Invasive Diseases and Productivity of Domestic and Wild Animals and Birds.

Dr.Yury Lysenko is at the Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. He holds a Doctor of Biological Sciences. His research encompasses the Development of End-to-end Agro-food Bio-Nanotechnologies, Functional eco-products based on Plant, Animal Raw Materials and By-products of Processing in the conditions of organic industrial development.

Anna Gneush is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences at the Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. Her research focuses on the Development of end-to-end Agro-food Bio-Nanotechnologies, getting Functional Eco-products based on Plant, Animal Raw Materials and by-Products of Processing in the Conditions of Organic Industrial Development.

Dr.Aleksandr Lysenko is a Professor at the Department of Therapy and Pharmacology, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. He holds a Doctor of Veterinary Sciences. His research is related to Internal Non-communicable Diseases of Farm Animals.

Nadezhda Machneva is a Candidate of Biological Sciences at the Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. Her researches are the development of end-to-end Agro-food Bio-nanotechnologies, Functional Eco-products based on Plant, Animal Raw Materials and By-products of Processing in the Conditions of Organic Industrial Development.

Maria Aniskina is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences at the Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. Her research is related to the Development of End-to-end Agro-food Bio-nanotechnologies, getting Functional Eco-products based on Plant, Animal Raw Materials and By-products of processing in the Conditions of Organic Industrial Development.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Human Resource Management through an Islamic Len: A Systematic Review & Research Agenda and Practical Implications Ahmed M. Asfahani1 Department of Human Resources Management, College of Business Administration, University of Business and Technology, Jeddah, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Authors (Email: a.asfahani @ubt.edu.sa).

1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5M Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 24 December 2021 Received in revised form 12 April 2022 Accepted 19 April 2022 Available online 26 April 2022

Keywords:

Human Resource Management (HRM); Islamic values; Systematic review; Research agenda; Practical implications; Islamic HRM practices; Employee satisfaction; Islamic-based HRM; Quran-based HRM

Islamic HRM values are numerous centuries old, but they are still applicable in the modern business world due to their flexibility. The values are about respecting humanity in terms of equality, honesty, fairness in decision-making, and accountability in leadership and followership. A systematic literature review has been presented in this paper that shows that if these principles are practiced in business today, there is a positive influence on employee satisfaction, the trust relationship between employer and employees, job commitment, and overall organizational performance.

The employees and managers view themselves that Islamic HRM practices are the right way of managing systems within the working place as they are righteous. However, there are different opinions from the Western world that cause resistance against Islamic HR practices. Islamic HRM must face current business challenges when it comes to its practical implications.

Disciplinary: Management Sciences (Business Development, Business Management). ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Asfahani, A (2022). Human Resource Management through an Islamic Len: A Systematic Review & Research Agenda and Practical Implications. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5M, 1-9. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.97

1 Introduction With the advent of globalization, an amalgamation of working practices in business is witnessed where Muslims and the West come together under one roof for business matters. When two different cultures are present, there is a difference in attitudes towards business perspectives and how business matters occur in each culture. The nature and contents of management are distinct for the two cultures and have to be managed effectively so that these differences do not

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affect the employees and their performance. The following paper would present a systematic review of human resource management through an Islamic lens to provide a research plan and practical implications for the modern world. The basic Islamic understanding of the HRM practices that would be useful for today’s modern business systems would be reflected in this review.

The systematic review’s objective is to evaluate human resource management through an Islamic lens so that management practices could be scrutinized in the context of Islamic culture to be applied in today’s world. Since collaboration among different cultures is the requirement of current times for innovation purposes, diversity across cultures has become a concern. Hence, Islamic human resource management’s role would be appraised through this systematic review of previous studies to view these principles’ workings in Muslim and non-Muslim contexts.

2 Method A systematic review of several databases was conducted between 17 December to 22 December 2020. All the aspects of human resource management and Islamic culture were included so that different authors’ perspectives in different years could be overviewed. A careful selection of studies was made so that identical ones could be excluded. The reason for excluding the identical ones is to keep the data precise and free of repetition.

2.1 Eligibility Criteria Study eligibility would be based on the inclusion of research no older than the year 2000.

Also, the included studies were published in English. The studies were also included based on the selected keyword search. Those studies that were excluded were off-topic and did not match the results of the keywords. The selected studies had to be matched with the relevance to the objective of the study.

2.2 Data Sources The research articles were taken from several data sources such as three articles from Personnel Review, two articles from International Review of Management and Marketing, and the rest were taken from African Journal of Business and Management, Journal of Islamic Business and Economic Review, Journal of Islamic Accounting and Business Research, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Bangladesh Journal of Islamic Thought, Journal of International Management Studies, International Journal of Academic Research In Business and Social Sciences, International Journal of Islamic Business and Management, Asia Pacific Journal of Business Administration, University of Haripur Journal of Management, The Dialogue, Research Gate, European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, Qudus International Journal of Islamic Studies, Journal of Industrial Engineering and Management, Purushartha: A Journal of Management, Ethics and Spirituality, International Journal of Development Research, Research Journal Al-Basirah, AlIdah, Business and Economic Review, Asian Social Sciences, Journal of Entrepreneur Education, Advances In Economics, Business and Management Research, and Journal of Managerial Sciences.

Also, extended research was conducted, which means the cited articles at the end of selected

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research were also reached for gaining an extended view of the opinions. Many of the articles were selected through this approach as they turned out to be relevant for this research paper.

2.3 Risk of Bias in Studies and Its Removal The selected studies’ possible bias for the systematic review was removed by omitting the identical research and older than the year 2000. It was considered that studies older than this year would be outdated and might not present the views that are related to today’s notions and viewpoints of the business world and Islamic human resources. Hence, this bias of personal thoughts of the authors older than the year 2000’s studies was likely removed.

2.4 Data Collection Process The data was collected with a keyword search. The keywords used were ‘Islam and human resource,’ ‘Islam and a human resource management, ‘Islamic human resource,’ ‘Islamic human resource management, ‘Islamic culture and a human resource management, ‘teachings of Islam and HRM,’ ‘Islamic HRM and modern business culture,’ ‘Quran-based HRM’ and ‘Western culture and Islamic human resource management.

2.5 Data Analysis Data analysis was done by formulating a table and narrative summaries of the selected research. The systematic review of the findings was done in a narrative synthesis manner.

3 Result and Discussion The search from all the databases yielded 578 research articles. The articles that occurred the same were excluded, and those older than the year 2000 were also not considered. Those relevant are presented below in the form of a table, chronologically so that the overview of the Islamic HRM perspectives with time is demonstrated well for a deeper understanding. Further detailed discussion on the extracted themes and discernment from this systematic review would be presented subsequently.

Table 1: Analyzed result Authors Hashim

Year 2008

Study purpose To recognize the salient features of Islamic HRM for better HR management of non-Muslim managers

Key findings The quantitative study’s findings revealed that Islamic parameters were highly correlated with increased job satisfaction and commitment among the employees. This information could be useful for non-Muslim managers for their Muslim employees working in MNCs. Abbasi et al. 2010 To understand the Islamic model of The results revealed that Islam provides a complete guideline management package for today’s businesses as the model and can be adopted by any kind of business model Ali 2010 To interpret whether the Islamic HR The article takes examples from other religions such as Judaism angles are enough to manage/evolve and Christianity and elaborates on their Islamic HR perceptions. human resources in the present world Challenges are outlined that need further research and practical steps to eliminate them.

Branine et al. 2010 Exploring the nature and contents of Islam is misunderstood, and its unnecessary negative impact is seen Islamic practices in management and in the business world as well. MNCs need to understand that Islam gives importance to friends, family, and kinship. Islam is not their direct implications on the human against their religion and is looking to resolve issues that are resource management in Arab countries. causing friction among different cultures other than Islam in the workplace.

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Authors Khan et al.

Year 2010

Study purpose To understand the modern-day human resource practices following Islam.

Noufal

Key findings The secondary research article mentioned that Islam promotes peaceful co-habiting of different cultures with equality and justice.

These and other Islamic teachings could be seen in today’s business HRM practices so that the firm culture could be nonviolent and sincere.

The secondary research article revealed that Islam is based on unity, purpose, responsibility, autonomy, an all-inclusive decisionmaking process, trust, dialogue, cost and time efficiency, honesty, expertise, and keenness to learn. Leadership should also be held accountable and must only be for the welfare of the followers.

The cross-sectional research showed that Islamic HRM strongly influenced trust within the firm, but the appraisal system did not show any significant relationship.

2012 To reveal Islamic aspects of management that would be sustained in modern world business HR areas like reward, benefits, employee engagement, thriving culture for obligation and accountability Nik Ab. 2013 To evaluate the role of theoretical Rahman et al. frameworks of Islamic human resource management practices and their effect on levels of trust within an organization Zaman, et al. 2013 To highlight the Islamic features that are The secondary research article revealed that Islam HRM directions ingrained in Islamic HRM and are proved do not teach materialistic approaches that are quite evident in successful in today’s world in a distinct modern HRM as Islamic HRM builds employee-employer trust way comparable to modern HRM relation, which is a positive sign for organizational commitment and performance Malik et al. 2014 To implement the Quran-based HRM The research’s quantitative results indicated that Islamic HRM practices in Islamic banking along with practices do not directly increase job satisfaction but do through the path of organizational justice. Justice and honesty are ingrained justice to improve employee job within the Islamic teachings, and thus, Muslim employees have satisfaction with the aid of organizational justice inherited these features in their nature and infused them in their work.

Sulaiman et 2014 To measure the impact of Islamic HRM The qualitative study findings revealed that Muslim managers were al. on the Islamic managers’ organization well-aware of Islamic HRM practices and have employed them in their organizations. Also, they have seen positive results in the overall firm workings.

Azmi, IAG. 2015 To investigate the effect of Islamic HRM The study’s quantitative analysis revealed that one Islamic HRM practices in a developing country practice is significantly related to organizational performance, which is training and development despite Islamic recruitment and selection to a large extent.

Balla et al. 2016 To gauge Islamic HRM’s implementation The mixed qualitative and quantitative research has revealed that on the employees’ organizational Islam provides values incorporated in HRM practices for better knowledge, presentation, faith, organizational results performance-wise. obligation, and devotion to the group’s supervisor.

Khan 2016 To scrutinize the effect of Islamic values The article indicates that human resource management’s Islamic on human resource management in the way with its ingrained faith, such as integrity, equal rights, modern world and the resolving the obligatory emphasis, justice, and loyalty, provides positive employee motivation results. Organizational success and harmony contemporary issues in the workplace are guaranteed if Islamic principles are observed within organizational HRM practices.

Mahesar et al. 2016 To analyze the effect of Islamic HRM on The study’s quantitative analysis showed that Islamic HRM has a employee outcomes and engagement in highly significant relationship with employee outcomes and is Pakistani Islamic banks beneficial for engagement.

Saleem et al. 2016 To highlight the fundamental Islamic The extensive literature review study found that Islam gives high principles regarding HRM for employing significance to its basic principles. If instilled within the HR better policies for an effective practices of today’s businesses, employee commitment levels are management system. sure to increase, which is conducive to better organizational performance based on equal rights and a reward system.

Siddique et al.

2016

To compare the role of religion and culture on the HR practices of Saudi Arabia and Iran

The results indicated that the religious culture directly affects the policymaking within that country’s businesses, either in Iran or Saudi Arabia. Islamic influence was seen more in Saudi Arabia, and thus its effects were seen in business workings, social relations, and employee-employer interactions.

Berher et al. 2017 The role of Muslim employees in White The qualitative study revealed that Muslim employees in HRM and contribution to religious Netherlands organizations have to face religious friction. The HRM policy in such firms has to be designed, so that religious diversity is diversity in workplaces appropriately managed across different cultures.

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Authors Islam & Barghouthi

Khan

Year Study purpose 2017 To observe the practical implications of Islam in contemporary HRM.

2017

Nadvi & bin 2017 Junaid

To examine the role of Islamic HRM practices in terms of employees, employers, and customers' points of view

To compare the Islamic HRM practices and their impact on organizational commitment in terms of employees’ perception

Razimi et al. 2017 To assess the practices of Islamic human resources for increasing work motivation among employees and overall organizational performance Rahman

2018

Key findings The article disclosed with examples from various verses of the Holy Quran that Islam has taught all the important HRM aspects, such as hierarchy, gender, leadership, etc., that are practiced today in the business world.

The secondary research article revealed that the previous literature has corroborated that Islamic work ethics are strongly related to job satisfaction. Compensation and salaries based on justice are more respected among the employees and employers that work better in creating organizational harmony.

A survey approach was adopted to collect results that stated that Islamic HRM had different organizational outcomes and implications in this world than modern HRM. The results were stated in terms of the employee’s perception of their organization where Islamic HRM is being practiced.

Islam teaches certain values to its followers inculcated in Islamic human resource management, such as kindness, treating everyone equally, and giving respect. Consequently, the human resource practices are refreshed in an Islamic way, leading to increased work motivation and overall firm performance The secondary research article concluded that Islamic organizations are under Western culture’s influence despite following Islamic religious parameters even in Islamic countries.

The secondary research article mentioned no difference between the Islamic teachings of recruitment based on proficiency, justice, honesty, humbleness, patience, and contemporary HRM practices.

To interpret the Islamic approaches and context for human resource management in organizations today.

Sabir & 2018 To comprehend the Islamic way of Bhutta recruitment and selection in the modern business world under the light of HRM practices Uyun & 2018 To measure the influence of Islamic The quantitative research article showed statistical results that Muafi HRM practices on organizational learning Islamic principles positively impact organizational learning and and an overall impact on social, social, environmental, and religious engagement. environmental, and religious performance Abbazi & 2019 To understand the relationship between The findings’ statistical results displayed that all the basic HR Zarqan Islamic teachings and HRM to face aspects if followed Islamically, would yield better results in terms of job satisfaction and organizational trust among the workers. today’s human resources’ current There is a positive relationship between trust and the reward system challenges. of the firm.

Chowdhury 2019 To evaluate the role of Islamic HRM The results indicated that if proper knowledge of Islamic practices, et al. practices as an important strategic tool for successful organizational outcomes are indispensable. the organizational effectiveness Undoubtedly, Islamic HRM practices positively influence recruitment, selection, performance evaluation, training, development, etc.

Hadjri et al. 2019 To assess the effect of Islamic human Islamic recruitment and selection criteria strongly influenced resource management on organizational organizational commitment and employee performance extracted commitment and employee performance from Indonesian bank employees’ quantitative study.

Wiryanto 2019 To assess if there is a need for increased The results showed that when the comparison between Western and knowledge of Islamic management Islamic concepts is made, there is a dire need for more awareness principles for today’s businesses’ for the Western world to incorporate Islamic HR values for better problem-solving strategies problem-solving Hossin & 2020 Reviewing and discussing the role of The secondary research article indicated that nine principles of Sentosa Islamic human resource management Islamic HRM pose a positive effect on four systems: recruitment, practices and their requirement in the training, development, performance appraisal, and compensation. banking firm Javed et al. 2020 Evaluating the role of Islamic ethics Statistical analyses showed that transformational and transactional relevant to the leadership styles and their leadership styles were positively related to managerial impact on managerial effectiveness. effectiveness; however, Islamic ethics intervention did not show any results.

The conceptual framework or model of the findings is shown in Figure 1. The conceptual model shows that Islamic teachings are rooted in HR practices, mainly in Muslim countries. The fundamental Islamic values are trust, equality, justice, responsibility, accountability of leadership and the followers, unity, obligation, fairness in decision-making, learning, co-existence of different

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cultures and respecting them, and friendship among diverse kinds of people. These values instill a positive sense of belonging to the organization where they are practiced. When Islamic aspects like equality and fairness are ingrained in HR practices like recruitment, payment, compensation, and reward system, the employees develop. It does not matter whether the company is Muslim or nonMuslim; however, it does matter when the firm is multinational and has diverse employees, including Muslims. The Muslim employees respect such non-Muslim CEOs more and show higher job satisfaction, low turnover, strengthened employee-employer relationships, and better organizational performance. It has been researched that Muslim employees' and managers’ perceptions were positive when Quran-based HRM practices were followed within their Muslim firms. Similarly, it has further been researched that the Muslim employees working in a nonMuslim firm where Islamic HRM practices like equality and trust were followed, such employees’ perceptions were heightened.

Has friction in acceptability in the Western world. Different perceptions in Christianity and Judaism

Has the ability to be adapted in modern world business due to its flexibility

Has the ability to face the current HR challenges in Muslin and non-Muslim firms in globalized context

Islamic or Quran-based HRM

Own perceptions of Muslim managers and employees are positive related to their own firm HR.

Islamic values such as trust, equality, justice, accountability, honesty, responsibility, unity, obligation, fairness in decision-making, keenness to learn, coexistence, friendship and kinship

Positive impact on HR practices like recruitment, training, pay compensation, and reward system etc.

Positive influence on employee satisfaction, commitment, turnover, employee-employer relation, organizational trust and overall performance Figure 1: conceptual framework/model of the findings

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The systematic review also elaborates that Islamic HRM can be adapted in the modern world, even in multinationals in a globalized world. Multinational companies have a diversified workforce, and Muslims are part of it. The needs of such employees have to be considered if the firm has to prosper. Therefore, Islamic values like justice and unity have to be implanted in the global firms as the Islamic system has flexibility. However, it has been observed that the Western world is not welcoming of these values, and there is some resistance to accepting the Islamic HRM practices in the Western world. Religions like Christianity and Judaism are not supported, and Islamic HRM has to face challenges regarding the West’s different mindsets.

4 Conclusion Islam has all the salient features within its teachings applicable to this world, even if it is the business world. Since humans run businesses, and religion is for humankind's betterment, if the fundamental teachings of Islam are incorporated in the enterprises’ human resource planning, the people working for either Muslim or non-Muslim firms would be content. They would know that they are respected, treated with kindness, given just and fair compensations for their struggles and hard work, and their leadership and the followers are accountable for their deeds. No one person would be held responsible illegally for the acts that they do not commit. All of the employees would work under one roof as a family, which is the soul of the Quran’s teachings. If such remains the state of working space, no possibility could hinder the firms from thriving in a globalized arena with tough competition.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6 References Abbasi, A.S., Rehman, K. & Bibi, A. (2010). Islamic management model. African Journal of Business Management, 4(9), 1873-1882.

Abbazi, U. & Zarqan, I.A. (2019). Islamic pedagogy on human resource management based on Islamic references. Journal of Islamic Business & Economic Review, 2(1), 34-42.

Ali, A.J. (2010). Islamic challenges to HR in modern organizations. Personnel Review, 39(6), 692-711.

DOI 10.1108/00483481011075567 Azmi, IAG (2015). Islamic human resource practices and organizational performance: Some findings in a developing country. Journal of Islamic Accounting & Business Research, 6(1), 114. DOI: 10.1108/JIABR-02-2012-0010 Balla, Z.I., Alias, R., Isa, A.A.M., Zaroog, O.S. & Osman, Y. (2016). Impact of Islamic value as strength of human resources management practice on the organization commitment: Conceptual framework. International Review of Management & Marketing, 6(S8), 306-309.

Bergher, L.J., Essers, C. & Himi, A. (2017). Muslim employees within ‘white’ organizations: The case of Moroccan workers in the Netherlands. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(8), 1119-1139. DOI: 10.1080/09585192.2016.1166785

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Dr. Asfahani is an Assistant Professor within the CBA at the University of Business and Technology (UBT). Dr. Asfahani has extensive academic and professional practices in the areas of organizational dynamics, institutional conflict resolution systems, human resource principles, internal relations, environmental resource and ecosystem management, negotiation, and training, gained in highly competitive environments. Successfully designed conflict solutions systems and provided analysis and recommendations to entities that have been utilized in both Saudi Arabia, and the United States of America. In addition, Dr. Asfahani is a freelance Strategic HR & Business Consultant, who obtained many experiences in different projects and developed his versions of HR and business Models.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

LC/MS Profiling of Shilajit Extract for Antimicrobial & Antifungal and Cytotoxic Activities Fawzia AlShubaily1* and Ebtihaj Jambi1,2 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 9515, Jeddah, 21589, SAUDI ARABIA. 2 Biomedical Physics Center, King Fahd Medical Research Center, Box 80216, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +966559198333, Email: falshibli@kau.edu.sa).

1

Paper ID: 13A5N

Abstract

Enormous amounts of bioactive compounds incorporated in the shilajit extracts are accountable for many therapeutic properties.

Received 14 December 2021 Received in revised form 09 However, little is acknowledged concerning the chemical content and its correlation to the antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties of shilajit extract.

April 2022 Accepted 23 April 2022 Therefore, the current experiment aimed at the profiling of shilajit bioactive Available online 28 April compounds with the aid of LC-HRESIMS technology, and assessing the 2022 antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties of in vitro and in vivo models. This Keywords: method allowed the identification of a variety of bioactive compounds, which LC-HRESIMS; Shilajit include fulvic acid, gallic acid, ferulic acid, naphsilajitone, fraxin, 3,8bioactive compounds; dihydroxydibenzo-α-pyrone, and pregnane. The results confirmed significant Antimicrobial; antifungal activity against Staphylococcus aureus at a concentration of 100 Cytotoxicity; LC/MS; µg disc-1, and Candida albicans at concentrations down to 25 µg disc-1 and Bioactive compounds; gave inhibition zones of 13±0.3 and 12±0.3 mm diameter, respectively. There Hep G2; Candida was low inhibition detected at a concentration beneath 25µg disc-1, and null albicans; Staphylococcus activity of shilajit crude extract in opposition to all the different microbes at aureus; DMSO; the distinct concentrations used in the current study. Cytotoxic percentage Microbial strain; Herbal inhibition of applied cell lines was elevated via increasing extract traditional medicine. concentration and significant percent inhibition (IC50: 19 µg mL-1) of the investigated test extract was revealed by the applied cell line Hep G2. These statistics supply a molecular foundation to explain at least a section of the advisable therapeutic properties of shilajit extract.

Volume 13 Issue 5

Disciplinary: Biochemistry and Biochemical Engineering. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: AlShubaily, F. and Jambi, E. (2022). LC/MS Profiling of Shilajit Extract for Antimicrobial & Antifungal and Cytotoxic Activities. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5N, 1-13. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.98

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Nomenclature and Symbols LC-HRESIMS:

liquid

chromatography-high

resolution

electrospray

ionization

mass

spectrometry, CFU: colony-forming units, DMSO: dimethyl sulfoxide, MIC: minimal inhibitory concentration, MFC: minimal fungicidal concentration, LTQ: linear trap quadrupole, HPLC: high-performance liquid chromatography, PTFE: polytetrafluoroethylene, LC/MS: liquid chromatography-mass spectrum, PDA: photodiode array, MeOH: methanol, DMEM: Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium, FBS: fetal bovine serum, MCF-7: Homo sapiens adenocarcinoma epithelial breast mammary gland cell line, T-47D: Homo sapiens ductal carcinoma epithelial mammary gland cell line, Hep G2: Homo sapiens hepatocellular carcinoma liver cell line, SKOV-3: ovarian carcinoma, ATCC: American type culture collection, MTT: tetrazolium dye (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide), SDS: sodium dodecyl sulfate, ANOVA: analysis of variance, SEM: standard error of the mean, [M+H]+: the ions observed by mass spectrometry may be quasi-molecular ions created by the addition of a hydrogen cation.

1. Introduction Shilajit, Asphaltum punjabianum is a natural black greasy substance formed by the degradation of plant materials from species such as Euphorbia royleana and Trifolium repens in the high-altitude mountains [1, 2]. This vegetation has undergone compression and high temperature for many years underneath several mountains’ rocky layers to be transformed into its greasy perfusion from the rock of the mountains [1]. Shilajit is used as a traditional medicine for the remediation to cure many diseases.

Traditional medicine had been an essential part of health care in many middle eastern areas such as Yemen and Saudi Arabia, and in many Asian countries such as China and India for thousands of years [1]. Therefore, significant conformational testimony was intended to document the mode of action for herbo-medicinal extracts [1]. Shilajit has potential uses such as anti-

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inflammatory, anti-fungal, anti-ulcerogenic, anxiolytic activity, anti-allergic, analgesic, antidiabetic, memory enhancer, and antioxidant [3-6].

Various studies have evaluated the properties of shilajit extracts obtained from different countries [7, 8]. The ecological nature of the mountain’s rocks, variation in local humidity and temperature, and speciation of plants impact the chemical composition of shilajit [9] for which the organic compounds, fulvic acid, 3,4-benzocoumarins, hippuric acid, resin, benzoic acid, fatty acids, ellagic acid, amino acids, and certain alkaloids are the main bioactive constituents. Abundant organic compounds of the shilajit extract exist in varied ratios corresponding to different countries, which affect the physical properties and chemical composition [10]. Studies had found that in India, Pakistan, and Russia, the ratios of shilajit’s fulvic acid were 21.4%, 15.5%, and 19%, respectively [1].

Therefore, the local source of the shilajit extract is significant and directly correlated to its therapeutic impact [1, 2].

There are increasing awareness and interest in using traditional herbo-medicine like shilajit because of its efficient therapeutic impact on the treatment of common diseases such as anemia, chronic pain, diabetes, osteoporosis, and digestive disorders. The effects of several environmental and economic factors such as the plant source, temperature, transport, and storage have influenced the chemical composition and efficacy of the commercial shilajit. Therefore, the present study was performed to investigate the chemical composition of commercial shilajit extract using liquid chromatography-high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-HRESIMS) analysis and determine its antimicrobial and cytotoxic potential using in vitro and in vivo models. There were limited studies and published information regarding the investigation of commercial shilajit specifically in providing the concentrations of shilajit that need to be utilized. Therefore, different concentrations of local commercial shilajit were tested to identify the highest non-toxic concentration that could be used in the in vivo studies on human carcinogen cell lines. These statistics supply a molecular foundation to explain at least a section of the advisable therapeutic properties of shilajit extract.

2. Methods 2.1 Microbial Strains and Growth Media Bacterial species, Staphylococcus aureus (NCIMB 6571), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (NCIMB 6750), Escherichia coli (NCIMB 10214), and fungal species, Aspergillus niger (IMI 51433), and Candida albicans (NCPF 3255) were obtained from purchased from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). The specified fungal and bacterial cultures were kept at 4°C on Sabouraud dextrose and Mueller-Hinton agar media. The antifungal and antibacterial properties were analyzed

by Sabouraud dextrose and Mueller Hinton agar and broth, respectively. All media were obtained from Oxoid Ltd, Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK. The fungi and bacteria cultures were grown for 24 hours and the standard MacFarland turbidity of 106 colony forming units (CFU) mL-1 was achieved by mixing with sterile physiological saline. A quantity of 100 µL of each microbial suspension was

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added into 25 mL of (40 ⁰C) Sabouraud dextrose and Muller Hinton sterile broth media for fungi and bacteria respectively.

2.2 Disk Diffusion Method Shilajit was purchased from Amazon India. The antimicrobial property of shilajit extract was assessed by the disc diffusion method [11, 12]. The crude methanolic extract of shilajit was dissolved in a sterile 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) to make a 50 mg mL-1 stock solution before being tested for antimicrobial activity. Using a sterile cotton swab, 100 µL of (24 - 72 hrs) isolate inoculums were spread evenly on the surface of solid media plates. Blank 6mm-diameter disks were saturated with dilutions of the stock shilajit crude extract to make concentrations of 200, 100, 50, 25, and 12.5 µg disc-1 and were placed on the surface of the agar plates and then incubated 24-48 hrs at 37°C and 28°C for bacteria and fungi, respectively. The inhibition zone’s diameters were measured in milliliters from the disc margin to the inner edge of the encircled pathogens. A disc impregnated with 10% DMSO was used as a negative control and positive controls were assessed with standards nystatin and amoxicillin drugs (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) which were dissolved in DMSO 10% (10 µg disc-1) and served as positive antifungal and antibacterial controls; respectively. Duplicate repeats were conducted for each experiment.

2.3 Broth Micro-Dilution Method Antimicrobial analysis and assessment of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extract against different bacterial and fungal strains were achieved using the broth micro-dilution method. As only S. aureus and C. Albicans have shown inhibitory effects down to 100 mg mL-1 and 12.5 mg mL-1, respectively, MIC was calculated for these species only. To determine the MIC of the shilajit crude extract, 5 dilutions for each concentration of 100 mg mL-1 and 12.5 mg mL-1 were prepared in 5% DMSO. A quantity of 100 µL of the microbial suspensions was inoculated into the prepared dilution tubes and incubated at 28 and 37°C for 48 hrs for the fungi and bacteria strains respectively. The tubes comprising only the substrate with either diluted extract or microbial suspension were designated as negative and positive controls, respectively. The least concentration of each extract representing a clear inhibition was reported as the MIC concentration. To verify the presence or absence of growth turbidity, samples were also measured spectrophotometrically after 48 hrs at 540 nm. The determination of minimal fungicidal concentration (MFC) values for the fungi were evaluated as the highest dilutions (lowest concentrations) at which no growth occurred on the plates. All serial dilutions of the shilajit were performed in duplicates.

2.4 LC-HRESIMS Analysis The liquid chromatography-high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LCHRESIMS) was assessed to determine the bioactive compounds in the examined extract. A quantity of 100 mg of shilajit crude extract was dissolved in 100 mL of 10% methanol. This mixture was filtered through a 0.2 μm PTFE filter, and a quantity of 1ml was placed into LC/MS vials. Highresolution mass spectrometric data were obtained using a Thermo LTQ Orbitrap coupled to an

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HPLC system (PDA detector, PDA autosampler, and pump). The following conditions were used: capillary voltage of 45 V, capillary temperature of 260 °C, auxiliary gas flow rate of 10−20 arbitrary units, sheath gas flow rate of 40−50 arbitrary units, spray voltage of 4.5 kV, and mass range of 100−2000 amu (maximal resolution of 30000). For LC/MS, a Sunfire C18 analytical HPLC column (5 μm, 4.6 mm × 150 mm) was used with a mobile phase of 0 to 100% MeOH over 30 min at a flow rate of 1 mL/ min−1. Analysis of data was performed using Xcalibur 3.0 and dereplication using a dictionary of natural products database V. 23.1 on DVD.

2.5 In vitro Cytotoxicity Assay Cell lines of MCF-7, T-47D, and Hep-G2 were purchased from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, USA). The cells were nurtured in DMEM culture media containing antibiotics (100 U mL-1 of penicillin and 100 µg mL-1 of streptomycin) and 10% FBS (Gibco) at 37°C in a CO2 incubator (5% CO2 and 95% relative humidity). The inhibitors were tested for their cytotoxicity properties against MCF-7, T-47D, and Hep-G2 cells [13]. The analysis comprised distributing the cell aliquots for MCF-7, T-47D cells (3.6×105 cells mL-1, 3.5×105 cells mL-1, and 3.8×105 cells mL-1, 95µL) in 96 well plates. The 96 well plates were aliquoted with the prepared inhibitor stock solutions in DMSO (150µL, 5µL) and incubated for 24 hrs. (37ºC, 5% CO2). The control samples were the wells that contain the cells and only DMSO (5µL). The tested plate was incubated with the MTT solution (final concentration 0.5mg mL-1, 10 µL) at 37 ºC in 5% CO2 for 180 min. A solution of SDS (10% in 0.01M HCl, 100 µL) was added to each well of the 96 well plates and further incubated overnight (37ºC, 5%CO2). The percent toxicity was assessed by measuring the optical density at 570 nm using a Biotek Lx800 microplate reader.

3. Statistical Analysis The statistical analysis had been performed using a one-way ANOVA and t-test. The results were calculated as means ± S.D. to indicate the experimental variations. The difference is considered significant when *P-value ≤ 0.05.

4. Results The antimicrobial activity of shilajit extract against the microorganisms considered in the present study was assessed by evaluating the presence of inhibition zones, as shown in Table 1. The crude extract showed significant antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus NCIMB 6571 at a concentration of 200 µg disc-1 and gave inhibition zones of 13±0.3 mm diameter, and antifungal activity against Candida albicans NCPF 3255 at concentrations of 200, 100, 50, and 25 µg disc-1 and gave inhibition zones of 29±0.3, 18±0.3, 15±0.3 and 12±0.3 mm diameter, respectively. There was negative antimicrobial inhibition detection at a concentration below 25 µg disc-1, and null activity of shilajit extract against all the other microbes at the specified concentrations used in the current study. The results obtained from amoxicillin and nystatin exhibited resistance to all selected microbial strains representing inhibition zones ranging from 10 to 22 µg disc-1. As the extract was diluted, its antifungal activity level decreased markedly. It is feasible; therefore that elevation of

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the antifungal property may be detected if the separated pure bioactive constituents of the extract were assessed [14]. The antifungal property of the herbo-medicinal extracts is mostly associated with their chemical compound structure and functional groups. Synergistic interactions between the molecular compositions of the herbo-medicinal extract could plausibly affect the antimicrobial activity [15].

The assessment of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) task relies on the incidence that the lower the MIC value, the more efficient the herbo-medicinal extract as a potential disease remedy. Many studies speculated the prospected that diminished toxicity and side effects would be the results output of the low doses of herbo-medicinal extract needed to acquire a therapeutic response [16]. Table 2 summarizes the results of the antimicrobial activity of shilajit as MIC and MFC using the broth micro-dilution method. Results showed inhibitory antibacterial effects ˃50 mg mL-1 and a fungicidal effect was the plant extract (MIC: 12.5 mg mL-1 and MFC:50 mg mL-1) was found on C. Albicans and null activity against all the other microbes. The inhibitory action of the extract on C. ssssssss growth could be attributed to the presence of active compounds such as fulvic, gallic, and ferulic acids.

Table 1 Antimicrobial activities of shilajit crude extract, nystatin, and amoxicillin standards against microbial isolates mean ± SD of measured inhibition zone (mm) in experimental groups (n = 2 in each group).

Microbial Isolate

Mean Diameter of Inhibition Zone of inhibition (mm) ± SEM* 200 µg disc-1

100 µg disc-1

50 µg disc-1

25 µg disc-1

12.5 µg disc-1

Nystatin

Amoxicillin

10 µg disc-1

10 µg disc-1

Staphylococcus aureus NCIMB 6571 13± 0.3 22 ± 0.2 Pseudomonas aeruginosa NCIMB 6750 10 ± 0.3 Escherichia coli NCIMB 10214 12 ± 0.3 Aspergillus niger IMI 51433 15 ± 0.3 Candida albicans NCPF 3255 29 ± 0.3 18 ± 0.3 15 ± 0.3 12 ± 0.3 22 ± 0.2 *SEM, standard error of the mean. Mean ± SEM in each column with no common superscript differ significantly (*P ≤ 0.05). (-): not detected activity at this amount of shilajit or standards.

Table 2 Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the shilajit extract, nystatin, and amoxicillin against microbial isolates.

Shilajit (mg mL-1 ) MIC MFC Staphylococcus aureus NCIMB 6571 50.0 Pseudomonas aeruginosa NCIMB 6750 Escherichia coli NCIMB 10214 Aspergillus niger IMI 51433 Candida albicans NCPF 3255 12.5 25 Mean ± standard error of the mean with no common superscript differ significantly (*P ≤ 0.05) (-): not detected activity at this amount of shilajit or standards.

Microbial Isolate

The liquid chromatography-high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LCHRESIMS) analysis of shilajit crude extract revealed the presence of 17 bioactive compounds explicated with their calculated mass spectrum m/z, retention time, and frequencies as shown in

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Table 3. This technology allocated the recognition of distinct classes comprising phenolic acids, organic acids, alkaloids, tri-terpenoids, and flavonoids. Figure 1 showed the chromatogram of the shilajit with major peaks at the retention times (min.) of 0.99, 1.36, 4.97, 5.21, 11.6, 16.59, and 31.25 of fulvic acid, gallic acid, ferulic acid, naphsilajitone, fraxin, 3,8-dihydroxydibenzo-α-pyrone, and pregnane, respectively (Table 3). The utilization of the shilajit extract in traditional medicine was consistent with the results of the antifungal properties of several crude extracts. A wide-range spectrum of antibiotics can be obtained from the roots and shoot parts of plants. Bauer and Tittel [17] and Springfield, Eagles [18] indicated in their studies that chemical characterization is best achieved throughout HPLC spectrum analysis technology. Therefore, the plant extract’s bioactive constituents that can act as antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant in the current experiment were identified using LC/MS fingerprint. Phenolic acids exhibited various pharmacological properties such as ferulic acid with an antibacterial [19], antifungal [20] and antiinflammatory properties [21]; gallic acid has anti-inflammatory [22], caffeic acid showed antibacterial, antifungal [19] and anti-inflammatory [21].

Figure 1: The liquid chromatography-high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LCHRESIMS) chromatogram of bioactive compounds in shilajit.

The

MTT

[3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium

bromide]

assay

was

conducted to evaluate cell proliferation of shilajit crude extract on cell lines of Hep G2, MCF-7 and T-47D, A549. As shown in Figure 2, significant (*P<0.05) percent inhibition (IC50: 19 µg mL-1) of the investigated test extract is revealed by the applied cell line Hep G2. The shilajit extract showed an increased though non-significant (P>0.05) proliferation inhibition percentages for MCF-7 and T47D cell lines for all the administered concentrations in the present study.

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Table 3 The liquid chromatography-high resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LCHRESIMS) analysis of shilajit extract.

Accurate Mass 639.1190 171.0290 181.0497 195.0650 201.0544 249.1696 193.1224 371.0996 229.0497 213.0545 311.0552 311.1268 309.0759 179.1430 231.0769 237.1858 289.2892

Molecular Tentative Identification ** Formula * 0.99 C27H26O18 Fulvic acid 1.36 C7H6O5 Gallic acid 1.82 C9H8O4 Caffeic acid 4.97 C10H10O4 Ferulic acid 5.21 C12H8O3 Naphsilajitone 7.16 C12H24O5 Shilajityl acetate 7.85 C12H16O2 Shilacatechol 11.60 C16H18O10 Fraxin coumarin 16.58 C13H8O4 3,8-dihydroxydibenzo-α-pyrone 16.61 C13H8O3 3-hydroxydibenzo-α-pyrone 18.04 C17H10O6 Shilaxanthone 19.34 C19H18O4 6-methoxy-2-[2-(3-methoxyphenyl)ethyl]chromone 21.08 C18H12O5 Shilanthralin 21.99 C12H18O Shilajitol 23.28 C17H10O No natural hits 31.09 C15H24O2 Geranyl tiglate 31.25 C21H36 Pregnane * Based on the quasimolecular ion [M+H]+ ** Based on Dictionary of Natural Products Database ver. 23.1 and Reaxys online database.

Ret. (min.)

60 50 IC50 (µg mL-1)

Shilajit 40 Tamoxifen 30 *

20 10 0 T-47D

MCF-7 Cell Line

Hep G2

Figure 2: The effects of shilajit extract on the proliferation of MCF-7, T-47D, and Hep-G2 cell lines. Cells were incubated with increasing concentrations of tested extract in a culture medium, and the proliferative response was then assessed by MTT assay. Data presented are the mean of three independent experiments (*P>0.05).

5. Discussion The LC-HRESIMS analysis of shilajit extract revealed the presence of 17 bioactive compounds, including fulvic acid, gallic acid, ferulic acid, naphsilajitone, fraxin, 3,8dihydroxydibenzo-α-pyrone, and pregnane. Previous researches have demonstrated that the shilajit extracts therapeutic effect against diseases was correlated to their bioactive phytochemical constituents [23-26]. Herbal extracts constitute various bioactive compounds, and it is crucial to perceive their mechanism of action on diverse targets for cure and disease remedy. Researchers have studied the chemical structure and

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biological properties of many of these bioactive compounds. Shilajit is considered a distinct phytocomplex because it contains various significant bioactive compounds such as aromatic carboxylic acids, phenolic lipid, latex, sterols, gums, albumins, ellagic acid, 3,4-benzocumarins, triterpenes, amino acids, fulvic acid, some fatty acids, resins and polyphenols [27]. The technology of HPLC has attributed to the immense pharmacological activities of phenolic acids such as ferulic acid with anti-inflammatory [28] and antifungal [29]; gallic acid having anti-inflammatory [22], antibacterial [28]; tannic acid with astringent and antioxidant property [30, 31] and caffeic acid with anti-inflammatory properties [28]. Many biological and medicinal properties were attributed to fulvic acid, the main organic constituent of shilajit extract [32, 33]. Fulvic acid is efficient in the cure of diseases such as stomach ulcers, gastritis, diabetes mellitus, diarrhea, colitis and dysentery [1, 33] and induction of immunity role in lymphocytes and neutrophils [34, 35].

Efficient In vitro antimicrobial activities against phytopathogenic fungi have been observed with various medicinal plant extracts [36]. The results of the current study showed that the crude extract of shilajit had an antimicrobial effect on the tested Staphylococcus aureus NCIMB 6571 (˃50 mg mL-1) and Candida albicans NCPF 3255 (MIC: ˃12.5 mg mL-1 and MFC: ˃50 mg mL-1). A previous study indicated that the MIC of Russian shilajit for Staphylococcus Aureus is 125 µg mL-1, Bacillus Subtilis is 1000 µg mL-1 and for both Escherichia Coli and Candida Albicans 62.5 µg mL-1, while no MIC for both Pseudomonas Aeruginosa within diluted concentrations [37]. Spore inhibitory activity of 95% against Alternaria cajani had been observed with the methanolic extract of shilajit at the concentration of 5000 μg mL-1 [38]. The varying concentration and antimicrobial impact of fulvic acidic attributed to the antimicrobial effects of the studied shilajit sample. A significant inhibition zone of 50 mm was observed in a strain of Candida albicans, among other examined microbes [39]. Most of the literature has confirmed the particularly antifungal activity of shilajit extracts. Rachana [38] has verified the inhibitory properties of shilajit against phytopathogenic fungi. Shakirov [40] has documented the antimicrobial activities of various prevalent pyogenic microbial strains such as coliform bacteria, staphylococci, Proteus, enterococci, and streptococci, as well as Muratova and Shakirov [41] who appointed the utilization of shilajit extract for the cure of suppurative wounds. Van Rensburg, Van Straten [42] reported the correlation of the antimicrobial activities with the shilajit extract constituents, fulvic, and benzoic acids. Variation in herbs and plants regional species and climate change lead to a difference in the discrepancy of its antimicrobial and antiulcer properties.

Therefore, markedly diverse physiological activities of shilajit samples could be attributed to their source regions in the world based on their major organic constituents, as reported by many authors [9, 43]. Broad antimicrobial spectrum had been confirmed with major shilajit component, fulvic acid on various microbial strains of S. mutant P. gingivalis, S. mitis, E. faecalis, A. actinomycetemcomitans, F. nucleatum, and also possesses an anticancer cytotoxic effect in vivo [44].

In the current study, shilajit extract’s cytotoxic activity revealed a significant increase in inhibition percentage for the concentrations of 19 µg mL-1 on cell lines of Hep G2 (hepatocellular carcinoma). Similarly, another study confirmed inhibitory anticancer properties of mineral pitch on

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four cancerous cell lines with concentrations ranging from 25-250 µg mL-1 [45]. The 50% effective concentration (ED50) are 89, 96, 225, and 286 µg mL-1 for A549 (lung cancer), HepG2 (liver cancer), MDA-MB-231 (human breast cancer), and SKOV-3 (ovarian carcinoma), respectively [45]. As indicated previously that the chemical constituents of shilajit extract exist in diverse ratios among different sources, which influenced their physical and chemical properties [10, 43]. Previous research studies reported that commercial shilajit purchased from different sources had varying cytotoxic impacts. Therefore, all traditional shilajit samples substantially demanded cytotoxicity assessment. A previous study revealed that the concentration of 1.6 mg mL-1 was the highest nontoxic level of shilajit conferring to the WST-1 analysis, whereas, a lower concentration of 19 µg mL-1 was obtained in the present experiment. This concentration was the 50% effective inhibitory concentration percentage of cell proliferation/viability compared to the control sample.

6. Conclusion This study provides new scientific information about the commercial extract of shilajit based on its chemical profiling, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic potentials, which were attributed to the various phytochemical constituents present in the crude extract. The further purification process of the shilajit chemical components may have even more potency concerning inhibition of microbes and cytotoxic efficacy and encourage the development of a novel broad-spectrum antimicrobial and cytotoxic herbal formulation in the future.

7. Availability of Data and Materials Data sharing does not apply as all information has been included in this study.

8. Acknowledgment This project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, under grant no. (G-617-247-1439). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with thanks to DSR for technical and financial support.

9. Authors’ Contributions Fawzia Alshubaily: study design, acquisition of data, analysis and interpretation of data , drafting of the manuscript.

Ebtihaj Jambi: study design, analysis and interpretation of data , writing and critical revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

10. Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate Not applicable .

11. Competing Interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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[17] Bauer R, and Tittel G. Quality assessment of herbal preparations as a precondition of pharmacological and clinical studies. Phytomedicine. International journal of phytotherapy and phytopharmacology, 1996;2(3):193-8.

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[19] Ravn H, et al., Caffeic acid esters as in vitro inhibitors of plant pathogenic bacteria and fungi.

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[23] Mutalik S, et al. Effect of Dianex, a herbal formulation on experimentally induced diabetes mellitus.

Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives. 2005;19(5):409-15.

[24] Pillai GKG, et al. Antidiabetic potential of polyherbal formulation DB14201: Preclinical development, safety and efficacy studies. Journal of ethnopharmacology. 2017;197:218-30.

[25] Yadav D, et al. In vitro toxicity and antidiabetic activity of a newly developed polyherbal formulation (MAC-ST/001) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic Wistar rats. Protoplasma. 2013;250(3):741-49.

[26] Yuan H, et al. How can synergism of traditional medicines benefit from network pharmacology?

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[28] Binutu OA, Cordell GA. Gallic acid derivatives from Mezoneuron benthamianum leaves.

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Mehrotra R. Defense mechanism in plants. Plant pathology. Tata-McGrew Hil, New Delhi, 1997:544p.

[30] Khan NS, Ahmad A, and Hadi S. Anti-oxidant, pro-oxidant properties of tannic acid and its binding to DNA. Chemico-Biological Interactions. 2000. 125(3):177-89.

[31]

Windholz, M., et al., The Merck Index. Rahway, NJ: Merck & Co. Inc, 1983. 82:1417-9.

[32] Ghosal, S., et al., Anti‐ulcerogenic activity of fulvic acids and 4′‐methoxy‐6‐carbomethoxybiphenyl isolated from shilajit. Phytotherapy Research, 1988. 2(4):187-91.

[33] Schepetkin, I., A. Khlebnikov, and B.S. Kwon, Medical drugs from humus matter: Focus on mumie.

DDR Drug Development Research. 2002. 57(3):140-59.

[34] Joone, G.K., J. Dekker, and C.E.J. van Rensburg, Investigation of the Immunostimulatory Properties of Oxihumate. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NATURFORSCHUNG C. 2003. 58:263-7.

[35] Schepetkin, I.A., et al., Characterization and Biological Activities of Humic Substances from Mumie.

J. Agric. Food Chem. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003. 51(18):5245-54.

[36] Basha, S.A., et al., Effect of Berberine and (+/-)-Bicuculline Isolated from Corydalis chaerophylla on Spore Germination of Some Fungi. FOLIA MICROBIOLOGICA -PRAGUE-. 2002. 47:161-6.

[37] Kotb-El-Sayed, M.k., H. Amin, and A. Al-kaf, Anti-Microbial, anti-oxidant and anti-ulcerogenic effects of Shilajit on gastric ulcer in rats. Am. J of Biochem Biotech. 2011. 8(1):26-39.

[38] Rachana, S., Antifungal activity screening and HPLC analysis of crude extract from Tectona grandis, Shilajit, Valeriana wallachi. Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry.

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2009;8(4):218-29.

[39] Hayat, A., Antimicrobial Activity of Shilajit. RADS Journal of Biological Research & Applied Sciences. 2013;4(2):10-2.

[40] Shakirov, D., Experimental treatment of infected wounds with mumie asil'. Eksperimental'naia khirurgiia i anesteziologiia, 1969;14(6):36-9.

[41] Muratova, K. and D. Shakirov, Clinical treatment of suppurative wounds with Mumie. Khirurgiia, 1968;44(9):122-4.

[42] Van Rensburg C, Van Straten A, and Dekker J. An in vitro investigation of the antimicrobial activity of oxifulvic acid. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2000; 46(5):853-4.

[43]

Galimov E, et al., Geochemistry of mummiyo. Geochemistry. 1986;1494-505.

[44] Leighann S, et al. Investigating the biological properties of carbohydrate derived fulvic acid (CHD-FA) as a potential novel therapy for the management of oral biofilm infections. BMC Oral Health.

2013;13(1):47.

[45] Phaechamud T, et al. Some Biological Activities and Safety of Mineral Pitch. Science, Engineering and Health Studies. Silpakorn University Science and Technology Journal. 2008;2(2):7-17.

Dr.Fawzia A. Alshubaily is an Associate Professor of Protein Structural Bioinformatics, Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

Dr.Ebtihaj J. Jambi is an Associate Professor of Pharmacy and Biotechnology (Fermentation Technology), Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. She is interested in the Bioprocessing Engineering

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Microorganisms Cultures Screening with High Proteolytic Properties and Capable Fix Atmospheric Nitrogen to Speed up the Poultry Manure Biodegradation Albina Luneva1*, Andrey Koshchaev2, Yury Lysenko2, Anna Gneush2, Azamat Shantyz2 , Nadezhda Machneva2 Department of Parasitology, Veterinary Sanitary Expertise and Animal Hygiene, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, RUSSIA. 2 Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, RUSSIA. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +7-918-8834561, Email: yuraduban45@mail.ru).

1

Paper ID: 13A5O

Abstract

In this work, we studied screening strains of microorganisms that exhibit high proteolytic properties and can fix atmospheric nitrogen to Received 20 December 2021 Received in revised form 15 speed up the process of biodegradation of bird droppings. There had been April 2022 established that the Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar A (171) strain exhibits the Accepted 22 April 2022 highest enzymatic ability. Its addition to chicken manure contributed to an Available online 29 April increase in the microflora titer from 104 CFU/ml to 1011 CFU/ml after 152022 20days. The study of strains capable of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen Keywords: showed the best property of the culture Azotobacterchroococcum 31/8R. Microorganism Treatment of bird droppings with the studied strain reduced the level of screening; Azotobacter; ammonia in the environment from 93mg/m3 to 14mg/m3. In the structure of Pseudomonas; chicken manure; biodegradation; the total DNA of this strain, it identified genes encoding all the enzymes responsible for the process of nitrogen fixation. The combined use of proteolytic activity; nitrogen-fixing capacity; selected cultures of microorganisms can be the basis for the development of ammonium nitrogen. a biological product that speeds up the process of natural decomposition of bird droppings.

Volume 13 Issue 5

Disciplinary: Veterinary, Sustainability. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Luneva, A., Koshchaev, A., Lysenko, Y., Gneush, A., Shantyz, A. and Machneva N. (2022). Microorganisms Cultures Screening with High Proteolytic Properties and Capable Fix Atmospheric Nitrogen to Speed up the Poultry Manure Biodegradation. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5O, 1-11. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.99

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1 Introduction Industrial poultry farming is the most important branch of agriculture, both in the Russian Federation and in the world. In recent years, this industry has been actively developing and innovative technologies are being introduced into its structure that increases the profitability of production (Neverova et al., 2021; Rozhkova and Stepanova, 2021). This is all because of the high level of consumption of poultry products, which shows the prospects of this industry in the coming years (Micciche et al., 2019; Mir et al., 2017; Shepon et al., 2016).

Today, in the poultry industry, there are problems associated with the processing and use of poultry manure because of the long period of natural biodegradation. The problem of the disposal of bird droppings is relevant since it used a significant amount of arable land for its storage. These storages are a source of a fetid odor that spreads over extensive areas. In 2002, the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation approved the "Federal Classification Catalog of Waste", which included chicken manure with its assignment to the third and fourth hazard classes.

It introduced penalties for the disposal of third-class waste (in particular, bird droppings), which led to significant financial costs (Bamire and Amujoyegbe, 2021; Logan et al., 2021; Muhammad et al., 2020; Subedi and Dhakal, 2018; Tian et al., 2021).

A promising direction for the use of bird droppings is its processing for further use as an organic fertilizer (Ulimbashev et al., 2019; Luneva et al., 2022).

Thus, the purpose of the research is the selection of strains of microorganisms for effective biodegradation of chicken manure.

2 Materials And Methods The research was at the Scientific and Testing Center for Toxic and Pharmacological Research and Development of Veterinary Medicines, Feed Additives and Disinfectants (Research Center for Veterinary Farmbiocenter). Part of the work was in the laboratories of the Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin.

For microorganisms screening, there had studied strains with the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen (representatives of the genus Azotobacter) and strains synthesizing proteolytic enzymes (producing complex proteases - three strains, alkaline proteases - two strains, neutral proteases three strains). There had also studied two strains of aromatic compounds destructor (Anokhina et al., 2019). (Table 1).

There had selected cultures based on previous experience, their thermotolerance and purpose. Each of the involved groups of microorganisms solves a specific problem: - the destruction of complex substances to easily accessible substrates; - decomposition of organic matter with the release of ammonium nitrogen for its subsequent conversion into a form available to plants; - suppression of the development of pathogenic microflora, conservation of nutrients in the resulting compost, etc.

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Table 1: Natural and collection strains of microorganisms used in research work Scope of the strain/synthesized product

Atmospheric Nitrogen Fixer

Strain Source All-Russian Collection of Industrial Microorganisms (RCIM) Azotobacterchroococcum 31/8 R Azotobacterchroococcum B-8739

Collection KubanSAU

Azotobacterchroococcum B 35

Aromatic Destructor

Pseudomonasputida ATCC 12633

Protease neutral

−

Protease alkaline

−

Proteolytic Enzymes

−

Azotobacter vinelandii B-932

Natural Azotobacter sp._21 Azotobacter sp._25 Azotobacter sp._26 Azotobacter sp._28 Azotobacter sp._G1 Azotobacter sp._G2

Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar А (171) Bacillusmegaterium BM-11 Bacillussubtilis 203 Bacillussubtilis 103 Bacillus subtilis 310 Bacillussubtilis «Research Institute of Genetics 90» Bacilluslicheniformis L-34 Bacillusmesentericus B-2466 Bacillussubtilis «Research Institute of Genetics-45»

− − −

−

When selecting a strain with the best litter biodegradation properties, the study of proteolytic activity was according to GOST 20264.2-88. In the experiments, the total microbial number was determined and analyzed by seeding on meat-peptone agar (CFU/ml) and the content of ammonium nitrogen.

For choosing the best microbial nitrogen fixer from the genus Azotobacter, there had studied the content of ammonia nitrogen in the atmospheric air over experimental batches of litter, using a universal gas analyzer UG-2.

In studies of bird droppings, the number of viable fly larvae was determined according to Guidelines 3.5.2.1759-03 and helminthological contamination of bird droppings according to Guidelines 4.2.796-99. The results of sanitary and biological studies of the litter were according to GOST 31461-2012. The calculation of the hazard class of by-products of poultry farming was according to Sanitary rules 2.1.7.1386-03 and «Criteria for attributing waste to I-V hazard classes according to the negative impact on the environment».

Confirmation of the species belonging to the selected microbial cultures was carried out by conventional molecular genetic methods (method of 16S rRNA sequence sequencing).

3 Result and Discussion Selection of cultures with enzymatic activity The first stage of research was assessing the proteolytic activity of the selected strains of microorganisms. The research results are in Table 2.

The results of the study of enzymatic activity showed that all strains have proteolytic properties since they produced proteases to one degree or another. Of the strains that demonstrated high proteolytic activity, Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar A (171), Pseudomonasputida ATCC 12633, Bacilluslicheniformis L-34 and Bacillusmesentericus B-2466 should be distinguished.

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However, the Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar A (171) strain demonstrated the highest proteolytic activity, which amounted to 74.6 U/g.

Table 2: Proteolytic activity of experimental strains Producer strain Pseudomonasputida ATCC 12633 Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar А (171) Bacillusmegaterium BM-11 Bacillussubtilis 203 Bacillussubtilis 103 Bacillus subtilis 310 Bacillussubtilis «Research Institute of Genetics 90» Bacilluslicheniformis L-34 Bacillusmesentericus B-2466 Bacillussubtilis «Research Institute of Genetics -45»

Proteolytic activity, units/g 58.2±2.2 74.6±3.1 20.2±0.8 39.4±1.7 45.7±1.9 49.3±1.9 40.4±1.6 61.7±2.8 55.2±2.3 43.3±2.1

The study of the molecular genetic properties of the strains was also carried out by the polymerase chain reaction method for the presence of genes encoding proteases of various groups.

Express analysis determined the presence of genes similar to the sequences of seven important groups of proteolytic enzymes (serine, aspartate, threonine, glutamine, cysteine, metalloproteases and asparagine) using specific primers.

The conducted studies revealed positive signals for all analyzed cultures of microorganisms, but to varying degrees: - Pseudomonasputida ATCC 12633 − serine-, aspartate-, glutamine-, cysteine- and metalloprotease-like genes; - Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar А (171) − serine-, aspartate-, threonine-, glutamine-, cysteine-, metalloprotease- and asparagine-like genes; - Bacillusmegaterium BM-11 − threonine- and cysteine-like genes; - Bacillussubtilis 203 − serine-, aspartate-, and glutamine-like genes; - Bacillussubtilis 103 − serine-, aspartate-, and glutamine-like genes; - Bacillussubtilis 310 − serine-, aspartate-, glutamine- and cysteine-like genes; - Bacillussubtilis «Research Institute of Genetics 90» − serine-, glutamine- and cysteine-like genes; - Bacilluslicheniformis L-34 − serine-, aspartate-, threonine-, glutamine-, cysteine-, and asparagine-like genes; - Bacillusmesentericus B-2466 − serine-, aspartate-, threonine-, glutamine- and cysteine-like genes; - Bacillussubtilis «Research Institute of Genetics-45» − serine-, aspartate-, glutamine- and cysteine-like genes.

These results show a greater preference for using Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar A (171) as a decomposer strain. Because there had been discovered seven different genes encoding proteases in the structure of its total DNA.

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The obtained results indicate a greater preference for using Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar A (171) as a decomposer strain since the genes encoding proteases of seven different groups were identified in the structure of its total DNA. The effect of cultures of the studied microorganisms on the biodegradation of chicken manure without litter had been studied for 30 days. Every five days, as analyzed indicators, had been recording the total microbial number (TMC) and the content of ammonium nitrogen. There had used an active microbial culture of the studied strains with a cell titer of at least 109CFU/ml for this research. The dose of introducing strains-producers for screening was 10.0% by weight of the by-product. It presented the dependence of the bioconversion of chicken manure on the processing time and the culture of the microorganism used in Table 3.

Table 3: Dependence of chicken manure bioconversion on treatment time and microorganism culture 0 Producer strain TMC, cells/g

Pseudomonas putida ATCC 12633 Pseudomonas putida 90 biovar А (171) Bacillus megaterium BM-11 Bacillus subtilis 203 Bacillussubtilis 103 Bacillus subtilis 310 Bacillussubtilis Research Institute of Genetics 90 Bacillus licheniformis L-34 Bacillus mesentericus B-2466 Bacillussubtilis Research Institute of Genetics-45 Litter without processing

5

10

Research time, days 15 Analyzed indicator

20

25

30

Ammon.

Ammon.

Ammon.

Ammon.

Ammon.

Ammon.

Ammon.

TMC, TMC, TMC, TMC, TMC, TMC, nitrogen, nitrogen, nitrogen, nitrogen, nitrogen, nitrogen, nitrogen, cells/g cells/g cells/g cells/g cells/g cells/g mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l

104

340

105

302

106

264

109

174

109

169

109

170

108

172

104

340

106

281

108

228

1011

132

1011

130

1011

134

1010

129

104

340

104

334

104

323

105

307

105

303

105

304

105

301

104

340

104

321

104

304

105

304

105

296

105

289

105

294

104

340

104

326

104

305

105

305

105

304

105

298

105

302

104

340

104

317

105

297

106

288

106

283

106

290

106

289

104

340

104

330

104

320

105

320

105

314

105

310

105

312

104

340

105

311

106

295

106

295

107

273

106

261

105

254

104

340

104

319

105

298

106

298

107

276

106

271

106

268

104

340

104

326

105

312

105

312

105

305

105

301

105

297

104

340

104

341

104

339

104

338

104

341

104

338

104

335

It achieved the highest number of microbial cells in bird droppings using the microbial culture Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar A (171). At the beginning of the study, the microbial count was 104 CFU/ml. By the 15th day, the microbial count was 1011 CFU/ml, and then the microflora titer

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stopped increasing in all cases. Most likely, this is because of the termination of the action of the enzyme complex of proteolytic microorganisms.

Analyzing the content of ammonium nitrogen in chicken manure, the maximum decrease in the studied indicator was on 15-20th day from the start of treatment. This data correlates with the dynamics of an increase in the total number of microorganisms. The lowest level of ammonium nitrogen had discovered by treatment of its microbial culture Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar A (171).

This indicator decreased from 340 mg/l from the beginning of treatment to 132 and 130 mg/l at the end of the experiment.

The analyzed indicators of chicken manure untreated with microbial culture did not change significantly during the experiment.

3.1 Selection of Crops with Nitrogen-fixing Ability Microorganisms of the genus Azotobacter are often used to increase soil fertility, biological remediation of soils, and enrich it with nitrogen compounds. However, in the presence of ammonia, the process of nitrogen fixation stops and the microbial culture of the genus Azotobacter uses free ammonia, which gives a high deodorizing effect (Aasfar et al., 2021; Din et al., 2019; Hindersah et al., 2018, 2021; Nosrati et al., 2014; Sumbul et al., 2020).

At the next stage of research, it screened bacteria of the genus Azotobacter of collection and natural strains. There was analysis of the content of ammonia nitrogen in the environment over experimental batches of chicken manure treated with experimental cultures (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Introduction of microbial culture of the genus Azotobacter into chicken manure and analysis of ammonia nitrogen using a gas analyzer UG-2

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For analyzing ammonia nitrogen in the environment, had used a universal gas analyzer UG2. Gas analyzer UG-2 measures mass concentrations of harmful substances in the air, including industrial emissions. The device comprises an air intake device and a set of indicator tubes. The principle of operation of the gas analyzer UG-2 is based on the change in color of the indicator powder layer in the indicator tube after passing the test air through it. The length of the colored column of indicator powder in the tube is proportional to it measured by the mass concentration of the harmful substance in the air and on a graduated scale in mg/m3. The research results are in Table 4.

Table 4: Dependence of the content of ammonia nitrogen in the environment at the time of treatment for chicken manure and the microbial culture.

Microbial culture Azotobacter chroococcum B 35 Azotobacter chroococcum B8739 Azotobacter chroococcum 31/8 R Azotobacter vinelandii B-932 Azotobacter sp._21 Azotobacter sp._25 Azotobacter sp._26 Azotobacter sp._28 Azotobacter sp._G1 Azotobacter sp._G2 Litter without processing

Research time, days 15 20 Analyzed indicator Ammonia nitrogen, mg/m3

0

5

10

25

30

93

74

65

57

55

52

50

93

80

71

66

62

59

60

93

63

38

14

12

12

11

93 93 93 93 93 93 93 93

82 90 92 86 90 86 88 93

75 91 90 89 93 85 87 93

68 90 87 88 91 87 86 92

65 87 85 85 87 90 86 91

66 83 82 84 86 83 85 92

63 84 82 83 85 83 85 90

On the first day of the experiment, the gas content over fresh chicken manure was 93mg/m3, which is above the limit of permissible concentration (LPC 20mg/m3). During the experiments, it had revealed that the isolated natural strains of the genus Azotobacter had an insignificant effect on the content of ammonia nitrogen in the environment over the experimental batches of chicken manure. Only one strain, Azotobacterchroococcum 31/8 R, demonstrated the best fixing ability of atmospheric nitrogen. There had found that on the 15th day of the experiment, the ammonia level over chicken manure treated with Azotobacterchroococcum 31/8 R decreased to 14mg/m3, which is below the LPC level. On the 20th, 25th and 30th day of the study, the content of ammonia nitrogen in this group changed slightly. There were no changes in the rest of the remaining study options.

However, in none of the experimental batches, the content of ammonia nitrogen was lower than the LPC value. For selecting the most suitable strain, it studied genes encoding a complex of enzymes involved in the process of nitrogen fixation. Using express analysis detected DNA of genes similar to the sequences of important enzymes - ferredoxins, hydrogenases and the nitrogenase complex (Mo-Fe-nitrogenase, V-nitrogenase and Fe-nitrogenase).

The conducted studies revealed positive signals for all analyzed cultures of microorganisms, but to varying degrees:

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- Azotobacterchroococcum B 35 - ferredoxin-, hydrogenase-, and Mo-Fe-nitrogenase-like genes; -

B-8739

Azotobacterchroococcum

and

Azotobactervinelandii

B-932

-

ferredoxin-,

hydrogenase- and Fe-nitrogenase-like genes; - Azotobacterchroococcum 31/8 R - ferredoxin-, hydrogenase-, Mo-Fe-nitrogenase-, Vnitrogenase- and Fe-nitrogenase-like genes; - Azotobacter sp._21, Azotobacter sp._25, Azotobacter sp._26, Azotobacter sp._28, Azotobacter sp._G1 and Azotobacter sp._G2 -Fe- nitrogenase-like genes.

These results showed that the most promising strains are the nitrogen-fixing culture Azotobacterchroococcum 31/8R. In the structure of total DNA, it identified genes encoding all the studied enzymes responsible for the process of nitrogen fixation.

Molecular genetic identification of selected microbial cultures For

confirmation

of

the

species

affiliation

of

the

selected

microbial

cultures

(Pseudomonasputida, Azotobacterchroococcum), conventional molecular genetic methods identified them. The DNA of bacterial strains was isolated by freezing.

PCR was performed using the standard primers 27f and 1495r for identifying the 16S rRNA gene (Table 5).

Table 5: Primers used in the work Name 27f 1495r

Subsequence 5´-GAGAGTTTGATCCTGGCTCAG-3´ 5´-CTACGGCTACCTTGTTACGA-3´

DNA amplification was performed using a Bio-RadT100 apparatus (Bio-Rad, USA).

After PCR, there had checked TAE-agarose the amplification results of the fragments.

Further, these fragments had isolated from the gel and purified using the ColGen kit from Synthol.

The sequencing of the isolated PCR fragments, according to Sanger, was on an ABI Prism 3130 sequencer. The volume of the mixture was 6ml with a concentration of 50ng/ml. Here, sequencing was using forward and reverse primers to bring the two sequences together later.

The resulting DNA sequences were compared using the NCBIBLAST service, after reflecting the reverse sequences using the web version of the Reverse-Complement tool. Both sequences after that were connected. Next, the online program aligned with each other the samples Clustal Omega (Figure 2).

Figure 2 shows the sequenced of the 16S rRNA gene of the Azotobacterchroococcum strain and Pseudomonasputida strain. As expected, there had revealed differences in the structure of these sequences between the species.

After comparison with each other, the DNA sequences of the presented strains were deposited with the US National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) under the numbers

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Azotobacterchroococcum KA (MZ411408.1) and Pseudomonasputida AA (MZ411409.1).

Figure 2: Alignment of DNA sequences of 16S rRNA genes of the studied strains Thus, the conducted modern molecular genetic analysis confirmed the species affiliation of the selected strains.

4 Conclusion The conducted studies have shown that the culture of Pseudomonasputida 90 biovar A (171) has a high proteolytic ability. Introducing this strain into chicken manure leads to its biodegradation. This is indicated by a decrease in ammonium nitrogen and an increase in the total microbial number, which speed up the decomposition process of poultry waste. It was also found that the best ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen is the Azotobacterchroococcum 31/8 R strain since its use helped to reduce the level of ammonia produced by chicken manure in the environment.

Thus, the combined use of selected cultures of microorganisms can be the basis for the development of a biological product that speeds up the process of natural decomposition of bird droppings.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6 Acknowledgement The research was carried out with the financial support of the Kuban Science Foundation and the Organization in the framework of the scientific project No. MFI-P-20.1/4.

7 References Aasfar A, Bargaz A, Yaakoubi K, Hilali A, Bennis I, Zeroual Y, Meftah Kadmiri I, 2021. Nitrogen Fixing Azotobacter Species as Potential Soil Biological Enhancers for Crop Nutrition and Yield Stability.

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Frontiers in Microbiology. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.628379 Anokhina T, Esikova T, Polivtseva V, Iminova L, Solyanikova I, 2019. Rhizospheric Bacteria, Destructors of Toxic Aromatic Compounds. Advances in Biological Sciences Research 7: 11-15. DOI: 10.2991/isils19.2019.3 Bamire AS, Amujoyegbe J, 2003. Economics of poultry manure utilization in land quality improvement among integrated poultry-maize-farmers in South western Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Animal Production 30(1): 93-100. DOI: 10.51791/njap.v30i1.1831 Criteria for attributing waste to I-V hazard classes according to the degree of negative impact on the environment, 2016. Moscow, Russia. https://docs.cntd.ru/document/420240163 Din M, Nelofer R, Salman M, Abdullah, Khan FH, Khan A, Ahmad M, Jalil F, Ud Din J, Khan M, 2019.

Production of nitrogen fixing Azotobacter (SR-4) and phosphorus solubilizing Aspergillus niger and their evaluation on Lagenaria siceraria and Abelmoschus esculentus. Biotechnology Reports 22. DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2019.e00323 GOST 20264.2-88, 1989. Enzyme preparations. Methods for determination of proteolytic activity, Moscow, Russia, 11 p. https://docs.cntd.ru/document/1200023426 GOST 31461-2012, 2012. Poultry dung. Raw material for manufacture of organic fertilizers. Specifications, Moscow, Russia, 68 p. https://docs.cntd.ru/document/1200096492 Guidelines 3.5.2.1759-03, 2004. Methods for determining the effectiveness of insecticides, acaricides, growth regulators and repellents used in medical pest control, Moscow, Russia, 64 p. https://docs.cntd.ru/document/1200036862 Guidelines 4.2.2661-10, 2010. Methods of sanitary-parasitological research. Methodical instructions, Moscow, Russia, 68 p. https://meganorm.ru/Data2/1/4293776/4293776901.htm Hindersah R, Handyman Z, Indriani FN, Suryatmana P, Nurlaeny N, 2018. Azotobacter population, soil nitrogen and groundnut growth in mercury-contaminated tailing inoculated with Azotobacter. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management 5(53): 1269-1274. DOI: 10.15243/jdmlm.2018.053.1269 Hindersah R, Kamaluddin NN, Samanta S, Banerjee S, Sarkar S, 2020. Role and perspective of Azotobacter in crops production. Sains Tanah Journal of Soil Science and Agroclimatology 17(2): 170-179. DOI: 10.20961/STJSSA.V17I2.45130 Logan LAP, Latty T, Roberts TH, 2021. Effective bioconversion of farmed chicken products by black soldier fly larvae at commercially relevant growth temperatures. Journal of Applied Entomology 145: 621-628. DOI: 10.1111/jen.12878 Luneva A, Lysenko Y, Gneush A, Lysenko A, Machneva N, and Aniskina M, 2022. Bird Droppings Biodegradation and Its Use as Fertilizer for Tomato Cultivation. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies 13(5), 13A5L, 1-10. DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.96 Micciche A, Rothrock MJ, Yang Y, Ricke SC, 2019. Essential oils as an intervention strategy to reduce Campylobacter in poultry production: A review. Frontiers in Microbiology 10: 1058. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01058 Mir NA, Rafiq A, Kumar F, Singh V, Shukla V, 2017. Determinants of broiler chicken meat quality and factors affecting them: a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology 54(10): 2997-3009. DOI: 10.1007/s13197-017-2789-z Muhammad J, Khan S, Su JQ, Hesham AEL, Ditta A, Nawab J, Ali A, 2020. Antibiotics in poultry manure and their associated health issues: a systematic review. Journal of Soils and Sediments 20(1): 486-497. DOI: 10.1007/s11368-019-02360-0 Neverova O, Gorelik O, Lopaeva N, 2021. Topical issues of raising breeding roosters of the Hisex Brown cross.

Agrarian Bulletin of The, 14. DOI: 10.32417/1997-4868-2021-14-49-55 Nosrati R, Owlia P, Saderi H, Rasooli I, Malboobi MA, 2014. Phosphate solubilization characteristics of efficient nitrogen fixing soil Azotobacter strains. Iranian Journal of Microbiology, 6(4): 285-95.

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Rozhkova A and Stepanova E, 2021. Improving the Competitiveness of Poultry Farms in the Krasnoyarsk Region of Russia. In E3S Web of Conferences Vol. 247. DOI: 10.1051/e3sconf/202124701026 Sanitary rules 2.1.7.1386-03, 2010. Sanitary rules for determining the hazard class of toxic production and consumption wastes, Moscow, Russia, 5 p. https://base.garant.ru/4179350/ Shepon A, Eshel G, Noor E, Milo R, 2016. Energy and protein feed-to-food conversion efficiencies in the US and potential food security gains from dietary changes. Environmental Research Letters 11(10): 105002. DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/11/10/105002 Subedi S and Dhakal D, 2015. Economics of poultry manure as an alternative to chemical fertilizer for agricultural production in Nepal. Journal of the Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science 33-34: 259-268. DOI: 10.3126/jiaas.v33i0.20713 Sumbul A, Ansari RA, Rizvi R, Mahmood I, 2020. Azotobacter: A potential bio-fertilizer for soil and plant health management. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 27(12): 3634-3640. DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.08.004 Tian M, He X, Feng Y, Wang W, Chen H, Gong M, Liu D, Clarke JL, Van Eerde A, 2021. Pollution by antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in live stock and poultry manure in china, and countermeasures. Antibiotics 10(5): 539. DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10050539 Ulimbashev MB, Temmoev MI, Konik NV, Koshchaev AG, Luneva AV, Neverova OP, Saleeva IP, 2019. A new method of biological disposal of poultry droppings. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology 9(1): 4953-4956. DOI: 10.35940/ijeat.A2107.109119 Dr.Albina Luneva, a Candidate of Biological Sciences, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Parasitology, Veterinary Sanitary Expertise and Animal Hygiene, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. Her research encompasses Improving Methods for Diagnosing, Treating and Preventing Invasive Diseases and Ways to Increase the Productivity of Domestic and Wild Animals and Birds.

Professor Dr.Andrey Koshchaev, a Doctor of Biological Sciences, is Professor of the Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. His scientific interests are related to the study of Biochemistry and Biotechnology in the Processing of Agricultural Raw Materials.

Professor Dr.Yury Lysenko, Doctor of Biological Sciences, is a Professor of Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. His researches are the development of end-to-end Agro-food Bio-nanotechnologies, getting Functional Eco-products based on Plant, Animal Raw Materials and By-products of Processing in the Conditions of Organic Industrial Development.

Dr.Anna Gneush, a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, is an Associate Professor, Head of Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. Her research includes the Development of end-to-end Agro-food Bio-nanotechnologies, getting Functional Eco-products based on plant, animal raw materials and By-products of Processing in the Conditions of Organic Industrial Development.

Professor Dr.Azamat Shantyz, a Doctor of Veterinary Sciences, is a Professor of the Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. His scientific interests are related to the development of biotechnologies for the production of pharmaceuticals for veterinary medicine.

Dr.Nadezhda Machneva, a Candidate of Biological Sciences, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Biotechnology, Biochemistry and Biophysics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilin, Russia. Her researches are development of End-to-end Agro-food Bio-nanotechnologies, getting Functional Eco-products based on Plant, Animal Raw Materials and ByProducts of Processing in the Conditions of Organic Industrial Development.

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4,©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Some Legal Issues About Fintech in Payment Activities in Vietnam Nguyen Minh Hang1*, Luong Thi Linh Chi2 Faculty of Economic Law, Hanoi Law University, VIETNAM. Faculty of Law, Hanoi Open University, VIETNAM. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +84 904 177 211, Email: nguyenminhhang246@gmail.com).

1 2

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5P Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 22 December 2021 Received in revised form 15 April 2022 Accepted 22 April 2022 Available online 29 April 2022

Keywords:

Financial technology (Fintech); E-payment; Banking payment activity; Ewallet; Antimoney laundering law; Digital transaction; Modern retail payment, Online payment.

The term Financial technology (Fintech) is the combination of finance and technology to create new services and products in the banking sector based on information and telecommunication technology platforms.

The reality in Vietnam shows that in the past few years, Fintech companies have been operating in the provision of digital financial products such as mobile wallets, peer-to-peer transfer, mobile payment, mobile banking, peerto-peer lending, etc. Accordingly, they have been licensed to carry out payment activities and some will provide banks with technological support for modern and efficient payment services. The authors have given two main groups of solutions: Completing regulations on operation conditions of Fintech companies; and Building and developing advanced and modern retail payment infrastructure. Including some basic solutions for the development and operation of Fintech companies in Vietnam.

Disciplinary: Business & Economic Management, Economic Law (Digital Transaction & Law). ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Hang, N. M., Chi, L. T. L. (2022). Some Legal Issues About Fintech in Payment Activities in Vietnam.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5P, 1-15. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.100

1 Introduction In recent years, the use of digital technology has become an inevitable trend and has been the target and destination of financial and banking activities [1, 2]. Accordingly, the cooperation between fintech companies and banks has become more and more important and necessary. In 2020, Fintech Vietnam received many good signals due to connecting with service providers, applying technology, creating many digital transaction platforms and, above all, receiving direct support from the government [3,7,8,22]. Especially, according to the report on Fintech in Asia - the Pacific region of IDC Financial Insights, there are 5 representatives from Vietnam in Fintech Fast

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101 group (Top 101 Fintech firms with the best growth rate in 2020) including Payoo and 4 major ewallets, accounting for 92% of Vietnam's e-wallet market share, namely MoMo, Moca, Tima and ZaloPay [23]. The rapid development of technology and the explosion of these Fintech companies requires the construction and completion of a suitable legal framework for the Fintech system in general and payment activities in particular in Vietnam [4.6,9,10].

2 Literature Review Fintech, standing for financial technology, is a broad term referring to all companies that use information and telecommunication technology to provide financial services [11]. They are penetrating nearly every section of financial services, promoting banking and financial activities, especially in the field of non-cash payments [12,16,17]. With innovative solutions, Fintech companies have provided new and modern payment solutions for customers to replace traditional payment services that require payment accounts at banks [13,14,15]. These payment services can be built based on the mobile phone system or the Internet such as E-money, mobile payment, payment via QR code or Peer to peer payment. The two markets that Fintech companies focus on developing include: (i) Payment for individual customers and retailers; (ii) Payments to businesses and retailers. Retail payment includes mobile wallets, mobile payments, peer-to-peer (P2P) realtime payments, foreign currency and remittances, and digital currency solutions [18].

Vietnam's banking payment activities are mainly handled through: (i) Payment systems organized, managed and operated by the State Bank (Paper/Electronic Clearing System; inter-bank electronic payment system) (ii) Switching and credit card clearing systems; (iii) Securities clearing and settlement systems; and (iv) Internal and Bilateral payment systems organized by banks, managed and operated by some credit institutions. International payment transactions are mainly handled by the International Money Transfer Service via the SWIFT system and the Western Union Money Transfer Service (WU) directly negotiated, signed, and cooperated by domestic credit institutions with international organizations [19,20,21].

With the advantages of technology advancements, Fintech companies have shown rapid growth in the field of payment intermediaries with diverse products and services such as electronic payment gateways, collection and payment support, and especially e-wallets. In addition, the trend of cooperation in providing intermediary payment services has supported commercial banks to expand their customer service range, contributing to promoting commercial payments in Vietnam.

3 Method The descriptive and analytical methodology of this paper is supported by primary and secondary sources of research data: official documentation, books, independent reports, newspapers, and private stakeholders' analysis. Moreover, the field experiences of senior civil servants and eminent professionals have also been taken into consideration to reach conclusions and provide useful information.

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4 Result and Discussion Regarding the legal mechanism, Vietnam currently has not had a legal framework for Fintech companies, although the Government has issued many documents to regulate some contents on Fintech such as Law on Electronic transactions, Law on Cybersecurity, Scheme for payment of non-cash payments in Vietnam during 2016-2020; Scheme for Completing the legal framework for the handling and management of virtual assets, virtual money, electronic money; establishment of a Steering Committee in the field of financial technology. The technological intermediary payment services such as e-wallets, QR codes, and Mobile money, basically have a legal framework to ensure the legitimacy of the payment intermediary service providers, which are specified in documents such as Circular of the State Bank No. 39/2014 (Circular No. 39/2014) guiding payment intermediary services and have been amended and supplemented many times at the Circular No. 39/2014/TT-NHN (Circular of the State Bank 20/2016; Circular of the State Bank 30/2016), Circular of the State Bank 23/2019 has amended and supplemented a number of articles of Circular No. 39/2014 that concretize management and supervision requirements for e-wallet services; it has also mentioned some contents regulating the operation of Fintech companies in Vietnam.

4.1 The Law on Payment Activities of Fintech 4.1.1 Operating Conditions of Fintech Companies in Payment Activities Decree 101/2012 dated 22/11/2012 of the Government on non-cash payment (hereinafter referred to as Decree 101/2012) is the precondition for intermediary payment activities; The amended and supplemented documents only provide a few contents regulating the operation of Ewallets - a popular type of payment intermediary that Fintech companies in Vietnam are providing in operation. Therefore, the legal framework for the model of Fintech companies operating as payment intermediaries is only mentioned much about the conditions, and operating regulations to ensure the safety of e-wallets, specifically: Article 15, Clause 2 of Decree No. 101/2012 stipulates that the conditions for establishing a payment intermediary are “Having an establishment license or business registration issued by a competent state agency, in which providing intermediary payment services is one of the main business activities of the organization”. Legally, this regulation has ensured the legitimacy of the organization that wants to participate in payment service activities.

In addition, Article 15, Clause 2 of Decree No. 101/2012 stipulates personnel conditions: “The legal representative, the General Director of the organization applying for the permit must have professional qualifications or practical experience in business administration of their incharge field. The staff performing intermediary payment services must be professionally qualified for their operation”. This is an unclear condition in terms of management objectives and does not seem to be really in line with the objectives in business conditions specified in Article 7 of the Law on Investment. If this regulation is to ensure the operational efficiency of the enterprise, it is not

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necessary because this is the need of the enterprise itself. In fact, payment intermediary service providers have been operating effectively for many years without a legal representative and/or key personnel to meet the mentioned conditions.

In addition, this document stipulates professional conditions and technical, including technical infrastructure physical foundation, facilities meeting the requirements of the provision of payment intermediary services the State Bank’s regulations; intermediary services to assure safety; a backup technical system independent from the main system to assure the safe and uninterrupted provision of services when the main system breaks down; technical and professional processes in the provision of payment confidentiality and compliance with the law on e-transactions; internal examination and control processes for payment intermediary services in e-transactions. This regulation is quite general, it is difficult to quantify (which facilities are supposed to meet the requirements of the payment intermediary service operation?) This will cause difficulties for businesses in practice and give more powers of presumption to enforcement officers.

In addition, Decree No. 101/2012 stipulates operating conditions for e-wallets: “E-wallet is a service that provides customers with an identified electronic account on information carriers (such as computers, mobile phone sims, electronic chips...) created by a payment intermediary service providers, enables to store a monetary value secured by money value deposit equivalent to the amount transferred from the customer's payment account at the bank to the secured payment account of the e-wallet service provider at the ratio of 1:1". Thus, an e-wallet is understood as an electronic account identified by the information carrier to store a monetary value that is equivalent to the value of the deposit transferred from the customer's payment account into the secured account of the e-wallet service provider. An E-wallet or digital wallet is simply an electronic account integrated into mobile applications or used via a website as a wallet to help users store money from bank accounts functioning online payment and transactions with electronic websites or internet fees that are linked and allowed payment by e-wallets. These service providers will cooperate with banks to manage users' funds and through this connection, the banks will reduce their management of payment transactions from customer cards because these will be done by ewallet providers.

In addition, Circular No. 39/2014 dated 11/12/2014 of the Government guiding payment intermediary services (hereinafter referred to as Circular 39/2014) stipulates: “The deposit into or withdrawing money from the customer's e-wallet must be done through the customer's payment account at banks" (Clause 3, Article 8). According to the provisions of Circular No. 16/2014 of the State Bank in Vietnam dated August 1, 2014 guiding the use of foreign currency accounts and Vietnam dong accounts at authorized banks of residents and non-residents, there are no regulations regarding the use of foreign currency accounts to deposit into E-Wallets.

In practice, according to current management regulations, an e-wallet service provider may not: (i) issue more than one e-wallet for a customer's payment account at banks; (ii) grant credit to customers using E-Wallets, pay interest on E-Wallet balances, or any actions that may increase the

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currency value on E-Wallets. Organizations providing e-wallet services must-have tools for the State Bank to monitor and check in real-time the total amount of customers' money on e-wallets and the total amount of the secured payment accounts of e-wallet service providers at banks. The deposit into and withdrawal from the customer's E-wallet must be done through the customer's payment account at banks. Thus, Fintech companies providing payment services in the form of ewallets are mostly linked to customers' bank accounts, and customers rarely deposit money directly into e-wallets or into Fintech company accounts; Therefore, it is important to have a clear legal framework to control the activities of Fintech companies in payment operations, especially in noncash electronic transactions.

4.1.2 Regulations to Ensure the Safety of Payment Transactions Payment intermediary service providers, including Fintech companies, are responsible for keeping confidential information related to customers in accordance with the law (specified in Decree No. 101/2012 and the Law on Cyber Information Security). At the same time, they must also comply with risk management principles in e-banking activities; comply with requirements to ensure security and safety of regulations and information technology systems on safety and security for the provision of banking services on the Internet (Circular No. 39/2014/TT-NHNN, Circular No. 39/2014, Circular No. 18/2018, Circular No. 35/2016 of the State Bank of Vietnam).

In addition, Points b and c, Clause 1, Article 17 of the Law on Cyber Information Security stipulate: Organizations are responsible for only using the collected personal information for purposes other than the original one after having the consent of the personal information owner; they must not distribute the information collected or provide, share, accessed or controlled to third parties, except with the consent of the owner or at the request of the competent state agency. In addition, payment intermediary organizations, including Fintech companies, must ensure the security and safety of payment intermediary activities as prescribed in Article 7 of Circular No. 39/2014 of the State Bank of Vietnam; Accordingly, it requires payment intermediaries to develop and comply with the State Bank's regulations on e-banking activities have risk management principles, with current laws on prevention and combat of money laundering, with requirements on ensuring safety and security of information technology systems, with regulations on security and safety for the provision of e-banking services according to regulations of the State Bank and other relevant regulations.

In addition, Circular 23/2019 of the State Bank of Vietnam guiding payment intermediary services stipulates many other solutions to protect the interests of customers using payment intermediaries - Fintech companies, including e-wallets as follows: (i) Point c, Clause 6, Article 9 of Circular 23/2019 of the State Bank of Vietnam prescribes: Total transaction limit via personal e-wallet of 1 user at 1 e-wallet service provider is up to 100 (one hundred) million dong per month. This regulation is to better manage E-wallet activities, avoid the widespread and impractical e-wallet registration of users, and be in line with the current development of the e-wallet market in Vietnam. Circular 23/2019 of has not stipulated transaction

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limits via e-wallets for user organizations because these are normally used for various purposes such as paying salaries for company employees, and managing internal revenues and expenditures, if a certain limit is specified, it will cause difficulties for organizations/enterprises to apply for payment via e-wallets in practice. (ii) Regulations on e-wallet activities include Dossier to open e-wallet, personal information verification of the user, connection between e-wallet and a domestic payment account/debit card of the user. These regulations are due to the fact that the payment intermediary service acts as an intermediary that connects, transmits and processes electronic data of payment transactions between payment service users and payment service providers. Therefore, the intermediary payment services - operations of Fintech companies (including e-wallet services) must be provided to customers who already have accounts at banks. The e-wallet service needs to ensure the users’ identity and must connect to their payment accounts at banks. (iii) The State Bank supervises the activities of Fintech companies when they provide payment services; (iv) Fintech companies providing payment services must stipulate and inform the terms and conditions of service used to customers, guide them to use the service and the regulations on the handling of checks or complaints.

In addition, Circular 23/2019 of the State Bank of Vietnam has regulations on the following prohibited activities: Using e-wallets to conduct transactions for terrorist financing, money laundering, fraudulent, cheating and other law-breaking purposes; renting, leasing, borrowing, lending e-wallets or buying and selling e-wallet information; E-wallet service providers are not allowed to grant credit to e-wallet users, to pay interest on e-wallet balances or any actions that may increase the currency value on e-wallets compared to the value of money deposited In addition to the above provisions, Fintech companies providing e-wallet services must provide tools for the State Bank to supervise the provision of e-wallet services in the followings: First, monitoring the total number of e-wallets (issued, activated and active), the total ewallet balances of all customers at the time of accessing the monitoring tool; Second, monitoring the total balances of payment assurance accounts for e-wallet services, information of each secured payment account for e-wallet services opened at cooperating banks, including account name, account number, balance at the time of accessing the monitoring tool; Third, exploiting data in the monthly reports (from the 1st to the last day of the month) on the 5th day of the following month at the latest (Including the total number and total balances of ewallets (issued, activated and active) at the end of the last day of the reporting period; the total number and total value of deposits, withdrawals, payments and other transactions of the e-wallets are reported on each day of the month; the total number and the total value of transactions on Debit side, the total number and the total value of transactions on the Credit side of the secured payment account guarantee for e-wallet services reported on each day of the month).

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Moreover, for the 10 e-wallets with the highest number of transactions per object, Fintech companies must provide information to the State Bank of Vietnam (the units accepting payment; individual customers, and institutional customers but excluding individuals and organizations that accept payment). The information must include opening balance, ending balance; total amount and the total value of deposit and withdrawal transactions according to each affiliated bank; total amount and the total value of payment transactions, money transfers.

4.2 Practices of Fintechs in the Field of Payment 4.2.1 Achievements of Fintechs in the Payment Segment Statistics show that the number of Fintech companies providing services in the Vietnamese market has increased rapidly, in 2016 with about 40 companies, and by April 2021, about 200 units have been licensed by the State to operate. motion. The main fields of activity of Fintechs are payment intermediaries, including financial switching, electronic clearing, payment gateways, support for foreign currency transfer, revenue/expenditure support, and e-wallets[31]. Statistics show that Fintechs are operating in the following segments in Vietnam: providing payment tools such as Moca, Payoo, VinaPay, Momo... or providing POS/mPOS4 digital payment solutions such as Hottab, SoftPay; some companies provide fundraising platforms such as FundStart, Comicola, Betado or FirstSetp…; provide online loans such as LoanVi, Timal; personal financial management such as BankGo, Moneylover, Mobivi; data management such as Trusting, Social, Circle Bii; money transfer like Matchmovie, Cash2vn; Blockchain like Bitcoin Vietnam, VBTC Bitcoin [32]. Thereby, it shows that the number of Fintech companies in Vietnam increases yearly and most of them are in the payment field, as shown in the following chart from 2017-2020.

40 30

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2017 Payment Blockchain/Crypto Wealth Management Comparison Insurtech Digital Banking

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P2P lending POS Credit Scoring/Data Management Crowdfunding SME Finance

Figure 1: Number of Fintech Companies in Vietnam in 2017-2020.

The forms of payment via e-wallets basically meet the payment needs of consumers in the current rapid development of e-commerce with a number of advantages such as:

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- There is a quick and convenient form of top-up and payment, including website and mobile application, anytime, anywhere with just a few simple steps and confirmation of transaction password.; - Reducing users' working and traveling time, making payment transactions quicker and easier. At the same time, users can query account information anytime, anywhere, especially without having to carry cash, reducing the risk of losing money or being stolen; - Enhancing security of transactions, allowing payment of small fees, easy to use and popular (since it may not need to connect with a bank account during the payment process) and wide range of uses. In addition, the e-wallet can be used for ordinary daily payments and other applications such as smart cards or Internet payments.

According to research and survey by the Institute of Banking Technology Research and Development under the Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City (VNUHCM-IBT), there are about 200 Fintech companies in Vietnam in fields such as payments (37 companies)) is the most popular Fintech in Vietnam market with popular types are Mobile Wallet, Mobile Payment, Mobile Banking; loans (25 companies); Blockchain, Cryptocurrencies and Remittances (22 companies).

60 50 40

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Figure 2: Number of mobile phone users with Internet connection in Vietnam (million users).

In addition, the development of technology and the trend of cashless payment in Vietnam shows the increasing number of consumers who have adopted payment applications of Fintech companies such as e-wallets. According to statistics from the State Bank of Vietnam, by the end of 2013, there were about 1.84 million e-wallet users with a total transaction volume of USD 1.1 billion. By 2016 this number reached 3 million and it is expected to exceed 10 million users in 2020 (Fintech development in the payment field in Vietnam).

8 6 4 2 0

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Figure 3: Number of e-wallet users in Vietnam 2013-2020f (million users).

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In fact, in recent years, Fintech companies in the Vietnam market have competed fiercely for this lucrative market share to launch a series of e-wallet brands such as Momo, ZaloPay, Bankplus, Samsung Pay, Payoo, eDong, 1Pay, Bao Kim, Vimo, VTC Pay, Mobivi, eMonkey, Pay365, FPT Wallet, TopPay, Ngan Luong, AirPay, etc. With the strength of convenience and diverse ecosystem, MoMo - e-wallet of Online Mobile Services Joint Stock Company has quickly been connected by banks. The excitement and attractiveness of e-wallets have attracted commercial banks as well as large technology companies and corporations to gradually penetrate the market (Figure 3). Up to now, many banks have developed electronic payment systems. Regarding the popularity, from subscriber data and market share announced by e-wallet businesses, MoMo is currently the largest and most popular market share in Vietnam. Besides Momo, there are also many brand names from domestic and foreign investors such as Airpay, Moca, Payoo, Zalopay, VinIDPay (Figure 4).

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Ngân lượng

Vimo

VTC Pay

Payoo

Appota

Figure 4: Popular and favorite e-wallets in Vietnam today Figure 3 shows that Vietnam is one of the potentially fastest-growing markets in the region for the application of technology payments through Fintechs such as e-wallets. It has a strong impact on promoting the growth of electronic payment. In addition, there are other advantages as followings: The Government encourages the development of non-cash payment; businesses give priority to using modern payment technology; types of e-commerce, business, consumption activities, commerce, shopping, services, and domestic tourism have developed rapidly; This has also had great impacts to the development of Fintech companies in Vietnam in the field of payment.

4.2.2 Difficulties and Limitations for Payment Activities of Fintech Companies In providing payment services, including e-wallets, Fintech companies have encountered some difficulties and limitations. These come from several reasons as follows:

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First, there is no clear legal corridor for the operation of e-wallets, without specific regulations and guidelines; The new regulations focus mainly on conditions, dossiers, procedures, licensing procedures, the definition of e-wallet service, secured payment accounts for e-wallet service, rights, and responsibilities of users, of related parties. The e-wallet services in Vietnam are still in the early stage, attracting much attention from the information technology community and the participation of domestic start-ups. In addition, E-wallet service providers must comply with the law on the prevention and combat of money laundering, however, the reporting subjects currently specified in the Law on Anti-Money Laundering do not include payment intermediary service providers, which causes Fintech companies providing e-wallets difficulties in implementing and complying with the regulations; therefore, in the coming time, it is necessary to have guiding documents, uniformly adjust regulations on subjects to be applied and comply with regulations on prevention and combat of money laundering.

Second, Fintech companies providing payment services still have difficulties in developing services, especially providing for those who do not have bank accounts, and who live in rural and remote areas. For services like e-wallets, specific regulations on classification and application of bank accounts/e-wallet accounts by level (with classification criteria such as basic account, transaction limit; transaction function, the purpose of usage and level of providing customer identified information) should be studied and applied in practice to facilitate the development of ewallet services.

Third, the operation of Fintech companies providing e-wallet services in Vietnam now is a new field, it is quite complicated and challenging for inspection and supervision. Some Fintech companies have not yet fully complied with legal regulations such as allowing the opening and activating e-wallets that are not attached to customers' payment accounts at banks, attaching and recharging e-wallets from the customer's credit cards or by other means. An electronic payment gateway service is a service that provides the technical infrastructure to make the connection between banks and payment acceptors in order to support customers to make payments in ecommerce. In addition, with the role of providing the payment infrastructure of the system, some financial switching service providers have cooperated with unlicensed electronic payment gateway providers resulting in unintentionally abetted gambling and money laundering in the market. In addition, some international organizations have already provided payment services in Vietnam but have not yet registered their business and had a commercial presence in Vietnam. This will lead to risks in operation, liquidity, and being induced to join illegal activities, and difficulties in management. Therefore, there have been legal loopholes that create huge pressure in managing the activities of organizations licensed to provide intermediary payment services.

4.3 Results and Recommendations Currently, about 150 Fintech companies are operating in many different fields, of which the majority of Fintech companies (nearly 72%) are cooperating with commercial banks under the

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business cooperation model. In fact, payment activities account for the largest proportion of Fintech companies’ operations in the Vietnam market (60.5% of all fields of Fintech companies) [23]. Besides, Fintech in Vietnam has been attracting the special attention of large technology companies to participate in the market through both direct and indirect forms such as investing in the formation of Fintech companies, establishing investment funds, and incubators to support Fintech start-ups, etc. Besides favorable conditions from the attention of the Government and the State Bank in the context of technology 4.0, the development of Fintechs in the payment field in Vietnam is facing the following main challenges: (i) the habit of cash payment is still popular, worries about new financial services based on technology, (ii) cashless payments remain limited in the public sector; (iii) the legal framework has not kept pace with the rapid development of technology, (iv) the fee for cross-border payment services is still high, the cross-border payment service is a big challenge, (v) customer’s knowledge and customer training are limited. In Vietnam, the financial and banking sector has many potential risks, so it is being regulated by state documents on the operation of traditional credit institutions such as the Law on Credit Institutions (2010), the Law on Credit Institutions and the Law on Credit Institutions. agreement instruments (2005), Ordinance on Foreign Exchange (2005), Law on Anti-Money Laundering (2012), Law on Deposit Insurance (2012), Ordinance amending and supplementing a number of articles of the Ordinance on Foreign Exchange (2012). 2013) ... However, there is no synchronous system to regulate

the

activities

of

Fintech

companies.

Therefore,

the

author

proposes

some

recommendations on the development and improvement of regulations.

4.3.1 Completing Regulations on Operation Conditions of Fintech Companies First, maintaining the operating license of Fintech companies providing payment services: Payment intermediary services, including e-wallets, which relate to mobilizing money from organizations and individuals, may arise operational, liquidity and service risks to engage in illegal transactions. Therefore, it is necessary to continue to maintain licensing for Fintech companies providing payment services to meet market requirements and to create conditions for them to operate in accordance with the law, under the management of competent agencies and have a safe and sustainable operation.

Second, issuing regulations related to electronic money: Electronic money in Vietnam is currently is in the form of prepaid cards provided by banks and e-wallets. Cryptocurrencies are not a new one, but a type of fiat currency in the form of a payment instrument or means of payment to perform transactions and are guaranteed at a rate of 1:1 of fiat currency. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out additional research on cryptocurrency regulations to clarify the concept, nature, form of expression of electronic money and issues related to this in legal documents, licensing authority, and conditions for electronic money supply; management and risk control process to ensure safety and security of customer's transaction information, as well as compliance with regulations on antimoney laundering; to ensure the protection of customers' interests, rights and responsibilities of related parties, so as to better meet the requirements of state management, catching up the

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development trend of technology and in accordance with international practices. At the same time, determine the scopes and objects of the electronic money supply to issue appropriate management regulations. The identification of electronic money as a means of payment will help state management agencies have more effective management and supervision measures to prevent illegal tools in currency transactions.

Third, researching and issuing several management regulations for the operation of Fintech companies providing payment services, ensuring that their performance is safe, effective, and substantial, minimizing risks, and preventing the abuses of Fintech companies in illegal acts… which includes: (i) Maintaining the regulations on the payment through Fintech companies connected with the customer's bank account and the deposit/withdrawal money from Fintech companies including e-wallets must be done through the customer's bank account at banks; (ii) Setting payment transaction limit through e-wallets and of Fintech companies in accordance with Vietnam market practice.

Fourth, regulating on expansion and flexibility in the deposit/withdrawal from various payment service providers of Fintech companies such as depositing/withdrawing money from ewallets to facilitate service users, which helps service providers to expand utilities, improve experience and attractiveness to users, such as: (i) Allowing the recharge by receiving money from other e-wallets (either opened by the same or by another provider); (ii) Allowing the transfer from E-wallets to E-wallets (opened by the same or by another provider); allowing payment for legitimate goods and services; withdrawing money from the E-Wallet to the customer's payment account or debit card linked to the E-Wallet; (iii) Setting no limit to the number of payment accounts/debit cards of customers linked to the E-Wallet; E-wallet owners can choose accounts and cards to link with e-wallets, creating flexibility and favorable conditions for customers in using ewallets; (iv) Supplementing specific regulations on opening e-wallets of customers (wallet opening dossier, necessary information and documents, measures to authenticate customer information, linking e-wallets to accounts); payment (or debit card) at banks.

Fifth, the payment intermediary services of Fintech companies in Vietnam have mainly served customers with bank accounts in urban areas because of some strict requirements from the State Bank. Therefore, they should consider providing services to customers in rural areas, and to the ones who do not have a bank account in order to promote financial inclusion.

Sixth, supplementing and clarifying the roles and responsibilities of Fintech companies providing intermediary payment services, banks and related parties, especially in the management of payment acceptance units, in the connection model between e-wallet providers and parties, to strengthen the responsibility of service providers and banks when developing payment services for payment acceptors, limiting risks from units accepting fake payments or providing goods/services out of the law.

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4.3.2 Building and Developing Advanced and Modern Retail Payment Infrastructure First, connecting the payment infrastructure of banks and Fintech companies to perform payment transactions quickly and efficiently, saving costs and resources for banks and Fintechs when connecting services to a focal point instead of each bank, Fintech makes separate connections.

Fintech companies can exploit the customer network, data and capital of the bank to provide their products and services to meet market demand. Accordingly, Fintech companies need to diversify payment services in customers' lives to meet their needs of customers, for example, customers can pay for online orders, for electricity, water, internet bills, recharge mobile phones, etc. Besides, for mobile payment wallets, customers who want to use them must link with a bank card in advance, this also means the cooperation of the bank in this digital form of payment.

Second, promoting the research and application of blockchain technology, distributed ledger technology to quickly apply in the field of finance - banking and other fields due to the huge benefits of these technologies. Along with the technology factor, it is necessary to improve the quality of human resources for the capture and management of FinTech technology. In addition, it is necessary to set up a specialized regulatory agency in the field of construction, development and management of a nationwide digital payment system, to issue guidelines on how to develop management for suppliers and how to use it with consumers.

5 Conclusion Fintech companies have been penetrating nearly every segment of financial services, promoting banking and financial activities, especially the growing field of non-cash payments. This is currently one of the main areas of Fintech companies in many countries, especially in those with a low rate of accessing financial, banking, or payment services of people. With the high demand for utility in the context of rapid growth society now, Fintech companies need to build a payment ecosystem in different forms, these payment services can be built based on the mobile phone system or the Internet such as electronic money, mobile payment, payment via QR code or Peer to peer payment. Accordingly, the completion and application of regulations for Fintechs in payment services is necessary and should be learned from experience. There should also be a mechanism for testing and evaluating their effectiveness in the most comprehensive way.

6 Availability of Data and Material All information is included in this study.

7 Acknowledgement The authors thank the support and facilitation of the School of Law, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, Vietnam and The Vietnam Women's Academy gave the authors time to complete the research.

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8 References [1] BankNetVN, (2014). Current situation of payment intermediary services. Proceedings of the Scientific Conference on Solutions for developing and managing payment intermediary services in Vietnam, Dan Tri Publishing House: Hanoi.

[2] Karakas, C., Stamegn, C.. (2017). Financial technology (FinTech): Prospects and challenges for the EU. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2017/599348/EPRS_BRI(2017)599348_EN.pdf [3] SVB. (2022).

Creating a favorable legal foundation for https://www.sbv.gov.i’n/webcenter/portal/vi/menu/tranqchu/hdk/cntt/clptcntt/clptcntt

activities.

Fintechs’

[4] Dang Cong Thuc. (2017). Fintech trends in banking sector and early movements in Vietnam. Banking Magazine, No. 19, October 2017.

[5] 1MF. (2018), Financial access surveys 2018. http://data.imf.org/’?sk=EñDCAB7E-ACCA-4592- AREA-S 9hB5463A34C [6] FFIEC. (2004). Handbook of Retail Payment Systems. Federal Financial Institutions Examninati on Council, The Bank of Viet Nam. [7] SBV. (2018). A Report on Completing Vietnam Fintech Ecosystem. Fintech Steering Committee, State Bank of Vietnam.

[8] SBV. (2019). A Report on Operation Plan of Vietnam Fintech Steering Committee. Fintech Steering Committee, State Bank of Vietnam.

[9] Le Huyen Ngoc. (2018). Fintech's impact on banking activities and some proposals for banks and Fintech to develop together in Vietnam. Proceedings of the conference on Future of Fintech and Banking: Development and Renew, 147- 156 [10] Mal Lan. (2018). Will the Fintech wave and the 4.0 Industrial Revolution make it difficult for the banking industry?. Business Forum Newspaper.

[11] Nguyen Ha. (2017). Fintech - The new development or temporary trend https://techinsiqht.com.i’n/fintechhuonq-phat-trien-moi-hay-xu-huonq-nhat-thoi-tai-viet- nam/

in

Vietnam.

[12] Nguyen Ha. (2018). Comments on the future of Fintech. https://doimoisanqtao.x’n/news/20 I h/9/27/nhnnh-v-tnelai-ca-fintech [13] Nguyen Thl Hoa. (2017). Overview of financial inclusion, the role of digital technology in promoting financial inclusion in Vietnam. Vietnam Banking Conference 2017.

[14] Nguyen Thl Thanh Nhan. (2018). Fintech business models in the world and suggestions for Vietnam.

Banking Magazine, 9(May).

[15] Nguyen Mlnh Ngoc, Ngu Yen Le Thao Huong, Chu Nhat Anh. (2019). Building and analyzing financial inclusion indicators. Banking Science and Training Journal.

[16]

PWC. (2016). FinTech 2020 and Beyond: Embracing Disruption.

[17] PWC. (2020). Financial Services Technology 2020 and Beyond: Embracing https://www.pwc.com/qx/en/financial services/assets/pdf/technoloqv2020-and-beyond.pdf [18] PWC. (2017).

Global Fintech Report. services/assets/pwc-global-fintech-report-2017.pdf

https://www.pwc.corn/gx/en/industries/

Disruption. financial-

[19] Trlnh Ngoc Lan. (2019). Fintech ecosystem development: lessons learned and recommendations towards sustainable development in Vietnam. http://thitruonftaichinhtiente.i’n/phat-trien-he-sinh-thai-fintech-bai-hrckinh-nfhiem-va- de-xuatnham-huonq-toi-phat-trien-ben-vunq-tai-viet-nam-23949.html [20] Masoffer. (2020). True Money: Vietnam Fintech Market Report 2017. https://fintech.masoffer.com/vi/baocao-thi-truong-fintech-viet-nam-2020/7814

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[21] Sanlcola, L. (2016). Will Fintech help or hurt traditional advisors?. CN BC. http://www.cnbc.corn/2016/ 05/25/will-Fintech-help-or-hurttraditional-advisors.html [22] SBV. (2020). Financial technology and Industrial Revolution 4.0: Electronic Information Portal of the State Bank of Vietnam. Vietnam Fintech Landscape 2020. https://finfan.vn/news/bao-cao-fintech-viet-nam-20201382.

[23] Vn. (2019). V ietnam’s Top 500 largest enterprises in 2019 Vietnam Report. A Seminar on Future of FINTECH and Banking, Development and 1nnovation. http://sob.ueh.edu.vn/thong-tin/ky-yeu-hoi-thao-khoahoc-tuong-lai-cua-fintech-va-ngan-hang-phat-trien-va-doi-moi.html Ms. Nguyen Minh Hang is Head of Banking and Finance Law Department, Faculty of Economic Law, Hanoi Law University.

Ms. Luong Thi Linh Chi is a Lecturer at the Faculty of Law, Hanoi Open University

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Privacy Regulations in the Middle East: Challenges & Solutions Marwan Albahar1, Mohammed Thanoon1 Department of Science, Umm Al Qura University, PO Box 715, Mecca, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: mabahar@uqu.edu.sa).

1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A5Q

There is a dearth of privacy regulations in the Middle East, which is becoming a real-time issue for businesses in the region. Countries like Received 26 December 2021 Received in revised form 15 Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE require data privacy April 2022 regulations as they have faced phishing and malware attacks in recent times.

Accepted 23 April 2022 Despite some institutions, such as Dubai International Financial Centre Available online 30 April (DIFC) and Abu Dhabi Global Market (ADGM), having their own privacy 2022 regulations, the existing data regulations in the Middle East are still in their Keywords: infancy phase. Considering this in view, the study aims to highlight the Data privacy; Middle challenges of privacy regulations in the Middle East and the solutions East; GDPR; Privacy provided by these regulations. For this purpose, the study employed a regulation solution; Cyber security; Right to thematic analysis approach and used 16 sources published between 2015 and 2022. It has been identified that the Middle East’s data regulations have also privacy; Privacy policy; offered a secure and safe zone with financial penalties for any organization Privacy challenge; Personal Data Protection that violates the law.

Volume 13 Issue 5

Law (PDPL); PDPPL; Data privacy issue; Sensitive information.

Disciplinary: Computer Science and Computer Engineering (Data Privacy & Information Security), Information & Privacy Law. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Albahar, M., Thanoon M. (2022). Privacy Regulations in the Middle East: Challenges & Solutions.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5Q, 1-11. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.101

1 Introduction Privacy regulation is a term referring to the "right to privacy" of individuals, groups, and organizations [1]. Privacy regulations are important for a state to ensure that all its people and businesses are working in a safe zone with no threat from external sources that could cause data damage, data leakage, or manipulation. According to [2], data privacy is becoming more than a mere security or regulation issue for companies in the Middle Eastern region. Organizations must consider both legal and ethical aspects when using data for professional use. This means that customers, users, and stakeholders may have a lot of SMS marketing messages or numerous emails

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that demand personal data sharing. This does not imply that asking for personal data for business use is forbidden under privacy and security regulations. However, it indicates that companies must ensure personal data sharing is conducted through transparency and on fairgrounds of accountability. On the other hand, organizations have shown their concerns about cyber security threats, mainly in the Middle Eastern region [3]. By 2030, the Middle Eastern market is expected to increase as the population grows to 580 million people. The Middle East already owns the largest repository of oil and gas on the globe. It is among the top ten holders of US treasuries and is now viewed for its cultural fame as well as its economic prospects [3]. Middle Eastern countries own the economic prestige of the European region and many other parts of the world. Since the data privacy challenges in Middle Eastern countries are gaining a lot of popularity, companies like LVMH, Hermes, Rolex, and financial institutions have made heavy investments in the Middle Eastern market. [4] claims that the Middle East has been increasingly facing security issues since the start of the pandemic. According to Kaspersky, there are 68 investigative reports in the Middle East, including 29 cyber gangs that are actively targeting Middle Eastern companies. Different countries are working on threat intelligence reports, such as the UAE (49 reports), Saudi Arabia (39 reports), Egypt (30 reports), Kuwait (21 reports), Oman (21 reports), and Jordan (20 reports). On the other hand, Iraq, Qatar, and Bahrain are dealing with less than 20 reports each to address cybersecurity issues. According to [5], there is no federal law in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) that addresses data protection and cybersecurity. ADGM has established its own data protection regulation since 2015. It also launched the Office of Data Protection (ODP) in December 2017 and worked on enforcing regulations. On the other hand, [6] claims that Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE have recently started focusing on data protection laws and regulations. Qatar has Law No. 13 of 2016 concerning Privacy and Protection of Personal Data (PDPPL) and participated in the first Arab Regional Forum on the Protection of Personal Data. Likewise, Saudi Arabia has published the Personal Data Protection Law (PDPL) in Umm Al-Qura (the official gazette) to develop the first step of its data development [6]. Owing to these challenges, this paper presents the privacy regulations in the Middle East and highlights the challenges and solutions that they offer in the complex contemporary landscape. Therefore, it is important to investigate the challenges and solutions that privacy regulations in the Middle East bring to companies. Such research can be useful for Middle Eastern countries in forming effective policies, enforcing laws, and ensuring that future cyberattacks are responded to with proactive approaches.

This paper highlights the following research questions: •

What are the challenges of privacy regulations in the Middle East?

•

What are the solutions provided by the privacy regulations in the Middle East?

There have been few developments and enhancements to the Middle East's existing data protection laws and regulations [7]. This is a growing concern as privacy concerns for businesses grow, resulting in trust issues and debates over how to overcome obstacles. Since data regulation in Middle Eastern countries is still in its infancy, there is little to no research addressing both the

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challenges and solutions associated with data privacy in the region. This article combines both data privacy challenges and their solutions for addressing cybersecurity challenges.

2 Methodology 2.1 Context of the Study Middle Eastern countries are having issues responding to malware, phishing attacks and challenges in social engineering [8]. One such case is the Dubai International Financial Centre, a government body that has enforced its own privacy policy, but since Dubai’s law is not as strong as GDPR (EU General Data Protection Regulation), the companies in Dubai that are also working in Europe must face challenges when complying with the EU regulations. Likewise, [9] claims that most of the Gulf countries have been using sharia’s principles to protect the data of their users and ensure cyber security. According to [13], the data protection legislation and regulations in the Middle East are in their infancy stage and remain a low priority in the region, where either the data protection laws are very weak or nearly non-existent. However, a lot of Middle Eastern countries, such as KSA and Qatar, are working hard to introduce relevant proposals for the use of technology for data protection. According to [14], almost 71 % of the population in the Middle Eastern region went online in 2019, as compared to 39 % of the population that went digital in 2012. This brings the attention of policymakers, governmental agencies, and administrative authorities to ensure that data protection and privacy regulations are there to protect people from any unlawful or unethical activity that can damage the data recorded. In recent years, data privacy issues and related concerns have increased over time, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Consumer view on online privacy across the world (courtesy of [14]).

Middle Eastern region has experienced a spike in the number of security incidents (almost 133.3 %) which resulted in 2910 % of files being compromised due to no data protection [15]. At the international level, these surges contribute to 0.7 % breaches of the Middle East. Likewise, [8] reveals that UAE faced three major cyberattacks in 2016, whereas the CERT-ae highlights that the UAE was victimized by malware and phishing attacks in recent years. Thus, the demand for strong and effective data protection regulations automatically emerged in the Middle East to respond to

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such security issues. According to [16], both DIFC and the Qatar Financial Centre have developed their own data protection laws and regulations. These data protection laws are quite consistent with EU Data Protection Directive 95/46/EC and even the UK Data Protection Act (1998). However, both Oman and Qatar have more laws related to e-commerce data protection. These include Oman’s Electronic Transactions Law (Royal Decree 69/2008) and Qatar’s Electronic Commerce and Transactions Law (Law No.16 of 2020). Both laws are based on UN Model Laws pertaining to ecommerce as well as e-signatures. On the other hand, [17] claims that the private companies located in DIFC are following laws enforced by a DPA. Under the DIFC law, the personal information of the individual/group is processed. The information is not shared with any international agencies or a company that does not have compliance with the laws. Exceptional cases such as any protection required from foreign agencies may necessitate sharing of information. In particular, [4] reveals that Middle East’s privacy and breach notification regulations are less strict and detailed as compared to those mentioned in GDPR.

2.2 Research Method The present research employs a qualitative research approach as it undergoes an in-depth analysis of the available privacy regulations that the Middle Eastern region is using and highlights its challenges and solutions. According to [10], the qualitative research approach is useful when study objectives are not based on scientific evidence and statistical data. Since the challenges and solutions are difficult to quantify, a qualitative study approach is used. Moreover, [11] claims that qualitative secondary research may be useful for studies where primary data is either insufficient or difficult to gather. Since gathering primary data from different countries in the Middle East is challenging, the present paper has gathered information through secondary resources. According to [12], a thematic review comprises key themes based on the study objectives.

This research employs two key themes: (i) challenges of the privacy regulations in the Middle East and (ii) solutions provided by the privacy regulations in the Middle East. The main sources of data include databases such as Google Scholar, websites including Jstor, Web of Knowledge, and newspapers such as The Guardian, CNBC, The New York Times, Al-Jazeera, and BBC. 15 sources that have been published in the last 7 years (2015 onwards) are used in this research paper.

3 Literature Review Various studies have highlighted data regulation challenges that Middle Eastern countries are facing. The study by [7] claims that one of the prominent challenges Middle Eastern countries are facing is the absence of a national data protection law that could provide constitutional rights to the individuals and companies working in the region. Expectations from the Middle Eastern region are high, owing to the region's growing economic importance. In another study [18], it was argued that contact-tracking apps that comprise a large amount of personal data of the user, such as location, health and fitness records, are creating concerns for individuals in the Middle East.

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Individuals who were aware that the regions lacked national data privacy regulations expressed dissatisfaction and concerns when using contact-tracking apps during the pandemic.[19] claims that since the Covid-19 applications share data with various stakeholders such as state authorities, health ministries, and other institutions, In the absence of strict data protection laws, individuals are not comfortable sharing their information using apps [20]. This necessitates those digital solutions must be established so that they can address privacy and data security concerns. In another study by [21], it was revealed that the pandemic had increased the cybersecurity and privacy threats for the Qatar 2022 FIFA World Cup. The study by [22] also supports the fact that after the pandemic, cybersecurity threats have increased in the Middle Eastern region, which is giving rise to cyber-preparedness measures prior to hosting events such as the Qatar 2020 FIFA World Cup. [23] have conducted an in-depth analysis to figure out a study to identify and consider cybersecurity threats during Qatar's 2022 FIFA World Cup. The study found that Qatar is taking a proactive approach to addressing emerging cybersecurity issues. Recently, in 2021, Qatar updated these laws, including the Personal Data Privacy Protection Law [24]. The study has also revealed that Qatar is the first Middle Eastern country that has formed a policy related to data protection.

Therefore, it is working at the frontline to address cybersecurity issues in the region. In [25], it was revealed that one of the issues that Middle Eastern countries such as Qatar are facing is the interference of security and privacy. Under the smart city regulation, Qatar has already shown its wider interest in overcoming data privacy challenges and regulations. On the other hand, [26] claims that Kuwait has formed a data privacy protection regulation on its official website of the Communication and Information Technology Regulatory Authority ("CITRA") to support the privacy regulation in public and private sectors. Kuwait is struggling to form a unique data protection tool that could effectively regulate the privacy and security concerns in the region.

Figure 2: AIG Cyber Claims Report 2018; AIG Europe, Middle East, Africa (Courtesy of [29]).

The work [27] claims that the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) came into action on 25 May 2018. Primarily, it replaced the EU’s legal framework that was formed in 1995 and provided a regulatory approach with new compliance obligations. GDPR follows an "omnibus approach," implying that it applies to all public and private sector organizations. In contrast to the US legal framework that provides different rules for public and private sector organizations, GDPR

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provides a comprehensive data regulation and privacy approach. [28] claims that GDPR offers applicability to companies in the Middle Eastern region without the restriction of having branches or subsidiaries in the European market. The primary reason for introducing GDPR to the Middle Eastern market is to address cyberattacks since there has been significant growth in cybercrimes (Figure 2).

The work [30] claims the regulation applies to all EU citizens and residents, even if they do not reside in the EU. There is a heavy penalty for anyone violating GDPR - up to €20 million or 4% of global revenue. According to [31], the UAE has published its first federal data protection law, which incorporates the majority of the GDPR principles and regulations. The personal data, processing, and controlling techniques have all been extracted from the GDPR regulations for the UAE. According to [32], it is a common perception that GDPR is a more enforceable and effective regulation that, in comparison to the Data Protection Directive, has been robust and applicable since 2018. The Data Protection Directive in the Middle East demands compliance by companies that have a physical presence in the European Union market, such as even a small processing center or server company. However, GDPR does not restrict companies by imposing such limitations and helps businesses show compliance even if they do not have a physical presence in the European Union market. Therefore, GDPR is significant, popular, and applicable in comparison to other privacy laws that the Middle East has formed. Moreover, GDPR protects the personal data of all living beings who have a physical presence in the EU. This includes a person's personal images, contact lists, and even IP addresses [32]. Since GDPR covers such a wide range of personal information for the individual, it is extremely important and effective in protecting the individual’s right to freedom and liberty. Therefore, GDRP is popularly known as one of the leading data privacy regulations that are helping companies overcome the challenges of cybersecurity.

4 Results In light of the literature reviews, the two key themes fulfil the research objectives and depict the following insights.

4.1 Challenges of the Privacy Regulations in the Middle East The largest obstacle to privacy regulations in the Middle East region is that these laws offer compliance challenges to businesses. Complying with the data regulations could be a challenge for many enterprises and firms that are not yet ready for such a change. Developing a bond of trustworthiness with the clients and customers, as well as getting consent to fulfill the rights of data subjects, proves to be quite difficult for Middle Eastern companies [33]. These data regulations are still in their infancy, which implies that the systems and procedures, along with responses from firms against any actions taken by the relevant authorities (in the case of violating the laws), are still under process. In this regard, [8] has also highlighted that demonstrating the ability of enterprises to manage their data and even provide it to the concerned authorities for protection is a challenging process. It is mainly because the Middle Eastern data regulations mainly have EU GDPR

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standards that demand businesses increase their investment in data protection. Likewise, managing to report breach incidents within 72 hours and deciding the leading roles for data protection and privacy are major challenges that companies in the Middle East are facing when complying with data regulations. Furthermore, there is a lack of awareness and skillset required for data regulations and data privacy among companies operating across the Middle East region [16]. In this regard, a similar perspective has been provided by [8], claiming that Middle Eastern companies must ensure compliance with the GDPR by either re-engineering their information systems or developing an adequate privacy assessment and compliance procedure. Thus, this makes the information handling and management procedures quite a complex and sophisticated process that requires a high skill set from the employers.

4.2 Solutions Provided by the Privacy Regulations in the Middle East According to [34], the Middle Eastern region is expanding business across the world, which results in data privacy issues. Most of the companies in the Middle East also have branches in other parts of the world, such as the USA and the European market. However, with the data regulations introduced by the Dubai International Financial Centre, almost 88 fines have been recorded when companies and groups violated the regulations. These regulations were effective in late 2020, and six new privacy laws were initially enforced in Dubai. These regulations were useful as they included certain extraterritorial laws, including the EU General Data Protection Regulation, and they also had an impact on global and multi-national companies. On the other hand, [33] claims that data regulations have offered countries a critical and crucial opportunity to invest in the Middle Eastern region. The compliance and relevance of certain data regulation laws (KSA and UAE) with the GDPR of the EU is offering a new solution for minimizing issues. These laws provide informational rights, corrective rights, and restrictive rights to businesses. However, the privacy impact assessment, along with assessing privacy risks, is another area that is now given importance due to the new data protection laws in the Middle East. It implies that the data regulations have given businesses and experts in the region the opportunity to consider the aspects when considering GDPR compliance [8].

5 Discussion The literature review and the key findings of the study reveal that data privacy and regulations are more than just the security and protection of a company’s personnel data. Data regulation can even be more complex and may require customers to provide relevant information to the company so that the data can be protected and regulated. From unwanted SMS marketing messages to share customers’ personal information with third parties, data privacy may or may not need the consent of the customer. The same is true for clients and business partners, where companies must be completely transparent to ensure that no unethical practices are carried out while data privacy regulations are in effect [35]. Although the key purpose of data privacy is to minimize cyber attacks, malware and phishing attacks, any violation of data privacy regulations may lead to financial penalties for business groups or individuals. This puts the company’s

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operations, regulators, and customers at risk since any unethical data-sharing activity is reported publicly. The Middle East has seen a rise in business activities and operations that reflect that any company having a wide network of third parties, customers, clients, and business partners may need data security. Typically, the UAE uses DIFC laws, and the Qatar Financial Centre has its own data protection laws [17]. Likewise, ADGM developed its own data protection regulations and even launched the ODP in December 2017. Additionally, Qatar has a Privacy and Protection of Personal Data Law (PDPPL), and Saudi Arabia enforces the PDPL for data protection. This indicates that data privacy regulations and laws are still in their infancy in the Middle East. At such a preliminary level, most of the Middle East laws comply with the EU-GDPR jurisdictions [5, 6]. This creates a complex and sophisticated mechanism where companies in the Middle East must develop skill-sets and roles that can compete with the GDPR rules. The data regulations have given rise to both challenges and solutions for companies and policymakers in the Middle East. One prominent trend highlighted as the challenge is personal data and information sharing with and without the consent of the customer or client. [17] claims that customers' privacy and right to freedom are threatened when companies share their personal information with third parties, especially during marketing activities. As a result, the bond of trustworthiness that is built between the customer and the client is badly affected [33]. Another challenge is investing time, money, and resources for the data regulations to be effectively enforced in the Middle East. Data regulations continue to be ineffective, from finding suitable leadership roles such as CISO, data protection officer, and senior management to developing these leaders' specific skill sets [8]. In other words, the efficiency of data regulations in the Middle East is compromised when the leaders do not have the required skillset, investment, and awareness to enforce and regulate these laws. Despite having compliance that is less strict and complex than EU-GDPR, the data regulations in the Middle East can only be implemented when businesses either re-engineer the information systems or develop an adequate privacy assessment and compliance procedure. [34] also highlights that the ADGM, DIFC, Qatari, and Bahraini laws for data regulation all demand data protection officers to ensure the processing and transferring of sensitive data in the region. It implies that any random employee or organization cannot be appointed to such a leading role. Thus, the leadership should have certain DPO characteristics and skillsets. Therefore, despite having data regulations in the Middle East, companies face challenges when dealing with data privacy issues. On the flip side, the data regulations have also provided an opportunity and solutions to many data privacy concerns. This includes a secure and safe business environment where the companies can conduct their international operations from the Middle East. [33] claims that with the advancement of data regulations in the Middle East, companies are thinking of using AI to act as "privacy concierges" and ensure safe data management and control. Such a system ensures that all unauthorized data transactions are automatically restricted, which saves time and resources in the data protection process. Thus, the data regulations in the Middle East have dragged the attention of policymakers,

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business leaders, and experts towards new solutions and opportunities to develop strong and secure data and information handling across the region.

6 Conclusion In light of the above findings and a review of the literature, it can be stated that the Middle East has been facing data privacy issues mainly because business has expanded in the region. The data regulations in the Middle East are still in their infancy stage, and this has created numerous challenges and opportunities for policymakers, business leaders, and experts. The key challenges that companies face when complying with data regulations in the Middle East are a high investment in terms of money, resources, and time, selecting an appropriate data protection officer with relevant skillset and expertise and ensuring that sensitive information of customers and clients is not unethically shared across various zones. On the other hand, the Middle East’s data regulations have also offered a secure and safe zone with financial penalties for any organization that violates the law. Since the Middle East data regulations are less strict than GDPR, companies can accelerate the data handling process by using AI in information handling. Thus, the privacy landscape in the Middle East is quite complex since it complies with the EU-GDPR.

7 Availability of Data and Material All information is included in this study.

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[2] PricewaterhouseCoopers, “Navigating data privacy regulations,” https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/services/consulting/technology/cyber-security/navigating-data-privacyregulations.html

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[3] The Middle East is a growing marketplace, not just a war zone, Atlantic Council, 23-Sep-2020. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-middle-east-is-a-growing-marketplace-not-just-awarzone [4] Person, “Middle East faced wave of cybersecurity threats since start of pandemic,” Arab News, 24-Oct-2021. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1953826/middle-east.

[5] A. Coos, “Data Protection Regulations in the Middle East,” Endpoint Protector Blog, 09-Dec-2020. https://www.endpointprotector.com/blog/data-protection-regulations-middle-east [6] Middle East data protection update - Taylor Wessing’s Global Data Hub, Home Taylor Wessing’s Global Data Hub. https://globaldatahub.taylorwessing.com/article/middle-east-data-protection-update [7] N. Pfeiffer, C. Stead, and D. Rosu, “The rise of data protection compliance as a risk - what executives in the Middle East Need to know,” White Label Consultancy, 08-Nov-2021. https://whitelabelconsultancy.com/2021/06/the-rise-of-data-protection-compliance-as-a-risk-what-executivesin-the-middle-east-need-to-know [8] G. Nandikotkur and R. Ross, “GDPR compliance in the Middle East: The challenges,” Bank Information Security. https://www.bankinfosecurity.asia/gdpr-compliance-in-middle-east-challenges-a-9640.

[9] P. S. Report2020-04-28T16:19:00+01:00, “Privacy landscape in the Middle East,” GRC World Forums, 28Apr-2020. https://www.grcworldforums.com/privacy-intelligence/privacy-landscape-in-the-middleeast/90.article.

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[10] M. J. Coy, “Research methodologies: Increasing understanding of the world,” International Journal of Scientific Research Publications, vol. 9, no. 1, 2019.

[11] Halim, “Ranjit Kumar Research Methodology a step by step G,” Investigación Bibliotecológica: archivonomía, bibliotecología e información, 22-Jul-2017. https://www.academia.edu/33999877/Ranjit_Kumar_Research_Methodology_A_Step_by_Step_G. [12] L. Lawson, S. Clegg, B. Czarniawska, G. Addidle, S. Danby, M. C. A. Lewis, M. H. Allison, D. M. McEachern, M. S. Murray, and M. S. Figgins, “Qualitative research,” SAGE Publications Ltd, 18-Mar-2022. https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/qualitative-research/book245489.

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[14] Regional briefing: Consumer privacy and data protection in Middle East and North Africa https://www.consumersinternational.org/media/314598/privacy-mena-briefing-dec2019.pdf [15] Breach level index report privacy content/uploads/2018/10/breach-level-index-report-h1-2018.pdf

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[16] Data Protection and privacy issues in the Middle East, Al Tamimi & Company. https://www.tamimi.com/law-update-articles/data-protection-and-privacy-issues-in-the-middle-east Morrison [17] Privacy and security law report https://media2.mofo.com/documents/140428privacylawsinafricaandthemiddleeast.pdf

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[18] J. Vitak and M. Zimmer, “More than just privacy: Using contextual integrity to evaluate the long-term risks from covid-19 Surveillance Technologies,” social media society, vol. 6, no. 3, 2020.

[19] T. Hendl, R. Chung, and V. Wild, “Pandemic surveillance and racialized subpopulations: Mitigating vulnerabilities in covid-19 apps - journal of bioethical inquiry,” SpringerLink, 2021.

[20] Peer Review #2 of ‘Data Privacy during pandemics: A systematic literature review of covid-19 smartphone applications (v0.2). 2022.

[21] H. S. Lallie, L. A. Shepherd, J. R. C. Nurse, A. Erola, G. Epiphaniou, C. Maple, and X. Bellekens, “Cyber security in the age of covid-19: A timeline and analysis of cyber-crime and cyber-attacks during the pandemic,” Computers & Security, 03-Mar-2021.

[22]

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[23] N. A. L.-D. Khalifa, “Identification and prevention of expected cybersecurity threats during 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar,” Journal of Poverty, Investment & Development, vol. 5, no. 1, pp.49–84, 2020.

[24] D. Wilkinson and M. Ooijevaar, “Data Protection, Privacy & Big Data 1,” Drone Law & Policy, pp.183– 212, 2021.

[25] A. Badran, “Developing smart cities: Regulatory and policy implications for the state of Qatar,” International Journal of Public Administration, pp. 1–14, 2021.

[26] S. M. Jr, “Data protection in the Middle East – 2021 regulatory round-up – part 4: Kuwait,” LMI Advisors, LLC Serving the unique needs of the global satellite industry., 29-Jan-2022. https://www.lmiadvisors.com/data-protection-in-the-middle-east-2021-regulatory-round-up-part-4-kuwait [27] M. C. F. M. C; “The EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in a research context,” National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31314241 [28] PricewaterhouseCoopers, “EU General Data Protection Regulation: Applicability to the Middle East,” PwC. https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/publications/gdpr-applicability-to-middle-east.html [29] Aig Care & AIG care. https://www.aig.ae/content/dam/aig/emea/uae/documents/uae-documents/aig-carebrochure.pdf [30]

What is GDPR, the EU’s new Data Protection Law? GDPR.eu, 13-Feb-2019. https://gdpr.eu/what-is-gdpr

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[31] UAE First Federal Data Protection Law, Global Privacy & Security Compliance Law Blog, 14-Dec-2021. https://www.globalprivacyblog.com/legislative-regulatory-developments/uae-publishes-first-federal-dataprotection-law [32] How does GDPR affect the education sector in the Middle East?, Al Tamimi & Company, 05-Jul-2020. https://www.tamimi.com/law-update-articles/how-does-gdpr-affect-the-education-sector-in-the-middle-east [33] S. Team, “Impact of modern privacy regulations in Middle East: 10xDS,” Exponential Digital Solutions, 20-Jan-2022. https://10xds.com/blog/modern-privacy-regulations-in-middle-east [34] B. Crew, Amid evolving privacy regulation in the Middle East, stalling on compliance is not an option, 23Aug-2021. https://iapp.org/news/a/amid-evolving-privacy-regulation-in-the-middle-east-stalling-oncompliance-is-no-longer-an-option [35] PricewaterhouseCoopers, “Navigating data privacy regulations,” https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/services/consulting/technology/cyber-security/navigating-data-privacyregulations.html

PwC.

Dr. Marwan Ali Albahar received his B.S. in computer science from King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia, and his M.Sc. in Computer Science with Honors from Frostburg State University, USA. Dr. Albahar received his Ph.D. from the University of Eastern Finland. Dr. Albahar a senior Information Security, Privacy, and Risk Management Professional with a solid technical background and a highly analytical mind. He has been involved in the information security field for the last 3+. His main areas of research are computer network security, cybersecurity, and artificial intelligence.

Dr. Mohammed Thanoon has taught several subjects in Computer Science and Computer Engineering at Umm Al-Qura University and Tennessee State University. His academic research interests involve the areas of human and machine teaming, data fusion, decision-making, intelligent control systems, artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, federated learning, edge computing, medical image processing, computer vision, robotics, and IoT. He is certified as a "MathWorks Certified MATLAB Associate."

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

The Relationship between Physical Self-Concept and Job Satisfaction among Physiotherapists in Saudi Arabia Ahmad Hassan Sultan Hakamy1*, Yahya Abdu Kulaybi1, Mohamed Mohamed Ibrahim Salem2, Amr Ahmad Fallatah3, Majed Abdulrahman Alghamdi4 King Fahad Central Hospital, Jazan, SAUDI ARABIA. Umm Al-Qura University, Mekka, SAUDI ARABIA. 3 East Jeddah Hospital, Jeddah, SAUDI ARABIA. 4 Comprehensive Rehabilitation Center, Jeddah, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: Hakamy.ahmad @gmail.com).

1 2

Paper ID: 13A5R Volume 13 Issue 5

Abstract

Work satisfaction can be seen as a proxy for emotional or physiological health as physiotherapists (PTs) were facing high levels of Received 02 December 2021 Received in revised form 15 occupational stress which are associated with excessive exertion that April 2022 physiotherapists endure in their daily work. The purpose of this study was to Accepted 23 April 2022 determine the relationship between Physical Self-Concept with the job Available online 30 April satisfaction among physiotherapists working in Saudi Arabia.

The 2022 convenient, descriptive-correlation type of study design was used. Online Keywords: questionnaires Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP) and the short form of Job satisfaction; Physical the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (MSQ) were conducted through self-concept; Google Form. The responses were organized in Excel and analyzed using Physiotherapist; Job SPSS. Demographic data (gender, age, last educational degree, total working stress; Physiotherapy; Physical Self-Perception experience, the region in which they work, and duration of working on the current job) were descriptively summarized and analyzed. Surveying 189 PTs Profile (PSPP); Minnesota satisfaction were about their level of PSPP score (M= 65.05 and SD= 16.4) and their MSQ questionnaire (MSQ). score (M= 69.3 and SD= 14.7). The relationship was positive, weak in strength, and statistically significant (r = 0.34, Sig < 0.05). There was a highly significant relationship between physiotherapists’ physical self-concept and job satisfaction. And their job satisfaction was raised as their PSC raised moreover both male and female physiotherapists’ job satisfaction was influenced by their physical self-concept.

Disciplinary: Psychology, Management. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Hakamy, A. H. S., Kulaybi, Y. A., Salem, M. M. I., Fallatah, A. A., Alghamdi, M. A. (2022). The Relationship between Physical Self-Concept and Job Satisfaction among Physiotherapists in Saudi Arabia.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5R, 1-10. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.102

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1 Introduction The important attribute that strongly affects competitive decisions among humans is the degree of confidence in one’s abilities. The biases in self-confidence including overconfidence can greatly affect individuals’ empowerment and position in society moreover eventually impacting society in different aspects. In recent years, an increase in performance has been the foundation need of what is dreamed by all people to stand out in their respective fields. Physical therapy involves evaluating, diagnosing, and treating a range of diseases, disorders, and disabilities using physical aspects. Employment opportunities for physiotherapists (PTs) are tremendous as it is a career where the demand exceeds supply. Physiotherapy is a profession that can be highly stressful with personal and/or work-related factors adding to the pressure and influencing job satisfaction among physiotherapists [10].

Saudi Arabia (SA) is one of the fastest-growing economies in the world over the past few decades and has witnessed enormous growth and change, with diseases of civilization, road traffic accidents, and increasing age, growing the demand for physiotherapists will provide services.

Physical therapy has been identified as the most important branch of the health care profession in Saudi Arabia. Moreover, it constitutes the maximum number of staff working in the rehabilitation sector, out of which around 80% are employed by the government in hospitals [4].

The study aims to determine the relationship between the PSC and the job satisfaction among PTs working in Saudi Arabia and the daily work of PTs puts considerable strain on the articular, skeletal, and muscular systems, which are associated with excessive exertion that PTs endure in their daily work. PTs as autonomous practitioners, often working in a multidisciplinary health care environment, also encounter unique and complex ethical challenges like incompatibility of available resources and patient needs [24] and unethical behavior of PTs or other professionals, and realization of patients’ self-governance [27]. Also, a close physical and emotional correlation between the patient and PTs creates specific ethical issues [30], such as how to maintain however, the high level of professional competence among these professionals does not translate into an adequate salary. The lack of a well-defined range of responsibilities contributes to PTs less frequently declaring satisfaction with their work. [33].

PSC is a person’s perceptions of himself/herself formed through experience with and interpretations of his/her environment related to his/her physical domain [32] or it can be defined as self-perceptions about one’s physical self and considered a significant antecedent of motivation, behavioral engagement and mental health outcomes in exercise. settings. PSC is deemed essential for realizing human potential [12] and develops by internalizing experiences in one’s social environment [29].

Much of the self-concept literature has reported developments within the realm of academics. However, it is important to explore the non-academic facets of self-concept as well. For this study, in particular, the relationship between self-concept and work-related involvement is

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important. It has been proven that as an individual develops, facets of self-concept become increasingly independent [28].

Job satisfaction and morale among medical practitioners are a current concern worldwide [23]. It is one of the central variables in work and organizational psychology and is seen as an important indicator of working life quality [15]. Behavioral and social science research suggests that job satisfaction and job performance are positively correlated [7]. Satisfied employees tend to be more productive and creative. Job demands and job control have been reported to have several interactive effects on employee wellbeing and health in specific occupational groups [14]. Job satisfaction is defined as the degree to which individuals feel positive or negative about their jobs [31]. It is a multidimensional response toward the work and workplace environment and improves positive energy and performance [6] moreover Job satisfaction can affect the behavior of employees that, in turn, affects organizational functioning [5]. As per Aldermen. et al humans have three sets of basic needs including existence, relatedness, and growth. If attempts to satisfy needs with high priority are not fruitful, then the individual will focus on his demands that initially had a lower priority, which can lead to frustration and dissatisfaction. A few factors like autonomy, pay, task demands, and organizational policies are also known to have a significant effect on job satisfaction [19]. Satisfaction at work is also inversely associated with absenteeism, turnover in an organization, level of stress, and eventual exhaustion that ultimately improves productivity [1]. A review of existing literature provides the relationship between self-concept in sports and academics. Up to our knowledge, the prevalence of PSC in PTs and its relation to job satisfaction needs to be determined. Therefore, this study tried to explore the relationship of PSC with the job satisfaction in PTs working in SA If the results indicate that there is any relationship between the PSC and job satisfaction among PTs, then this study will obtain some useful information being assisted for all officials, managers and seniors regarding PSC and the degree of job satisfaction among PTs. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between PSC and job satisfaction among PTs working in SA. This study showed that there was a correlation between PSC and job satisfaction among PTs working in SA.

2 Methodology A convenient, descriptive-correlation type of study design was used in this study to test expected relationships among variables. This design aims to provide a sufficiently complete description of what is happening at a particular time. A non-probability sample of the different hospitals and clinics working physiotherapists (20-25 years) in Saudi Arabia were recruited to fulfill the required sample size is 189. The eligible candidates were given the consent form through mail or social media in the form of a Google Form. All descriptive variables of all subjects were recorded.

Inclusion Criteria Sex: Healthy male/female PTs of ages 25 to 50 years.

PTs working in SA. A Subject who will agree to fill the informed consent.

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Exclusion Criteria A Subject who will not be agreeing to fill the informed consent.

PTs work for different professionals.

2.1 Tools and Measuring Method The questionnaire of PSC (Physical Self-Perception Profile] (PSPP] and Job satisfaction questionnaire (Short form of Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire] (MSQ] with 20-item were applied to gather the related data. Both of these questionnaires and informed consent were mailed to PTs working in different hospitals and clinics in SA. The filled forms were collected for data analysis.

2.2 Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP) PSPP is a multidimensional 30-item self-report instrument measuring an individual’s PSC. It features 4-domain-specific subscales assessing perceived sport competence (SPORT), body attractiveness (BODY), physical condition (CONDITION), and physical strength (STRENGTH), and one subscale that assesses a global perception of overall physical self-worth (PSW). A 4-choice structured alternative item format is used with 6-items per subscale. [18].

3 Results and Discussion Statistical analyses will provide an explanation of the relationship between demographic characteristics of the patient as well as the Physical Self-Concept and Job Satisfaction All statistical analyses were conducted by using IBM SPSS Statistics version 21. Data will be presented as descriptive analysis; frequencies, percentages and mean ± standard deviation. It is expected that the result of this study will add a base of body knowledge regarding Physical Self-Concept and Job Satisfaction among physiotherapists in SA. Table 1: frequency and distribution of sociodemographic characteristics of study sample n=189 Gender Male Female

No. 161 28

MALE

Table 2: frequency and distribution of professional qualification Degree Diploma Graduate Post-graduate PhD

No. 13 102 69 5

FEMALE DIPLOMA POST-GRADUATE

15%

85%

GRADUATE PhD 3% 7%

36% 54%

Figure 1: Gender

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Figure 2: Education background.

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Table 3: frequency and distribution of duration of present job Duration of present job 5≤ 6 to 1o 10 ≥

5≤

Table 4: frequency and distribution of region Region North East West South Middle

No 92 65 32

6 TO 1O

10≥

NORTH

EAST

No. 14 11 32 117 15

WEST SOUTH 7% 8% 6%

MIDDLE

17% 49%

17%

34%

62%

Figure 3: Duration of present job

Figure 4: Region.

Table 5: frequency and distribution on total work experience

Table 6: frequency and distribution on post

Total work experience ≤5 6 to 10 ≥ 10 5≤

6 TO 10

Post Senior Junior

No. 113 61 15

No. 107 82

SENIOR

10 ≥

JUNIOR

8% 43% 32%

57%

60%

Figure 5: Total work experiences.

Figure 6: Post

Table 7: frequency and distribution on age of therapist Age 25-30 31-35 36-40 40+ 25-30

No. 79 68 35 7 31-35 4% 18%

36-40

40+

42%

36%

Figure 7: Age of therapist.

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Table 8: Mean and SD of PSPP score and MSQ Scores.

Female (28) Male (161) Total (189)

PSPP Score in % Mean SD 67.2 ±19.0 62.9 ±15.8 65.05 ±16.4

MSQ Score in % Mean SD 69.5 ±17.4 69.1 ±14.2 69.3 ±14.7

Tables 1-7 and Figures 1-7 show details of PTs who participated in this study.

Some

researchers support the relationship between self-concept and performance in sports. Results of the present study showed a significant positive correlation between PSC and job satisfaction among the PTs working in SA. Positive levels of self-confidence led to higher subsequent levels of PTs’ performance. In other words, because PTs understand their body, psychological factors such as selfesteem and sense of achievement are high. It is similar to the study of [11]. PSC includes the persons’ attitude toward their body dimensions and lack of proper perception of the PSC has been linked to physical, mental, and social disorders. Tabiee et al. [35] found that athletic performance improves the physical self-esteem and self-esteem of students. Therefore, health system policymakers can promote the necessary facilities for expanding the culture of physiotherapy activities and also create an environment with sufficient facilities in the different physiotherapy departments.

PSC is generally regarded as a feminine feature. The relationship between physical appearance and self-esteem shows extremely robust across both gender and age [22] the current study showed that female PTs have high PSPP scores than that male PTs. [16]and both males and females have almost the same score in self-concept.

PTs are exposed to physical strains in their profession. Working in a forward-bending posture and repetitive hand movements involving physical effort represent typical strains on PTs. As confirmed by [19] these appear to have been provoked by awkward body postures: 55% of PTs surveyed stated that they often had worked in the position of forwarding bending and also torso at an angle of 45° to 90°, which can lead to musculoskeletal problems in the posterior part.[13], found that 17% of PTs changed their specialism or even their profession on account of musculoskeletal diseases. Stress will lead to people’s psyches and satisfaction with life [21] ad can lead to workrelated musculoskeletal diseases or to a change in the workplace [9]. The results of this study show that nearly 70% of PTs surveyed were satisfied with their jobs as a whole. This is a good percentage and agreed with the findings of other studies that also found a high level of job satisfaction among PTs [34]. the PTs tend to belong to the group of active workers. This is an important factor for a high level of job satisfaction. The demands on PTs have to work quickly, unevenly distributed work that mounts up because sometimes less than 15 minutes were needed to complete all tasks which include documentation. This can also be a reason for less job satisfaction.

A relaxed and collegial work climate makes a substantial contribution to employees’ health.

Professionals discussing their ideas with colleagues about difficult cases or new techniques also help in solving stressful problems and one’s self-esteem in respect of one’s own professional

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competence . Setbacks can also affect the self-esteem and self-belief of PTs. In some, it can be a catalyst encouraging them to do better and better. While in others, it can start to affect their performance. Psychological strength is an important factor for PTs, but psychological weakness can also determine how PT performs on the day. Being under-prepared can affect their ability and cause stress or anxiety, and further, it can lead to poor job satisfaction. Mental strength is not enough to compensate for lack of skill, but if physical skills are matched, PTs with the strongest control over their own mind will usually be the winner. Previous researchers in self-concept theory suggest that a positive self-concept has self-enhancing effects including increases in future motivation [17]. The overall mean and SD of PSPP Score statistics show that female PTs have more scores as compared to that male PSPP Score and total PSPP Score. The overall mean and SD of MSQ Score statistics show that both male and female PTs have almost the same score.189 PTs were surveyed about their Level of PSPP score (M= 65.05, SD= ±16.4] and their MSQ score (M= 69.3, SD= ±14.7]. The relationship was positive, weak in strength, and statistically significant (r = 0.34, p< 0.05). A complete list of correlations is presented in Table 9.

Table 9: Correlation between PSPP Score and MSQ Score MSQ Score in % Pearson Correlation 0.34 PSPP Score in % Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000* N 189 Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

A similar study can be conducted on a large sample for better generalization of findings and can be choosing a different kind of diagnosis seeking physiotherapy. Health organizations must develop job satisfaction strategies to combat this. Most of the reviewed literature pointed to the importance of ensuring an adequate level.

For future research, different measuring

instrumentation may be necessary. There are several alternative methods for measuring the current study’s variables. PSPP is one way of many ways that PSC can be measured. Although the scale’s reliability and validity are well established, there was one issue of concern throughout the study.

The questionnaire is a 4-choice structured alternative item format. This was a cause of confusion to a majority of the subjects and required the researcher to administer additional verbal instruction.

While this scale was chosen for its length (only 30 items), a questionnaire with a Likert-scale response format might produce less confusion for the participants.

4 Conclusion This study’s findings indicate significant links between PSC, and job satisfaction among PTs. However, the research techniques used in this study are only an initial step for the research in this field. Alterations should be considered to find more specific and expounding results. The result of the present study showed more significance and it indicates there was a relationship between PTs’ PSC and job satisfaction.

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5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6 Acknowledgement We are great full to ALLAH, for being the kindest and most merciful in helping me to achieve this work and we would like to extend our gratitude to Umm Al-Qura University and our supervisor for his commitment and support in the succession of this research. Through his supervision, guidance, and encouragement we could always accomplish my research goal. We appreciated your insights and contributions that lead to the completion of the work. Also, we would like to extend our gratitude to all the hospitals and clinics in Saudi Arabia for providing permission to complete the research

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Ahmad Hassan Sultan Hakamy is a Senior Physiotherapist working at the Medical Rehabilitation Center in King Fahad Central Hospital of Jazan. Saudia Arabia, He is interested in the continuous development of related to Medical Rehabilitation and Scientific research for Orthopedic cases.

Yahya Abdu Kulaybi is a Senior Physiotherapist working at the Medical Rehabilitation Center in King Fahad Central Hospital of Jazan. Saudia Arabia is interested in the continuous development of related to Medical Rehabilitation and Scientific research for Orthopedic cases.

Dr.Mohamed Mohamed Ibrahim Salem is Professor, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura and professor in College of Physical Therapy, Cairo University. He is interested in Sports Injuries and Orthopedic Diseases with special focus on Shoulder and Knee Region io Develop new Diagnosticoolsn Order Tools and interested in understanding the Biomechanics and Pathomechanics of Different Body Regions.

Amr Fallatah is a Senior Physical Therapy Specialist in the Department of Physical Therapy at East Jeddah General Hospital.

Fallatah’s researches focus on the field of Musculoskeletal and Sports Medicine.

Majed Alghamdi is a Senior Physical Therapy Specialist at Comprehensive Rehabilitation Center in Jeddah.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

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Large-Scale Laboratory Modeling of the Performance of the Stone Column Group in Improving the Behavior of Sandy Soils Reza Naderi1 , Ali Yousefi Samangani2* Faculty of Civil & Architectural Engineering, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, IRAN. Civil-Geotechnics Group, Shahrud Industrial University, IRAN. *Corresponding Author (Email: r_naderi@shahroodut.ac.ir).

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Paper ID: 13A5S Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 24 December 2021 Received in revised form 15 April 2022 Accepted 25 April 2022 Available online 02 May 2022

Keywords:

Stone column group; Sandy soil; Loadcarrying capacity; Soil load settlement behavior; Geometric arrangement; Single stone column.

Abstract

One of the efficient methods to improve soil behavior is the use of stone columns. Due to the high volume of studies on the performance of single Stone columns, in this study, we will seek to investigate the performance of group Stone columns in improving the behavior of sandy soils. Sandy soils, especially in coastal areas, due to the lean mechanical properties of the soil, have always been considered an unsuitable soil sample in the design and the need for improvement in this type of soil is urgently needed. Therefore, in this article, by using stone columns as a group, we will seek to improve the behavior of sandy soil. How to arrange the stone columns (square, triangular arrangement) and the diameter of the stone columns (60, 80 and 120 mm) are the main variables in this article. In all models, the length-to-diameter ratio is considered equal to 5. The load-carrying capacity and soil settlement have been investigated for different modes of stone column arrangement in the laboratory environment as superimposed load.

The results obtained from the article show that the arrangement of the stone column in a triangular and square shape can increase the soil load carrying capacity by 31.8 and 37.5%, respectively. This incremental trend is more noticeable in the square arrangement. Also, based on other results of this article, it was observed that by increasing the diameter column parameter and increasing the diameter equivalent of the stone column group, we will see an improvement in the performance of the stone column group in increasing the sandy soil load-carrying capacity.

Disciplinary: Civil Engineering (Geotechnical Engineering). ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Naderi, R., Samangani, A.Y. (2022). Large-Scale Laboratory Modeling of the Performance of the Stone Column Group in Improving the Behavior of Sandy Soils. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5S, 1-13. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.103

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1 Introduction Soil improvement is a process in which an increase in soil quality is observed. In other words, in the process of soil improvement, mechanical and resistance parameters, the soil increases. In different conditions, according to the characteristics of the earth for the construction of the structure and also according to the time and economic factors, the optimal method for improving feeble soil can be selected. Currently, the stone column method is implemented in a wide range of soil types, especially feeble soils. As a simple and complete definition of a stone column, it can be said that the replacement of a part of feeble soil by compacted vertical columns consisting of aggregate in a regular and completely permeable set in the soil layers is called stone or sand columns. Stone columns, as one of the suitable options, to improve the load-carrying capacity of loose, cohesive and aggregate soils, which in addition to reducing soil settlement, is an effective, economical and environment-friendly method in structures built on Soil is also considered. Due to the actual damage and casualty caused by the construction of various buildings on feeble soils, the importance of developing improved methods in feeble and unsuitable soils is essential. Moreover, sandy soils are always considered as an example of unsuitable soil in design.

The use of stone columns as an environmentally friendly method is one of the most common methods of soil improvement in cohesive and non-cohesive soils. In this method, the stone column replaces part of the feeble soil. This method is based on replacing 15 to 35% of feeble soil volume, which is done by shaft sinkings with a certain diameter, depth and distance from each other and filling the wells with sand or gravel. Accordingly, group stone columns are mainly Square arrangements or Triangle arrangements (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Display the square and Triangle arrangement of stone columns in the present article In a triangular arrangement, the number of stone columns in a fixed surface area is more than in the square arrangement. In triangular and square arrangements, the loading surface of each column (A) will be regular and square hexagons, respectively [1]. From the point of view of seismic geophysical engineering, stone columns are mainly used for reduction and lateral expansion effects in granular soils [2]. It is necessary to pay attention to the fact that the main application of stone columns is in fine-grained soils with a high fine-grained percentage. In non-cohesive soils, the presence of stone columns increases the soil loading capacity. Also, in conditions where the soil mass is considered, the presence of a stone column, due to the reduction of soil porosity, will

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reduce the soil liquefaction. In general, stone columns can increase load carrying capacity, reduce settlement, increase effective soil stress and create drainage conditions. Laboratory studies and numerical loadings have shown that the main reason for improving the soil behavior reinforced with stone columns is the higher stiffness of the stone column compared to the stiffness of the surrounding soil [3]. In saturated and non-cohesive soils, the pore water pressure increases rapidly and may be such that the particles are suspended separately from each other and for a moment the strength and stiffness of the soil are completely lost. The most effective way to deal with displacement and settlement in saturated sands is to use stone columns.

2 Review The stone column was first proposed by Wei Hu [4] in 1995. In this study, the behavior of a reinforced soft clay soil sample with a set of stone columns is studied and tested and the collapse real mechanism and collapse of stone columns with a rigid circular base and by performing a series of controlled experiments, vertical loading has been investigated in vitro. Based on the results of this article, the length-to-diameter ratio of about 6 is introduced as the critical length of the stone column in the design [4]. Bae et al. [5] reviewed a laboratory model of a group of stone columns and while comparing the results with the results of the numerical finite element model, reported the coordination and agreement between the results.

Andrew and Papadopoulos [6] studied the effect of load-carrying capacity, area ratio, internal friction angle and undrained shearing strength on the horizontal displacement of a stone column in cohesive soil. The column was subjected to extensive loading through a rigid foundation and was modeled using the single-cell concept. They use an axial symmetric finite element analysis while using the Mohr-Coulomb criterion for columns and soil, they examined the effect of the variables on the improved ground. Jahromi et al. [7] evaluated the loading indicators of soft grounds improved with the stone column group. In this study, various factors such as stone column area ratio, material strength and resistance and mechanical specification of the stone column and soil at the group scale have been studied and evaluated to determine the impact of these factors on the design and improvement of soft grounds. The results of this study clearly show that factors such as modulus of elasticity and internal friction angle of the stone column material as well as the Poisson’s ratio of soil around the stone column, have a significant impact on increasing the loadcarrying capacity of soil improved by the method presented in this study. Castro [8] studied a series of two-dimensional and three-dimensional finite element analyses to evaluate the performance of a group of stone columns under a rigid foundation.The results of this research showed that the number and arrangement of stone columns have the least effect on changes in the load-settlement curve.He also showed that in order to estimate the reduction of settlement and the critical length of stone columns, the group of stone columns located under the foundation can be replaced with a stone column with an equivalent surface in the center of the foundation. Meshkin Ghalam et al. [9] studied a numerical investigation of the impact of stone columns. The results of this study showed that by increasing the distance from the center to the center of the columns, the effect of the group

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in reducing the overpressure of the pore water pressure. At a certain number, as the distance between the columns decreases, the soil swelling increases. For the distance from the center to the center of the columns 2.5 to 3.5 times the column diameter, the column group performs better in reducing settlement. By applying a superimposed load, in the model with the column group in a circular range with an approximate radius equal to the distance from the center to the center of the columns, the settlement is significantly reduced compared to the column less mode. Haji Azizi and Nasiri [10] conducted a laboratory study on the effect of bond area on the earthen sustaining slopes with stone columns. Laboratory results and numerical analysis obtained from this study showed that 5% of cohesive fine-grained soil has a great effect on increasing the slope stabilization of reinforced stone columns. The results obtained from numerical analyzes show good coordination with laboratory modeling. Lajevardi et al. [11] conducted a laboratory study of singular and group stone columns confined in geotextiles. In this study, single and group stone columns in two normal modes with geotextile coating were studied in the laboratory. Singular stone columns with a diameter of 63 and 80 mm with a length-to-diameter ratio of 5 have been loaded. The results show that the load-carrying capacity of the column is increased by placing a geotextile coating around it.

In the following, the stone columns with a diameter of 63 mm were tested in groups in different arrangements and their load carrying capacity was compared with each other.The results of this study show, that with increasing the diameter of a singular stone column, its load-carrying capacity has decreased and in loading on singular and group stone columns, the placement of adjacent columns has increased the load-carrying capacity of the samples by 6.3% and 8%, respectively.

Also, based on the results of this study, it was found that the load-carrying capacity of group columns with two triangular and square arrangements has a difference of 5% from each other.

Dinarvand and Ardakani 2018 [12] in a study to investigate the behavior of granular columns enclosed with geosynthetics in silty sand soil under a direct shear test. In this study, the effect of factors such as fine-grained soils, normal stress, the effect of the granular column group and the granular of the column material on the passive resistance of the soil and granular column set has been investigated. In the present study, large-scale laboratory studies have been performed to evaluate the performance of stone column groups in improving sandy soil behavior. In this regard, the effect of the presence of stone columns, the effect of the type of triangular or square arrangement of stone columns and the effect of the diameter of the stone column on the loadcarrying capacity of sandy soil have been investigated. Therefore, after making the test box, the various modes studied were performed in the laboratory environment and the samples were exposed to lateral loading.

3 Laboratory Studies 3.1 Testing (Box) Machine Due to the fact that in this research, large-scale laboratory modeling is considered, it is necessary to make the dimensions of the experiment clear. Therefore, in order to perform

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experiments on group stone columns with the desired arrangement, it is necessary to make the necessary equipment to perform the experiment. For this purpose, equipment including a large metal box was made as a simulated earthen bed with dimensions of 111 * 111 * 95. It should be noted that after making the device with the desired dimensions and considering that the wedge created under the foundation is spread to a distance of about 2 to 2.5 times the width of the foundation from the center of the foundation to the surrounding area, the border conditions on The results of large-scale experiments will not be effective. Figure 2 shows the built-in test box. Other equipment required for laboratory studies including a loading plate, displacement sensors, dynamometer and the hydraulic jack can be seen in Figure (3). In this study, in order to apply load on group stone columns, a circular steel loading plate has been used. A hydraulic jack with a maximum capacity of 3 tons is applied to the center of the loading plate and two displacement sensors record the amount of displacement recorded on the steel plate. Also, by installing a dynamometer sensor, at the point of contact of the jack with the steel plate, the amount of force applied to the steel plate can be controlled and measured.

Figure 2: built test device in this study

Figure 3: required laboratory device in this study

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3.2 Construction of Stone Columns There are different methods for making stone columns. In this study, a plastic sheath (thinwalled pipe) with diameters of 60, 80 and 120 mm was used to make stone columns. During the construction of the model, at each stage, according to the specific gravity of the column, the required sand was poured into the pod and compacted. At this stage, the sand was granulated.

Figures 3 and 4 show the sand granulation curve and the details of the stone column construction, respectively. Specific gravity, internal friction angle, modulus of elasticity and specific gravity of sand used to make stone columns are 16 kN / m2, 41°, 100 MPa and 2.6 kg/m3, respectively. It should be noted that after the installation of each of the stone column pipes, the soil inside the stone columns is removed by Oger and the space inside the pipes is filled with sand.

Figure 4: Granulate curve of sand as the main materials forming the stone pillar

Figure 5: construction processes of stone column

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3.3 Material The soil studied in this study is sandy. Therefore, the stone columns surrounded by sand have been installed and tested. The characteristics of the studied sand can be seen in Table (1).

Table 1: introduce properties of sandy soil used in this study Parameters Dry specific weight Saturated specific weight Dry internal friction angle Saturated internal friction angle Adhesion Elasticity module Specific density Poisson’s ratio Max porosity ratio Min porosity ratio

Value 16 kN/m2 18 kN/m2 40 degree 36 degree 0 40 Mpa 2.65 0.3 0.6 0.3

3.4 Introduction of Studied Laboratory Models The models studied in this study are classified and named based on the studied variables.

Therefore, the models are introduced based on the arrangement and diameter of the stone columns, according to Table (3). The main variables in this study are : - Diameter of stone columns (d): The diameter of stone columns has been used as one of the variables in three values of 60,80 and 120 mm.

- Length to diameter ratio of stone column (L / d): This parameter is considered 5. According to the proposed diameters, the length of the stone columns will be in the form of a table (2).

- Layout of stone columns: Stone columns have been studied and evaluated as a group in two categories of 3 (with triangular arrangement) and 4 (with square arrangement).

Table 2: stone column length D (mm) 60 80 120

L/d=5 300 400 600

According to the introduced variables, 6 different modeling modes (1* 2 * 3modes) have been studied, which are introduced in Table (3). It should be noted that the loading on the samples continued until the soil settles to the extent of 50 mm. All tests were performed under controlled displacement and at a constant rate of 2 mm/min. To ensure the accuracy of the results, all experiments were performed twice and the results were compared with each other.

Table 3: Introducing the studied modes Row 1 2 3 4 5 6

Abbreviation SC60-300-3 SC60-300-4 SC80-400-3 SC80-400-4 SC120-600-3 SC120-600-4

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Stone column diameter (mm) 60 60 80 80 120 120

Stone column length (mm) 300 300 400 400 600 600

Geometric of arrangement Triple Square Triple Square Triple square

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4 Experimental Results The effect of stone columns in single and group mode with two triangular and square layouts on soil loading capacity has been evaluated and analyzed. Therefore, the settling load curve for sandy soil without stone columns, sandy soil improved using a single stone column, sandy soil improved by using three stone columns in a triangular arrangement, and sandy soil improved by using four columns A stone is obtained in a square arrangement. Also, in order to investigate the effect of the diameter of stone columns on soil loading capacity, the results for stone columns with three diameters of 60, ,80 and 120mm in both triangular and square layouts have been analyzed. In the following, we will examine the effect of the presence of the stone column, the diameter of the stone column and the geometric arrangement of the stone column on the loading capacity of sandy soil .

4.1 The Effect of Stone Columns on the Loading Capacity of Sandy Soil According to Figure 5, the presence of stone columns in sandy soils has increased the loading capacity of the soil. In a way, the use of a single stone column has increased the loading capacity of sandy soil by 29.7% compared to the case of not using a stone column. Also, the comparison of the performance of the group of three stone pillars in comparison with the single stone pillar shows that the use of three stone pillars with a diameter of 60 mm has increased the loading capacity of the soil by 318%. Figure (6) shows the effect of the arrangement of a group of 4 stone columns on the settlement load curve of sandy soil. In this figure, it is observed that the use of the arrangement of 4 stone columns with a diameter of 60 mm, has increased the loading capacity of sandy soil by 37.5% compared to the case of using a single stone column. It can be seen that the presence of stone columns in the sandy soil bed has increased the loading capacity of the soil. This upward trend is more noticeable with the increase in the number of stone columns participating in the group of stone columns.

Figure 6: Comparison of load settlement behavior of sandy soil with various stone column arrangements.

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Figure 7: Comparison of load settlement behavior of stone column with single and square arrangements.

4.2 Effect of Stone Column Diameter on Sandy Soil Loading Capacity To investigate the effect of the diameter of stone columns on the loading capacity of sandy soil, a group of stone columns consisting of single stone columns with diameters of 60,80 and 120 mm with two triangular (triple) and square (quadruple) arrangements was tested. Figure (7) shows the load-settlement curve of the group of stone columns with a triangular arrangement with three different diameters. It can be seen that increasing the diameter of the stone column has increased the final loading capacity of the sandy soil. So that the use of stone columns with a diameter of 80 and 120 mm, compared to a diameter of 60 mm in a triangular arrangement has increased the soil loading capacity by 15.4 % and 24.1%, respectively. Also, in Figure (8) the effect of changes in the diameter of stone columns on the loading capacity of sandy soil with a square arrangement is investigated. The results show that the use of the square arrangement of stone columns with a diameter of 80 and 120 mm compared to stone columns with a diameter of 60 mm, respectively, increased the loading capacity of sandy soil by 22.5% and 30%, respectively.

Figure 8: Effect of stone column diameter on the loading capacity of sandy soil with triangle arrangement

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Figure 9: Effect of stone column diameter on the loading capacity of sandy soil with the square arrangement

4.3 The Effect of Geometric Arrangement of Group of Stone Columns on the Loading Capacity of Sandy Soil To investigate the effect of the geometric arrangement of the group of stone columns (with fixed column diameters), the settlement load diagram for three diameters in two triangular and square layouts was examined. According to Figures 9 to 11, the effect of the geometric arrangement of the stone column group on the loading capacity of sandy soil can be evaluated. It can be seen that in the case of stone columns with a diameter of 60mm, changing the geometric arrangement of the stone column groups from triangular to square shape has increased the loading capacity of sandy soil by 8.3%. Also, if the diameter of the stone column is equal to 80 and 120 mm, this increasing trend has increased the loading capacity of the soil by 19% and 15.09% respectively, by changing the arrangement from triangular to square. Therefore, it can be concluded that with increasing the diameter of stone columns and increasing the equivalent diameter in the group of stone columns, the loading capacity of sandy soil has an upward trend.

Figure 10: effect of stone column arrangement on the loading capacity of sandy soil with 60 mm diameters.

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Figure 11: effect of stone column arrangement on the loading capacity of sandy soil with 80 mm diameters.

Figure 12: effect of stone column arrangement on the loading capacity of sandy soil with 120 mm diameters.

5 Conclusion In this study, a number of experiments were performed on stone columns in both single and group modes with two different arrangements to evaluate the effect of some parameters affecting the loading capacity of sandy soil. Therefore, stone columns with three diameters of 60, 80 and 120 mm singularly and in groups in two modes of triangular arrangement (with three single columns) and square arrangement (with four single columns) with a length to diameter ratio of 5 in the experiment box was evaluated and tested on a large scale. According to the experiments, the results obtained are as follows: The presence of stone columns in sandy soils has increased the loading capacity of the soil.

The use of a single stone column has increased the loading capacity of sandy soil by 26.7% Also, the comparison of the performance of the group of stone columns with the triangular arrangement in comparison with the single stone column shows that the use of the triangular arrangement of stone columns with a diameter of 60 mm increases 31.8% and the use of the arrangement of 4 stone

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columns with a diameter of 60 mm with arrangement Square, 37.5% have increased the loading capacity of sandy soil compared to the use of a single stone column .

Increasing the diameter of the stone column has increased the final loading capacity of the sandy soil. So that the use of stone columns with a diameter of 80 and 120 mm, compared to the diameter of 60 mm, in a triangular arrangement has increased 15.4% and 24.1% soil load capacity, respectively. Also, the use of the square arrangement of stone columns with a diameter of 80 and 120 mm in comparison with stone columns with a diameter of 60 mm, has increased the loading capacity of sandy soil by 22.5 % and 30.4%, respectively.

Changing the geometric arrangement of the stone column groups from triangular to square has increased the loading capacity of sandy soil by 8.3%. If the diameter of the stone column is 80 and 120 mm, this increasing trend increases the loading capacity of the soil by 19% and 15,9%, respectively, by changing the arrangement from triangular to square. It can be concluded that by increasing the diameter of stone columns and increasing the equivalent diameter in the group of stone columns, soil loading capacity can be increased.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 References Pulko, B. and Majes, B. (2006). Analytical method for the analysis of stone columns according to the Rowe Dilatancy theory. Acta Geotechnica Slovenica, 3(1), 37-45.

Krishna, M. and Madhav, M.R. (2009). Engineering of ground for liquefaction mitigation using granular columnar inclusions: recent developments. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 2(3), 526-536.

Ambily, A. P. and Gandhi. S. R.. (2007). Behavior of Stone Columns Based on Experimental and FEM Analysis. Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, 133.

Hu, W.. (1995). Physical Modeling of Group Behavior of Stone Column Foundations. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Glasgow, U.K. Bae, W., Bang, W. and Byung, C.. (2002). Behavior of Foundation System Improved with Stone Columns, Proc. 12th Int. Offshore and Polar Engineering Conf., Int. Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers, Cupertino, CA. Andreou, P. and Papadopoulos, V.. (2006). Modelling Stone Columns in Soft Clay. Proc. 6th European Conf. on Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, Graz, 777–780.

Castro J. (2014). Numerical modelling of stone columns beneath a rigid footing. Computers and Geotechnics, 60, 77-87.

Ghalam, M., et al. (2020). Numerical study of the effect of stone columns. Journal of Civil & Environmental Engineering, 49(2).

Azizi, M.H. and, Massoud, N. (2017). Laboratory study of the effect of adhesion on the stability of earthen slopes reinforced with stone columns. Journal of Modares Civil Engineering, 17(1).

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Lajevardi, S.H., Enami, Shamsi, S.H.R., Hamidi, M. (2019). Experimental study of single and groups of stone columns encased by geotextiles. Amirkabir J. Civil Eng, 50(6).

Dinarvand, R. and Ardakani, A. (2019). Behavior of geosynthetically enclosed grain columns in sandy loam soil under direct shear testing. Journal of Civil Engineering Amirkabir, 50(5).

Dr.Reza Naderi is an Associate Professor at the Shahrood University of Technology in IRAN. He is Assistant Professor Faculty of Civil & Architectural Engineering. He holds a PhD in Geotechnical Engineering. His research encompasses Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering Soil Mechanics Rock Mechanic

Ali Yousefi Samangani is a Ph.D. student in the Civil-Geotechnics Group at Shahrud Industrial University in IRAN.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

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Impacts of Applying Artificial Intelligence on Decision-Making Quality: A Descriptive Study in Saudi Arabian Private Sector Organizations Nermeen Bakheet Aljohani1, Saja Albliwi2* Business Administration Department, College of Business Administration, Albaha University, Albaha, SAUDI ARABIA. 2 Business Administration Department, Faculty of Economics and Administration, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: salbliwi@kau.edu.sa).

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Paper ID: 13A5T Volume 13 Issue 5

Abstract

Artificial intelligence (AI) is a leading future strategic technology. AI is more advanced as it is integrated into the decision-making (DM) Received 08 January 2022 Received in revised form 19 process. Saudi Arabia (SA) is diversifying its economy with the Vision 2030 April 2022 Initiative. Vision 2030 recognizes digital transformation as an important goal Accepted 26 April 2022 to boost the business sector, support private sector companies, and Available online 03 May ultimately reduce the country's reliance on oil revenues through economic 2022 diversification. Therefore, this study aims to examine the impacts of Keywords: applying AI on DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA. The Artificial intelligence; quantitative method was adopted, and the data was collected using the decision-making quality; questionnaire distributed to the study subjects (n=170 employees). The private sector findings showed that there was a significant impact of using AI applications organizations; Saudi in its three dimensions (training and development, appropriateness, and Arabia. effectiveness) on the DM quality in its three dimensions (the speed of decision-making, the quality of the decision, accepting the decision) in the private sector organizations in SA. Therefore, it could be recommended that private sector organizations should continue to employ AI applications in their businesses, keep abreast of developments, and establish partnerships between the Saudi data AI authority (SDAIA) and international companies to support AI research. Further analysis of different domains of AI in the organizations in SA in both the private and public sectors should be done.

Disciplinary: Business Management. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Aljohani, N.B., Albliwi, S. (2022). Impacts of Applying Artificial Intelligence on Decision-Making Quality:A Descriptive Study in Saudi Arabian Private Sector Organizations. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5T, 1-14. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5T.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.104

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1 Introduction Artificial intelligence (AI) is a term first used in 1956 by computer scientist John McCarthywidely. He defined AI as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines" (Gherheș & Obrad, 2018). AI researchers, such as Marvin Minsky, Herbert Simon, and Allen Newell, predicted in the early 1960 that the machine would be able to carry out human actions (Giri et al., 2019). During 1990, AI programs were more widely used in many fields, such as medical, logistical, data processing, and many other fields (Kadi & Hida, 2020). Also, AI means "a computer program that can think and learn, and it can perform tasks or thinking processes associated with intelligence in human beings" (Bruun & Duka, 2018). AI is a topic that has a worldwide impact; plentiful has been published about AI in the general media and academic research literature. Despite the plenty of writing on the topic, researchers are always in a challenge with AI, especially considering the current conditions in which the use of AI techniques is increasing. AI is an approach to creating intelligent entities that can match or exceed human intelligence and rationality (Hassan, 2020). As the AI applications continue to increase rapidly, its techniques have begun to contribute greatly to sensitive processes such as decision-making (DM) in various organizations, DM means "the study of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker" (Matsa & Gullamajji, 2019).

The decisions that are made in any organization have important implications for organizational performance. This requires resorting to smart systems to assist in DM, known as AI with all its domains, such as expert systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, etc (Nayak and Dash, 2020). AI, especially machine learning algorithms, enables the creation of new information and future predictions from existing data, promising quick, precise, and low-cost decisions. It has a sufficient understanding of its strengths and weaknesses and reacts to information the same way a human would. Researchers predict that AI will surpass humans in many activities in the next ten years, and there is a 50% chance of AI surpassing humans in all tasks in 45 years and automating all human jobs in 120 years (Grace et al., 2018).

DM is the most potent skill to shape the future of any organization, and making good decisions is the key to success. AI techniques could bring new opportunities to make high-quality decisions as humans act and maybe better. Recent advances in AI are creating the possibility to experience the interaction in humans with AI to help in DM (Fast & Schroeder, 2020).

Organizations are already building AI-driven techniques with human-like capacities, and they have the potential to become widely used in improving task completion (Spetzler et al., 2016).

AI applications play an important role in making decisions, including identifying complex problems and solving them through an accurate and deep understanding of these problems and providing the best results. They can simulate human intelligence. They have become applied in many fields, for instance, computer science applications, software, medicine, human resources, biology, digital marketing, education, etc. (Nayak and Dash, 2020).

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SA government has conducted long-term plans to support using AI in future projects. They established a government institute called the Saudi Data and Artificial Intelligence Authority (SDAIA) to raise awareness about AI. In addition, SA is building a smart city called NEOM as a part of its "Vision 2030" program to reduce the country's dependence on oil revenues and turn it into a technology hub. AI-driven companies grow yearly in SA (Ashehri, 2019; Hassan, 2020).

The scope will almost certainly increase after 2030 when AI affects the economy and society.

AI in SA will contribute over USD 135.2.2 billion to the economy by 2030. The Kingdom is currently working on establishing all future projects and its cities based on AI technologies and aims to invest in this promising field full of opportunities that will generate high profits. AI was applied to several models, forecasts, decision support, and control systems in such diverse fields in SA as engineering, economics, manufacturing, education, and medicine (Ashehri, 2019). Therefore, this study aims to examine the impact of applying AI on DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA. Research hypotheses are Hmain: "AI has a positive impact on DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA".

H1: "There is an effective relationship between training and development and DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA".

H2: "There is an effective relationship between the appropriateness and DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA".

H3: "There is an effective relationship between the effectiveness of AI and DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA".

2 Methodology A descriptive research design, which aims to provide a picture of a situation as it naturally happens, was adopted for this study (Burns & Grove, 2003). Also, the deductive approach, called the "top-down" approach, develops hypotheses based on existing theories and focuses on verifying theories (Burney & Saleem, 2008). The quantitative strategy was followed to emphasize the quantification measurement and determine the relationship between variables.

All employees in the private sector organizations in SA who applied AI techniques in DM are the target population to collect primary data. This study employed a simple random sampling technique to select the study subjects (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2012).

The primary data was obtained for research purposes through questionnaires inanition to secondary data. The data was collected through a questionnaire. A hand-to-hand questionnaire and an online-based questionnaire through Google Forms were distributed by sharing the link on the internet via social media applications (LinkedIn, WhatsApp, Twitter, Telegram, and E-mails). In the first stage, the questionnaire was distributed to selected individuals for piloting the questionnaire.

After verifying the validity and reliability of the tool, the questionnaire was distributed to a large group of targeted participants community. After three weeks of data collection, a total of (193) responses were received, of which the valid ones were (170) responses, with a ratio of (88%).

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2.1 Research Instruments After literature reviews on the impact of AI on DM quality, a questionnaire consisting of four parts was constructed. Part I consists of demographic information (gender, age, education level), and Part II consists of functional information (administrative level, experience, reliance on AI techniques at work, duration of training received to use AI). Part III deals with the first variable of AI applications-independent variable- which has three dimensions, training and development, appropriateness, and effectiveness, with 18 statements. Part 4 of the questionnaire deals with the second variable-DM-the dependent variable, which contains three dimensions, the speed of DM, the quality of the decision, and accepting the decision with 14 statements.

All statements in six dimensions are included in the ordinal scale. Six-Likert scale measurements are used to check the respondent's opinion about the subject of this research: strongly disagree =1, disagree =2, neutral =3, agree =4, strongly agree=5, and not applicable = 6.

The validity of the questionnaire was tested on several levels. Pilot testing of the questionnaire was performed to test validity, where 15 participants were recruited to investigate the ability of the respondents to complete the questionnaire and assess the clarity of the questions and the need to add or delete. To check the construct validity of the questionnaire, Person correlation coefficients were constructed between dimensions and the grand total of the questionnaire. The results showed that all Person correlations are statistically significant at level (α=0.01), and all dimensions correlated with a grand total of the questionnaire. Person correlation coefficients ranged between 0.8-0.94, which means the tool validity is satisfied in this research. For testing reliability, reliability was calculated for each dimension through the Cronbach's Alpha test to estimate the reliability of the questionnaire. The results revealed that the overall reliability is 0.97, which is sufficient to guarantee the reliability of the questionnaire.

2.2 Statistical Analysis Analysis was achieved through the IBM SPSS software to analyze the data collected to answer the research questions and test the research hypotheses. Means and standard deviations, Cronbach's Alpha test to measure reliability, Pearson's correlation coefficient to measure internal consistency and the relationship between independent and dependent variables, simple linear regression, and ANOVA, analysis of variance were used.

3 Results and Discussion This study included 170 employees in the private sector organizations in SA who applied AI techniques in DM in their organizations. The highest percentage was male 77.6%, while the rest were females, 22.4%. Category 31-40 years old was the highest percentage of participants (54.1%), while the 51 years and above" was the lowest percentage of the participant (2.9%). Regarding the education level, the bachelor's degree was the highest percentage (62.4%), while the other was the lowest percentage (0.6%).

Concerning the administrative level variable, an employee has the highest percentage

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(39.4%), while other has the lowest percentage (4.7%). Regarding their experience, from 11 to 15 years has the highest percentage (27.6%), while less than 5 years has the lowest percentage (21.8%).

According to the variable of reliance on AI techniques at work, participants' percentage of less than 10% on using AI techniques at work is the highest (41.8%), while participants' percentage of more than 90% on using AI techniques at work is the lowest (7.6%). Finally, the variable of training that employees received to use AI technique, participants` case that never has the training to use AI technique at work is the highest (45.9%), while participants' percentage who got 6 months of training to use AI technique at work is the lowest (10%) (Table 1).

Table 1: The study participants’ demographic and functional information Characteristics Male Female Less than 30 years 31-40 41-50 More than 50 years High school or less Diploma Bachelor's degree Postgraduate degree Others General Manager Branch Manager Department Head An employee Other Less than 5 years From 5 to 10 years From 11 to 15 years More than 15 years Less than 10% 10-40% 50 - 80% More than 90% One month 3 months 6 months More than 6 months Never

Frequency (n=170) Gender 132 38 Age 40 92 33 5 Education level 2 2 106 59 1 Administrative level 19 24 52 67 8 Experience 37 46 47 41 Reliance on AI 71 56 30 13 Training to use AI techniques at work 28 28 17 19 78

Percent (%) 77.6 22.4 23.5 54.1 19.5 2.9 1.18 1.18 62.4 34.7 0.58 11.2 14.1 30.6 39.4 4.7 21.8 26.5 27.6 24.1 41.8 32.9 17.6 7.6 16.5 16.5 10.0 11.2 45.9

3.1 AI Applications (Independent Variable) AI Applications as an independent variable have three dimensions training and development, appropriateness, and effectiveness with 18 statements.

3.2 Training and Development Table 2 shows the rank of training and development statements. The statement "The organization has modern technological devices" comes first with a mean of 4.21±0.998/strongly

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agree. In contrast, the statement "Staffs are constantly trained to keep pace with recent technological developments" comes last with a mean of 3.64±1.229/agree. The overall mean for training and development is 3.91±0.836/ agree.

Table 2: Training and development statements Statement Mean The organization has modern technological devices 4.21 The organization constantly updates the systems 3.98 Staff performance is constantly evaluated to ensure the quality of work 3.96 Staff have the ability to use existing modern technologies 3.93 The organization provides many experts for the development of information systems 3.89 The organization uses modern and advanced technological software to improve the 3.76 quality of decisions Staff are constantly trained to keep pace with recent technological developments 3.64 Training and development 3.91 Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

SD 0.998 1.161 1.087 1.058 1.112

Scale Strongly agree Agree Agree Agree Agree

1.164

Agree

1.229 0.836

Agree Agree

3.3 Appropriateness Table 3 shows the rank of appropriateness statements. The statement "the applications used are modern and suited to the requirements of the work" comes first with a mean (3.86 ±1.066/ agree). In contrast, the statement "The information provided by AI applications is appropriate to the user's needs" comes last with a mean (3.79±1.251 /agree). The appropriateness overall mean is (3.82 ± 0.991/ agree).

Table 3: Appropriateness statements Statement The applications used are modern and suited to the requirements of the work AI applications provide the necessary information that serves the decision-making process The information that helps decision-makers to make correct decisions is accurate The information provided by AI applications is appropriate to the user's need Appropriateness Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

Mean 3.86 3.81 3.80 3.79 3.82

SD 1.066 1.211 1.097 1.251 0.991

Scale Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree

3.4 Effectiveness Table 4 shows the rank of effectiveness statements. The statement "AI applications are modern means to improve and develop decisions and evaluate their effectiveness" comes first with a mean of 4.16±0.977/agree. In contrast, the statement "These systems can predict problems and risks" comes last with a mean of 3.74±1.063/agree. Effectiveness overall mean is 3.96± 0.886/agree.

Table 4: Effectiveness statements Statement Mean AI applications are a modern means to improve and develop decisions and evaluate their 4.16 effectiveness These applications achieve the amount of success for the organization due to the effectiveness of the 4.03 decisions it takes Customer transactions are achieved as quickly and accurately as possible due to the superior ability 3.98 of the technological devices and technologies in the organization These systems are an excellent tool that helps in achieving correct, accurate, and high-quality results 3.95 These applications have a superior ability in identifying and diagnosing problems, developing 3.95 alternatives for solutions, evaluating them, and proposing AI applications provide the necessary information that serves the decision-making process 3.92 These systems have the ability to predict problems and risks 3.74 Effectiveness 3.96 Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

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SD

Scale

0.977

Agree

1.034

Agree

1.196

Agree

1.022

Agree

0.962

Agree

1.096 1.063 0.886

Agree Agree Agree

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3.5 DM Quality (Dependent Variable) DM quality dependent variable, which also contains three dimensions the speed of decision, the quality of the decision, and accepting the decision with (14) statements.

3.6 The speed of Decision Table 5 shows the rank of the speed of decision statements. The statement "AI applications have enabled to shorten the time and reduce effort" comes first with a mean (4.30 ±1.082/ strongly agree), while the statement "The time that AI applications take to process data is relatively adequate" comes last with a mean (3.96 ± 1.168/ agree). The speed of the decision overall mean is (4.10 ± 0.962/ agree).

Table 5: The speed of decision statements Statement Mean AI applications have enabled to shorten the time and reduce the effort 4.30 The Information is stored and retrieved quickly 4.24 These applications contributed to the time and planned decision-making 4.03 The required information is passed on to the decision-maker as soon as it is requested 3.98 The time that AI applications take to process data is relatively adequate 3.96 The speed of decision 4.10 Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

SD 1.082 1.016 1.138 1.151 1.168 0.962

Scale Strongly agree Strongly agree Agree Agree Agree Agree

3.7 The Quality of the Decision Table 6 shows the rank of the quality of the decision statements. The statement "AI applications ensure that decisions are made based on accurate information" comes first with a mean (3.95 ±1.051/ agree). In contrast, the statement "The ability of AI technology to make accurate decisions is only in the certainty environment" comes last with a mean (3.21±1.212 /agree). The quality of the decision overall mean is (3.61±0.876/ agree).

Table 6: The quality of the decision statements Statement Mean Std. Deviation Decisions made by AI applications achieve the desired goals 3.74 1.018 The ability of AI applications to make decisions in the risky or 3.55 1.136 uncertain environment The ability of AI technology to make accurate decisions is only in 3.21 1.212 the certainty environment The quality of the decision 3.61 0.876 Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

Scale Agree Agree Neutral Agree

3.8 Accepting the Decision Table 7 shows the rank of accepting the decision statements. The statement "the decisions made by AI technology are rational and realistic" comes first with a mean of (3.64 ±1.035 / agree).

In contrast, the statement "decisions made by AI technology often conform to the personal guesswork of the decision-maker" comes last with a mean of (3.48 ± 1.163/ agree). Accepting the decision overall mean is (3.58 ± 0.943/ agree).

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Table 7: Accepting the decision statements Statement The decisions made by AI technology are rational and realistic The results of the decisions taken are often met with satisfaction Decisions are widely accepted and highly reliable The results of decisions obtained from implementing AI technology are often positive Decisions made by AI technology often conform to the personal guesswork of decisionmaker Accepting the decision Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

Mean 3.64 3.63 3.59 3.56

SD 1.035 1.070 1.086 1.109

Scale Agree Agree Agree Agree

3.48

1.163

Agree

3.58

0.943

Agree

3.9 AI Applications (Independent Variable) Table 8 shows the rank of AI application statements. The statement "the organization has modern technological devices" comes first with a mean (4.21 ± 0.998/ strongly agree), while the statement "staff is constantly trained to keep pace with recent technological developments" comes last with a mean (3.64 ±1.229 /agree). AI application's overall mean is (3.91± 0.728/agree).

Table 8: AI applications statements Statement Mean The organization has modern technological devices 4.21 AI applications are a modern means to improve and develop decisions and 4.16 evaluate their effectiveness These applications achieve the amount of success for the organization due to the 4.03 effectiveness of the decisions it takes Customer transactions are achieved as quickly and accurately as possible due to the superior ability of the technological devices and technologies in the 3.98 organization The organization constantly updates the systems 3.98 Staff performance is constantly evaluated to ensure the quality of work 3.96 These systems are an excellent tool that helps in achieving correct, accurate and 3.95 high-quality results These applications have a superior ability in identifying and diagnosing problems, 3.95 developing alternatives for solutions, evaluating them, and proposing Staff have the ability to use existing modern technologies 3.93 AI applications provide the necessary information that serves the decision3.92 making process The organization provides many experts for the development of information 3.89 systems The applications used are modern and suited to the requirements of the work 3.86 AI applications provide the necessary information that serves the decision3.81 making process The information that helps decision-makers to make correct decisions is accurate 3.80 The information provided by AI applications is appropriate to the user's need 3.79 The organization uses modern and advanced technological software to improve 3.76 the quality of decisions These systems have the ability to predict problems and risks 3.74 Staff are constantly trained to keep pace with recent technological developments 3.64 AI applications 3.91 Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

SD 0.998

Scale Strongly agree

0.977

Agree

1.034

Agree

1.196

Agree

1.161 1.087

Agree Agree

1.022

Agree

0.962

Agree

1.058

Agree

1.096

Agree

1.112

Agree

1.066

Agree

1.211

Agree

1.097 1.251

Agree Agree

1.164

Agree

1.063 1.229 0.724

Agree Agree Agree

3.10 Decision-Making Quality (Dependent Variable) Table 9 shows the rank of "decision-making quality" statements, the statement "AI applications have enabled to shorten the time and reduce effort" comes first with a mean (4.3± / strongly agree) and the standard deviation is (1.082). In contrast, the statement "The ability of AI technology to make accurate decisions is only in the certainty environment" comes last with a mean (3.21± 1.212/ neutral). DM quality overall mean is (3.77 ± 0.868/ agree).

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Table 9: DM quality statements Statement Mean AI applications have enabled to shorten the time and reduce the effort 4.30 The Information is stored and retrieved quickly 4.24 These applications contributed to the time and planned decision-making 4.03 The required information is passed on to the decision-maker as soon as it is requested 3.98 The time that AI applications take to process data is relatively adequate 3.96 AI applications ensure that decisions are made based on accurate information 3.95 Decisions made by AI applications achieve the desired goals 3.74 The decisions made by AI technology are rational and realistic 3.64 The results of the decisions taken are often met with satisfaction 3.63 Decisions are widely accepted and highly reliable 3.59 The results of decisions obtained from implementing AI technology are often positive 3.56 The ability of AI applications to make decisions under risk or uncertain environment 3.55 Decisions made by AI technology often conform to the personal guesswork of 3.48 decision-maker The ability of AI technology to make accurate decisions is only in the certainty 3.21 environment DM quality 3.77 Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

SD 1.082 1.016 1.138 1.151 1.168 1.051 1.018 1.035 1.070 1.086 1.109 1.136

Scale Strongly agree Strongly agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree

1.163

Agree

1.212

Neutral

0.868

Agree

3.11 Overall Questionnaire Dimensions From Table 10, "The speed of decision" comes first with a mean of (4.10 ± 0.962/ agree), while the dimension "Accepting the decision" comes last with a mean of (3.58 ± 0.943/agree). DM quality's dependent variable has a mean (3.77 ± 0.868/ agree). The overall questionnaire mean is (3.85 ± 0.742/ agree).

Table 10: Overall questionnaire dimensions statements Dimension Mean Std. Deviation The speed of decision-making 4.10 0.962 Effectiveness 3.96 0.884 Training and development 3.91 0.836 Appropriateness 3.82 0.991 The quality of the decision 3.61 0.876 Accepting the decision 3.58 0.943 DM quality 3.77 0.868 Overall questionnaire 3.85 0.742 Dimensions ranked descending according to their mean

Scale Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree

3.12 Relations between AI Applications and the DM Quality Pearson correlation analysis was used for testing the relations between the independent variable " AI applications" with its factors (training and development, appropriateness, and effectiveness) against the dependent variable " DM quality" with its factors (the speed of decisionmaking, the quality of the decision, accepting the decision). Table 11 shows a statistically positive correlation between all independent variables and all dependent variables. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) range (0.60–0.85). All these coefficients have positive and good correlations between independent and dependent variables.

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Table 11: Pearson correlations between AI applications and DM quality (n=170) Independent variables

Training and development Appropriateness

Effectiveness

AI applications

The speed of decision-making

Dependent Variables The quality Accepting of the the decision decision

Decisionmaking quality

Pearson 0.62** 0.60** 0.62** correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 Pearson ** ** 0.72 0.70 0.73** correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 Pearson ** ** 0.79 0.72 0.75** correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 Pearson ** ** 0.77 0.69 0.71** correlation Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000 0.000 **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

0.64** 0.000 0.64** 0.000 0.81** 0.000 0.85** 0.000

3.13 Linear Regression Analysis for DM Quality with the Independent Variable of AI Table 12 shows that training and development, appropriateness, and effectiveness interpret about 0.41, 0.41, and 0.66 of the dependent variable DM quality variances, with adjusted R2 = 0.408, 0.41, and 0.658, respectively. AI three factors interpret about 0.72 of the dependent variable DM quality variances, with adjusted R2 = 0.711.

Table 12: Multiple linear regression analysis for DM quality with the independent variable of AI Model

R

R2

Adjusted R2

Training and development 0.64 & 0.41 Appropriateness 0.64& 0.41 Effectiveness 0.81& 0.66 AI applications 0.85 # 0.72 & # Simple linear regression analysis. Multiple linear regression analysis.

0.408 0.411 0.658 0.711

3.14 Correlation for DM Quality with the Independent Variable of AI Table 13 shows a statistically significant influence of training and development factors, appropriateness effectiveness, and AI applications on DM quality (p=0.000).

Table 13: Correlation between DM quality and independent variable of AI. Model Training and development Appropriateness Effectiveness AI applications

Sum of Squares df Mean Square 23.717 1 23.717 52.726 1 52.726 84.046 1 84.046 91.134 3 30.378 Regression model using ANOVA.

F 38.452 118.717 326.138 139.28

p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

3.15 Testing of Research Hypothesis From Table 8, AI has a mean (3.91±0.724/ agree). Also, Table 12 shows a meaningful positive correlation between AI and DM quality since (r=0.85). AI applications interpret about (0.72) of the changes in DM quality. Besides, Table 13 confirms a statistically significant influence of AI applications on DM quality. Therefore, this proves that AI positively impacts DM quality in the

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private sector organizations in SA, thus Hmain is accepted. This result is in line with Kadi & Hida (2020).

On the other hand, Nadikattu (2021) revealed that AI has great importance in the sports industry, where it has a significant effect in ensuring evolves of the sports sector from traditional to modern ways, the sports businesses are growing fast with the awareness created through this technology.

Moreover, Abuzaid (2017) study aimed to identify the role of expert systems in the quality of senior management decisions in the Palestinian Ministry of Health in southern governorates. The results showed that expert systems at the Palestinian Ministry of Health were high, and the quality DM senior management was high. Also, the study results showed that there was a positive relationship between expert systems and the quality of DM in senior management in the Palestinian Ministry of Health. : "There is an effective relationship between training and development and DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA".

Table 10 shows that training and development has a mean (3.91± 0.836 /agree). Also, Table 12 shows a meaningful positive correlation between training and development and DM quality since (r=0.64), the training and development factor interprets about (0.41) of the changes in DM quality. Table 13 confirms a statistically significant influence of training and development on DM quality. Therefore, H1 is accepted indicating an effective relationship between the use of training and development and DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA. The results straight forward with Alshawabkeh (2017).

From Table 10, appropriateness has a mean (3.82± 0.991/agree). Also, Table 12 shows a meaningful positive correlation between appropriateness and DM quality since (r=0.64), the appropriateness factor interprets about 0.41 of the change in DM quality. Also, Table 13 confirms a statistically significant influence of appropriateness on DM quality. Thus, H2 is accepted proving an effective relationship between appropriateness and DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA. This study’s findings are straightforward with Raqeeq (2015).

From Table 10, effectiveness has a mean (3.96± 0.884/ agree). Also, Table 12 shows a meaningful positive correlation between effectiveness and DM quality since (r=0.81), the effectiveness factor interprets about 0.66% of the change in DM quality. Additionally, Table 13 confirms a statistically significant influence on the effectiveness of (DM quality). Therefore, H3 is accepted showing an effective relationship between the effectiveness of using AI and DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA. This agrees with Nayak and Dash (2020).

Therefore, an effective relationship has been assumed between the use of training and development, the appropriateness, and the effectiveness of DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA. According to the findings of the current study, the results indicated that AI applications and effectiveness have the highest impact with 0.72, and 0.77, respectively, on DM

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quality, as in the case, both training and development and appropriateness have a moderate impact (0.41) on DM quality, see Figure 1.

AI Applications 0.72

Training and development

0.41 DM Quality

0.41

Appropriateness 0.77

Effectiveness Figure 1: Summary of the relationship between AI applications (training and development, appropriateness, and effectiveness) and DM quality

4 Conclusion The current study highlights the impact of applying AI on DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA. Data for the present study were collected using a questionnaire distributed to a random sample of 170 employees of private sector organizations in SA that use AI applications. The current study results showed that AI applications have a 0.72 impact on DM quality in the private sector organizations in SA. There is an effective positive relationship between training and development and appropriateness with 0.41 on DM quality. While an effective relationship with an influence of 0.77 between the effectiveness and DM quality in the SA private sector organizations.

Based on the findings of this study, it could be recommended that private sector organizations should continue to apply AI applications in their businesses. Besides, keep abreast of developments, directing the attention of researchers to conduct more studies on this topic by expanding the subject's size to achieve more accurate results. The researcher also recommended establishing partnerships between the SDAIA and a group of international companies to support this aspect in the private and public sector organizations. Moreover, it encourages cooperation between SADIA and organizations in training programs and improves expertise to obtain globally competitive AI applications that effectively support DM in education, health, finance, and social affairs. SADIA should support AI research with experts and financial support to launch specialized research.

This research includes actual data and real examples of private sector organizations in SA that are currently using AI techniques. AI applications have improved the speed of response in DM and improved the quality of the private sector business organizations. In addition, it increased the organization's awareness of the need to move forward and rely on advanced technologies, depart

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from the traditional way of making decisions, and resort to everything modern to advance the national economy in general and the private sectors.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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Nermeen Bakheet Aljohani is a lecturer at Al Baha University, Faculty of Business Administration, Department of Business Administration. She holds a Master’s degree in Business Administration from the Faculty of Economics & Administration, King Abdulaziz University. Nermeen’s areas of research are Decision-Making, Quality, and Applications of Artificial Intelligence.

Dr.Saja Ahmed Albliwi is an Assistant Professor in the field of Lean Six Sigma at King Abdulaziz University, Faculty of Economics & Administration, Department of Business Administration. EFQM assessor. She received a Ph.D. degree from the School of Social Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, UK and a Masters's degree in 2012 from the School of Management and Languages, Heriot-Watt University.

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©2022 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Measuring New Normal Strategy of Brands on Digital Branding during Covid-19 Ola Mohammed Ibrahem Amer1*, Asma Zaheer2 Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics and Administration, King Abdulaziz University, SAUDI ARABIA. 2 Department of Marketing, Faculty of Economics and Administration, King Abdulaziz University, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding author (Email: 2101221 @stu.kau.edu.sa).

1

Paper ID: 13A5U Volume 13 Issue 5 Received 28 December 2021 Received in revised form 19 April 2022 Accepted 26 April 2022 Available online 03 May 2022

Keywords:

Digital Branding; Social Media; Strategy; Covid19; and SMEs

Abstract

The research addresses the role of digital marketing solutions in creating a synergy of SMEs and the influence of customer perception in building strong branding during COVID-19. The researcher has taken the communication through social media (SCM) as an independent variable, whereas the market shares (MS), brand loyalty (BL), and general feedback from customers (GF) as dependent variables. The information is collected from 100 managers and owners of SMEs from different locations in Saudi Arabia.

The correlation analysis of communication through digital media with the market share, brand loyalty, and general feedback of customers is 0.79, 0.75, and 0.84, where there is a strengthening relationship between dependent and independent variables. The significance F value is below 0.05, and the pvalue of all three variables is below 0.05, which means that the null hypothesis is rejected as there is a strong relationship between dependent and independent variables. The results show a strong relationship between variables, and organizations need to emphasize adopting digital media.

Disciplinary: Management (Marketing & Digital Branding, Marketing Research). ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Amer, O.M.I., Zaheer, A. (2022). Measuring New Normal Strategy of Brands on Digital Branding during Covid-19. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(5), 13A5U, 1-13. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A5U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.105

1 Introduction The recent outbreak of COVID-19 globally shifted paradigms for traditional business and marketing communication practices from the core (Aleksandra et al., 2021). The increased time spent on digital media has allowed brands to interact with their audience in a new way – on multiple channels and touch-points simultaneously, reaching out to a broader consumer base while

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serving as their one-stop information hub (Brand et al., 2020). It is now a reality that customer experience is equally important offline and online, so focusing on digital development is essential (Baker & Judge, 2021). Businesses operating on conventional mediums, namely bricks and mortar strategies, are most likely to experience a downfall in market share and return on investments (ROI) (Visconti, 2021). Today, most businesses have shifted to digital platforms and e-commerce channels to reach the target audiences (Shi et al., 2020). The researcher is interested in emphasizing the role of digital branding during COVID-19 and how their business profitability is improved.

Digital Branding is a multidisciplinary management consulting practice that incorporates many fields, disciplines, and disciplines within its practice (Young et al., 2020). The trend of digital branding has gained massive popularity during COVID-19 in areas as strategic management, innovation, innovation management, new product development, design thinking, qualitative and quantitative assessment, and much more (Guo et al., 2020). Understanding how consumer purchase decisions are affected by digital technology is fundamental to successfully positioning any brand in this environment (Sobreira et al., 2020).

Researchers said that digital presence directly impact sales and overall return on investment results. The digital presence influences every potential consumer's interaction with the brand (Sharma, 2020). All it takes is a single comment to bring a brand down or trigger outrage that leads to business failure. Therefore, businesses must use every platform to create a strong digital brand to overcome the after-effects of the Pandemic (Priambodo et al., 2021; Wang & Cheng, 2020).

Successful brands are creating rapid transitions in marketing strategies by integrating digital solutions in the communication process controls (Reardon et al., 2021). This research investigates the emerging role of digital branding during the COVID-19 business environment.

This research would address if the digital marketing solutions were the new normal for the progressing brands operating worldwide with a diversified product and service portfolio, customer segments, and cultural exposures, considering a change in the communication practices. The research objectives are: •

Understanding how digital branding creates synergy for SMEs while acquiring maximum market share during COVID-19.

•

Analyzing the role of digital branding as an effective tool to SMEs to influence customer perception to build solid digital branding during COVID-19

•

Evaluating how small-scale brands invest in digital marketing to create a contemporary brand image among customers during COVID-19.

•

Analyzing how digital branding creates customer loyalty, having a limited attention span during COVID-19.

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2 Literature Review Digital branding is one of the most critical aspects of today's businesses, particularly after the COVID-19 Pandemic. As social media presence, email marketing, and online newsletters have become increasingly popular, brands need to create a strong image through consistent content that engages consumers. Digital branding has allowed businesses to establish their company as experts in their field during the Pandemic. It helps consumers find brands when they search for products or services offered online (Aleksandra et al., 2021). It can be said that digital branding is the future of marketing as businesses have to be aware of this changing landscape or risk losing out on their target audience. The digital era has brought about new opportunities for businesses that can harness their power effectively.

2.1 Digital Branding The internet is nothing if not a testament to the power of where people are looking. As the leading source of information, these websites and apps help make digital branding easier than ever (Almeida et al., 2020). Understanding how digital branding works is vital for businesses to be successful online. Digital branding is the process of using the internet to create a presence that's unique to businesses (Baker & Judge, 2020). Branding techniques exist outside the digital world, but they are still essential parts of any successful marketing strategy. A company can create its unique moniker or use traditional logos and slogans (Cinelli et al., 2021). The key aspects are making sure that the business name is memorable and easily identifiable by potential customers.

The internet has completely altered how businesses think about branding. It is no longer enough to make sure the name is easy to remember; they also need to be visible on every search engine possible online. It is achieved through digital branding to consider the mobile space (Das, 2021). The rise of smart phones has altered how people search for products and services. A company's mobile strategy needs to take shape for them to be successful online (Alshaketheep et al., 2020). The number of searches is constantly increasing, which leads to an even larger pool of potential customers for companies to reach.

Digital branding is the best way for companies with a presence on the internet to differentiate themselves from their competitors in a competitive marketplace (He & Harris, 2020).

Even without proper implementation, digital branding can help businesses thrive in the 21stcentury economy because so many people are using it whenever they are searching for anything on their computer or phone (Davies, 2020).

The benefits of digital branding can easily outweigh the costs, but it is essential to be aware of the cost. Time is one of the most significant factors in implementing a robust digital brand strategy (Ketter & Avraham, 2021) as businesses begin to put together the brand by keeping time in mind. It takes time to plan and execute strategies so businesses can simultaneously take on multiple projects (Redjeki &Affandi, 2020). A thorough branding plan can help many businesses avoid taking on too much debt or making poor business decisions that could potentially harm their brand image.

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2.2 The Impact of COVID-19 on Digital Branding COVID-19 is an emerging virus that is capable of spreading quickly. This phenomenon has led to the necessity of digital transformation strategies for the marketing industry. Marketing strategies are no longer limited to traditional methods; instead, they have become more innovative and strategic in light of current circumstances (Antúnez et al., 2021). Almost half (47%) of marketers say that their organization's website is the first place to recommend COVID-19 patients go for information (Wachyuni & Kusumaningrum (2020). Organizations recommend their websites first because it offers more comprehensive resources on the topic, which increases trustworthiness among visitors since there are no outside links or content to distract them from what they set out to share (Brand et al., 2020).

With the recent development of artificial intelligence, many companies have used it to optimize their content for various types of visitors. A study by Hasanat et al. (2020) stated that over 50% of e-businesses would abandon a website if it took more than 3 seconds to load. It is also attributed to ad blockers installed on 40% of phones globally. Before investing in new domains and platforms, marketers should consider changing existing web pages (Villa & Monzon, 2021). Due to the decrease in customers, businesses are attempting to increase engagement. It can be primarily attributed to the rise of social media marketing which offers brands an additional platform to engage with customers (Guo et al., 2020).

Sobreira et al. (2020) said that with organizations almost to develop a website of usability smart phone half, so users relying customers can find mobile what phones they to identify looking COVID-19 for, symptoms, while marketers also have begun accessible to on change all how devices.

According to Naumovska & Zajac (2021), providing millennials more (aged localized 18-34) information spend. It is twice seen long by on the mobile increase websites in than number none of millennials smart phone. Shi et al. (2020) said their behaviors were over rising in identifying COVID-19 symptoms. Thus, marketers are moving away from traditional methods of marketing where they are only concerned about making sales; instead, they are now shifting strategies towards providing value and education through new media.

Due to the recent outbreaks, grocery retailers see an increase of 15% in the sales of hand sanitizers (Quyen, 2020). Some grocery stores install hand sanitizer dispensers, which will only dispense sanitizer if the customer uses a loyalty card or mobile app. It shows that customers are not only concerned about how to stop the virus, but they are also concerned about their health and how to protect themselves (Obeidat & Alomari, 2020; Priambodo et al., 2021). Thus, marketers should provide customers with information relevant to their search.

Further research has investigated a transformation to boost the market share by utilizing communication tools like digital media. Priambodo et al. (2021) stated that brands from Indonesia have an efficient communication strategy to reach the target audience and utilize word-of-mouth marketing to strengthen the brand image. Sharma (2020) and Reardon et al. (2021) claimed that brands rely on vital social media tools to reach customers quickly and influence their purchasing

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behaviors. Even the concept of digital marketing improved during COVID-19, where most businesses had to be online to sell their products and services. According to Antunez et al. (2020), the digital channels and search engine optimization improve the digital channels during the COVID-19 outbreak. Prihadini (2020) said that digital marketing and branding strategies must influence customer perception and immediately create product needs. Communication channels like Instagram, Facebook, and YouTube improve the exchange of information and feedback worldwide.

Redjeki & Affandi (2020), with their focus on MSME players in Indonesia, have found that brands are adapting their marketing approach to a newly developed set of habits among customers.

Aleksandra et al. (2021) agree with these findings and add that the digital branding amid COVID signifies an ongoing endeavor to learn how to live with the changed scenario rather than trying to circumvent it. Rahman (2016) said it is worth mentioning that the CSR strategy of brands, which is supposed to contribute to their brand image, is leaning towards precautionary advice, such as staying at home and keeping a social distance. Ketter & Avraham (2021) said that the brands strive to align to the paradigm shift and treat the pandemic era as 'new normal.'

2.3 Theoretical Framework The study has one independent variable (IV) and three dependent variables (DV) taken: increased market share, brand loyalty among customers, and the satisfaction level of businesses chosen.

The independent variable is digital branding during COVID-19. Digital branding is a term that describes the process of using digital and online methods to promote and market a company, product, or service. Digital branding can be used as an overall marketing strategy or stand-alone practice. Digital branding is a strategy that combines brand management tactics and communication elements to create customer loyalty on internet channels in the long run. Branding has been a part of the advertising industry for decades. A brand is a set of promises a company makes to its customers and is demonstrated in everything they do. It is easier than ever to create a successful brand strategy in today's digital marketplace. The digital age has revolutionized the way brands communicate with consumers, but it has not changed the basic principles of branding: build (Visconti, 2020).

Market share will be analyzed to see whether the business profitability and sales have improved during COVID-19 after implementing the digital media platforms. It is a framework of how an organization communicates with its various publics through multiple channels. Digital branding can increase sales, gain market share, or inform target audiences about existing products and services offered by the company. It is a strategy to engage with customers and align products with the marketing trends. The essential marketing communication like public relations and digital marketing improves brand exposure and stays ahead of competitors (Das, 2021).

Social Media is a digital platform that provides brands with an opportunity to share and exchange information with a specific target audience by creating virtual communities. As social

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media marketing continues to grow and evolve, so does the need for creative social media marketers.

Brand loyalty among customers refers to the people's perceptions of the brand. It is the second dependent variable of the research. Digital presence reflects a brand where businesses search for a specific brand on the internet or digital channels. There is no doubt that nowadays, creating and managing a digital presence is a must for every company. Every business needs to be online to reach its target audience. However, the internet landscape has changed drastically since the days of MySpace and face book, meaning that businesses need to adapt to stay relevant and attract customers to gain brand loyalty. There is a shift in the way we interact with brands and companies. This shift brings about a fundamental change to marketing and how businesses look at their customers. In this new era, consumers are taking control and driving the conversation, thereby creating an expectation for brands to be proactive in engaging them to gain loyalty (Moncey & Baskaran, 2020).

Satisfaction levels of businesses are the third dependent variable. COVID-19 Pandemic has entirely changed how businesses used to conduct their businesses. It is believed that the Pandemic has given rise to businesses innovatively and attracting customers through diverse platforms (Baker & Judge, 2020). This variable would be discussed to understand the impact of digital branding on businesses' satisfaction levels.

Increased Market share

Digital branding

Brand loyalty among customers

Satisfaction levels of businesses Figure 1: Theoretical Framework and Key Variables of the Study.

3 Research Methodology The researcher has relied on primary research to collect first-hand information from the respondents in Saudi Arabia. The researcher has used quantitative research where the researcher has chosen an explicit independent variable and three dependent variables to analyze how digital branding has contributed to SMEs' performance during COVID-19. The questionnaire approach is used to achieve the objectives of quantitative research, where the researcher has prepared and distributed questionnaires to owners and managers from small and medium enterprises. The researcher has asked the respondents whether their company has adopted the digital branding approaches during COVID-19 and whether the market share, brand loyalty, and satisfaction level of business is improved or not. Digital branding is used as an independent variable, and market share, brand loyalty, and satisfaction level of business are used as dependent variables. Furthermore, the

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researcher approaches only SMEs because they can tell better how their business has transformed after adopting digital media strategy and was it helpful for them to improve their financial performance during COVID-19. The researcher has approached over 120 respondents to improve the research generalize ability, and 100 surveys were selected for analysis. The research sample is not small because the researcher wants to achieve the research objectives. It is not too large because the researcher lacks time to access a large group of respondents.

3.1 Research Analysis The research analysis uses Microsoft Excel to find the relationship between dependent and independent variables. The researcher has used demographic analysis to find the proportion of different sampled respondents. The demographic analysis is presented in tabular and graphical form to improve the research readability (Rahman, 2016). The demographic analysis allows the company to reach the ideal respondent base.

The second analysis is conducted through correlation analysis. The correlation analysis is a statistical approach to measure the strength of the linear relationship between independent and dependent variables. High correlation analysis shows a strong relationship between the variables, whereas a low correlation shows a weak relation (Davies, 2020).

The third analysis is conducted by using regression analysis. Regression analysis is a statistical process to estimate the relationship between variables by analyzing p-value and ANOVA. It will be analyzed whether the results are significant and the value of p is below 0.05 (Davies, 2020).

4 Data Analysis The report analyzes the data collected from the respondents in terms of demographic and variable analysis. The data is analyzed using percentage, correlation, regression, and graphical approaches to make the results understandable. The analysis is beneficial in finding how digital branding creates synergy for SMEs while acquiring maximum market share during COVID-19.

4.1 Demographic Questions 4.1.1 Type of Business The analysis shows 37% of the respondents from the food business and restaurants; 9% from the IT business, 10% from the retail businesses, 16% from the service advisory businesses, and 28% from others.

Table 1: Type of Organizations Food business/ restaurants IT business Others Retail business Service advisory business Others Total

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Type of Organization 37 9 28 10 16 28 100

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4.1.2 Duration of the Organization The duration of the organization in figure 1 shows that 5% of the organizations are working less than one year. 13% of the organizations are 1 to 3 years old, 25% from 3 to 6 years old, and 57% are more than six years old.

1 to 3 years

3 to 6 years

Less than one year

More than 6 years

Total, More than 6 years, 57

Total, 3 to 6 years, 25 Total, 1 to 3 years, 13

Total, Less than one year, 5

Figure 2: Duration of the Organization

4.1.3 Current Location The current location of the respondent is analyzed in Figure 2. Respondents 60% are from Jeddah, 6% from Makkah, 19% from Riyad, 1% from Dammam, and 14% from other regions.

Figure 3: Current Location

4.2 Variable Questionnaire 4.2.1 Increase in Digital Media During COVID-19 Pandemic The analysis shows that 94% of the respondents stated that their businesses had improved their dependence on digital marketing tools to attract customers.

Table 2: Digital Marketing Tools during COVID-19 Disagree Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree Total

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Digital Marketing Tools during COVID-19 1 1 4 18 76 100

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4.2.2 Averages of Dependent and Independent Variables CSM is the communication through social Media taken as an independent variable. Market share (MS), brand loyalty (BL), and general feedback (GF) are dependent variables. The average CSM is 4.68, which means that the businesses are moving toward a powerful communication tool through social media. The average market share is 4.66, which is closer to the strongly agree.

Similarly, the brand loyalty and general feedback are averaged at 4.63 and 4.74, which is closer to the strongly agree.

Table 3: Average of Dependent and Independent Variables Average CSM 4.68 0.56

Mean SD

Average MS 4.66 0.59

Average BL 4.63 0.63

Average GF 4.74 0.54

4.3 Correlation Analysis The correlation analysis strengthens the relationship between dependent and independent variables. The value ranges from -1 to +1 to analyze the strength between two variables. If the correlation value is below 0.3, it is weak, and above 0.7, it is strong. Communication through social media is the independent variable that has a strong relationship with the market share, brand loyalty, and general feedback of customers. The relationship with these dependent variables is 0.79, 0.75, and 0.84, where the values are closer to 1. In this way, it can be stated that there is a positive relationship between independent variables and dependent variables.

Table 4: Correlation CSM MS BL GF

CSM 1 0.79 0.75 0.84

MS

BL

GF

1 0.83 0.82

1 0.77

1

4.4 Regression Analysis The regression analysis understands the relationship between a set of dependent and independent variables. The results are presented in Table 5.

The analysis in Table 5 states that the correlation among variables is 0.86, which is a strong relationship among variables. The significance F value is below 0.05, which means that the results generated are statistically significant. The relationship among variables is linked to the p-value to determine whether a significant relationship occurs among variables. The p-value of all three variables is below 0.05, which means that the null hypothesis is rejected as there is a strong relationship between dependent and independent variables. The t-stat is also higher than the pvalue,strengthening our claim that communication through digital channels substantially impacts the market share, strengthens the customers' loyalty, and gets positive feedback from respondents.

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Table 5: Regression Analysis Regression Statistics Multiple R 0.862 R Square 0.742 Adjusted R Square 0.734 Standard Error 0.288 Observations 100 ANOVA Regression Residual Total

Intercept MS BL GF

Df 3 96 99

SS 23.000 7.982 30.982

MS 7.667 0.083

F 92.214

Coefficients

Standard Error 0.257 0.103 0.085 0.098

t Stat

P-value

1.720 2.103 1.575 5.636

0.088 0.03 0.018 1.7E-07

0.442 0.218 0.134 0.550

Significance F 3.7E-28

5 Discussion The results show that digital marketing has a vital role in strengthening customer relationships and improving the market share. The respondents in our sample size understand the importance of digital marketing and their role in improving brand loyalty in Saudi Arabia during COVID-19. These results are similar to Baker & Judge (2020), who states that digital marketing has been positive during the COVID-19 Pandemic as it assisted businesses improve their brand presence and reach a broad customer base, which was not possible before the pandemic situation.

According to Guo et al. (2020), the small businesses during the Pandemic benefitted more as they understood the importance of digital media to spread the brand message region-wide.

Businesses that showed reluctance to be modernized suffered more during the Pandemic. Digital media has given rise to several new businesses that grab the opportunity of surviving and initiating new ideas. Similarly, Reardon et al.'s (2021) result also supports our research results and concludes that the COVID-19 has given rise to the excessive use of e-commerce, particularly in developing countries. These regions were slow in adopting the new business trends and ways to conduct the business; however, the Pandemic has provided them with an opportunity to think out of the box to expand their business roots. It ultimately strengthens businesses' abilities to grab more customers and make a meaningful influence on the brand and the community. These results align with our research that digital marketing ultimately boosts brand loyalty, consumers' perspective toward the brand, and ultimately the market share.

6 Conclusion The unprecedented spread of COVID-19, its mortality rate, and its contagion potential have presented several new problems for global markets. Digital technologies are powerful tools for alleviating anxiety and depressive symptoms, which will keep customers engaged in a meaningful life during this period of high uncertainty. It has been demonstrated that digital media can enhance

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and benefit companies through advertising revenue. They have also shown that there are areas where this effect does not exist. A study was conducted in Saudi Arabia to examine whether this positive relationship would still be seen if we examined only for those areas where a website was displayed and what it would take to gain that exposure.

The research considers the changing role of digital marketing and online advertising as organizations use new media technologies to facilitate interactions with customers and respond to market demands. Specifically, we develop a framework for understanding how businesses adopt new media technologies, analyze their decision-making processes, and demonstrate how these are linked to firms' objectives and behavior (Brand et al., 2020). New media technologies can improve market performance by providing additional sources of customer feedback, enabling quick access to consumer needs, improving a firm's flexibility, and potentially facilitating innovation. They can also enhance brand equity by offering ways to connect with existing and potential customers.

However, they may lead to over-control and distraction from daily tasks. These conclusions guide future research on new media technologies in business contexts.

The information was collected through secondary resources to trigger the innovation decisions by utilizing digital media. Businesses need to emphasize daily production, where the reliance is on maximizing the profit of an organization. The extensive use of social media platforms enhances performance without implementing modern marketing methods (Cinelli et al., 2021).

Digital media could lead to better customer loyalty, market share, and good customer feedback. The results are collected from 100 Saudi Arabian enterprises to determine the role of digital media in improving performance. The results demonstrate that digital media has positively impacted all sectors and utilizes external and internal knowledge to strengthen innovation.

Digital Media is used as a digital platform to maintain the connection and affect the business's performance. The social media platforms like Facebook and Instagram lead to professional networking like blogging. Social media needs to develop brand communities by improving customer interaction and understanding their viewpoints. The business created a platform and strengthened the innovative capacity for customers (He & Harris, 2020). The businesses that have adopted modern methods during the Pandemic are more inclined to sustain a competitive advantage. Emphasizing digital media needs to strengthen the relationship between digital media and organizational performance. Digital media platforms put valuable insights into the consumers' decisions and transform innovative ideas into new technology. Social media and digital tools encourage innovation's openness to reach the end customers and play an existential role in attracting a strengthening target market. In Saudi Arabia, enterprises had an opportunity to interact with stakeholders and consumers to improve organizations' performance and market share.

7 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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Ola Amer is a digital marketing manager at Eskelah. Her work focuses specifically on digital marketing strategies and planning.

Dr. Asma Zaheer is an Associate Professor at the Department of Marketing, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

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