ITJEMAST V13(1)2022 by TuEngr.com

Volume 13 Issue 1 (2022) ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

http://TuEngr.com Anatomical and Topographic Features of the Major Masticatory Muscle in Sheep Redesigning the Base Eye of a Telescopic Hydraulic Cylinder with Topology Optimization Method

Organizational Backstabbing Techniques Roles of Self-Efficacy in Using Social Networking to Improve Productivity Influences of Intangible Needs on the Architectural Expression of Tangible Culture Heritage: Comparative Study between Mosque and Church Evolution of Corporate Governance in Russian Transparent Market Environment Internet of Things Application in Controlling the Coronavirus Disease Spread in Hajj Season

Conceptual Approaches to the Development of the Mechanism of Effective Interaction Between Business and Government in Russia

Impacts of Perceived Care Quality on Psychological Wellbeing of Cancer Patients

Dialectical Analysis of Sustainability Assessment Framework in India for Agenda 2030

Investigating Criminal Thinking Behavior and Interpersonal Reactivity among Adolescents: A View of Dark Personality Triad

Location Selection Model for a Dental Clinic in a Low to Medium Rent Commercial Building

Analysis of the Activities of Religious Youth Organizations: the Civil-Patriotic Direction of Education

A Qualitative Study of Women Entrepreneurs in Education Sector in Punjab

A Hybrid New Gravitational Coefficient Function of Gravitational Search Algorithm with Mutation for Search Performance.

Petroleum & Mineral Geochemistry of Pyroxene & Plagioclase in Eocene Basin Volcanic Rocks of Baladeh Region of Central Alborz of Iran

Development Phases of the Larva of the Black Soldier Fly Hermetia Illucens on the Metabolic Byproducts of Monogastric Animals and Birds

Hemostatic Profile of Holstein Heifers Depending on Age

The Distribution Service Pricing for Third-Party Access to Preserve the Responsibility of National Distribution Service Operator in Thailand: The Case of Industrial Estates

Recycling of Animal and Bird Waste Helped by Black Lion Fly Larvae

Composition Optimal Marketing Strategy Using a Combination of Fuzzy Hierarchical Analysis Technique and SWOT Analysis for a Case of the Insurance Industry

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

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Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Gadi (University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM) Professor Dr.Hitoshi YAMADA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Professor Dr. Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN ) Professor Dr.Mikio SATOMURA (Shizuoka University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN) Emeritus Professor Dr.Mike Jenks (Oxford Brookes University, UNITED KINGDOM ) Professor Dr.I Nyoman Pujawan (Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, INDONESIA) Professor Dr.Toshio YOSHII (EHIME University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Neven Duić (University of Zagreb, CROATIA) Professor Dr.Dewan Muhammad Nuruzzaman (University Malaysia Pahang MALAYSIA) Professor Dr.Masato SAITOH (Saitama University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Sergei Shlykov (Stavropol State Agrarian University, RUSSIA)

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:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

Volume 13 Issue 1 (2022) http://TuEngr.com

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES Organizational Backstabbing Techniques

13A1A

Roles of Self-Efficacy in Using Social Networking to Improve Productivity

13A1B

Influences of Intangible Needs on the Architectural Expression of Tangible Culture Heritage: Comparative Study between Mosque and Church

13A1C

Evolution of Corporate Governance in Russian Transparent Market Environment

13A1D

Internet of Things Application in Controlling the Coronavirus Disease Spread in Hajj Season

13A1E

Impacts of Perceived Care Quality on Psychological Wellbeing of Cancer Patients

13A1F

Recycling of Animal and Bird Waste Helped by Black Lion Fly Larvae

13A1G

Investigating Criminal Thinking Behavior and Interpersonal Reactivity among Adolescents: A View of Dark Personality Triad

13A1H

Analysis of the Activities of Religious Youth Organizations: the Civil-Patriotic Direction of Education

13A1I

A Hybrid New Gravitational Coefficient Function of Gravitational Search Algorithm with Mutation for Search Performance.

13A1J

Development Phases of the Larva of the Black Soldier Fly Hermetia Illucens on the Metabolic Byproducts of Monogastric Animals and Birds

13A1K

The Distribution Service Pricing for Third-Party Access to Preserve the Responsibility of National Distribution Service Operator in Thailand: The Case of Industrial Estates

13A1L

Composition Optimal Marketing Strategy Using a Combination of Fuzzy Hierarchical Analysis Technique and SWOT Analysis for a Case of the Insurance Industry

13A1M

Anatomical and Topographic Features of the Major Masticatory Muscle in Sheep

13A1N

Redesigning the Base Eye of a Telescopic Hydraulic Cylinder with Topology Optimization Method

13A1O

Conceptual Approaches to the Development of the Mechanism of Effective Interaction Between Business and Government in Russia

13A1P

Dialectical Analysis of Sustainability Assessment Framework in India for Agenda 2030

13A1Q

Location Selection Model for a Dental Clinic in a Low to Medium Rent Commercial Building

13A1R

A Qualitative Study of Women Entrepreneurs in Education Sector in Punjab

13A1S

Petroleum & Mineral Geochemistry of Pyroxene & Plagioclase in Eocene Basin Volcanic Rocks of Baladeh Region of Central Alborz of Iran Hemostatic Profile of Holstein Heifers Depending on Age

13A1T 13A1U

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Organizational Backstabbing Techniques Davood Heidari Azim1*, Seyedeh Leila Hakemzadeh2* Faculty of Management, University of Tehran, IRAN. Faculty of Entrepreneurship, University of Tehran, IRAN. *Corresponding Authors (Email: d.heidari@alumni.ut.ac.ir, leila.hakemzadeh@gmail.com). 1 2

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1A Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 15 August 2021 Received in revised form 24 October 2021 Accepted 28 October 2021 Available online 01 November 2021

Keywords:

Human Resources; Grounded theory; backstabbing; Anticitizenship; Anti-social behavior

Destructive behaviors directed by one employee against another are common occurrences in the workplace. One type of these anticitizenship behaviors is Organizational Backstabbing. We've probably been backstabbed at our workplaces many times, and sometimes we may have backstabbed others. These behaviors can have adverse consequences on the career path of employees and organizational results. The study can help managers make better decisions, in the face of these behaviors. This research is an interpretive study and the data are collected using the interview method and analyzed based on Grounded Theory (GT). The data were coded by WEBQDA software, and we identified thirty initial codes. The results suggest eight categories of Organizational Backstabbing Techniques. The eight techniques of Organizational Backstabbing are Simple destruction, combined destruction, Two-way destruction, Bad defense, Performance barrier, Trapping, Press on the hot spot, and Machine gun. This study will help to evaluate these types of behaviors by an in-depth review of Organizational Backstabbing literature. Disciplinary: Management Sciences (HRM). ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Azim, D. H. Hakemzadeh, S. L. (2022). Organizational Backstabbing Techniques. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1A, 1-10. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.1

1 Introduction Many studies have focused on anti-citizenship organizational behaviors that focus primarily on aggressive physical acts against individuals or corporate sabotage (Kaukiainen, et al., 2001). However, a few studies have been conducted on the subtle forms of anti-citizenship behavior in the workplace that are covert but can harm employees and organizations (e.g., gossip Making, undermining, blaming, lying, etc). These hidden behaviors between employees are more prevalent than the physical type of behaviors at an organization (Neuman & Baron, 1998). This type of latent aggression is commonly referred to as “Organizational backstabbing” (Malone & Hayes, 2012).

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Limited studies conducted in the field of Organizational backstabbing, have focused on the definition of Organizational backstabbing and in some others, the causes of Organizational backstabbing behaviors have been evaluated and reviewed. For example, McFarland explains why is Organizational backstabbing done? Brenner & Molander (1977) and many others have provided definitions of Organizational backstabbing and Malone & Hayes and others have researched the motives for DOIng Organizational backstabbing. But none of this research mentions the methods and techniques of Organizational backstabbing. For this reason, in this research, Organizational backstabbing Techniques are studied, and finally, the Techniques that backstabbers use for destruction others are identified. By knowing backstabbing techniques, managers can more accurately evaluate the information they receive to prevent good employee destruction by the backstabber, also the employees of organizations can adopt appropriate strategies to deal with these destructive behaviors to prevent damage to their career path.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Anti-citizenship Behavior or Anti-social Behavior Harmful and destructive behaviors directed by one employee against other employees are commonplace in the workplace today (Aquino & Douglas, 2003). Mackenzie & Podsakoff have defined "anti-social behavior" as behavior that harms the organization, its employees, and its stakeholders. Extortion, bribery, discrimination, espionage, extortion, fraud, bribery, lying, sabotage, theft, invasion of privacy, and violence are all types of anti-social behaviors (MacKenzie & Podsakoff, 1998). Jelinek & Ahearne called these kinds of behaviors as anti-citizenship behavior (ACB). They categorized the behaviors into the following five groups: Defiance refers to employee behavior that is directly contrary to the organization's orders or policies. For example, an explicit denial of the rules and procedures, refusal to share information related to the organization, and opposition. Resistance is not generally aggressive. However, as opposing forces are very real, although they are often done in secret, for example, public alignment with the organization and private noncompliance, efforts to hold up teams, Sales work, and bypassing managers. Work avoidance can be defined as any behavior that is used to delay or forget work or commitments and responsibilities, it may include taking a vacation, working from home, not returning emails and phone calls, not reporting meetings, not being available when calling colleagues. Aggression is a feeling of physical or emotional energy. It can include violent behavior. For example, it includes control of the team, confrontation, Being arrogant, assuming a short and unpleasant tone with colleagues, and physically threatening colleagues. Revenge is any behavior that is done to undo some perceived mistakes or injuries. For example, it includes spending non-commercial expenses, broadcasting news of the organization's mistakes, stealing materials (Jelinek & Ahearne, 2006).

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2.2 Backstabbing When the director does not own the business, personal power gains through political means, and competition for resources and promotion begins. At higher levels, the number of competitors is low, but the intensity of competition is high. This process may create the most capable leadership, but the most capable leader is not necessarily the best person to manage the organization. (McFarland, 1966). In these types of organizations, competitors may steal other people's ideas, cast doubt on others' abilities, or stab someone. (Brenner & Molander, 1977). Backstabbing is a term used to describe tactics to discredit and obliterate competitors. (Lincoln et al., 1982). In other definition, Backstabbing is defined by a dictionary as an intention to discredit hidden ways such as accusation, innuendo, and similar ways. This is a prevalent issue in various kinds of organizations, including businesses, governments, universities, etc. Managers and directors, in particular, seem to complain about it a lot (Harvey, 1989). Although dictionaries define backstabbing, and the etymology of the word is clear, and most people are discussing the impact of backstabbing but we have not much literature about backstabbing (Harvey, 1989). This will be even more important when we know that the results of a survey show that eight out of eleven managers believed: To progress, they will occasionally have to use “dirty tactics”. For example, taking credit for work done by others, insinuating that some employees did not do their responsibilities, to upgrade, all values must be set aside, and to climb the ladder must aggressively pass over everyone who stands in the way. (Lincoln et al., 1982). Malone & Hayes have identified the ten motives of organizational backstabber: 1-SelfAdvancement: They want to advance career or finances, 2-Power Struggle: They want to gain control of others, 3-Character Flaw: They want to hide weaknesses, 4-Impression Management: They want to look good, 5-Threatened: They feel insecure,

6-Jealousy: They are jealous of

something, 7-Wanted Revenge: They want to revenge on someone, 8-Exploited: Others have Misused them, 9-Prejudiced: They prejudice due to race, gender, and age, 10-Work Avoidance: They want to avoid DOIng work (Malone & Hayes, 2012). People often start backstabbing when hearing gossip or get a message, about the imagined attack. It can encourage their Potential of destructiveness. Backstabbing is not an individual action. It is an action that involves the complicity of a large variety of Actors, Witnesses, Messengers, and Sacrifices. According to these cases, it is an antisocial behavior (Harvey, 1989).

3 Methodology This research is an interpretive study on Organizational Backstabbing that uses the survey method to gather data and analyze and draw conclusions using inductive approaches based on Grounded theory.

Grounded theory is a methodology that is used for qualitative research.

Grounded theory constructs hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analysis of data and is based on inductive reasoning (Martin & Turner, 1986). Studies based on grounded theory begin with a question, or collection of qualitative data, when researchers review the data, ideas will

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be apparent to the researchers. The researchers tag the ideas with codes and summarize them. In the next step, more data are collected and reviewed, codes are grouped into higher-level, and categorized (Allan, 2003). Birks &Mills consider the Grand Theory in ten stages, including Initial coding, Data collection and analysis, Writing Memo, Theoretical sampling, Theoretical sensitivity, Constant comparative analysis, Intermediate coding, Identifying a Core category, Advanced coding and Theoretical Integration, Generation of Grounded theory (Ralph et al., 2015). The method of collecting supplementary data in this study was using the interview method. According to Cochran's formula, when the population size is unknown with a 95 % confidence level, at least 384 samples are required. In this study, 414 employees from nineteen companies operating in Iran were involved in our interviews. The data for this study were collected between March 2019 and February 2020. The sentences said in the interviews were carefully examined then initial coding was done. More interviews and data collection were done and after analyzing and writing the Memo, the keywords were identified for Theoretical sampling and comparative analysis. The comments received were categorized based on the keywords and intermediate coding generated by WEBQDA Software. We determined the definitions of every code for forming the intermediate codes then we developed advanced coding with WEBQDA Software. Codes that were close to each other were combined and considered as a group and theoretical integration was done. Each group was named with a phrase that includes all related definitions then we developed a map codes graph with WEBQDA Software. Finally, the Theory of Organizational Backstabbing Techniques was determined.

4 Results of the Study As mentioned, after collecting the data and reviewing the initial coding and categorization, and writing memos, we prepared the Intermediate codes.

4.1 Initial Coding (Open Coding), Categorization, Data Collection, and Analysis At this stage, by reviewing the collected data line by line, important sentences were identified, for example: “The CEO of the group was sensitive”; “It was his responsibility”; “He reported the results of the meeting differently”; “She was friends with the CEO” are examples of these sentences. The identified sentences showed us how people destroyed others in organizations. By omitting similar cases, the results were summarized in Table 1 where Organizational Backstabbing Techniques, sub-techniques, and examples of each sub-technique are listed. Table 1: Organizational Backstabbing Techniques (OBT), sub-techniques, and examples. OBT

Sub-techniques Unrealistic objection

Simple destruction

Unrealistic changes in statistics Show ineffective

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Examples “I always do all the financial work and the supervisor does not control it, but he told the manager that he found a lot of problems when he was controlling the results.” “The backstabber is the customer relationship unit head. She changed the customer complaints and showed the results against me.” “To get the authority to buy parts directly, he always says that we did not have the parts and we cannot accept cars that come for repairing.”

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OBT

Sub-techniques

Examples In a private meeting with the CEO, she exaggerated the number of cigarettes I smoke at Exaggeration in issues work. Falsely reported She falsely reported the amount of my leave. Unrealistic destruction, Director decided to fire someone between me and someone else. My performance is better. about organizational values He gave an untrue report to an ideological unit about how I dressed and, by lying, accused / Ideological rule. me of having an unprofessional relationship with the manager. After my promotion, everyone was satisfied with my management, the backstabber went to Express unrealistic the manager and said: the reason for the employees' satisfaction is that she has formed a weakness gang in the organization. The dissatisfaction of She secretly spoke of the dissatisfaction of my staff in an enlarged manner and tried to employees/invitation to downplay the unit's performance. disobey Combine reality with lies

Combined destruction

Showing reality in a different way False help request for expressing a false subject

Making enemies Two-way destruction

Destroying the minds of two people about each other.

False support Bad defense False praise for expressing a false weakness Failure to perform assigned activities Collaboration to reduce performance Performance barriers are created to barrier achieve goals Acting against goals Create a problem and blame someone else

Guide a person in the wrong direction Trapping Give the wrong order to create a problem.

Get information to help and use it for destruction Use manager sensitivity Press on the hot spot It was important Issue

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“The backstabber had reported the results of the meeting differently when the manager was absent in the meeting.” “Another employee had repaired some spare parts poorly. The supervisor showed these parts to the manager and said that I was not skilled.” My employee was in contact with the senior manager. she said sadly to the manager: "I'm not satisfied, I have nothing to do because my manager has not referred anything to me”. But she had not done the routine work. “He said to the deputy that I told the deputy was not an important person, to destroy me, on the other hand, he told me the deputy was going to fire me, to persuade me for behaving unsuitably with the deputy.” The backstabber wanted to leave the organization and needed me in the new organization, he reported to the CEO that he did not go to many missions or did not complete them, the CEO got angry and insulted. The backstabber then told me to resign because of the CEO's insult. My boss summoned me while I was on a mission. The backstabber under the pretext of supporting me, Told the boss: "You should not summon her at this time, she should take care of her child" My subordinate was in contact with the manager and kept telling him: I am a good person but I am simple and others deceive me One of my employees did not perform the assigned activities and told the others: No positive activity has been performed in the new management period. I was selected as the CEO of the company. One of the managers who wanted to replace me formed a group with the sales managers and reduced the sales. We procured the raw materials from one of the holding companies. The manager of the supplier company increased the price of the products to destroy me. One of my subordinate managers, with the approval of the head of the holding, spent expenses outside the business plan and caused a crisis in the company's economic performance. ” “It was his responsibility to take care of the safe box. One day he left the safe open and the next day told others that I had not closed the safe box. One of the employees asked me to give him the clothing coupon in cash, after registering in the system, he said: he gave up and took the original coupon from me in a friendly way. He immediately took the registration of the cash receipt system and the original coupon to the manager and said that due to the operator's mistake, I was given a coupon and I received cash and he destroyed me. The factory manager told me that we had to buy immediately to prevent the production line from stopping. He asked me to correspond with the supplier immediately to pay them. After making the correspondence for payment, he took the correspondence paper to the CEO and stated that I could not control the work or had an illegal relationship with the supplier. My manager said that in order to solve the problems, it is necessary to provide pictures of the situation in the warehouse. He then sent the pictures to the CEO. He said that the warehouse has many problems. “The CEO of the group was sensitive about board membership and I did not like it, the backstabber said that I had no obligation then they had suggested to the manager that he asked me to become a member of the board.” The backstabber was friendly with the CEO and knew that it was important for the CEO to have obedient employees. The backstabber and I had a meeting for a deal. He asked me to buy his products at a higher price and I objected. After the meeting, he told the senior manager: In the meeting, your employee said: "In the purchasing unit, the senior manager also has no authority, and only I have the authority to decide."

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Sub-techniques

OBT

Make someone angry against another Emphasis on manager sensitivity issues Repeated an issue several Times

Machine gun

The repeated expression of a defect by several people

Repeated by several people

Examples The backstabber wanted to leave the organization and needed me in the new organization, he reported to the CEO that he did not go to many missions or did not complete them, the CEO got angry and insulted. The backstabber then told me to resign because of the CEO's insult. Everyone knew that the senior manager was very sensitive about communicating with one of the previously fired managers. My manager told the senior manager that I was in contact with the fired manager and that I would inform him and disrupt the work with his guidance. I made a deal and the seller received the money but did not deliver the car, although legal action was taken and the amount of money lost was acceptable. But he reminded the managers about this issue in all the meetings. Previously attending a sports program, was recorded as a mission. The new manager ordered: Attendance at the sports program, should not be registered as a mission, I announced the change to the staff. Several people went to the manager's office to protest and said: I have said: sports and staff are not important for the manager. One of my subordinates contacted the senior manager and told him that he was taking money from suppliers. At the same time, he coordinated with some other managers, and they all told the senior manager that I was taking money from suppliers.

4.2 Intermediate Coding (Axial Coding) In this step, the introductory codes were converted into secondary codes to build the theory. In this step, we defined thirty codes as follows with WEBQDA software then a definition was written for each code (Table 2). Table 2: Intermediate codes No

Name (Intermediate codes)

Use manager sensitivity

2 3

Create a problem and blame someone else Combine reality with lies

Showing reality in a different way

5 6 7 8

Unrealistic objection Unrealistic changes in statistics Show ineffective Making enemies

It was an important issue

Guide a person in the wrong direction

11 12 13 14

Exaggeration in issues Falsely reported False support Repeated an issue several Times

Give the wrong order to create a problem.

16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23

Unrealistic destruction, about organizational values / Ideological rule The repeated expression of a defect by several people Express unrealistic weakness Destroying the minds of two people about each other

Make someone angry against another The dissatisfaction of employees/invitation to disobey False praise for expressing a false weakness False help request for expressing a false subject

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Description (Definition) The destructive person is aware of the manager's emotional sensitivities, she/he uses the manager's sensitivity to induce the manager that the person does not value important issues. The backstabber does the wrong thing in order to blame others. Combining part of reality with lies, to make the story look more real. Changing a part of reality to action or result that is not considered appropriate but the story looks more real. Exaggerating issues that are not true, and downplaying the results Changing or highlighting an issue in statistics in order to show poor results. Raising a problem that is not true. The parties are told that the other party has slandered or destroyed you. Quoting false about some things sensitive to the audience, especially the senior manager. Friendly asks the person to do something illegal and then hand over the records of infractions to other people, especially the manager. Exaggeration about nonworking time. Reporting False about running away from work. Explain the weaknesses of a person under the pretext of defending her/him. Repeating the weaknesses by several people at different times or at the same time.

The backstabber gives an order that is not correct, and after executing the command, uses the result as a real tool for destruction. Emphasizing value problems that do not affect work. Quoting a lie or objection from several people at the same time. Expressing a weakness, which is made in the destructive mind. By quoting false information from the parties, it makes both people enemies. False quotes about things that make the audience angry, especially the senior manager. Making a person's performance ineffective. Praise the person while the backstabber knows others will oppose her/him. Asking for help from others whose real purpose is not to get help but to express the weakness of others.

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Name (Intermediate codes)

Description (Definition)

Repeated by several people

Emphasis on manager sensitivity issues

Failure to perform assigned activities

Collaboration to reduce performance

Barriers are created to achieve goals

Acting against goals

Get information to help and use it for destruction

Repeat a weakness by several people. Awareness of the manager's sensitivities and insinuating to the manager that a person does not pay attention to something important. Due to the instability of the superior position, the employee prevents the achievement of results by not performing activities and informing others about the undesirable results. Several people collude with each other to reduce performance and say the problem is with the superior manager. Prevent proper access to the inputs needed to achieve the goals. Using authority, activities that are ostensibly necessary for the company but conflict with the company's goals are performed to undermine some of the results, and then the poor results are reported. By deceiving the person, information about the weaknesses of the system is received from her/him and the same information is used to destroy her/him.

4.3 Advanced Coding and Theoretical Integration (Selective Coding/ Core Category) In this step, the thirty codes that have been defined in the previous step were reviewed and similar codes were grouped to form core categories. Eight-core categories were identified that demonstrated Organizational Backstabbing Techniques. Each group was named with a title and we prepared the code map with WEBQDA software (Figure 2).

5 Discussion The purpose of this study is to investigate Organization Backstabbing Techniques based on Grounded theory. Our research shows that a few studies have been done on Backstabbing and this issue has not been reviewed as one of the main issues in the field of organizational behavior while studying this issue can be very interesting for many people who work in the field of organizational behavior. The first group of studies that were reviewed in this article, is related to the subject of Anti-citizenship behavior or anti-social behavior. In these studies, destructive behaviors are examined as a subset of anti-citizenship behaviors, however, the destructive behavior of employees against others has not been studied in detail and refers to the general destructive behaviors towards the manager and the team which was mentioned in section 2-1-. In Section 2-2-, important studies conducted in the field of Backstabbing were reviewed and most of them have researched the definitions of this field and have examined the behaviors that take place in this area. In one of these studies, Backstabbing was mentioned as a dirty tactic used in the organization (Lincoln et al., 1982), but the question "What are these dirty tactics?" has not been answered in any research. In this research, we identified eight categories of Backstabbing techniques. The eight main categories of Backstabbing-techniques are 1-Combined destruction, 2-Press on the hot spot, 3Two-way destruction, 4-Simple destruction, 5-Bad defense, 6-Trapping, 7-Machine gun, and 8Performance barrier. The eight main categories can divide into thirty sub-groups, which are mentioned in the section intermediate coding.

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Figure 2: Advanced coding (map of core categories of organizational backstabbing techniques. We are recommending researchers to study this issue in organizations of other countries, evaluate the amount of use of these techniques in organizations, evaluate the ability of each of the identified techniques in destroying others, and determine methods for fighting with Organizational Backstabbing. The findings of this study show that Organizational Backstabbing behavior was observed in all nineteen organizations surveyed. Backstabbers use the following eight Organizational Backstabbing Techniques to destroy others, Table 3.

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Table 3: Organizational Backstabbing Techniques. No

Organizational Backstabbing Techniques

Simple destruction

Combined destruction

Two-way destruction

Bad defense

Performance barrier

Trapping

Press on the hot spot

Machine gun

Description They destroy a person by expressing false weaknesses or exaggerating weaknesses through conversations, meetings, reports, statistics, or figures. They combine part of the truth with false stories to make the story of Backstabbing seem real. They tell or show evidence to the first person that the second person is destroying you or is hostile to you, and on the other hand, they also tell or show evidence to the second person that the first person is destroying you or is your enemy. They defend or reward the person in a way that they know will be harmful to her/him. They collude to prevent a person from achieving the desired results or prevent access to the required resources and information or reduce their performance that affects the results or take actions that are not in line with the goals. They guide the employee to do something that produces bad results, or they receive confidential information from that person and use the result and information to destroy that person. They are aware of the sensitivities of managers and supervisors, and by using this awareness they are instilling in managers that the issues that are important to you are not important to that person or that person is working against you. Several people are repeating a real or false weakness, over and over again to make it more believable and important to others.

6 Conclusion Organizational backstabbing behavior has been observed in eight techniques. The eight techniques of Organizational Backstabbing are Simple destruction, combined destruction, Two-way destruction, Bad defense, Performance barrier, Trapping, Press on the hot spot, and Machine gun. Some of these techniques have been used more than others and some of them are more complex than others. Some of these techniques are performed individually and others by several people. The backstabbers are both men and women. Each of the eight techniques includes some sub-techniques that are mentioned in intermediate coding. In some interviews, it was revealed that some of the backstabbers used several techniques at the same time. Organizational Backstabbing Techniques, sub-techniques, and examples are listed in Table 1.

7 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

8 References Allan, G. (2003). A critique of using grounded theory as a research method. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 2(1), 1-10. DOI: 10.1.1.129.9102 Aquino, K., & Douglas, S. (2003, January). Identity threat and antisocial behavior in organizations: The moderating effects of individual differences, aggressive modeling, and hierarchical status, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90(1), 195-208. Brenner, S. N., & Molander, E. A. (1977). Is the ethics of business changing? Harvard business review, 55, pp. 57-71. Retrieved from https://scholar.google.com. Harvey, J. B. (1989, Nov). Some Thoughts about Organizational Backstabbing: Or, How Come Every Time I Get Stabbed in the Back My Fingerprints Are on the Knife? The Academy of Management Executive, 3(4), pp. 271-277. DOI:https://DOI.org/10.5465/ame.1989.4277398

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Jelinek, R., & Ahearne, M. (2006, May ). The ABC's of ACB: Unveiling a clear and present danger in the sales force. Industrial Marketing Management, 35(4), 457-467. Kaukiainen, A., Salmivalli, C., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., Lahtinen, A., Kostamo, A., & Lagerspetz, K. (2001, September 25). Overt and covert aggression in work settings in relation to the subjective wellbeing of employees. Aggressive behavior, 27(5), 360-371. DOI: 10.1002/ab.1021 Lincoln, D. J., Pressley, M. M., & Little, T. (1982). Ethical beliefs and personal values of top-level executives. Journal of Business Research, 10(4), 475-487. DOI: 10.1016/0148-2963(82)90006-6. MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (1998, Jul). Some Possible Antecedents and Consequences of In-Role and Extra-Role Salesperson Performance. Journal of Marketing, 62, 87-98. DOI: 10.2307/1251745 Malone, P., & Hayes, J. (2012, Mar 22). Backstabbing in Organizations: Employees’ Perceptions of Incidents, Motives, and Communicative Responses. Communication Studies, 63(2), 194-219. Martin, P. Y., & Turner, B. A. (1986). Grounded Theory and Organizational Research. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 22(2), 141. DOI: 10.1177/002188638602200207 McFarland, D. E. (1966). Current Issues and Emerging Concepts in Management Readings from the Academy of Management (Vol. II). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Neuman, J., & Baron, R. (1998). Workplace Violence and Workplace Aggression: Evidence Concerning Specific Forms, Potential Causes, and Preferred Targets. Journal of Management, 27(3), 391-419. Ralph, N., Birks, M., & Chapman, Y. (2015). The Methodological Dynamism of Grounded Theory. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 1-6. DOI: 10.1177/1609406915611576 Sheehan, K. B. (2001). E-mail Survey Response Rates- a Review. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 6(2). DOI: 10.1111/j.1083-6101.2001.tb00117.x Davood Heidari Azim is president of University of Applied Science and Technology (Golestan Co Branch) and Human Resources Vice president of Golestan Holding. He was chairman of Oshanak (7) chain stores. He got a Master’s degree of Human Resource Management, Strategic field from University of Tehran, IRAN. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0313-4392

Seyedeh Leila Hakemzadeh is HSE Manager of Mobile Telecommunication Company of Iran (MCI). She was Board member of MSI (Modiryat Saramad Iranian). She got a Master’s degree of Entrepreneurship, Digital (Electronic) Business field from University of Tehran, IRAN.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Roles of Self-Efficacy in Using Social Networking to Improve Productivity Sarah Khan1, Nasir Mehmood1*, Ibrahim A Alhamad2, Mazhar Abbas2 1

Faculty of Management Sciences, University of Wah, PAKISTAN. Department of Management and Information Systems, College of Business Administration, University of Ha’il, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: nasir.mehmood@uow.edu.pk). 2

Paper ID: 13A1B Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

The challenge most organizations are facing is how to make effective use of available social networking technologies for enhancing employees’ Received 28 July 2021 Received in revised form 15 productivity. This has recently gained considerable attention from October 2021 organizations around the world that are experiencing a major shift in their Accepted 24 October 2021 corporate environment and specific working requirements. The purpose of Available online 01 this study is to examine the relationship between social networking November 2021 technologies on employees’ productivity and also to determine how Keywords: knowledge sharing self-efficacy of employees affects this relationship. The Social networking; sample data were collected from academic and financial institution staff Employee productivity; Knowledge sharing self- working in different universities located in Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Wah Cantt cities of Pakistan. Structural Equation Modelling technique using the efficacy; Self-efficacy SmartPLS software tool was applied to the data for statistical analysis. The factor. results of the study revealed that the use of social networking technologies for knowledge sharing has a positive significant impact on employees’ productivity. Furthermore, the self-efficacy factor proved to be a significant positive moderator in strengthening the direct relationship between social networking and employees’ productivity. The findings provided useful insight for policymakers in service sector organizations to plan for the effective utilization of social networking technologies among employees for achieving desired organizational outcomes. Disciplinary: Management Sciences, IT Application. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Khan, S., Mehmood, N., Alhamad, I. A., Abbas, M. (2022). Roles of Self-Efficacy in Using Social Networking to Improve Productivity. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1B, 1-11. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.2

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1 Introduction Productivity of the organization increases when employees give preference to working with the personnel that gives priority in achieving the company’s goal (Leonova et al., 2021). Employee productivity is measured as a key component for a company’s success. It is considered to be the driving force to lead towards enhancing employees’ efficiency and deliverability (Almaamari and Alaswad, 2021). Worker productivity is thus a major element in the economic growth of a country as well as the success of any organization. In this study, we look at productivity in the service sector of a developing economy, namely Pakistan. Pakistan’s economy relies on three main contributing pillars; are service sector, agriculture, and industry. Pakistan's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been lowered because of competition from emerging economies of other countries. In the last seventy years, it came to the lowest level of -0.4 equated to last year’s 2019 growth of 1.0% (Pakistan Economic Survey 2020, pp-iii-v). Due to the COVID-19 situation in the country, the world’s economic growth, in general, was negatively affected (Tagar et al., 2021). In the 21st century, the service sector has become a central force in economic growth and development specifically in emerging areas such as Information Technology (IT), creativity and innovation (Rahman, 2020). According to Pakistan Economic Survey, the overall advancement in Pakistan in the year 2018-19 in service sectors is 4.71%. Progress of 7.05% is seen in IT, education, health and social sciences. Total growth of 5.14% is seen in financial, banking and insurance divisions, positive incline has been seen in insurance sub-division, scheduled banks and nonscheduled displayed 24.6, 5.3, and 12.8%, respectively. Railways 38.93%, airborne operation 3.38%, transport division 3.34%, transport 3.38% and storage communication has shown positive contribution. Development in the departments of executive authorities increased up to 7.99%, where a 4.0% increase has been seen in housing services. Bulk growth in wholesale, livestock sectors and retail added value (2018-2019). These statistics showcase the vital role the service sector plays in modern economies generally and, specifically, for Pakistan’s economy. Therefore, it is vital to study how productivity can be enhanced in this sector in novel and practical ways. This paper comes in this quest. This paper focuses particularly on the use of social networking tools and their effect on the performance of the employees working in the service sector.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Social Networking and Employee’s Productivity Social Networking provides people an open platform where they can join the symposium and engage in a discussion without any restrictions (Ellison et al., 2015). These podiums are not timebound for sharing knowledge, they permit individuals to contribute and interact for their intellectual development (Treem & Leonardi, 2013). It is a forum where different people effortlessly communicate with each other and in groups. Social Networking reduces the intensity in the discussions and connects the individuals by allowing them to interact, analyze, and perceive

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digitally (Leonardi & Meyer, 2015). Social networking platforms have become dynamic sources of learning vibrant business methods for professional development. Promoting social networking in the organization enhances the employees' development through participation, job satisfaction, productivity, commitment, and contribution (Grant, 2016). Employees improve their knowledge through observation, information, documents, and communication through social networking (Leonardi, 2014). Scholars have found it difficult for organizations to disseminate information when the target audience is unknown. When information is visible on social networking, uncertainties between the source and the target are minimized (Leonardi & Meyer, 2015). Organizations can achieve greater growth, employee involvement, efficiency, competitiveness and well-being by promoting the use of social networking applications and tools (Grant, 2016). Studies have reported that sharing knowledge improves the efficiency level and decisionmaking power of the employees (Kanawattanachai & Yoo, 2007; Kim, 2011). Employee productivity can be improved by 20 to 25 percent through the increased use of social networking (Ali-Hassan et al., 2011; Andriole, 2010; Denyer et al., 2011). Forrester Group revealed in a study of an organization with 7000 employees that using social networking tools has increased 365 percent return on investments in the last three years (Dodd, 2011). Knowledge alliance via social networking platforms significantly affects the seller-customer relationship management, time and cost, work procedures, and job performance. The theories have also highlighted the significance of mounting effect and interactive practices inside the company (Grant, 2016). Especially the various social-related theories provide insight to management about the impact of emerging societal and communication methods at workplaces (Morgan et al., 2017). Knowledge sharing theory also implies that systematic use of social networking tends to build competencies and efficiencies among employees. Similar findings have been reported by a study that investigated the 4,568 operators engaged with the enterprise system (Deng & Chi, 2015). Researchers argued that users of social networking platforms can create a positive impact on their work execution as it has been observed that an increase in productivity also improves the work performance of the employees (Thom-Santelli, 2011). Therefore, social networking websites and tools have a significant impact on productivity by allowing employees to convert their knowledge, experience, and skills into social capital for an organization. As discussed in several past studies, using social networking for internal and external knowledge sharing has resulted in increased employees' efficiency and productivity (Kuegler et al., 2015). Therefore, this study hypothesized that

H#1: There is a positive relationship between Social networking (SN) and employee productivity (EP) 2.2 Knowledge Sharing Self-efficacy as a Moderating Factor The meaning of self-efficacy is that individuals have their judgment about their abilities and competence to consolidate and perform actions that are essential to achieve a definite level of achievement (Bandura, 1986). Some scholars advised that an individual’s self-efficacy can

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stimulate or encourage employees to transfer their expertise with their fellow workers (Wasko & Faraj, 2005). It is recognized as the promoter of sharing knowledge (Bandura, 1982a, 1986; Igbaria & Iivari, 1995). If an individual considers knowledge sharing as an important concern or they are internally encouraged to discourse them, then the connection among knowledge sharing behavior would become more apparent or understandable (Singh et al., 2016). Furthermore, the workforce who is willing to succeed in their jobs is those who are more self-assured in their capabilities to offer their expert and valued information (Constant et al., 1994). Knowledge sharing self-efficacy is mostly observed in those workers who are certain that their expert information can aid in solving problems at work and can enhance work-efficacy (Luthans, 2002). The employees who are confident that their valued knowledge sharing will pay to increase the performance of their company will cultivate the positive willingness and eagerness to collect and donate knowledge and information (Luthans, 2002; Svetlik et al., 2007). In this modern world, knowledge is considered one of the utmost assets, decreasing its production part to a lesser location. Besides, sharing knowledge shows the way to economic advancement to the institutes. Moreover, due to the rise of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), the use of cybernetic teams is increasing to help businesses. The question is, does social networking inspires or encourage knowledge transfer methods. Lastly, the validity was established for knowledge sharing, considered as information via proof test, organizations are seeing it as an important resource for the institutes and firms (Wu et al., 2006). The researcher carried out a study to analyze the impact of motivational aspects and behavior of organizations and individuals toward knowledge sharing. She comes up with the result that organizational feature that is higher-ups support and an individual factor which is knowledge self-efficacy and satisfaction in helping others, both contributed considerably to sharing knowledge (Svetlik et al., 2007). Thus, this study will consider

H#2: High level of knowledge sharing self-efficacy (KSE) positively moderates the relationship between social networking (SN) and employee’s productivity (EP) Knowledge Sharing Self-efficacy H#2

Social Networking

H#1

Employee’s Productivity

Figure 1: Research Model

3 Methodology 3.1 Population and Sampling Faculty members and operational staff related to the financial sector and educational institutes situated in Rawalpindi, Wah Cantt, and Islamabad, Pakistan are the population for research. The data was collected through a self-administrative questionnaire. To define the sample size, the research adopted a convenience sampling technique. Among the respondents, 500

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questionnaires were circulated. The number of questionnaires resumed was 403, therefore, 80 percent was the response rate of the survey. Determining sample size, a software named G Power and (Krejcie & Morgan, 1970) design was used for calculation. The novel technique, G Power is applied to analyze sampling. This software examines the strength for calculating the sampling of the survey, a dynamic software for a study. Power analysis of different tests including z test, chisquare, exact test, t-test, and F test is investigated through this software (Faul et al., 2007). For achieving correct and appropriate results, a 403 sample size was evaluated. The sample size was calculated through G Power software. A self-administrated questionnaire is prepared for the collection of data from the respondents through a survey. The respondents are educated and the working language is English in Pakistan, the questionnaire was prepared in the English language.

0% 6% 2% 0%

Gender Male 9%

11%

Gender Female 10%

Age Group 21-30 Age Group 31-40 Age Group 41-50

8% 16%

Age Group 51-60 Age Group 61 Above

11% 7% 11%

1% 4% 5% 0%

Education Undergraduation Education Masters Education Phd

Figure 2: Graphical Presentation of Respondents Background The statistics of the demographic presentation about the surveyed respondents for sector, experience, age-wise, qualification, and gender are demonstrated graphically in Figure-2. Respondents are categorized based on gender (34% percent female and 66% percent male). The respondents’ ages fall between 60% and 25%, no respondents are in the age group of >61. Mainly the respondents possess 6-12 years of experience, which is 40%, concerning their education more or less all respondents possessed graduate education including master’s degree and PhD degrees.

3.2 Research Instruments Variables are social networking, employee productivity, and knowledge sharing self-efficacy. A five-point Likert Scale (“1 for strongly agree” to “5 for strongly disagree”) was used for gathering responses from the target respondents for all three variables. This research questionnaire is built from the original feedback form.

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Table 2: Distribution of Instrument Variables S. No 1. 2. 3.

Variables Social Networking Employee’s Productivity Knowledge Sharing Self-efficacy

Items 06 06 04

Sources Kuegler et al., (2015) Than-Santelli et al., (2011) Kankanhalli et al,. (2005)

4 Data Analysis Initially, the MS Excel Software analysis package is used for data coding. This software is generally used for primary testing and coding to quantify data’s normal situations like unengaged responses and missing values. When the gathered data is validated for normality conditions, the collected data is imported into Smart PLS software for further scrutiny, then the file is saved in the CSV format. Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a frequently used technique for partial least squares structural equation modeling for the evaluation of the multi-layered association between hidden and perceived variables. Internal consistency. Internal consistency between items of a research instrument determines the reliability of the scale through estimated values of Cronbach’s alpha (Hair et al., 2014).

To analyze the proposed model in the advanced phase, data reliability is determined

through the values projected for Cronbach Alpha (CA) and Composite Reliability (CR). Defining the acceptable level of data reliability, the projected standard is 0.60 or greater for Cronbach Alpha and Composite Reliability are applied. Whereas, values that show lower reliability are values that are less than 0.60. Higher consistency of items shows higher composite reliability. In this research, the values of Cronbach alpha and Composite Reliability are within the range from 0.60-0.80, showcased in Table 1. Standards presented are in the upward unit of reliability construct that shows variables utilized in the study instruments' at a higher scale of internal consistency. Table 1: Internal Consistency Measures. Variables EP SN

Composite Reliability(CR) 0.92 0.85

Cronbach’s Alpha(CA) 0.89 0.78

Note. EP=Employees Productivity, SN=Social Networking Path coefficients. To calculate the structure model of this study, the path coefficient” is also utilized. The standards of the path coefficient” are analyzed for checking the strength and importance of the connection among the new two variables. SmartPLS” named as Bootstrapping” is utilized for getting the standards examining connections (paths) among independent” and dependent” variables. However, examining the significance of every path present between the variables is validated through t-statistics and p-values. According to the previous scholar, when they are measured empirically t-value is greater than the critical value, the coefficient is calculated significantly at explicit confidence level. The t-value of 0.95 segregated at an important standard of 0.05 in this study (Hair et al., 2014). The nonparametric statistical test recognized as bootstrapping executed by PLS-SEM is used to calculate the significance of the projected path coefficient (Hair et al., 2014). The values of the

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coefficient range between -1 and +1. Therefore, coefficient values close to +1 presents a strong relationship, whereas values near -1 show a weak relationship. The acceptance and rejection of a hypothesis depend on path valuation.

4.1 Hypothesis Testing In accordance with the outcomes collected through PLS-SEM”, the hypothesis of this study is verified via a structural model. At a significance level of 0.05, t-value, p-value, and values of path coefficient are assessed to check the hypothesis. Depending on the standards every hypothesis” is accepted in this study. Two hypotheses are showcased in the current research to analyze the direct” and indirect” relationship between the projected variables. The predictable hypothesis is stipulated below: Social networking on employee productivity. According to the output, the coefficient value among social networking as well as employee productivity is estimated at 0.498. The t-value is 11.007, calculated the impact of the pathway that is greater than the critical value of 1.96. The Pvalue of 0.000 is significant of the path coefficient. According to the empirical confirmation, hypothesis H#1 is accepted and establishes a significant effect of social networking on employees’ productivity. This study, t-value, p-value, and path coefficient between the variables are shown empirically in Table 2. Table 2: Path Coefficients Path SN  EP

Path Coefficient Mean SD t-Statistics 0.498 0.502 0.045 11.007 Note. SN=Social Networking, EP=Employees Productivity

p-value 0.000

KSE as a moderator between SN and EP. The moderator variable in any study influences the relationship between independent and dependent variables in such a way that it could either impact the strength of the relationship or direct the relationship. The moderating effect is estimated by multiplying the values of each item of the independent variable with each item of the moderating variable and then calculating the multiplier effect over the dependent variable. The values of moderating effects are measured through either product indicator or two-stage methods in Smart PLS.

Figure 3: Moderating Effect of KSE over SN & EP.

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Table 3: Significance of the Moderating Effect of KSE over SN & EP Path Moderating Effect KSE  SN  EP

Path Coefficient

t-value

p-value

0.149

2.470

0.007

Note. Knowledge Sharing Self-efficacy=KSE, Social Networking=SN, Employee’s Productivity=EP. For this research, the two-stage method has been adopted. At the first stage, the moderating effect has been estimated and the significance of the moderating effect is tested through t and p values. In a second stage, the two-way interaction term is measured to determine the strength of the relationship in terms of high or low with respect to the value of the moderating effect. Figure 3 and Table 3 highlight the value of the moderating effect as 0.149 (t=2.470, p=0.007) which determines the fact the KSE positively and significantly moderates between SN and EP. 4 3.5 EP

Moderator

2.5

Low KSE

2 High KSE

1.5 1

Low SN

High SN

Figure 4: Two-Way Interaction Term A second stage, measuring the two-way interaction while taking up non-standardized path coefficient values of moderator and independent in consort with the value interface term (measuring in the earlier phase) in the worksheet of Microsoft Excel (reference Figure-4) established by Jeremy Dawson (jeremydawson.co.uk). Subsequently, hypothesis H#2 is a top-level knowledge sharing self-efficacy (KSE) positively strengthened the relationship between social networking (SN) and employee productivity (EP). The upward slopes highlighted in Figure-4 confirmed the hypothesized moderating effect of KSE; in other words, when KSE is higher, the relationship between SN and EP is positively strengthened. Thus, hypothesis H#2 is accepted.

5 Conclusion This study adds importance to the prevailing work allied to social networking and its effects on employees’ productivity. Significantly, the study contributes by analyzing the moderating role of perceived knowledge sharing self-efficacy. The initial facts were gathered through a survey which was self-administered from 403 (four hundred and three) operational staff and faculty members employed in financial and educational institutes located in Wah cantonment, the capital city of Islamabad, and Rawalpindi Pakistan. A pragmatic examination of the operational model of the study revealed a direct association of social networking which is positively linked to employee productivity. The moderating impact of perceived knowledge sharing self-efficacy has also been found to have a significant role in

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strengthening the relationship between social networking and employee productivity. This study is innovative research to the problem about the moderating effect of perceived knowledge sharing self-efficacy between the workforce employed in financial and educational institutes of Pakistan. According to the argument, it is anticipated that employees’ productivity in terms of efficacy and output is becoming evaluative in the service sector as the standard of services is mainly shaped by the use of social networking tools for improving the productivity of employees. This study has empirically verified that using social networking applications and tools boosts the productivity of employees in HEIs in Pakistan. This research has further focused on the evolving concept of knowledge sharing self-efficacy in the literature. This study has achieved its aim in justifying the hypothesized relationships in terms of previous findings. This study creates a platform for future studies that can expand the anticipated framework with extensive findings explicitly the proposal/idea of knowledge sharing self-efficacy as moderator for workforce productivity which could be investigated in different contexts. For the last two decades, the issue and concept of employee productivity have been studied in multifaceted ways. This research provides practical implementation in financial and academic institutions. Firstly, the service sector, specifically HEIs, is advised to prepare, implement and communicate procedures to motivate well-versed and qualified employees to share their valuable professional expertise, knowledge, skills, experience, and innovative ideas via social networking within the organization personnel for their knowledge advancement. This, as this study showed, enhances productivity and allows organizations to capitalize on their staffs’ knowledge. Moreover, organizational leadership should take decisions to establish a system of knowledge exchange channels using social networks to enhance productivity that allows for making hidden knowledge of some staff members visible to other colleagues in the organization. Reciprocating and interchanging knowledge among fellow employees via state-of-the-art automated resources, develops and enhances creativity and efficiency levels. A fundamental management system can be built in organizations for ongoing training and intellectual renewal. This will help the employees to get an excellent opportunity to gain creative, innovative, and upto-date professional expert knowledge available in the electronic library database and learning management systems for their advancement. Lastly, this research proposes key stakeholders, policymakers, and regulators in HEIs of Pakistan to analyze and instill flexible and agile organization culture for increasing the productivity of employees while using different tools of social networking in the service industry.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 References Ali-Hassan, H., et al. (2011). Organizational social computing and employee job performance: the knowledge access route. 44th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, HICSS.

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Almaamari, Q. A. & Alaswad, H. I. 2021. Factors influencing employees' productivity. Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, 27, 1-7. Bandura, A. (1982). The assessment and predictive generality of self-percepts of efficacy. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry 13(3): 195-199. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1986: 23-28. Constant, D., et al. (1994). What's mine is ours, or is it? A study of attitudes about information sharing. Information systems research, 5(4): 400-421. Denyer, D., Parry, E., & Flowers, P. (2011). “Social”,“Open” and “Participative”? Exploring personal experiences and organisational effects of enterprise2. 0 use. Long Range Planning, 44(5-6), 375-396. Dodd, L. (2011). Study reveals huge ROI when using yammer. Strategic Communication Management 15(6), 7. Ellison, N. B., et al. (2015). The use of enterprise social network sites for knowledge sharing in distributed organizations: The role of organizational affordances. American Behavioral Scientist, 59(1): 103-123. Grant, S. B. (2016). Classifying emerging knowledge sharing practices and some insights into antecedents to social networking: a case in insurance. Journal of Knowledge Management. Hair Jr, J. F., et al. (2014). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). European business review. Igbaria, M. and J. Iivari (1995). The effects of self-efficacy on computer usage. Omega 23(6): 587-605. Kanawattanachai, P. and Yoo, Y. (2007). The impact of knowledge coordination on virtual team performance over time. MIS Quarterly, 783-808. Kim, D. (2011). The effects of knowledge sharing on program performance: Influences on CPS program performance, Virginia Tech. Leonardi, P. M. (2014). Social media, knowledge sharing, and innovation: Toward a theory of communication visibility. Information systems research, 25(4), 796-816. Leonardi, P. M. (2015). Ambient awareness and knowledge acquisition: using social media to learn ‘who knows what’ and ‘who knows whom’. MIS Quarterly 39(4): 747-762. Leonova, I. S., Pesennikova-Sechenov, E. V., Legky, N. M., Prasolov, V. I., Krutskikh, I. A. & Zayed, N. M. (2021). Strategic Analysis of the Motivation on Employees'productivity: A Compensation Benefits, Training and Development Perspective. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 20, 1-11. Luthans, F. (2002). Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths. Academy of Management Perspectives 16(1): 57-72. Morgan, S. J., et al. (2017). Case study observational research: A framework for conducting case study research where observation data are the focus. Qualitative health research 27(7): 1060-1068. Rahman, N. (2020). Understanding the Impact of Knowledge Sharing through Enterprise Social Networking (ESN) on Service Innovation. Proc. the 53rd Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. Singh, S. K., et al. (2016). Satisfaction of learning, performance, and relatedness needs at work and employees’ organizational identification. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management. Svetlik, I., et al. (2007). Knowledge sharing and firm innovation capability: an empirical study. International Journal of manpower. Tagar, H. K., Shaikh, S. M., Tagar, A. K. & Bijarni, G. A. (2021). Economic Growth of Pakistan in 21 st Century and the Use of ‘Blue Economy’Resources for Sustainability. European Journal of Social Sciences, 62, 3849. Thom-Santelli, J., et al. (2011). Organizational acculturation and social networking. Proceedings of the ACM 2011 conference on Computer supported cooperative work.

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Wasko, M. M. and S. Faraj (2005). Why should I share? Examining social capital and knowledge contribution in electronic networks of practice. MIS Quarterly, 35-57. Wu, S., et al. (2006). Exploring knowledge sharing in virtual teams: A social exchange theory perspective. Proc. 39th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS'06), IEEE. Sarah Khan completed an MS degree from Management Sciences, University of Wah.

Dr. Nasir Mahmood is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Management Sciences, University of Wah. He got a PhD in Management from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. His research encompasses Team Leadership, and Management.

Dr.Ibrahim Abdullah Alhamad is Dean of the College of Business Administration. His research interests include Consumer Behavior, Micro-Blogging, Marketing Management, and Online Product Reviews.

Dr. Mazhar Abbas is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Management & MIS, College of Business Administration. He got a PhD from UUM and had his Post Doc at USM and. His areas of interest are Marketing & Management.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Influences of Intangible Needs on the Architectural Expression of Tangible Culture Heritage: Comparative Study between Mosque and Church Ahmed Abdulwahid Dhannoon1, Oday Qusay Abdulqader1*, Amer Abdullah Al-Azawi1 Architectural Engineering Department, College of Engineering, University of Mosul, IRAQ. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +964 770 1622788, Email: odaychalabi@uomosul.edu.iq). 1

Paper ID: 13A1C Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 15 March 2021 Received in revised form 22 October 2021 Accepted 27 October 2021 Available online 01 November 2021

Keywords:

Religious building; Architectural religious expression; Intangible needs; Intangible cultural heritage; Mosque architecture; Church architecture; Abstracted symbol; Building layout; Intangible heritage.

Abstract

The architectural buildings are the mirror which the cultures reflect the interiority in tangible form. This study clarifies the dialectic of the differences between Islamic and Western architectures and interior design, especially in the way of expression of religious needs. Moreover, it focuses on the heritage buildings that included religious performances. The study's problem is: "There is a gap of knowledge and unclear image of the influences of intangible heritage on the architectural and interior outcomes". Literature focuses on the Islamic and western architecture themes, including architectural identity, building typology, and architecture and interior elements. The research question of the current study is: "What are the differences between mosque and church in terms of the influences of intangible cultural heritage". Therefore, the study aims to determine the intangible factors of the Mosque and the Church's architectural and interior design. The qualitative approach is adopted to reach the study's aim, via visual observation and interview. The case study justification follows the criteria of place, age, and heritage value. Experts in architecture, culture, and religion are the focuses of the interview. The data analysis applies formal analysis for the visual data, while the textual data applied content analysis. The results showed that religion needs and cultural value are the main intangible factors that influence architectural expressions, which affect the architectural and interior design elements with three levels of influenced tangible needs, interior, exterior, and layout of the buildings. Disciplinary: Architecture, Religion & Believe, Heritage Study. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Dhannoon, A. A., Abdulqader, O. Q., Al-Azawi, A. A. (2022). Influences of Intangible Needs on the Architectural Expression of Tangible Culture Heritage: Comparative Study between Mosque and Church. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1C, 1-13. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.3

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1 Introduction The intangible influences are categorised into two main types: cultural values and religion needs, which are integrated to represent these influences physically. The architectural and interior design of the religious buildings have a role in presenting religious needs. The needs can be in the form of function, spiritual, and aesthetic. The study investigated the visible elements in the religious buildings that reflect the needs of the religion. Each religion has special processing to reflect the religious needs in visible form. Therefore, this speciality creates assorted patterns of architecture and interior design. However, the differences in each religion's needs also create diversity in religious building types. The Mosque and Church are the most important functional patterns in which religious' needs are represented. Researchers explained general lines in the differences between the impacts of Islam and Christian religion on the buildings. However, most of the researchers discussed the results depending on the original buildings related to the age before 1400 years. The current study is trying to develop influences of religion on architecture and interior design in the contemporary era, inspiring the designers to achieve religion, culture, and function. The research objectives are •

To determine the intangible needs of the Architecture and interior design of the Mosque and Church.

•

To find out the architectural and interior design elements linked to religious values.

•

To find out the way of expression by the tangible elements in the Islam and Christian religion that represent the intangible needs

2 Literature Review The influences of religion on architectural design and form reflected the spiritual, religious, and cultural needs (Falakian & Falakian, 2013). Mohammed (1994) mentioned that praying, holding seminars, Friday speeches, and teaching are essential to recognise the Mosque buildings. Okuyucu (2016) explained that the mosque included functions and physical elements, representing the tangible form's needs. Grabar (1974) discusses Islamic architecture's cultural needs, which buildings need to present Islam's reality physically, recognised from the surrounding buildings. Islam applied the principles of scale and form in the Mosque buildings to show the monumentality (Grabar, 1974). Rasdi (2017) mentioned that the mosque's architectural language is related to the Mosques' function, which is praying. The researcher argued that the mosque should be in a simple square pattern, a genuine form to support praying (Rasdi, 2017). The religious, spiritual, and cultural needs in the Christian religion are mentioned by Tkach (2011) and' Ayar (2004). The church's six functions are; Worship, spiritual disciplines, Discipleship, Fellowship, Service, and Evangelism, which should have a place in the building. Dhannoon (2014) identified the influenced elements: Almoslaa, Almihrab (niche), Alminbar, Courtyard, Alzula, Fence, Doors and minaret. Khakpour and Kateb (2017) introduced the important elements of the Mosques, classified according to the physical shape, such as; Entry, Apron,

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Seraglio, Verandah, ablution chamber, Dome, Sanctuary, the chamber for calling to prayer, Porch, Trough. Salimi et al. (2016) highlighted the relationship between religion and architecture. The study hypothesised that religion influences the architectural elements in religious buildings. The influences of religion are recognised in the architecture and decoration elements, which artwork in the interior and exterior is a sample of relationship (Salimi, 2016). The physical elements of the church are; Porch, Entrance, people's place, Chanter's place, place for VIP and clergymen, Sanctuary, Heritage House, Bell Tower, baptism pool, nave, Church pulpit, Church Bishop Chair, Holy of Holies, altar, painting, and ornaments. Ornaments are classified as the most influenced elements in the church (Ayar, 2004; Khakpour & Kateb, 2017; Salimi et al., 2016). Husni (2005) explain how art represents the image of Islamic religion, although some Islamic views forbid the use of art, specifically painting. The Islamic spirit and function are reflected in the use of art as a visual form. Islamic architecture applied geometric, organic, and abstracted shapes in the decoration, elements, and painting. The humane and animal figures were not used in the buildings because of Islam's rule that forbade the figuring, especially in the religious buildings. In Islamic vision, the forbidden of figuring and using pictures inside the mosques and religious buildings will probably take the prayers' attention. Moreover, the use of these elements, especially the pictures and paintings, shows the Prophets and iconic Islamic persons' figures, leading to the worship of these elements (Husni, 2005). Khakpour and Kateb (2017) compared expression in the architectural and interior design in the Church and Mosque. Church buildings applied figurative art to emphasise Jesus Christ as religious needs. In Islamic architecture, the formal homogeneity used, produced the essential differences in physical and visual arts elements, such as; shape, colour, and content. In Churches, the scared images are painted on the wall, including the human face as an expression of human nature (Jesus). The Christian religion used embodiment as a way of expression to show divinity in human form. While the Islamic viewpoint is to use the prophetic traditions, it further maintains that the simulation is reprimanded because it is manipulation in God's production. Muslim architects believed that the art of imitation is permissible as long as it is not a complete imitation (Khakpour & Kateb, 2017). Salimi et al. (2016) mentioned that textual ornamentations in the interior and exterior design are the only way to show the values of Islam artistically by using the inscriptions, which included words from the Qur'an directly. Makhlina (2014) and Ibragimov (2011) explained the differences between expressions in using arches in Islamic and Christian buildings. Arches considered the main interior and exterior elements that reflect Islam's image of Christianity as a physical, tangible element. Orientation, type, and angles of the arches have a deep expression in Islamic and Christian buildings. Most of the related studies identified religious architecture levels, which is mostly mentioned in the Church and Mosque buildings details. Dhannoon (2014) identified four levels of expression in the mosque building, such as plan, component, construction system and building materials, facades and decoration. Ayar (2004), Khakpour and Kateb (2017), and Salimi et al. (2016)

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referred to three levels that contained the influenced physical elements of the interior and exterior design in Mosque and Church buildings, which are exterior, interior, and layout levels.

3 Research Design This study applied a special methodology to cover the visual and textual data, which included two phases; the first phase is to collect data from various sources (open lens observation). The second one is the techniques of analysing these data.

3.1 Methodology This paper used a qualitative approach adapted to collect two types of data (visual and textual).

3.1.1 Observation This method is used widely in qualitative researches. The collected data is accurate and abstract to the objectives of qualitative researches (Creswell, 2014). In this study, two types of observation were used to collect two kinds of data: a. Visual observation: the visual observation method used to collect data from the case study (Mosques-Churches). The observation process focuses on the components, function, elements, ornamentation, exterior design, and interior design using an observation sheet. b. Textual observation: documents and literature observed to collect data to support the case study and variables used to reach the study's objectives.

3.1.2 Interview Semi-structured interview questions are designed to collect in-depth data from experts in Islamic and Christian architects, clerics, and thinkers. Five experts were interviewed according to the theoretical purposeful sampling strategy. The questions included two parts; the first part is to collect the information about the interviewee. While the second part included four main questions, and each one has an in-depth sup-question (Table 1). Table 1: a semi-structured interview with experts Interview-code Name Date Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

Affiliation Time To what extent do you think religion has a role in formulating the building I am interested to know the relationship between the practising of religion and the building. What are the religious needs of the building? How religion express religious values in a tangible form?

3.2 Data Analysis The visual data analysis used formal analysis, including recognising and classification the visual components, translating to textual outlet data. The interview data were analysed using content analysis, including four themes following the objectives of the study. The representations of data from observation and interviews used the word-cloud and word-tree types using qualitative software analysis (Nvivo 11).

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4 Practical Study 4.1 Case Study The study focused on the type of the buildings as functional, spiritual, and religious buildings more than architecture style or period of construction, but considering the buildings as a symbol reflecting the needs of religion. However, Mosque and Church building were selected randomly to observe and determine the two types of buildings' components. The selection of the samples represented the general case of the Mosques and Churches.

4.1.1 Mosques According to criteria of place, age, and heritage value, three mosques have been selected, see Table 2. Table 2: Selected cases of Mosques. Case No. M1

Mosques name The Umayyad Mosque

Place Syria-Damascus

Year 705

Um Altura

Iraq-Baghdad

2001

Alsulimania

Turkey

1550

Image

Source: Photos Captured by Researchers

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4.1.2 Churches Three churches selected from Iraq, Germany, and Italy reached the criteria of selection. Table 3 shows the information about the cases that have in-depth information from the documents and literature. Additionally, the cases included symbolic values of the Churches and Mosques. Table 3: Selected cases of Churches. Case No. C1

Churches name San Giovanni Laterano

place Italy-Rome

Year 319

Cathedral of Cologne

German-Cologne

1248

Cathedral Notre Dame

France- Paris

1160

Image

Source: The researchers, Photos Captured by Researchers

4.2 Interview Five experts were interviewed face-to-face (30-45 minutes). Expert#1, a specialist in the history of Islamic and Christian architecture, is interviewed in the architecture department, University of Mosul. Expert#2, a thinker, researcher, and writer in Islamic civilisations, including the Islamic arts, is interviewed in his office in Erbil, Iraq. Expert#3 is interviewed in Dortmund, Germany, a pastor in Pauluskirche Church in Dortmund. Expert#4 is interviewed in Amman, Jordan, which is a specialist in Islamic and traditional architecture. Expert#5 is interviewed in Dohuk, Iraq, which is clerics. All interviews were recorded by the audio recorder and transcribed to textual form. The analysis of the text data used the thematic and coding techniques following the objectives of the study. Therefore, three themes were used to analyse the interview data (See Appendix A). Table 4 shows the way of coding the textual data.

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Table 4: The thematic and coding analysis of the content analysis of textual data. Church Themes1 ReligionNeeds

Notes

Mosque

SpiritualNeeds

Intangible needs CulturalReligionNeeds Needs

SpiritualNeeds

CulturalNeeds

Interior

Influenced Elements Layout Exterior

Interior

Layout

Interior

Way Of Expression Layout Exterior

Interior

Layout

codes Themes2 Notes

Exterior

codes Themes3 Notes

Exterior

codes

4.3 Observation Visual observation was conducted for visual data from the document, literature, and site visit using an observation sheet designed by the researchers (Table 5). The researchers reported most of the architectural, interior elements, and layout that expressed the intangible needs. Six cases were observed, representing the general case from Islamic and Christian buildings, the cases were selected according to the study's criteria. Three observation levels were used to classify the visual data (exterior, interior, and layout). Table 5 shows a sample of the visual observation sheet that represents the Umayyad Mosque's visual data (Great Mosque of Damascus). Table 5: Sample of Observation sheet for Mosques cases. Case No. Image

Levels

Noted

Name

The Umayyad Mosque

Exterior triangle celling to confirm the visual direction towards the "Qiblah." panting of the trees and rivers in the façade to represent the image of a haven minarets distributed around the mosque layout for the announcing of pray "Maydi'a" in the middle of the courtyard used for ablution geometric pattern in the floor as an abstraction and unity sign which are from the principle of Islam

Address

Interior "Mihrab" a visual and functional needs "Minbar" was used by the Imam during a Friday and Eid Speech. "Data" as a place for reading the Quran and repeated what the Imam sound and movement during the praying additional "Mihrab" for practising praying for various Islamic doctrine Round The interior columns, uses as a place to give a lecture and teach.

Syria-Damascus

Layout Interior space is a rectangular shape to include maximum Prayers The use of various gates to allow the prayers to reach the praying place in time The monumental scale used to achieve formal compatibility with differentiating the Islamic building from another The outdoor area courtyard "Sahn" is used as an extension for practising the religion

The coloured glass used to reflect the Simplicity of the religion.

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5 Results and Discussion Although the results come out from various data resources, the triangulation shows the data's validity and supports the analysis of these data.

5.1 The Way of Expression The theme of results and discussion related to the third objective by analysing two types of data and the textual results represented in word-cloud show the relationship between the aspects and variables with the size of use in the Mosque and Church design. Secondary data support the results by three main categories following expression levels (' Ayar, 2004; Khakpour & Kateb, 2017; Salimi et al., 2016). The levels are exterior, interior, and layout. The results are presented in one visual analysis for the Church, Mosque, and both buildings. However, the results showed the common and differences between churches and Mosques in expression in exterior, interior, and layout. The results showed that the way of expression in interior and exterior design in the church followed the deep and highly symbolic. Iconic and embodiment are highly applied in interior and exterior design as a way of expression. The expression of intangible needs in the layout level presented in the orientation, triangulation, cross shape plan, and vertical space of the church, which secondary data matched partially with the results. Khakpour & Kateb (2017) mentioned that the shape of the church followed the Cross-Symbol. In the mosque, direct and abstracted symbols are presented in the ornaments, inscription, free space, and surface treatments of the interior elements. The results reflect the influences of religion on expression, confirmed by the literature (Grabar, 1974; Mohammed, 1994; Salimi et al., 2016). The layout used orientation, Simplicity, monumental, unity and diversity as a way of expression. Figure 1 (a) and (b) show the visible results of expression in the Church and Mosque buildings. The size, colour, and relationships between the words show the linking with frequency, importance, and weight of the words in the expression.

(a)Church

(b)Mosque

Figure 1: The way of expression in the Church and Mosque.

5.2 Influenced Elements This theme answered the second objective of the study. The influenced elements of the exterior, interior and layout of the religious buildings identified in the current theme depend on the collected data from the Interview, visual observation, and observing the documents and literature.

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The elements identified in the church's exterior design are; painting, Niche, Cross-Symbol, sculpture, statues, bell, and tower. While the interior elements are; painting, Niche, chairs, paths, The Baptism Basin, Cross-Symbol, Pray-House, sculpture, statues, Coloured Glass, Flexible Furniture, Red Flower Window, and Ornamentations. The church's intangible needs were; Niche, Cross-Symbol, the shape of the plan, and pray house. From the results, the effects of intangible needs are clearly and powerfully works in the interior, exterior, and layout of the religious building in the Christian religion, which reflect the nature of Christianity. The use of painting and figurations is to reflect the nature of humans. Therefore, ornaments, painting, coloured glass included the image of human faces and bodies as literature mentioned (Salimi et al., 2016; Verkaaik, 2019). In the mosque, the influenced elements are mostly functional elements in the interior, exterior, and layout, which reflect the Simplicity, functionality, and direct symbolic system (Rasdi, 2017) (Grabar, 1974). The mosque has influenced interior design elements are; Prayer-House, Inscription, Niche, Minbar, 'Qibla'-Wall, Ornamentation, and Textual Embodiment. The exterior elements are Inscription, Dome, Minaret, Ablution Place, Courtyard, Ornamentation, 'Hilal', Crescent Dome Symbol, and Plaster Ornamentations. The layout elements influenced by the intangible needs are; Prayer-House, Structure, Dome, Courtyard, and Hall Occasions. Figure 2 (a) and (b) shows the influenced elements in the Church and Mosque, which reflect the important elements in visual word form. The dark blue and bold words reflect the most influenced elements.

(a) Church (b) Mosque Figure 2: The influenced elements in Church and Mosque. (Source: By researchers)

5.3 Intangible Needs The results of this theme answered the first objective of the study. Religion needs, cultural needs, and spiritual needs are the three types of intangible needs. These aspects are different from one religion to another depending on the nature of the religion, place, and period. The identified religious needs are; area, privacy, cross symbol, Triangulation, Numerical Coding, Painting Embodiment, axiality, and baptising. The spiritual needs are; deep and high symbolic, Openness,

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relationship with outdoor, sunlight, music, and vertical direction. The church's cultural needs are; Cultural, wedding, flexibility, musical activities, and bell tones. From the results, the cultural, social, and religious activities in the church are various, which reflect the nature of the intangible needs. Although the variety in activity types, but most of these activated are related to Christianity's preforming. In the mosque, the intangible need's effects mostly came from religion and performing praying such as low privacy, purity, orientation, Openness, and Simplicity spiritual needs, such as Direct Symbolic, Safety, Ornamentation, Unity and Diversity, interior environment. The cultural needs are; Structure, monumentality, educational activities, cultural and social activities, Textual Embodiment, and Civilisation Challenges. The nature of Islamic religion performing impact the mosque as a building for pure activity, some other activities performed in the courtyard or separate building, such as Occasions halls, which reflect the purity and functionality of the religious buildings (Avcioglu & Rabat, 2007; Rasdi, 2017; Salimi et al., 2016). Figure No. 3 (a) and (b) showed the commons and differences in the intangible needs influences between the church and mosque.

(a) Church (b) Mosque Figure 3: The intangible needs to influence the Church and Mosque buildings. (Source: By researchers)

6 Conclusion The study concluded that the heritage and cultural values influenced the architectural way of expression in the Islamic and Christian buildings. The cultural heritage included the intangible needs that directly influence the formulating and expression system in the main three levels: exterior, interior, and layout. Each level is influenced by religious, cultural, and spiritual needs. The exterior and interior components that generated the religious buildings' layout (Mosque - Church) were influenced by the intangible need in deferent levels. In the mosque, the religious needs strongly influenced the interior design and components indirect. The findings show that the mosque's interior elements like 'Minber', 'Qibla' wall, and other interior elements created directly from the religious needs.

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On the other hand, cultural needs have fewer interior design effects, such as inscriptions and textual ornamentation and the monumental scale. While the spiritual needs in interior design have significantly fewer influences than religion and cultural needs. The mosque's layout is influenced by the religious needs directly, which need to orienting toward the 'Kaaba' is a clear influence. The influences of religious needs are existed in the shape of the plan, which takes the rectangular shape, Openness, and oriented to 'Kaaba', which is fully functional required to achieve the religious needs. The cultural and spiritual have fewer influences in the layout. The mosque's exterior is highly influenced by the culture and less for religious and spiritual needs sequentially. The minaret, monumental scale, ornaments, and Hilal symbol are the clear influences in the mosque's exterior. The church was formed by religious, cultural, and spiritual needs using the Cross-Symbol, painting, coloured glass and embodiment influence cultural, religious, and spiritual needs in interior design. The exterior is influenced by cultural needs, such as the bell tower, Cross-Symbol, dome, and symbolic and iconic system. The influences of religion and spiritual needs are less than cultural needs. The layout is influenced by cultural needs, which shape plans and vertical shapes are the main influenced. The shape plan is inherited from the Basilica plan, which after that shifted to the cross shape. The cross shape of the plan is a mixture of religious and spiritual needs.

7 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

8 Acknowledgement The researchers acknowledged the Architectural Engineering Department, University of Mosul, to register this paper under the scientific research plan (2019-2020) no. 9/16/4515 in 26/8/2019.

9 References Ayar, H. H. D. (2004). Intellectual features and characteristics of the architectural composition of church buildings in Iraq. The University of Technology. Avcioglu, N., & Rabat, N. (2007). Identity-as-Form: The Mosque in the West (1). Cultural Analysis, 6, 91. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Dhannoon, A. A. (2014). Developing mosque architecture (studying the role of adaptation in developing mosques in the 1st AH century). Dar Al Yazouri for Scientific publishing and Distribution. Falakian, N., & Falakian, A. (2013). Study on the relationship between Architecture and Music. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 9(3), 94-98. Grabar, O. (1974). Architecture. In T. Arnold, The Legacy of Islam (pp. 358-404). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Husni, E. (2005). The Impact of Islamic Art in the painting at Renaissance. Beirut: DAR AL JIL. Ibragimov, I. A. (2011). The arch as an element of religious architecture in Christian and Islamic architecture. Scientific Herald of the Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering. Construction and Architecture, 3(11), 92-105. http://vestnikvgasu.wmsite.ru/ftpgetfile.php?id=268 Khakpour, M., & Kateb, F. (2017). A Comparative Study of Religious Architecture in Christianity and Islam A Criticism of Titus Burckhardt's Theory (Case study: Isfahan). Architecture & Urbanism, 14(50), 57-68.

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Makhlina, S. (2014). Differences and Similarities of Christian and Muslim Arts. Journal of Modern Education Review, 4(12), 987-996. DOI: 10.15341/jmer(2155-7993)/12.04.2014/002 Mohammed, G. R. (1994). The function of the Arab Islamic architecture: the response to form. In C. a. Arab League Educational, Islamic Arab art, introduction (pp. 126-140). Tunisia: Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization. Okuyucu, Ş. E. (2016). Evaluation of Spatial Fictions, Design Concepts, Aesthetic Quests of Traditional, Modern Mosques from Past to Present and the Analysis of Mosque Samples. Civil Engineering and Architecture, 4(2), 54-66. DOI: 10.13189/cea.2016.040203 Rasdi, M. T. M. (2017). Contextualism in Mosque Architecture: Bridging the Social and Political Divide. Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(4), 181. DOI: 10.18860/jia.v4i4.4469 Salimi, A., Yurtyapan Salimi, A., & Kara Pilehvarian, N. (2016). the Role and Impact of Religion on the Architecture of Mosques and Churches. The Turkish Online Journal of Design, Art and Communication, 6, 22-31. DOI: 10.7456/1060ase/003 Tkach,

J. (2011). Church: Six Functions of the Church. Grace Communion https://www.gci.org/articles/six-functions-of-the-church Retrieved December 2019.

International:

Verkaaik, O. (2019). Religious Architecture. Anthropological Perspectives. Religious Architecture, 7-24. DOI: 10.1515/9789048518340-00

10 Appendix Appendix A: Thematic and coding of the textual data collected from experts. Church Themes1 Notes codes

Religion-Needs Area Privacy Painting-Iconic Niche Chairs

Spiritual-Needs Deep Symbolic Height Symbolic Cross-Symbol Angle Symbolic Wheat Symbolic

Paths Ritual-Area Prayers-Area

River Symbolic Music Church Height

Priest-Area

Openness

Synagogue-Area Baptism Basin Painting Iconic

Sunlight

Cross-Symbol Simple Cross Symbolic Angle Symbolic Wheat Symbolic River Symbolic Music Sculpture Statues Coloured Glass Fixed Furniture Church Bell Church Tower Bell Tones Embodiment Iconic Sculpture Statues Painting Painting Embodiment Numerical Coding Red Flower Window Painting Coloured Glass Triangulation

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Mosque Intangible needs

Cultural-Needs Cultural- Activity Wedding-Activity Baptizing-Activities Flexible Furniture Music -Activities Bell-Tones

Religion-Needs Area Privacy Purity Direction Orientation

Spiritual-Needs Direct Symbolic Inscription Iconic SAFE Quite Inscription

Cultural-Needs Structure Environment Cultural-Activities Religion-Activates Educational-Activities

Simple Outline No Visual Obstacle Niche

Direct Symbolic Ornamentation Inscription

MinbarPlatform Ablution Place Large Space Niche Dhaka Deck Minaret Ablution Place Courtyard Area Abstraction Minaret Simplicity Minbar Platform Niche

Textual Embodiment

Dome Roofing Methods Maqsura Compartment Courtyard

Unity & Diversity Interior

Inscription Ornamentation Surfaces Treatment Inscription Textual Embodiment Planet Embodiment Arabic Text Ornamentation Unit Activity Monumentality Scale Unity, Diversity Civilisation Challenges Interior Hall Occasions

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Themes2 Notes codes

Exterior Painting-Iconic Niche Painting Iconic Cross-Symbol Painting Sculpture Statues

Interior Painting-Iconic Niche Chairs Paths Terrace Baptism Basin Painting Iconic

Church Bell Church Tower Iconic

Cross-Symbol Painting Sculpture Statues Pray House Coloured-Glass Colour Wall And Floor Flexible Furniture Painting Sculpture

Influenced Elements

Layout Niche Cross-Symbol Pray-House

Exterior Inscription Iconic Dome Minaret Ablution Place Courtyard Inscription Ornamentation 'Hilal', Crescent Symbol Ornamentation 'Qibla' Wall Inscription Minaret Plaster Ornamentation

Statues Red Flower Window Painting Coloured Glass

Themes3 Notes codes

Exterior Deep Symbolic High Symbolic Painting-Iconic Niche Painting Iconic Symbols Painting Embodiment Symbols Sunlight Bell Tones Numerical Coding Embodiment Iconic Painting Embodiment Triangulation

Interior Deep Symbolic High Symbolic Painting-Iconic Niche Painting Iconic Symbols Painting Music Embodiment Symbols Sunlight Colour Wall And Floor Embodiment Iconic Numerical Coding Painting Embodiment Triangulation

Interior Prayer-House Inscription Iconic Niche Minbar-Platform 'Qibla' Wall Dome 'Daka', Deck 'Maqsura' Compartment Inscription Ornamentation Inscription Textual Embodiment Planet Embodiment Ornament Unit

Layout Prayer-House Structure Plan Rectangular Dome Courtyard Hall Occasions

Niche Ornamentation

Way Of Expression

Layout Orientation Vertical Space Triangulation Niche

Exterior Direct Symbolic Inscription Iconic Simplicity Inscription Iconic Abstraction Orientation Inscription Abstraction Simplicity

Interior Direct Symbolic Inscription Iconic Simplicity Free Space Inscription Iconic Abstraction Orientation Crescent Symbol Surfaces Treatment Inscription Abstraction Ornament Unit Simplicity

Layout Orientation Simplicity Simplicity Monumental Scale Unity, Diversity

Dr.Ahmed Abdulwahid Dhannoon is an Associate Professor of Architectural Engineering Department at the University of Mosul. He received his Bachelor's degree from University of Mosul. He got his Master’s in Center of Urban and Regional Planning from Baghdad University. He continued his PhD study at University of Technology, Architectural Engineering Department, Baghdad, Iraq in Islamic Architecture. His interests are Heritage and History of Islamic Architecture. Dr.Oday Qusay Abdulqader is a Lecturer in the Architectural Engineering Department at the University of Mosul. He received his Bachelor’s and Master’s degree in Architectural Design at University of Mosul- Architectural Engineering Department, Iraq. He obtained his PhD study in Design Theory in Interior Design at Universiti Sains Malaysia, School of Housing Building and Planning, Penang, Malaysia. His interests are in Heritage and Architectural Interior Design. Amer Abdullah Al-Azawi is a Lecturer in the Architectural Engineering Department at the University of Mosul. Bachelor's degree from University of Mosul-Architectural Engineering Department, Mosul, Iraq, Master‘s degree in Architectural Design and Theory of Architecture from University of Mosul.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Evolution of Corporate Governance in Russian Transparent Market Environment Lev Ushvitskiy1, Evgeniy Didenko1* Department of Economic Security and Audit, Institute of Economics and Management, North-Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, RUSSIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: d_e_civile_law@mail.ru). 1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1D

This article analyzes the transparency of Russian corporations' activities. It defines the importance of the principle of transparency Received 23 July 2021 Received in revised form 19 and openness of markets as one of the key ones for the integration of October 2021 Russian corporations into the international economic spaces. The ways of Accepted 26 October 2021 increasing the clarity of the activities of Russian corporations through the Available online 01 adoption of several government measures are proposed to encourage November 2021 corporate disclosure. To increase transparency of Russian corporations' Keywords: activities, it is proposed to introduce into the legislation on corporations the corporate governance; norms obliging the disclosure of information about beneficial owners of the investment activities; transparency of markets; corporation. international economic Disciplinary: Economics & Management (Audit). Volume 13 Issue 1

space ; corporations disclosure ; Investment strategy

Cite This Article: Ushvitskiy, L., Didenko, E. (2022). Evolution Of Corporate Governance In A Transparent Market Environment. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1D, 1-10. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.4

1 Introduction One of the leading global trends in the development of corporate governance is the creation of transparent economic space. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Principles of Corporate Governance, defining the main objective of corporate governance, enshrine as such "the promotion of an environment of trust, transparency and accountability that is necessary to stimulate long-term investment, financial stability and business integrity" [1, 7]. Implementation of the principle of transparency in the activities of corporations is one of the critical elements required for the integration of corporations from different states into a single economic space. Since it is thanks to transparency that an understanding of the activities of corporations is created, the possibility of doing joint business, the creation of transnational

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corporations is facilitated, the mobility of assets and cash flows increases, and an inflow of additional investments is carried out [14]. Financial stability and investment are direct indicators of financial soundness. Economically developed countries, members of the OECD and the G20, believe that these indicators directly depend on the environment in which corporate governance is carried out. Their growth is associated with the development of trust, transparency, and responsibility in the market space [9]. At the same time, in our opinion, the primary category in this context is transparency, which stimulates both trust and responsibility. The transparency of corporate governance and the corporation's overall business creates an understanding of the direction of the company's development among investors and other stakeholders and creates an opportunity to analyze the prospects for the growth of the corporation. At the same time, corporation bodies, understanding the "openness" of their activities, will approach more responsibly in the performance of their official duties [10]. On one hand, corporate governance should contribute to the transparency of its economic activities, which is expressed in the publication of important information about its activities. On the other hand, the corporate governance mechanism should be transparent and understandable for investors and other stakeholders.

2 Materials and Methods Within the framework of the scientific research, the dialectical method of cognition was used, which makes it possible to assess the relationship of various elements of corporate governance with each other, as well as with other economic and legal categories. General scientific methods of theoretical knowledge were used: methods of statistical and logical analysis and synthesis - when considering the implementation of the principle of transparency of corporate governance, as well as its impact on the creation of a common basis for corporate governance for corporations of different states, the comparison method - when analyzing Russian and foreign economic structures, methods deduction and generalization - in the formation of conclusions based on the results of the study and determination of ways to increase the openness of the activities of Russian corporations, technologies of structural and graphic modeling - to visually display the sequence of ongoing economic analysis. When writing this article, official sources of statistical information, official banks of court decisions, information and reference systems of legislation, sources of information on the activities of legal entities recognized in economic circulation and judicial practice were used.

3 Results and Discussion One of the primary OECD standards for increasing the transparency of the economic space was the requirement for member countries to introduce in their legal order effective legal mechanisms to disclose information about beneficial owners of companies [13].

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According to a study of the Russian regional network for integrated reporting for 2018, the activities of 59% of Russian companies are non-transparent. And only 17.2% of corporations disclose information about their activities over the established legislative standards. More than 1000 large and medium-sized enterprises were selected for the study, incl-backbone and state companies [2]. In the Russian Federation, the economic activity of legal entities is not open. Most of the companies are limited liability companies - 96.7% (of all commercial organizations), which do not have an obligation to disclose information about their activities (Table 1). Table 1: The number of operating commercial corporations in the Russian Federation as of 09/01/2021 №

Organizational and legal form of the corporation

Quantity

1 2 3 4 5 6

limited liability company joint-stock company production cooperative peasant (farm) economy limited partnership full partnerships economic partnership

2 640 152 57 986 8 962 6 023 253 210

<50

The lack of disclosure obligations for most corporations in the Russian Federation does not mean that they cannot publish important information about their activities on their initiative. To verify the thesis about whether corporations disclose information on their initiative, we analyzed data available in open sources (including SPARK-Interfax) on ten randomly selected limited liability companies (from now on referred to as LLC) operating in the field of the Food Industry [6]. The research objects were enterprises, regardless of the volume of activities and the staff (the minor enterprise is ten people, and the largest is 637). As the subject of disclosure, we analyzed the investment and another development strategy of the corporation, information on material transactions, information on the model and practice of corporate governance, corporate documents (constituent documents, decisions of general meetings of owners and corporate governance bodies, critical internal documents, lists of affiliates, etc. .p.), as well as financial statements for the last three years (which at the time of the study should have been submitted to the authorized state bodies) [7, 12]. The analysis results are shown in Table 2. If these documents and information are available, it is possible to assess the effectiveness of the corporate governance methods used in the company and the prospects for its development in general. The survey results show that none of the corporations discloses corporate documents, material transactions, and the used corporate governance model and practice. Only in 2 out of 10 corporations on companies' websites can you find data on the company's economic strategy. Then, this is not a document adopted/approved by the corporate governance bodies, but only information about the proposed paths of development of the corporation, which is not an investment, but an

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overview purpose. They provide accounting statements of corporations, according to Rosstat and the Federal Tax Service. Table 2: Disclosure of information about their activities by Russian LLCs Corporation name LLC «Mechta» LLC «Lider» LLC «Kamenskiy Maslozavod» LLC «Molochnyy Dom» LLC «Torgovyi Dom» LLC «Yel'nikovskoye Raypo « LLC «Agrofirma Krimm» LLC «Selyanin» Lopatinskii Bekon LLC LLC «Vertunovskoe»

Corporate documents -

Documents and information disclosed by the corporation Investment Corporate governance strategy/material model and practice transactions +/+/-

Financial statements + + + + + + + + + +

Thus, LLC, the most common organizational and legal form of corporation in Russia, does not have an obligation to disclose important information about its economic activities, incl. corporate governance. On their own, they do not take the initiative to disclose such information. In our opinion, to stimulate the transparency of corporate governance, it is necessary to carry out a set of measures at the state level, including: - the establishment of measures of state support for corporations in which the activities of corporate governance bodies are transparent, the creation of criteria for "openness" for such support measures; - development of draft corporate documents containing an example of the description in the reports of the corporation, the existing model and practice of corporate governance, as well as other significant aspects of corporate governance; - introduction into the legislation on corporations of norms obliging to disclose information about the beneficial owners of the company; - dissemination of information in the media about the need to disclose information about corporate governance to create a transparent economic space; It is necessary to establish clear criteria for recognizing the activities of corporations as transparent, the observance of which is necessary to obtain government benefits. First, the corporation should disclose information (at least summarized) about the main areas of its activities, the existing business model, and investment strategy. Of course, we are not talking about the disclosure of know-how or other production secrets. In this case, the goal is to create a shared understanding among investors and other stakeholders of the prospects for the firm's development.

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Then, documents/information should be published that reflect the competence of the governing bodies of the corporation, established by the constituent and other corporate documents, and a list of persons included in the governing bodies of the corporation. Separately, you should reflect information about the affiliates of the corporation. In our opinion, in addition to the formal reflection of information about the above persons, it is also necessary to describe the existing corporate governance model and practice in the corporation. These economic categories are interconnected - the corporate governance model forms a system of interrelated elements of the corporate governance mechanism, and the corporate governance practice reflects the efficiency and effectiveness of the existing model [8]. Thus, summarizing, we can say that the model and practice of corporate governance show the effectiveness of the existing corporate process of organizing activities based on the interaction of the subjects of corporate governance with each other and with other stakeholders. In the course of the analysis of the reporting of various Russian corporations, it was found that, as a rule, attention is paid to the model and practice of corporate governance only in large holding groups. Thus, Sberbank PJSC reflects in its annual reports the functional relationship of all corporate governance entities existing in the corporation, with the help of which it is possible to determine the nature of the relationship between the owners of the corporation represented by the general meeting of shareholders and other management bodies [3]. Thus, this system is essentially a corporate governance model. As a characteristic of this system, Sberbank indicates in the reports the measures are taken to improve it (for example, the introduction of electronic voting procedures for shareholders, the formation of up to 1/3 of the Supervisory Board by independent members, the functioning of the committee for interaction with minority shareholders, etc.). In addition, the corporation publishes in its annual reports information on the number of participants in the annual meeting of shareholders (for the reporting and previous year), the presence of a quorum, and the number of persons who voted electronically (Interfax, 2020). Also, Sberbank publishes the results of sociological research of a survey of minority shareholders on satisfaction with the exercise of their rights as owners of bank shares, which indicates that there are additional guarantees for the owners of the corporation [14]. The above factors characterizing the corporate governance model at Sberbank also reflect the practice of implementing various elements and methods of corporate governance. In the annual reports of PJSC Gazprom, a separate subsection, "Model of corporate governance in PJSC Gazprom," is highlighted, reflecting the essential aspects of the model and

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practice of corporate governance (information transparency, the priority of shareholders' rights, etc.) [5]. Furthermore, as in the reports of Sberbank, the functional connection of all subjects of corporate governance is disclosed. Thus, revealing the content of the model and practice of corporate governance, it is necessary to reflect the nature of the relationship between the governing bodies of a corporation, the main features that characterize corporate governance in a given company, and the prospects for its development. The third block of information published by the corporation should be associated with the concluded significant transactions in the last two years of the firm's activity. For a uniform approach to understanding material transactions, one can take large transactions provided for by the legislation on business entities (the transaction price is more than 25% of the book value). At the same time, the material terms of such a transaction should be published, as well as the presence/absence of its approval by the relevant bodies of the corporation and the results of voting on approval. The availability of information on the most significant transactions allows one to evaluate the strategic partners of the corporation to determine the main areas of spending. The results of voting on the approval of such transactions reflect the presence/absence of unanimity in the activities of the corporate governance bodies. The list of information proposed for disclosure and possible state support measures for corporations for this is presented in Figure 1. disclosure of information on the main directions of its activities

establishment of tax benefits reduction in the cost of online cash registers Corporations simplification of the possibility of obtaining government subsidies establishment of infrastructure benefits for company owners and their families establishment of benefits when placing advertisements at public facilities, incl. in the media State

disclosure of documents reflecting the competence of the governing bodies of the corporation

motivation

disclosure of the list of persons included in the management bodies of the corporation, as well as affiliates of the corporation

lack of formalism

disclosure of information on the existing model and practice of corporate governance

meaningfulness

disclosure of information on significant transactions for the last 2 years

Figure 1: Government Measures to Encourage Corporate Disclosure.

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The disclosure by the corporation of all three blocks considered above will be the basis for the provision of state benefits to it. In addition to government measures to encourage disclosure, there should also be mandatory disclosure measures. The main one, in our opinion, in the area of disclosure of information on corporate governance, is information about the actual beneficiaries of the corporation. The need to disclose such information has been repeatedly stressed by the OECD. For example, within the framework of the OECD "global forum" that we considered at the beginning of this paragraph, the commonwealth of states adopted that one of the basic standards of corporate governance is the introduction in countries of legal mechanisms for the disclosure of information on beneficial owners of corporations [13]. Also, as the main anti-corruption measures, the OECD recommends that the governments of states introduce mandatory requirements for disclosing certain information about companies, incl. on the issues of "actual (beneficial) owners" [9]. The availability of information about the real owners of the corporation allows investors and other interested parties to analyze the activities of the "real" owners, their experience in other corporations, and the success of their business. On the other hand, in the event of damage to the corporation's interests, through the approval of unfavorable transactions, bringing the company to bankruptcy, etc., it is also possible to present claims against the owners of the corporation [11]. State bodies, having information about the owner of the corporation, can analyze, in established cases, the flow of funds in his accounts, prevent actions from evading taxes, withdrawing funds to offshore. Which is impossible in the absence of information about such a person (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Indirect ownership of Russian corporations through offshores Information about the company's actual beneficiaries should be publicly available so that any interested parties can use it. The possibility of obtaining such data only through special requests creates unreasonable bureaucratic obstacles, does not prevent the corporation from evading information even at the request of state bodies, despite the measures of responsibility. So,

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article 19.7 of the Code of Administrative Offenses of the Russian Federation provides for punishment for legal entities for failure to provide information to state bodies for 3 to 5 thousand rubles. However, such measures are unlikely to be a significant obstacle to those involved in asset stripping schemes or tax evasion schemes [4]. At the same time, information should be explicitly disclosed about individual owners and not about legal entities participating in the chain of ownership of the corporation. Based on the above facts, we consider it necessary to enshrine in the legislation on corporations of Russia the obligation for all legal entities, regardless of their organizational and legal forms, to disclose information about their actual beneficiaries, individuals. Even if the latter owns the company through a chain of other legal entities, regardless of the number of these "links." In addition, it is necessary to establish corresponding measures of responsibility for the nonfulfillment of this obligation, entailing the administrative suspension of the corporation's activities. State

establishment of measures of state support for corporations in which the activities of corporate governance bodies are transparent

development of draft corporate documents containing examples of describing important information on corporate governance in company reports

introducing into the legislation on corporations norms obliging to disclose information about the beneficial owners of a corporation

Transparent market increasing tax revenues by increasing the efficiency of "offshore investigations", taking preventive measures to prevent tax evasion promoting the integrity and responsibility of market participants

dissemination of information in the media about the need to disclose information about corporate governance in order to create a transparent economic space

increasing the financial stability of Russian corporations by increasing their investment attractiveness, as well as stimulating the reliability of economic relations with counterparties

Figure 3: Government Measures to Promote a Transparent Market in Russia The final state measure to increase the transparency of the activities of corporation bodies we propose is the dissemination of information in the media about the need and importance of disclosing information about organizations' economic activities and corporate governance. In addition, the publication of such information can be carried out on state portals on the Internet.

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In such publications, it is necessary to substantiate why the transparency of corporate activities will have a beneficial effect on the economic environment and improve the welfare of both the state and organizations. The most significant positive factor for the state is the possibility of increasing tax revenues since the effectiveness of "offshore investigations," preventive measures of the state to prevent tax evasion will increase. For Russian, corporations increase their financial stability. On the one hand, it improves investment attractiveness, which creates an opportunity for a corporation to use capital more efficiently by attracting additional investments, incl. foreign, on the other hand - the transparency of economic activity contributes to the creation and strengthening of economic ties with counterparties (suppliers, creditors, banks). Both investors and counterparties have the opportunity to analyze the performance of Russian companies performance and the effectiveness of the existing corporate governance mechanism, i.e., and it becomes possible to assess the prospects for the development of corporations. To increase the openness of the activities of Russian corporations, the following set of measures is proposed, the adoption of which should be carried out by authorized state bodies (Figure 3). These measures are not exhaustive, and it is possible to use other incentive measures to promote the transparency of the activities of Russian corporations. However, in our opinion, these government measures are the most effective at the first stage of "building" a transparent market.

4 Conclusion Based on the analysis results, it was established that one of the leading global trends in the development of corporate governance is the creation of transparent economic space. Such a space stimulates the conscientiousness and responsibility of turnover participants, increases the investment attractiveness of corporations, increases government revenues from taxation, and facilitates the integration of various corporations into a single economic space. Because, thanks to transparency, corporations of different states develop an understanding of their activities and increase trust in each other. In the Russian Federation, the economic activity of legal entities is not open. Most of the companies are limited liability companies - 96.7% (of all commercial organizations), which do not have an obligation to disclose information about their activities. According to the study results, it was found that these corporations do not disclose information about their financial and economic activities voluntarily. For increasing transparency of Russian corporations' activities, it is proposed to introduce into the legislation on corporations the norms obliging the disclosure of information about the beneficial owners of the corporation. These measures are not exhaustive; it is possible to use other incentive measures to promote the transparency of the activities of Russian corporations. However, in our opinion, these government measures are the most effective at the first stage of building a transparent market.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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6 Acknowledgement The reported study was funded by RFBR, project number 20-310-90009\20.

7 References [1]

OECD. (2013). Anti-corruption Reforms in Eastern Europe and Central Asia Progress and Challenges 2009-2013. Russian version.

[2]

Bulyga, R.P., Safonova, I.V. (2019). Information transparency: approaches to assessment, key characteristics, trends. Accounting. Analysis. Audit. 6.

[3]

RussGov. (2021). Center for disclosure of corporate information of PJSC "Sberbank". Availableat: http://www.e-disclosure.ru/portal/files.aspx?id=3043&type=2.

[4]

RussNews. (2021). Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses of 30.12.2001 N 195FZ. Russian newspaper, N 256, 31.12.2001.

[5]

RussGov. (2021). Corporate Information Disclosure Center of PJSC Gazprom. http://www.edisclosure.ru/portal/company.aspx?id=934.

[6]

RussGov. (2021). Counterparty verification SPARK-Interfax. http://www.spark-interfax.ru.

[7]

Jarovoi, D.O. (2019) Practice of corporate governance principles of companies of Altai Territory. Economy. Profession. Business. Volume. 2.

[8]

Litvintseva, G.P., Gakhova, N.A. (2013). The relationship between corporate governance models and the level of innovation activity in different countries. Ideas and ideals. 1(15).

[9]

OECD. (2016). Principles of Corporate Governanc. DOI: 10.1787/9789264252035-ru.

[10]

Rosstat. (2020). Provision of https://www.gks.ru/accounting_report.

[11]

S&P. (2014). S&P report: Midsize UK firms seek new funding sources. https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/leveraged-loannews/sp-report-midsize-uk-firms-seek-new-funding-sources.

[12]

FTS. (2020). State information resource for financial statements, https://bo.nalog.ru/.

[13]

OECD. (2019). Transparency and Exchange of Information for Tax Purposes Multilateral Cooperation Changing the World. Global Forum 10th Anniversary Report.

[14]

Wasseem, M. (2015). Political Risk Guarantees and Capital Flows: The Role of Bilateral Investment Treaties. Economics. Open-Assessment E-Journal. 9.

accounting

data

the

request

users,

Professor Dr.Lev Ushvitskiy is Professor and Director of the Institute of Economics and Management, Head of the Department of Economic Security and Audit, North-Caucasus Federal University. He holds a Doctor of Economics. His research interests are Economics and Management of the National Economy.

Evgeniy Didenko is a Postgraduate Student of the Direction of Training Economics, Profile "Economics and Management of the National Economy", Department of Economic Security and Audit, Institute of Economics and Management, NorthCaucasus Federal University. His research interests are Government Measures to Regulate Economic Processes.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Internet of Things Application in Controlling the Coronavirus Disease Spread in Hajj Season Jameel Almalki1* Department of Computer Science, College of Computer in Al-Leith, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, SAUDI ARABIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: jamalki@uqu.edu.sa). 1

Paper ID: 13A1E Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 15 March 2021 Received in revised form 22 October 2021 Accepted 27 October 2021 Available online 01 November 2021

Keywords:

Saudi Arabia; Hajj pilgrimage; COVID-19; Infectious disease; Smart bracelet; Geofencing; Proximity detection; IoT; Diseases control.

Abstract

Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is currently a threat to the global human population. Infectious viruses, such as SARS-CoV-2, are easily transmitted from person to person and spread very quickly. These viruses are likely to spread anywhere there are massive crowds in confined spaces—and the Hajj pilgrimage to Makkah, Saudi Arabia is no exception. This work aims to prevent the spread of infection in the early stages of an outbreak. This paper explores the various methods for monitoring and controlling infectious disease during the Hajj including strengthening disease control and methods for providing the Saudi Ministry of Health (MOH) insights to enable them to plan for the specific challenges of controlling Coronavirus disease during the Hajj. This paper proposes a model, based on the Radio Frequency Identification Devices (RFID), Global Positioning System (GPS), wearable watch technology, and cloud computing infrastructure, which detects and monitors infected pilgrims and also aids in the identification of those pilgrims exposed to sources of a virus. Disciplinary: Information System, Technology, and Application, Healthcare Management. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Almalki, J. (2022). Internet of Things Application in Controlling the Coronavirus Disease Spread in Hajj Season. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1E, 1-14. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1E.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.5

1 Introduction Saudi Arabia houses the two most sacred religious places for Muslims: Makkah and Madinah. Muslims make the pilgrimage to these cities either at a fixed time (i.e. Hajj) or at any time (i.e. Umrah) in a calendar year. One of the most significant regular mass gatherings in the world is the Hajj pilgrimage [1]. Two to three million pilgrims from over 170 different countries and all

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inhabited continents travel to Saudi Arabia each year for the Hajj. They all spend two to four weeks physically moving amongst Holy places whilst in close contact with each other in and around the two holy cities of Makkah and Madinah. The large gatherings involved in the Hajj, or smaller Umrah pilgrimage, have long been associated with the risks of contagious diseases. This is due to pilgrims being in the same places and at the same time in close contact with each other. Actively assessing and addressing these risks is considered a major challenge for the Ministry of Health (MOH) [2]. One of the major concerns when managing such large numbers, especially at events drawing pilgrims from different nations, regions, and cultures, is the import and subsequent outbreak of infectious diseases, or the export thereof. Saudi Arabia was one of the first countries to take exceptional steps to prevent SARS-CoV-2 [3] from entering the country and to lessen its effect if it did. Such preparations were taken before the country's first case was reported on 2 March 2020 [4]. Infectious disease forecast models are systems that use data about the current state and development of a contagious disease outbreak to forecast how it will progress in the future [5, 6]. The infectious disease outbreak control system has increasingly been developed to identify and control the spread of infections, but it still has its limits. To detect an infectious disease, there must be an outbreak, to begin with, and so preventing its spread requires real-time information and analytics. Acting quickly with reliance on accurate information can have a profound impact, saving lives and money. The MOH healthcare systems should depend on the early detection of such diseases rather than on delayed intervention and costly treatments. Recent developments in terms of Coronavirus and other previous outbreaks affecting movements globally have highlighted the importance of this aspect of pilgrim management [7]. To help address critical concerns at the Hajj, both Ministries of Health and Hajj in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia adopted Artificial Intelligence (AI), Information Technology (IT), and Internet of Things (IoT) to collect sensory data in real-time [4-25]. It involves the tracking of pilgrims, health systems, and environments. Figure 1 shows the close contact between uninfected people in green, and the sources of the infections as a red person The people in blue represent those who were not in close contact.

Figure 1: An example of an infected pilgrim and those exposed

2 The Existing Methodology of Monitoring Infectious Disease during the Hajj As the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's primary healthcare provider, the MOH is regarded as the primary source of accurate and credible health records for the Saudi population. In 2011, the Saudi

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MOH committed to employing electronic communication and IT to enhance the quality, fairness, accessibility, and quality of patient care in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The health care strategy goals for the years 2018 to 2020 in the Vision 2030 National Transformation Program [8] were to enhance healthcare coverage, increase performance, and promote health risk prevention. It recognizes electronic health (e-Health) [9] as a critical enabler of health-care change, and charges the National Health Information Centre with developing multispectral, coherent e-Health services. The Saudi government and the private health care sector deployed existing digital healthcare solutions and created new ones during the above-mentioned community-wide steps to combat the spread of COVID-19. The current outbreak monitoring system used by the MOH is highly effective at detecting outbreaks of infectious diseases in a timely manner and works to minimize threats to the safety and well-being of pilgrims even as far as their contacts after the Hajj Season. This system takes two approaches to tackle problems: administrative solutions and technical solutions. With the growing development of wearable systems as part of an Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing and analytics provide approaches that may be a better alternative for predicting and controlling potential outbreaks, possibly before they even happen. IoT refers to the network system containing interconnected computing devices, including wearable objects, that can transfer data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction [10].

3 Administrative Solutions Administrative solutions were installed at three locations: important points of entry into the country, health providers in Hajj zones, and Medical Missions [11] a) Key points of entry: Public health monitoring teams are deployed at the Kingdom‘s Hajj entry

points and are trained to detect and report public health threats and to monitor the compliance of arriving pilgrims with the health requirements for the Hajj b) Healthcare facilities: Hospital-based surveillance teams comprised of hospital staff trained to

rapidly detect and report, manually and electronically, cases of infectious diseases presented to them operate in each hospital within the Hajj areas. Suspected cases of infectious diseases are referred to pre-specified hospitals for confirmation of diagnosis, further management once identified at primary health centers and then the reports are notified. c) Medical Office for Monitoring Pilgrims: The Hajj Medical Office for Pilgrims has healthcare

experts from several countries that transport pilgrims to the Hajj pilgrimage and assist them throughout the journey. They may even open clinics or hospitals within the Hajj region to provide healthcare to their own pilgrims, as long as they follow the Saudi MOH's norms and regulations. The medical personnel at each pilgrimage office differ from one country to the next. The Saudi authorities and the medical office for pilgrims have signed agreements to enable successful communication and coordination of the Hajj's public health standards [12]. They must also submit daily updates on specific diseases, develop isolation areas for suspected

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cases, and work with public health supervisory teams to ensure that these cases are safely transferred as required.

4 Technical solutions During the Hajj, IT is employed to keep track of public health. Information Technology contributes to the season's performance in a variety of ways. One of the most significant ways is by delivering a reliable means for analyzing and transferring data in real-time so that correct statistics can be prepared. This allows for a better decision-making strategy. In order to simplify the procedure of accessing several critical sites to collect the data required for the Hajj operation team, a centralized and specialized data center has been constructed. Smart Bracelet: The Hajj Ministry created an electronic wristband that travelers were advised to use at all times during their pilgrimage. The wristband records key demographic data for each pilgrim, such as age and nationality. It is enabled with GPS in order to track pilgrims' locations and to guide the control of the crowd and crisis communication during the Hajj. Electronic Surveillance Systems (HESN): The MOH is implementing the Healthcare Digital Surveillance System as a web-based health service. HESN is a detailed and adaptable framework that can support all Saudi Public Health Services, such as contagious disease management, epidemic management, vaccination management, alert management, materials/vaccine stock management, family health, task management, and the National Health Safety Network [13]. As soon as the notification is raised by laboratories, emergency rooms, and other departments in hospitals, all data related to that disease is immediately entered by the healthcare teams into HESN at the main locations. The uploaded data is immediately analyzed and displayed on electronic dashboards. Reports are then generated in real-time that can be instantly accessed by public health officials and decision-makers in the administration center.

4.1 Detecting Exposed Pilgrims of Infectious Disease HESN has the advantage of keeping track of the locations of infected pilgrims by using smart wearable bracelets. However, HESN needs to go further by identifying other possible infected pilgrims (those still in the incubation period) who have been in close contact with infected pilgrims. This is a concern that needs to be addressed immediately by identifying such individuals and taking preventative measures to eliminate the transmission of infection.

5 Strengthening Diseases Control Because of the speed of air travel, pilgrims carrying contagious diseases at the time of departure may not become unwell until they arrive in Saudi Arabia. This makes possible the transmission of infections and even the development of epidemics. The possibility of epidemic instigation by these techniques is particularly serious during the Hajj when illness transmission is facilitated by high and unavoidable congestion. Infections obtained in this way may be passed on to pilgrims from other nations upon their arrival. The duration between transmission and the manifestation of symptoms is known as the gestation period of contagious diseases [14]. It is

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highly desirable to be able to identify infections as early as possible for contagious disease monitoring and control, since the development of symptoms may be the only evidence of illness. The contagious time and the gestation period are not always the same. Some viruses, such as chickenpox, can make a person infectious even before symptoms occur. In terms of technical solutions, HESN generates reports immediately and has the benefit of speed since many public health employees in various places may access and coordinate the information management as soon as the data is collected. As a result, HESN continues to track affected pilgrims.

5.1 Dealing with Several Infectious Diseases including Coronaviruses during Hajj Season Infectious diseases are typically caused by different types of bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, often spread through direct contact. The primary mode of transmission of viral infection is airborne or via droplet

1.1 Transmission through the Air by Droplets These infectious diseases are transmitted through sneezing or coughing causing small droplets containing infectious agents to be propelled through the air. Because of their small size, these droplets only go a short distance (about a meter) before falling [15]. Those in the vicinity may then inhale these droplets. Poor hygiene, including poor hand washing, can result in self- infection via contact with the nose or mouth. Colds, flu, meningococcal illness, and rubella are types of transmissible diseases spread via droplets [15].

5.2 Transmission through the Air by Aerosol When infected individual talks, breathe, coughs, or sneezes, small fragments carrying pathogens are released into the air, and these infectious drops are called aerosols. Aerosols move in the air over long distances because of their small size, and they remain in the air for minutes or hours. Examples of these diseases are Chickenpox, Measles, and Tuberculosis. Table 1: Types of infectious diseases during Hajj Seasons [15] Influenza viruses Meningococcal Polio Yellow

Blood-borne diseases Meningococcal sepsis Leishmaniasis Tuberculosis

Viral diarrhoea (eg, Food poisoning (eg, Bacillus rotavirus and norovirus) cereus)

Pneumococcal sepsis Fever Brucellosis Coronaviruses sepsis Arboviral infections—eg, haemorrhagic fevers and Alkhurma virus Viral hepatitis B, C, D and E

HIV Arboviral Zoonoses Gasterointestinal infections Acute gasteroenteritis (eg, Salmonella spp, Campylobacter spp) Bacterial (other)

Cholera, typhoid, and Fungal—eg, Tinea spp skin dysentery infections Parasitic—eg, malaria, scabies, gut parasites, nematodes, trematodes, and cestodes

Table 1 demonstrates some of the many different viruses tackled by the MOH during past Hajj Seasons [12]. Effective preparedness and response strategies for infectious diseases must be applied to limit the spread of diseases, including infectious disease surveillance, human and financial resource allocation, and coordination between health divisions [16]. We attempt to

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of such communicable

diseases.

Implementation of such measures is not a viable option at all for the MOH during the Hajj Season when such colossal numbers of people gather in a single place from hundreds of different countries with multiple viruses of various strains, all with their varying causes and effects and varying cures.

6 Solutions for COVID-19 Disease Control There are two phases to be followed for controlling outbreaks of Coronavirus and other common infectious diseases during Hajj

6.1 At the Entry Points Each pilgrim is initially registered by filling out a smartphone app with their respective personal and contact information. The system creates a unique identification number (ID) that is provided to each enrolled pilgrim along with their details. The ID is used for all future communication between pilgrims, medical staff, and hospitals.

Figure 2: Process of assigning smart bracelet Typically, there are several steps in assigning a smart bracelet to a pilgrim, as illustrated in Figure 2

6.1.1 Pilgrims will be Assigned with a Smart Bracelet Wearable smart technology (tracking devices) is provided to be worn on the wrist. Staff assigns the device to the pilgrim via a web application. Basic information about the pilgrim is uploaded to the application in conjunction with the device assignment.

7 Pilgrims will be Subjected to a Medical Examination Medical staff performs a quick medical check-up on pilgrims to diagnose the disease (if any) and vital signs.

7.1.1 Fever Detection Sneeze or cough droplets can spread the Coronavirus. Fever is frequently the first symptom to appear [11- 17]. The immune response is combating an infection when the body temperature rises. Fever can be caused by a variety of things and it might be difficult to distinguish whether it is being caused by coronaviruses or other infections. However, every year, millions

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of pilgrims congregate in one location for Hajj, posing a tremendous challenge for the Saudi Government to regulate such a diverse range of ailments. Coronaviruses are the most common viruses in the world and managing coronaviruses and other predicted viruses during the Hajj is difficult. Fever is the most prevalent sign of many illnesses. As a result, a fever detection method is necessary to assist the monitoring system in the early detection of coronavirus outbreaks. Detecting pilgrims with a high body temperature and making an early diagnosis of disease as soon as possible can reduce mortality by recognizing pilgrims who require treatment sooner and transferring those who require additional attention sooner. It can also help target therapies for the people who need them. The technique for detecting a fever is depicted in Figure 3.

7.2 Updating Pilgrim’s Medical Conditions at Hajj Places After updating the data registered through a mobile application, each pilgrim‘s medical conditions are updated at the Hajj places. Pilgrim Medical Center detects positive cases from the pilgrim‘s record and marks them as infected in the MOH data center through the MOH app. Figure 3 also describes the processes to be taken by the health facilities at the Hajj places for potential types of suspected infectious diseases that could be identified for assessment. The pilgrims' records will then be updated into the web application for further action (if any).

Figure 3: Fever detection and Process of updating pilgrims‘ medical conditions at Hajj places

8 Proposed Architecture of COVID-19 Control System Information Technology is used to maintain the healthcare system during the Hajj. IT makes a range of contributions to the season's success. The most important strategy is to provide a dependable system for analyzing and distributing data in a timely manner. It is possible to prepare accurate data, which allows for improved decision-making. The objective of this work is to design a cloud-based model for predicting and monitoring outbreaks of disease efficiently and in real-time using cloud computing-based techniques. The proposed system will keep track of the current status of the outbreak and identify infected users who are potentially able to spread the disease, in

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particular identifying individuals coming into contact with infected pilgrims and taking preventive measures to eliminate the transmission of infection. To achieve these objectives, a real-time disease monitoring system is proposed based on wearable devices and cloud computing, as illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Proposed cloud-based System of a real-time prediction of infectious diseases

8.1 Fever Detection In Figure 5, the fever detection method uses data that is frequently sent to the database from pilgrims' wearable watches via the pilgrims' health center using a cellular data connection (GSM). A chart can be constructed using the GPS location from the database of the web application used by a physician in their health screening. This will display the location of pilgrims who have been detected as having an elevated body temperature via their wristwatches. The team of doctors will then be able to see the pilgrims' precise location. Furthermore, a cluster of markers in one region suggests that it could be a potential breeding site for coronaviruses. As shown in Figure 5, health officials at the MOH can use this critical data and diagnosed test findings to determine whether or not the pilgrims are infected by coronaviruses and hence control disease transmission (if any). The following steps are included in the fever detection process: •

The location and vital signs data are captured by the smart watch and published to the device API.

•

The data received by the device API is stored in a database.

•

The notification alarm sent to the physician staff for immediate diagnosis.

•

If any positive cases, the pilgrims‘ medical status and GPS data are sent to the proximity engine (Figure 6) to identify other pilgrims who are in close contact.

•

The data can be rendered through a standard web browser as a visualization platform for the stored data.

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Figure 5: Fever detection using GPS and Cellular

8.2 Proximity Detection To develop a proximity-based system for detecting pilgrims in direct contact with each other, there are two basic ways geofencing is technically implemented [18]

8.2.1 Proximity Engine Using GPS Locations are determined by navigation satellites transmitting timing signals, which are used by a GPS receiver to determine location [19, 20]. The proximity engine is responsible for detecting close-range contact between pilgrims during the Hajj. The proximity detection process [21, 22] defines a virtual perimeter around every pilgrim’s smart watch location, known as geofencing. Geo-fencing [23] is a virtual perimeter set to define the limits of a geographical space, such as smartphones and smart watches within a predefined area. This allows us to recognize when the user or device enters and exits this area, as displayed in Figure 6. As soon as the user enters the area that is previously defined, a notification is sent via Email or message. The virtual boundary is statically set as within 1.5 meters of a pilgrim’s location. When other pilgrims enter the defined boundary, the system notes the entry time and exit time and saves the data to the database.

Figure 6: Sample of the predefined virtual boundary Weak GPS signals due to high buildings, bridges or atmospheric conditions, creates a requirement for a reliable mechanism to create effective geo-fences and to support positioning with sufficient accuracy. Therefore, we suggest the use of connectivity combined with GPS [24, 25] for tracking and positioning pilgrims at Hajj places due to the geographical obstacles.

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Figure 7: Close contact detection using GPS and Cellular. As illustrated in Figure 7, the following steps are used to identify the proximity of pilgrims’ close contacts: •

The location data are captured by the smart watch and published to the device API.

•

The data received by the device API is stored in a database. The infected pilgrims’ medical status and GPS data are sent to the proximity engine to

identify other pilgrims at risk.

8.2.2 Scenario-based Explanation Let’s assume ‘A’ is the infected pilgrim, and ‘B’ is the uninfected pilgrim, see Figure 8.

Figure 8: Proximity engine based on a geo-fence with a circular boundary There are two service levels to be carried out by the proximity engine. The two services will be running simultaneously as explained below. Service Level 1 basically deals with identifying uninfected pilgrims when in proximity to infected pilgrims (i.e., the uninfected pilgrims cross the defined boundary of the infected pilgrims). Figure 9 shows the mechanism of the proximity engine, which is based on the attributes in Table 4. It measures the geofence for A as ‘x’ meters. When B enters this area at 09:30, the engine will store a new record as “the non-infected pilgrim’s ID, the infected pilgrim’s ID, and the proximity enter

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time” into the database table “PilgrimMonitoring” (the name is for reference only). As a result, the stored data in the database will be (B’s ID, A’s ID, 09:30) Table 4: The attributes of proximity engine No 1 2 3 4 5

Proximity close Attributes ID of pilgrim ID of pilgrim close to Medical condition Entering time Existing time

Description Bracelet ID Bracelet ID of close contacts of pilgrim Infected or Uninfected The time once the pilgrim enters the geo-fencing of other pilgrims The time once the pilgrim exits the geo-fence of other pilgrims

Service Level 2: The engine will send requests every 30 seconds for GPS data of A and B. Assuming two minutes is the duration of the contact time (i.e., B exits A’s area after two minutes), the engine will store the new data record into the database table as (B’s ID, A’s ID, 09:32) We define an in-contact time in service level 1, i.e., ‘z’ minutes. If the above calculated time reaches and breaches ‘z’, the engine will send an alert to the officials. Once stop time is reached, it will update the values in the database. The following figures illustrate a single pilgrim entering the boundary of an infected pilgrim. Figure 9 shows the pilgrims cross the defined boundary and Figure 10 depicts the total time duration of the pilgrims in close contact

Figure 9: Pilgrims cross the defined boundary

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Figure 10: Total time duration of the pilgrims in close contact

9 Conclusion Coronavirus disease is a global concern to the human population right now. Before the first COVID-19 instance was recorded in Saudi Arabia, the country implemented a variety of restrictions on social movement, social and religious gatherings, travel, and enterprises. One of the significant breakthroughs for the intelligent healthcare system is the use of IoT to control the spread of COVID-19. In this paper, a detailed case study for controlling the Coronavirus Disease Spread Control in crowds especially during the Hajj season is presented. This paper explores the various methods for monitoring and controlling infectious disease during the Hajj and also strengthens the diseases control mechanism in controlling the Coronavirus disease during the Hajj. This paper also proposes a model based on the Global Positioning System (GPS), wearable watch technology, and cloud computing infrastructure, which detects and monitors infected pilgrims and aids in the identification of those pilgrims exposed to sources of a virus. Future work can be the implementation of the proposed methodology in the Hajj season to identify the merits of the proposed methodology and to curtail the spread of COVID-19.

10 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

11 References [1] Weinstein, R. A., and Singh, K. "Laboratory-acquired infections." Clinical Infectious Diseases 49.1 (2009): 142-147. [2] MOH Issues COVID-19 Awareness Guidelines in Many Languages. Saudi Ministry of Health. Mar 2020, https://www.moh.gov.sa/en/Ministry/MediaCenter/News/Pages/News-2020-03-17-001.aspx. [3] Zhu, H., Wei, L. & Niu, P. The novel coronavirus outbreak in Wuhan, China. glob health res policy 5, 6 (2020). DOI: 10.1186/s41256-020-00135-6

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[4] Abdullah A. A., Alharbi, N. K., Hassanain, M., Hashem, A. M. “Preparedness and response to COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia: Building on MERS experience.” Journal of Infection and Public Health, Vol. 13, No. 6, 2020, pp 834-838. [5] Hollander, JE, Carr, BG. Virtually Perfect? Telemedicine for Covid-19. N Engl J Med. 2020 Apr 30; 382(18):1679-1681. DOI: 10.1056/nejmp2003539 [6] Keeling, M.J., Danon, L., “Mathematical modelling of infectious diseases.” British Medical Bulletin, 92 (1) 2009, pp. 33-42, DOI: 10.1093/bmb/ldp038 [7] Alotaibi B, Yezli S, Bin Saeed AAA, Turkestani A, Alawam A, Bieh K. Strengthening health security at the Hajj mass gatherings: characteristics of the infectious diseases surveillance systems operational during the 2015 Hajj. J Travel Med. 2017 May 01;24(3), DOI: 10.1093/jtm/taw087. [8] National Transformation Program Delivery Plan 2018-2020. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Vision 2030. 2018. https://vision2030.gov.sa/sites/default/files/attachments/NTP%20English%20Public%20Document_2810.p df. [9] Z. Faizal khan, Sultan Refa Alotaibi, "Applications of Artificial Intelligence and Big Data Analytics in mHealth: A Healthcare System Perspective", Journal of Healthcare Engineering, vol. 2020, Article ID 8894694, 15 pages, 2020. [10] Hassounah, M., Raheel, H., & Alhefzi, M. (2020). Digital Response During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Saudi Arabia. Journal of medical Internet research, 22(9), e19338. DOI: 10.2196/19338 [11] Rosa, L., Giuseppina, et al. "Viral infections acquired indoors through airborne, droplet or contact transmission." Annali dell'Istituto superiore di sanita 49 (2013): 124-132. [12] World Health Organization. Meeting of Heads of Medical Missions on Public Health Preparedness for Hajj, 2014 . Cairo: WHO Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office, 2014. [13] Al-Tawfiq, J. A., & Memish, Z. A. (2014). Mass gathering medicine: 2014 Hajj and Umra preparation as a leading example. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 27, 26-31. [14] Virlogeux, V., et al. "Incubation period duration and severity of clinical disease following severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection." Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.) 26.5 (2015): 666 [15] Abd El Ghany M, Alsomali M, Almasri M, et al. Enteric Infections Circulating during Hajj Seasons, 20112013. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017;23(10):1640-1649. DOI: 10.3201/eid2310.161642 [16] Bareth, U., Kupper, A., and Freese, B. Geofencing and Background Tracking - The Next Features in LBS. In Proc. of the 41th Annual Conf. of the Gesellschaft fur Informatik e.V. (INFORMATIK 2011), vol. 192, Kollen Druck + Verlag GmbH (Berlin, Germany, Oct 2011). [17] Wang, D., et al. “Clinical Characteristics of 138 Hospitalized Patients With 2019 Novel Coronavirus-Infected Pneumonia in Wuhan, China.” JAMA vol. 323,11 (2020): 1061-1069. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2020.1585 [18] Vanhems, P., et al., "Estimating potential infection transmission routes in hospital wards using wearable proximity sensors." PloS one 8.9 (2013). [19] Chandra, P. “Miniaturized label-free smartphone assisted electrochemical sensing approach for personalized COVID-19 diagnosis”, Sensor International, Vol. 1, 2020. [20] Su, Z., Pahlavan, K., & Agu, E., "Performance Evaluation of COVID-19 Proximity Detection Using Bluetooth LE Signal," in IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 38891-38906, 2021, DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3064323. [21] Singh, B., Datta, B., Ashish, A., & Dutta, G., "A comprehensive review on current COVID-19 detection methods: From lab care to point of care diagnosis". Sensor International, Vol. 2, pp.100-119, 2021. [22] Greenwood, Christina et al. “Proximity assays for sensitive quantification of proteins.” Biomolecular detection and quantification vol. 4, pp. 10-6, 2015, DOI: 10.1016/j.bdq.2015.04.002 [23] Samson, R. et al. “Biosensors: frontiers in rapid detection of COVID-19.” 3 Biotech vol. 10, No.9: 385, 2020, DOI:10.1007/s13205-020-02369-0

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[24] Martínez-Murcia, A et al. “Comparative in silico design and validation of GPS CoVID-19 dtec-RT-qPCR test.” Journal of applied microbiology, vol. 130 no.1, pp. 2-13, 2021. DOI: 10.1111/jam.14781 [25] Shahroz, M. et al. “COVID-19 digital contact tracing applications and techniques: A review post initial deployments.” Transportation Engineering vol. 5: 100072, 2021. DOI: 10.1016/j.treng.2021.100072 Dr. JAMEEL ALMALKI is an Assistant Professor and Vice Dean of the College of Computers for Academic Affairs at Umm Al-Qura University in Al Liath, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Jameel has done his Ph.D in Software Engineering at Flinders University in Australia. He received his BSc in Computer Science at KAU in Saudi Arabia, and master's degree in IT at UTS, Australia. His research interests include Distributed Collaborative Software Development, Software Engineering, and Internet of Things.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Impacts of Perceived Care Quality on Psychological Wellbeing of Cancer Patients Kanwal Shahbaz1*, Naveed Shibli2, Sana Amjad3, Sharon John4 Department of Education and Psychology, Kohat University of Science and Technology, PAKISTAN. Department of Psychology, Riphah International University, Faisalabad Campus, PAKISTAN. 3 Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Fauji Foundation Hospital, Islamabad, PAKISTAN. 4 National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad, PAKISTAN. *Corresponding Author (Email: Shahbaz @gmail.com). 1 2

Paper ID: 13A1F Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

This study highlights the overlooked relationship of patients’ perception of care provided and its impact on their well-being alongside the gender role. Received 15 March 2021 A quantitative research method with purposive sampling on a sample of 60 Received in revised form 22 October 2021 cancer patients was used. The responses were collected through Accepted 27 October 2021 Psychological General Wellbeing Index and Manual Care Dependency Scale. Available online 01 Ethical procedures related to cancer patients were followed and informed November 2021 consent was obtained by patients suffering from cancer. The analysis Keywords: included correlation, regression, and t-Test. The results displayed the scales Cancer chronically ill; as reliable. Perceived care and well-being of cancer patients are found Cancer patient; Mental moderately related. Patients-perceived care quality explained 30% variance health; Empathy care; Biopsychosocial model of in psychological wellbeing. Gender differences in care perceived caregiving wellbeing were found. This study provides empirical evidence to address the health; Personal cancer; complex link between care and the wellbeing of cancer patients while Gender differences; Psychological General considering the gender of both patients and caregivers. Perceptions taken Wellbeing Index from patients suffering from cancer can be infused into the broader patient (PGWBI); Psychological management plan.

Well-being (PWB); Manual Care dependency scale (MCDS); Patients perceived care quality (PPCQ).

Cite This Article: Shahbaz, K., Shibli, N, Amjad, S, Sharon, J. (2022). Impacts of Perceived Care Quality on Psychological Wellbeing of Cancer Patients. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1F, 1-10. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.6

1 Introduction Cancer is a serious illness resulting due to the irregular growth of cells with treatment that is too expensive for most families [1]. The seriousness of illness grips both individuals and families

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and the success of treatment usually become dependent upon their willpower and support provided by their families along with treatment at the beginning stages of illness. The deadly disease doesn’t have its adverse effects limited to physical health only. There is considerable evidence suggesting that these patients suffer from significant psychological distress as well. The severity of the disease and the painful treatment often lead to depression and anxiety [3]. A cancer diagnosis is a severe traumatic event that can have a rigorous emotional impact on the individual’s psychological well-being, projecting to depressive symptoms and anxiety, associated with psychological distress. So, it is evident that such patients need consistent psychosocial support along with medical treatment. However, the extent to which psycho-ontological care helps in the treatment of disease is still debatable [4]. Several studies have shown that cancer patients’ relatives experience depression, anxiety, and psychological distress just as much as or even more than the patients themselves [5-7]. So, the entire family of the victim needs to understand the disease and changes brought by it and reorganize themselves in order to deal with the disease [8].

1.1 Care from the caregivers The caregiver is usually an unpaid and sometimes paid member of a victim’s social network who helps him with daily activities and supports him during this time of crisis. Caregiver performs various duties depending upon the need of the patient i.e. managing medications or talking to doctors and nurses; helping to bathe or dress; or taking care of household chores, meals, or bills. The role is played by close relatives, including parents, spouse, children, siblings, and sometimes close friends. With an increasingly aging population in all developed societies, the role of caregiver has been increasingly recognized as an important one, both functionally and economically. In the case of cancer patients, the care extended by a caregiver is crucial for emotional as well as physical wellbeing [9].

2 Literature Review Research conducted on patients with breast cancer to understand the relationship between the meaning of life and life satisfaction demonstrated that level of meaning of life among women suffering breast cancer was significantly low as compared to men connecting with the financial burden, the lower health-related value of life, increased risk of depression and a higher rate of worrying and fear attitude about cancer recurrence [11]. Considering the challenging situation of patients with cancer, it is important to reflect upon the well-being of such patients. Studies have empirically shown problems related to their wellbeing. A study showed an important relationship between cancer-related fatigue, hope, depression, anxiety, and stress. It concluded that both mental and physical cancer-related fatigue had a significant impact on psychological etiology among cancer patients [10]. Another study [11] showed that positive thinking exposure improved the effort, control, and accountability reduces the unsuccessful cancer outcome, irrespective of the gender. Moreover, the

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male reporting of cancer was high instead the female peer received “credit” for being cancer-free. Positive thinking was found to contribute to overrating cancer patients’ personal impudence over their disease course. However, social awareness of successful or unsuccessful cancer consequences differs as a function of the patient’s gender. Such studies indicate that cancer patients are likely to respond better to female caregivers and their gender may also play an important role in this connection [11]. In the light of such findings, it is stated that both males and females are likely to be perceived as effective caregivers by both male and female cancer patients which primarily depends upon empathy, support, and communications levels they extend to cancer patients [12]. The stress-coping theories propose that women are more likely to be exposed to caregiving stressors, and are likely to perceive, report, and cope with these stressors differently from men. Many studies, which have examined gender differences among family-caregivers of people with mental illnesses, have concluded that women spend more time in providing care 57-81%) and carry out personal-care tasks more often than (20-33%) men. These studies have also found that women experience greater mental and physical strain, greater caregiver burden, and higher levels of psychological distress while providing care [13]. Males are the biological fixers’ and their style to cope with the emotional stress of caregiving is different than females. Females are known as biological nurturers. Studies suggested that it is a matter of perception that men are never seen in the caregiving role and that’s why a lot of praise is showered to them if seen so but do they cope with the emotional stress as required by the patient is yet to be investigated [14, 15]. Similarly, women are more likely to become caregivers than men, which are associated with the gender role adapted by them. Hence, the appropriate age of the caregiver best suited to look after the cancer patients is not yet explored but the evidence is available from the US that the estimated age range of caregivers for community work is from 18-24 years.

3 The Rationale of the Study Patients with cancer usually experience psychological distress and disempowerment that are likely to affect their well-being. This may also influence their perceptions about caregivers and influence perceptions of their subjective well-being. The place of gender in this paradigm has received less attention from searchers for the development of patient management plans. We have rationalized this study based on the literature on gender and caregiving in chronic illness [16-18], research on the psychological well-being of cancer patients [19-22], and the statistics that show an increase of cancer in both developing and developed countries. Statistics have shown an increase in several cancer patients both in developing and developed countries. A recent country report by Cancer Care Hospital and Research CentrePakistan [23][24] has reported that cancer incidence is rising in Pakistan day by day and around 340,000 people are afflicted with cancer every year and only 60,000 patients get adequate treatment due to unavailability of the diagnosis and treatment facilities. A survey by the American Cancer

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Society has estimated that 220,900 new cases with cancer will be reported and 29,500 deaths will occur. A report on the Global Cancer Burden by World Health Organization has also reported that there were approximately 170,000 cases of cancer reported in Pakistan. Such statistics indicate the importance of investigating well-being, the role of caretakers, and perceptions of cancer patients along with the place of gender in the paradigm.

4 Method This research is descriptive with a cross-sectional research design. The analyses are performed using an updated version of SPSS-XXIII. This study’s hypotheses are H1: There is a relationship between the care provided by the caregivers and the psychological well-being of the cancer patients. H2: There is a positive impact of care provided by the caregivers on the psychological well-being of cancer patients. H3: Women are perceived as better caregivers than men by cancer patients.

5 Sample The sample consisted of cancer patients (N= 60) diagnosed with Carcinoma, Sarcoma, Leukemia, Lymphoma, and Myeloma. All the cancer patients were also categorized as chronically ill. The cancer patient’s sample age ranged between 18-85 years; 30 males and 30 females; 20 of them were unmarried and 40 were married; 15 were on job and the rest of 45 were jobless; out of 15 with job cancer patients 7 were married and 8 were unmarried; Out of 45 jobless cancer patients 33 were married and 12 unmarrieds; 30 were from Nuclear and 30 from the joint family system. The education of the cancer patients ranged from and in between Matric (N=10), FSc (N=10), BSc (N=25), MSc (N=10), and M-Phil (N=5). The entire sample was collected from one of the renowned hospitals of Pakistan. The caregivers in the present study are the family members, or, anyone who was hired by the family to look after the patient and the care provided at the hospital by the nursing and nonnursing staff. The patients were required to fill out the questionnaires keeping in mind the quality care provided by any one of the above categories.

5.1 Sampling Design In this research, a non-probability-purposive sampling design was used.

6 Conceptual Definition of Variables 6.1 Psychological Well Being Psychological wellbeing is the patient’s evaluation of their life in the present and in the past, including the emotional reaction of people to events, moods, and judgments related to their lifestyles [25, 26]. Psychological well-being was measured with the help of the Psychological General Wellbeing Index.

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6.2 Patient Perceived Care Quality Patient-perceived care quality is the “patients’ assessment of care provided by the caretaker”. Perceived care quality is also termed as responsiveness, assurance, empathy, and reliability. It’s subjective in nature and highly depends on the personality of the patient [27]. Patient perceived Care Quality was measured by Care Dependency Scale.

7 Instruments of the Study 7.1 The Psychological General Wellbeing Index The psychological General well-being index was developed and revised by Dupuy (1971). Its acute version was used to measure the psychological well-being of cancer patients. It consists of 22 items and six subscales i.e. anxiety, depressed mood, positive well-being, self-control, general health, and vitality. The 6-point Likert scale ranges from 0-5 with 0= most negative response and 5= most positive response. There is no cutoff score. A higher score will represent higher psychological well-being and vice versa. The items (5, 8, 17, 19, 12) measure anxiety; (3, 7, 11) measure the depressed mood; (1, 9, 15, 20) measure positive wellbeing; (4, 14,180) measure Selfcontrol; (2, 10, 13) measure General Health and (6, 12, 16, 21) measure vitality [26]. The psychometric properties of PGWB were established with Cronbach's alpha as .85. The Raw Index Score ranges from 0-110 and there is no reverse item.

7.2 Manual Care Dependency Scale To measure patient-perceived care quality, the Manual Care dependency scale (MCDS) with 16 items was used. It is a self-report tool that allows the patients to assess perceived care quality. A high alpha coefficient of 0.98 was obtained. Subsequent inter-rater and test-retest reliability revealed Kappa values between 0.82–0.97 and 0.64–0.86, respectively which shows that this scale is highly reliable. Factor analysis (principal component analysis) confirmed the one-factor model reported in earlier studies. The analysis of the scale showed that the instrument is promising to be used in the care of cancer patients.

8 Procedure Initial scrutiny thorough review was conducted of various databases to locate through medical records, patients who met the inclusion criteria for this study. Patients who met the requirements for inclusion in the study signed an informed consent that was specified in their agreement to participate in research. The face and content validity of the scales were established. An expert in the field was asked to review the scales and ensure the face and content validity. After complying with all ethical considerations like permission for using standardized measures, approval of scientific research board from where the data had to be collected, written consent forms being filled by participants, the data collection was initiated by getting all measures filled in face-to-face administration procedure. Each participant was accessed individually and this consumed on average the duration of 35 minutes in filling all of the measures. The confidentiality was ensured and it was further

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clarified that the research participants could withdraw from the research at any point in time in case they feel uncomfortable.

9 Result and Discussion This research measures the perceived care quality and its impact on the psychological wellbeing of cancer patients. The idea of the research was shared and formal permissions were taken from the research ethics committee of the university, hospital, and authors of the instruments to execute this study. This research was designed to study the impact of patient-perceived care quality on his psychological wellbeing. Similarly, a pool of research was available that depicted the caretakers’ perspective about taking care of the cancer patients that was not relatable to the perspective of cancer patients [29]. Therefore, the current research idea designed to gather cancer patients’ perspectives of perceived care quality will cognizant the health practitioners to precisely develop and design interventions in light of the demand of the cancer patients and considering the place of gender. The findings of the research are going to be discussed in light of previous empirical literature and theory. The analyses plan included calculating alpha reliability, descriptive statistics, correlation, regression, and t-test to test the hypotheses. Next given are the findings. Table 1 shows that the scales are highly reliable. The data were checked for normality in SPSS. This was done by using the statistics of Skewness, Kurtosis. The skewness and kurtosis values of the two scales are within the acceptable range of +3 or -3 depicting that the data is normally distributed [28]. Table 1 describes the descriptive and psychometric properties of the two scales. The alpha reliability of PGWBI is 0.98 and MCDS is 0.70, which is termed as excellent and reasonably good reliabilities qualifying the scale as reliable for use for the current sample [30, 31]. Table 1: Reliability analysis of PWB and MCDS scale (N=60) No. of items PWB MCDS

22 16

Skewness Statistic S.E 5.03 1.39 .98 1.11 .30 5.58 1.37 .70 .69 .31 Note: p <.001; PWB = Psychological Well-being, M

Kurtosis Statistic S.E -.34 .61 -.87 .60

Table 2: Correlation of the PWB and MCDS Scale (N=60) Variable PGWBI MCDS PGWBI 1.0 .55** MCDS .55** 1.0 Note: p <.001; PGWBI = Psychological General Well-being Index; MCDS = Manual Care Dependency Scale

Table 2 indicates that the correlation is significant between psychological well-being and perceptions about caregivers (p<.001). The correlation value shows a positive and moderate correlation. The positive relationship states that if the patient’s perceived care quality increases the

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psychological wellbeing will increase too. Similarly, if psychological wellbeing increases the perceived care quality will increase too i.e. there is a bidirectional relation between the two variables [18, 32]. However, a moderate relationship shows that there are maybe other unexplored factors influencing the psychological well-being of cancer patients other than the care provided by the caregivers. Table 1 suggests that if the patient’s perception of the provided care is high, the psychological wellbeing could be improved and vice versa. Psychological wellbeing is the overall wellbeing of the patient’s life after the disease. And, the patient’s perceived care is the patient’s own perception about the care provided by the caretaker [15]. Table 3: Simple Linear Regression on the Criterion and Outcome Variable (N=60) Outcome PWB

Predictor R2 B S.E β ΔR² F (df) (Constant) .306 1.88 5.14 .55 .29 1 PPCQ .30 .56 .26 .55 .29 25.55(1,58) Note: p <.001; PWB = Psychological Well-being, PPCQ= Patients perceived care quality

p .001

Table 3 indicates the simple linear regression analysis. The value of R is .30 which means that the 1% change in the patient-perceived care increases the 30% change in the psychological well-being of cancer patients. The patient develops an attachment with the caretaker and based on that attachment the perception of care is made. The patient’s psychological well-being is already compromised due to high medicine intake therefore, this attachment is crucial to the patient’s happiness and overall wellbeing. The relation with the caretaker becomes the significant support system. The positive the support the positive would be the complete wellbeing [33]. Similarly, Table 3 shows the simple linear regression analysis depicting the impact of IV on DV. The value of R = 0.30 is higher than 0.25 and findings suggest that a 1% change in psychological wellbeing predicts a 30% change in perceived care quality among cancer patients. Table 4 shows the t-test analysis across the gender. The Cohen’s d values show the effect size that males and females both reported higher caregiving of females (0.30; 0.34) than males (0.18; 0.13). The high scores of female cancer patients towards both male and female caregivers further show that they are likely to respond to male caregivers somewhat more than male cancer patients but again significantly less than female caregivers. Table 4: Gender differences on patient’s Perceived care quality and Psychological Wellbeing (N=60) Gender Males

PWB PPCQ Cohen’s d

Gender Females

PWB PPCQ Cohen’s d

Care taker’s gender Males Females M SD M 64.3 21.22 84.1 68.4 22.1 91.1 0.18 0.30 Care taker’s gender Males Females M SD M 66.1 24.1 88.3 69.3 23.2 96.2 0.13 0.34

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95% CI SD 22.3 24.2

t (58) 1.54 2.10

p .001 .002

UL 1.98 1.12

SD 23.2 22.1

t (58) 1.57 2.56

p .02 .03

UL 2.11 2.22

LL 8.89 9.78

95% CI LL 5.23 6.31

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Table 4 shows the patients’ perceived care quality and psychological wellbeing across the gender. Cohen’s d values show that the males and females perceived females as more quality caretakers and participate in the improvement of psychological wellbeing. Findings are supported by [25-29]. The theory on gender differences explains more warmth, politeness, caring, and love among females than males that qualifies them as better caretakers. Likewise, cancer patients in this critical condition need someone who can support, listen and understand them they reported that females do say jobs better than males. However, findings went further by reflecting on gender differences in perceptions towards caretakers. Females suffering from cancer were found to be more respondents to male caretakers but again lesser than female caretakers. This might be that male caretakers show ample empathy towards female cancer patients and hence empathy can be taken as an important ingredient in effective caretaking [32].

10 Conclusion This research studies the impacts of patients’ perceived care quality on the psychological wellbeing of cancer patients in Pakistan. The findings proposed that the patients’ own perceptions related to the care quality and psychological wellbeing are positively related and provide a bidirectional relation. The health caretakers should sensitize caretakers in a way that improves the health quality of the cancer patients while considering the gender of both patient and caretakers. They should focus on empathy and communication skills for effective caretaking.

11 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

12 Acknowledgement The efforts of Cancer patients, caregivers, and doctors are duly acknowledged. The authors appreciate the fundings from Smart Engineering and Design Solutions (SEDS) Pvt. Ltd. and Perfect Health Pvt. Ltd.

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[10] L Huang, L Jansen, Y Balavarca, M Babaei, L Geest, V Lemmens, L Eycken, H Schutter, TB Johannesen, M Žakelj. Stratified survival of resected and overall pancreatic cancer patients in Europe and the USA in the early twenty-first century: A large, international population-based study. BMC Medicine. 2018;16(1): 125140. [11] H Mirzaei, A Masoudifar, A Sahebkar, N Zare, J Nahand, B Rashidi, E Mehrabian, M Mohammadi, HR Mirzaei, MR Jaafari. MicroRNA: A novel target of curcumin in cancer therapy. Journal of Cellular Physiology. 2018; 233: 3004-3015. [12] HA Hamann, MJ Shen, AJ Thomas, SC Lee JS Ostroff. Development and preliminary psychometric evaluation of a patient-reported outcome measure for lung cancer stigma: The Lung Cancer Stigma Inventory (LCSI). Stigma and health. 2018; 3(1): 195-205. [13] N Sharma, S Chakrabarti, S Grover. Gender differences in caregiving among family-caregivers of people with mental illnesses. World Journal of Psychiatry. 2016; 6(7): 89-103. [14] D Denholm. Man the fixer, woman the nurturer-The caregiving gender gap. Psychology. 2012;3(1): 31-41. [15] S Kanwal, S Ayesha, S Kiran. Global Employability: Career Education Conference the Challenges of Globalization. EC Psychology and Psychiatry. 2018; 7(1): 537-543. [16] DL Roth, L Fredman, WE Haley. Informal caregiving and its impact on health: A reappraisal from population-based studies. The Gerontologist. 2015; 55(3): 309-319. [17] NC Chi, G Demiris. A systematic review of telehealth tools and interventions to support family caregivers. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare. 2015; 21(2): 37-44. [18] K Shahbaz. Pharmenzymonetics and Pharmgeonetics: A New Door in Pharmacology. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2016; 7(3): 801-824. [19] K Shahbaz, J Ijaz. Pharmgeonetic Effect on Plasma Concentration of Tamoxifen Through Hplc In Female Subjects of Pakistan. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2016; 7(3): 746-766. [20] K Shahbaz. Oxidative Stress Causes Aging: Genetics and Epigenetics. Merit Research Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences. 2017;6(2): 31-41. [21] A Khan. Women’s Knowledge, Attitude, Beliefs and Misconceptions Regarding Breast Cancer in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences. 2020; 5(1): 28-51.

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[22] RL Siegel, KD Miller, A Jemal. Cancer statistics. A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2016; 66(4): 17-30. [23] M Sarwar, A Saqib. Cancer prevalence, incidence and mortality rates in Pakistan in 2012. Cogent Medicine. 2017; 6(4): 128-140. [24] MN Bashir. Epidemiology of prostate cancer. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2018; 16(6): 5137-5141. [25] A Meyer, C Moran, T Fitzpatrick, J Ernst, A Körner. The Effect of a Personal Cancer History on Compassion and Psychological Well-Being. Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing. 2008; 22(3): 398-406. [26] HJ Dupuy. The psychological general well-being (PGWB) index. Assessment of Quality of Life in Clinical Trials of Cardiovascular Therapies. 1971; 13(3): 170-183. [27] CI Teng, YT Dai, YI Shyu, MK Wong, TL Chu, YH Tsai. Professional commitment, patient safety, and patient‐perceived care quality. Journal of Nursing Scholarship. 2009; 41(5): 301-309. [28] AD Ho, CC Yu. Descriptive statistics for modern test score distributions: Skewness, kurtosis, discreteness, and ceiling effects. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 2015; 75(9): 365-388. [29] JS Temel, JA Greer, A Jawahri, WF Pirl, ER Park, VA Jackson, AL Back, M Kamdar, J Jacobsen, EH Chittenden. Effects of early integrated palliative care in patients with lung and GI cancer: a randomized clinical trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology. 2017; 35(6): 834-844. [30] K Shahbaz, A Mehfooz, M Din, U Shahbaz. Breast Cancer Vaccination-An Envisioned Future. Indo American Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2014; 8(6): 1-15. [31] K Shahbaz, K Shahbaz. Relationship between spiritual well-being and Quality of Life among chronically ill individuals. The International Journal of Indian Psychology. 2015;12(3): 109-221. [32] JE Wallace, JB Lemaire, WA Ghali. Physician wellness: A missing quality indicator. The Lancet. 2009; 374(11): 1714-1721. [33] S Kanwal, R Nadia, S Kiran. Constructivism Emphasizes on "the Proactive Nature of Human Being Knowing, Acknowledging that Individuals Actively Participate in the Construction of their Own Reality. SciFed Journal of Insomnia. 2018; 1(1): 1-9. Kanwal Shahbaz is a university lecturer. She is also a Career Counsellor, Psychologist, and an Emerging Educationist. She received her MS from C3A-NUST. She has also received a Diploma in Cognitive Behavior Therapy from Mills Psychology Canada. Kanwal implies pragmatic research approach with keen interest in Cultural Dynamics and Longitudinal Studies. Her research interests include Behavioral Neuroscience; Infertility; Career sensitization; Endocrinology and Neuropsychology. Professor Dr. Naveed Shibli is Head and Professor at the Department of Psychology, Riphah International University Faisalabad Pakistan. He graduated from Air War College. He holds a PhD in Psychology.

Sana Amjad is among one of the leading Speech and Language Pathologists working in a Fauji Foundation Hospital, Islamabad. Her interests include the Amalgamation of Technology in Speech Development.

Sharon got an MSc. in Psychology from QAU and MPhil in Governance and Public Policy from NUML. Her research interests include Education, Minorities, Empowerment, and Public Poicy & Governanace.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Recycling of Animal and Bird Waste Helped by Black Lion Fly Larvae D.S. Bryukhanov1*, Yu.V. Matrosova1, O.A. Vlasova1 FSBEI HE South Ural State Agrarian University, City of Troitsk, RUSSIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: Bryukhanov@mail.ru). 1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1G Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 15 March 2021 Received in revised form 22 October 2021 Accepted 27 October 2021 Available online 01 November 2021

Keywords:

Metabolic byproducts; Larvae of the Black soldier fly; Biohumus; Chicken droppings; Pig manure; Bacillus subtilis hay bacterium; Organic waste; Hermetia illucens.

Due to the ability to process organic waste on an industrial scale with the help of larvae of the phytosaprophage - the Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), there is increased attention not only from scientists but also from agricultural producers. The resulting biohumus after the separation of larvae can be a good organic fertilizer. Studies were carried out to obtain a substrate using bacteria - Bacillus subtilis, microbiological studies of manure and droppings were carried out, the concentration of ammonia in the air was determined. The chemical composition of chicken droppings and pig manure before and after the introduction of bacteria was determined. Disciplinary: Agriculture Science, Waste Management (Agriculture Waste), Sustainability & Green Technology. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Bryukhanov, D.S., Matrosova, Yu.V., Vlasova, O.A. (2022). Recycling of Animal and Bird Waste Helped by Black Lion Fly Larvae. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1G, 1-8. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.7

1 Introduction Processing of organic agricultural waste, such as poultry droppings and pig manure is one of the global problems today. There are many methods and ways of processing, but the most acceptable, affordable, and inexpensive method, and even more effective, has not yet been found. More than 20 manure and droppings processing technologies have been developed and implemented in the world. Collection, utilization, and processing of organic industrial, household, and agricultural waste is one of the modern global environmental problems that lead to environmental pollution (water, air, soil), which negatively affects the health of humans, animals, and the planet as a whole [5, 8].

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It is possible to save the environment from agricultural waste due to the use of Hermetia illucens larvae, which will increase the biological value of manure and manure [2]. Having considered all this, we decided to thoroughly study the technology of pig manure and chicken droppings processing with the help of Hermetia illucens larvae, to preserve the environment from agricultural waste, to increase the biological usefulness of the metabolic byproducts of farm animals and poultry, and for its further use as feed protein, and the resulting zoohumus as fertilizer for crops. Hay bacterium (lat. Bacillus subtilis) is an aerobic soil gram-positive spore-forming bacterium, which has the form of a straight rod, size 2-5 microns in length and 0.4-0.6 microns in width, colorless. The spores are oval in shape, not exceeding the size of the cell. Bacillus subtilis is often found in water, in the air, in the soil, which spread to plants by contact, and then enter the body of animals and humans when eating plant food. Reproduction of the Hay bacterium occurs in two ways by fission and sporulation. They are often connected in threads during transverse fission [1-4]. Bacillus subtilis produces enzymes that can remove the cellular and tissue ichorization debris, as well as synthesize amino acids, vitamins, and antibiotics. The hay bacterium has the ability to acidify the habitat where it is located, producing hyaluronic acid [6-7]. Hay bacterium has the ability to reduce the impact of various opportunistic, as well as pathogenic microorganisms such as yeast fungi, staphylococcus, salmonella, proteus, and others. Hay bacterium helps humans and animals to break down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates by digesting food. We took this particular culture for work since it has been studied for a long time and sufficiently, the first laboratory experiments in which scientists described it were carried out back in the 19th century. It does not require high technology to work, it is quite simple to work with it. Currently, the technology of processing solid agricultural waste has undergone significant changes and, thanks to innovative methods, has allowed to reduce the volume of waste produced, and to reuse them after processing. The use of Black soldier fly larvae allows processing organic agricultural waste from farm animals, waste from animal products processing, as well as fruits and vegetables. The larva of the Black soldier fly has a high rate of bioconversion, one adult individual per day is able to process about 25 mg of waste. The technology of bio-processing of organic residues by larvae of Black soldier flies in Russia is very relevant and has great prospects, but has not yet found much distribution [8-11]. The purpose of our study is to prepare the metabolic byproducts of pigs and birds for processing by Hermetia illucens larvae. Based on the purpose of this study, the following tasks were set: 1. to study the effect of the bacterium Bacillus subtilis on chicken droppings and pig manure; 2. to determine and compare the chemical composition of chicken droppings and pig manure before and after the introduction of bacteria;

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3. to evaluate the processing of the substrate enriched with larvae.

2 Material and Methods. The research was funded by RFBR and Chelyabinsk Region, project number 20-416740008\20 "Development of a method for increasing the degree of biological usefulness of the processing waste products of monogastric animals and birds using Hermetia illucens larvae" and conducted in the conditions of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine of the South Ural State Agrarian University. The studies were carried out on specially prepared substrates with the addition of a probiotic preparation culture, namely a strain of soil spore bacteria Bacillus subtilis with content of living microorganisms of at least 10 5 CFU in 1 gram of the preparation (group 1 - chicken droppings with probiotic, group 2 - pig manure with the addition of the same culture and in the same amount). Bacillus subtilis are bacteria (popularly called "hay bacterium"), they perform the function of "orderlies" - they have the ability to suppress the growth and development of pathogenic, opportunistic, putrefactive microflora in any ecosystem. We used Bacillus subtilis bacteria to reduce the content of harmful gases, reduce the decomposition time of droppings and manure, as well as for disinfection from pathogenic microorganisms. The viability of bacterial cells was determined by the method of serial dilutions in accordance with GOST 10444.11-2013. After thermostat, smear samples were stained from each dilution under study in accordance with GOST 7218-2011. The species identity of the bacteria was established using the bacterial determinant of D. Bergi. The resulting substrate was placed in a dark place and stored for 30 days at a temperature of 22°C. After the expiration of time, the experimental substrates (droppings + Bacillus subtilis) and (manure + Bacillus subtilis) were brought to optimal humidity and 3-day-old grown larvae were placed, which were introduced on the substrate surface, at the rate of 150 g of larvae per 5 kg of substrate. The acidity of the substrates was determined and monitored daily, since Hay bacterium is actively growing at pH 7.0 and this is crucial when growing bacteria. During the cultivation of microorganisms, the acidity is constantly changing, most often this is due to uneven consumption of individual components of the nutrient medium and the formation of metabolic products during waste processing. To measure the pH, we used paper indicators. The analysis of droppings, manure, and biohumus was carried out in an interdepartmental laboratory according to generally accepted methods. It should be noted that the optimal temperature for the development of larvae in the room is 27°C, which was monitored daily during the experiment. Natural lighting was mainly used with additional lighting during laboratory work.

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3 Results and Discussion The bacterium Bacillus subtilis had a positive effect on the ammonia contamination of the air on the surface of containers during the processing of pig manure and droppings. Table 1 Dynamics of ammonia concentration on the surface, n = 15 Group Control (pig manure) Control (chicken dropping) Experiment (pig manure) Experiment (chicken droppings)

Ammonia concentration in the air, mcg/l 1st day 30th day 14.2±1.22 15.7±1.51 14.6±1.31 16.2±1.23 14.7±0.91 6.3±1.23* 14.8±0.91 6.9±1.13* *Р<0.05

From Table 1, after 30 days of the experiment, the concentration of ammonia on the surface of containers decreased by 2.3 times. During the microbiological study of the microflora of manure and droppings, a variety of biocenosis was noted, which was mainly represented by conditionally pathogenic microflora, such as E. coli, staphylococci, Pseudomonas, mold fungi, data on the changed microbiocenosis of the litter material are presented in Table 2. Table 2 The single application effect of a strain of soil spore bacteria Bacillus subtilis on microbiocenosis (M ± m; n = 15) Microflora, CFU/gr

E.coli. 105 Staph.aureus. 105 Ps.aeruginosa. 105 Aspergillus. 105 Mucor. 105 Tr.viride. 105 Lactobacterium. 105 Bac.subtilis. 105 Saccharomyces. 105 Microflora. CFU/gr

E.coli. 105 Staph.aureus. 105 Ps.aeruginosa. 105 Aspergillus. 105 Mucor. 105 Tr.viride. 105 Lactobacterium. 105 Bac.subtilis. 105 Saccharomyces. 105

Group (pig manure) Experimental group before 15th day introduction 1.7±0.8 1.7±0.96 1.9±0.13 1.4±0.26 1.5±0.25 1.3±0.11 2.6±0.5 2.1±0.26 2.6±0.7 2.5±0.56 1.6±0.42 1.7±0.42 1.7±0.17 1.5±0.42

30th day

1st day

1.5±1.11 2.1±0.15 1.3±0.25 1.1±0.17 1.2±0.98* 1.2±0.18 1.5±0.21 2.5±0.8 1.4±0.11 2.4±0.08 1.6±0.25 1.9±0.98 2.6±0.37 1.7±0.37 Group (chicken droppings)

Experimental group before 15th 30th introduction day day 2.7±0.1 1.5±0.6 1.5±0.3 1.5±0.1 1.4±0.2 1.6±0.25 1.5±0.25 1.3±0.1 1.7±0.2 2.68±0.5 2.71±0.6 1.5±0.2 1.4±0.3 2.5±0.51 1.4±0.11 1.6±0.42 1.6±0.25 1.1±0.42 1.5±0.68 1.7±0.77 3.6±0.37 1.6±0.1 1.7±0.7 *Р<0.05

1st day 2.2±0.2 1.4±0.1 1.5±0.18 2.58±0.8 2.4±0.08 -

Control group 15th day

30th day

2.3±0.63 1.3±0.15 1.6±0.26 2.7±0.26 2.5±0.42 -

3.2±0.45 1.5±0.44 1.8±0.14 2.7±0.25 2.6±0.14 1.2±0.13 -

Control group 15th day

30th day

2.9±0.6 1.3±0.1 1.4±0.26 2.77±0.16 2.5±0.42 -

4.2±0.45 1.5±0.6 2.3±0.14 2.79±0.2 2.6±0.14 -

From Table 2 data, we noted that in the manure and droppings of the experimental group. in both experiments. a decrease in the number of micromycetes of mold fungi was observed. Aspergillus and Mucor. as well as the concentration of opportunistic microflora decreased.

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By the 15th day of the experiment. Ps.aeruginosa in pig manure decreased by 87.0%. in chicken droppings by 80.0%. The total content of micromycetes of the fungus of the genus Trichoderma in the litter material in both groups increased after a single application of Bacillus subtilis spore bacteria by an average of 30.0%. Bacillus subtilis probiotic culture - by 2 times. Saccharomyces yeast - by an average of 25.5%. The work of Bacillus subtilis bacteria for the processing of manure and droppings was based on the utilization of nitrogen-containing components from manure for the synthesis of own protein. which was accompanied by fermentation processes. As a result. we received a substrate enriched with nitrogenous matter and other hazard classes in a short time. This was due to the fact that nitrogen was not disposed of. but transferred from one of its forms to another. In the studies. poultry droppings from poultry farms and pig manure from the Agrofarm Ariant LLC in the Chelyabinsk region were used. in which its chemical composition was determined according to generally accepted methods (Table 1). Table 3: Chemical composition of chicken droppings. pig manure in natural humidity Indicator Dry matter. % N. % P.% Ca.% pH Fe. mg/kg Cu. mg/kg Zn. mg/kg Co. mg/kg

Chicken droppings 25.32±1.21 1.85±0.13 1.0±0.25 1.72±1.18 8.0±0.58 234.75±7.35 21.0±9.26 238.6±4.25 1.43±0.05

Pig manure 18.35±0.53 0.58±0.38 0.32±0.38 0.51±0.20 7.8±0.23 287.43±6.48 13.00±0.56 258.48±8.63 1.53±4.45

The level of dry matter in the studied droppings was 25.32%, in manure 18.35%; nitrogen in chicken droppings 1.85%, in pig manure 0.58%; calcium and phosphorus in droppings 1.72 and 1.0% respectively, in pig manure 0.51% and 0.32, respectively. According to our research. we see a high content of iron (234.75 and 287.43. respectively). zinc (238.6 and 258.48. respectively) in droppings and manure. To a lesser extent, copper (21.0 and 13.0), cobalt (1.43 and 1.53). These elements are in a water-soluble form, being released gradually during the mineralization of organic matter. Table 4: Composition of larvae grown on pig and chicken manure in natural humidity. % Indicator Dry matter. % Crude protein. % Crude ash. % Phosphorus. % Calcium. % Iron. mg/kg Copper. mg/kg Zinc. mg/kg Cobalt. mg/kg Manganese. mg/kg

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Percentage of matter. % Chicken droppings + Bacillus subtilis Pig manure + Bacillus subtilis 38.09±2.42 23.14±1.35 16.26±0.25 10.59±1.02 4.71±0.12 3.98±0.26 0.28±0.05 0.19±0.10 1.15±0.12 0.98±0.39 141.0±2.42 101.74±4.02 5.88±0.22 1.49±0.50 72.61±4.70 15.93±2.00 0.25±0.02 0.15±0.01 62.41±8.56 83.1±6.42

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The protein content in the larvae was at the level of 10.59-16.26%. On the substrate of chicken droppings with the addition of Bacillus subtilis in the biomass of larvae. the level of crude protein was 53% higher relative to the level in pig manure. The observed tendency of iron. copper. zinc increase in larvae obtained on a substrate from chicken droppings with the addition of Bacillus subtilis was several times higher than in larvae obtained on a substrate from pig manure with the addition of Bacillus subtilis. Duration of droppings and manure processing into bio humus is of great importance in the poultry and pig waste disposal technology. Table 5 clearly shows the data of bioconversion of substrates by Hermetia illucens larvae. Hermetia illucens larvae are an economic way of converting the litter nutrients into a fullvalue biological source of proteins. lipids. as well as obtaining biohumus. Comparing the two groups by the chemical composition of biohumus. from Table 5 we see that the content of dry matter. nitrogen. phosphorus. copper. and cobalt is higher in the first group. The calcium content is almost the same in the groups. The first group surpasses the second group in terms of the content of iron and manganese. The zinc content was higher in the second group and amounted to 124.8 mg/kg. Table 5 Chemical composition of zoohumus in natural humidity. % Indicator Group I II Dry matter. % 41.26±1.13 22.18±2.42 N. % 0.74±0.08 0.39±0.12 P.% 0.48±0.12 0.33±0.08 Ca.% 0.069±0.01 0.060±0.01 Fe. mg/kg 143.8±23.20 117.0±14.70 Cu. mg/kg 12.6±6.23 8.32±3.85 Zn. mg/kg 99.33±5.00 124.8±10.80 Co. mg/kg 0.94±0.80 0.75±1.01 In the studied samples. an increase in dry matter occurred in relation to the initial indicators. so the level of dry matter was 22.18-41.26% Nitrogen in biohumus is reduced and is in the range of 0.4-0.7%. A similar picture is noted for the content of macronutrients in zoohumus and is 0.060-0.069 mg/kg for calcium. 0.33-0.48 mg/kg for phosphorus. The level of iron and manganese in biohumus increases and amounts to 143.8-117.0 mg/kg. and the content of copper. cobalt and zinc decrease. When Bacillus subtilis is added to the substrate. the period of droppings and manure processing by larvae is reduced by 2 days and is 6 days. while the mass of processed manure decreases to 1.5 kg. and the larvae increase by 200 g. compared with the control group I. The conversion of a substrate with the addition of Bacillus subtilis reaches 68.5%.

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4 Conclusion In pig manure and chicken droppings. there was a gradual decrease in the amount of opportunistic microflora, more than half from the first day of research. Thus, the positive vector of correction of microbiocenosis in manure and droppings is directly related to a single application of Bacillus subtilis. due to the high antagonistic activity of microorganisms. Processing of droppings with the help of the Black soldier fly (Hermetia Illucens) larvae is environmentally friendly. since instead of methane. only a certain amount of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. Methane is an air pollutant that causes a global greenhouse effect [8]. We propose to use the results of the conducted research in agriculture when processing the poultry and pig waste products. as well as to use larval biomass in feeding animals and birds. A huge amount of nitrogen and phosphorus enter the environment and pose a great threat, as a rule, this is due to an imperfect system of disinfection. storage and disposal of manure and droppings, having a negative impact on the environment. Larvae efficiently process organic waste. such as pig manure and chicken droppings. accumulating various substances in their bodies. The percentage of which depends on what they have to process. Considering that currently, the ecological problem is in the first place. and agricultural enterprises, especially industrial farms and complexes. pollute the ecosystem as much as possible. It is expected that the results of our work will find their application in the agriculture of the Chelyabinsk region.

5 References [1] Bryukhanov. D.S., Matrosova Yu.V., Vlasova O.A. (2021). Increasing the degree of biological full value of the litter with the use of black soldier fly (Hermetia Illucens) larvae. BIO Web of Conferences: International Scientific and Practical Conference, (Tyumen. EDP Sciences), 05012. [2] Jucker C., Erba D., Leonardi M.G., Lupi D., Savoldelli S. (2017). Assessment of vegetable and fruit substrates as potential rearing media for Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae. Environ Entomol. 46, 1415– 1423. [3] Oonincx D.G., van Itterbeeck J., Heetkamp M.J., van den Brand H., van Loon J. J., van Huis A. (2010). An exploration on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species suitable for animal or human consumption. Plos One, 5(12), e14445. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014445. [4] Antonov A.M., Lutovinovas E., Ivanov G.A., Pastukhova N.O. (2017). Adaptation and prospects of breeding of the Black Lion fly (Hermetia illucens) in the circumpolar region. Principles of ecology, 3, 4-19. [5] Bochkarev A.K., Bryukhanov D.S., Ermolov S.M. (2018). The influence of temperature and humidity regime on the growth and development of larvae of Black soldier flies. Actual issues of biotechnology and veterinary medicine: theory and practice: mater. of national scientific conference Of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine. edited by M.F. Yudin, (Chelyabinsk: FSBEI HE South-Ural SAU) pp. 17-21. [6] Bochkareva M.A., Bochkarev A.K., Matrosova O.A. (2019). Obtaining eggs of the black soldier fly in the conditions of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding. Ideas of young scientists-agroindustrial complex: zootechny. veterinary medicine and technology of processing agricultural products [Text]: mater. of student scientific conference Of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine. edited by M.F. Yudin, pp. 3639.

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[7] Vlasova O.A., Bryukhanov D.S., Bochkarev A.K. (2018). The biological cycle of the Black soldier fly in the conditions of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine of the SUrSAU. Actual issues of biotechnology and veterinary medicine: theory and practice: mater. of national scientific conference of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine, edited by M.F. Yudin, pp. 35-40. [8] Vlasova O.A., Matrosova Yu.V. (2021). Processing of food waste by larvae of the black soldier fly in artificial conditions. Innovative technologies of environmental protection in the modern world: materials of the AllRussian Scientific Conference with international participation, (Kazan: KNITU Publishing House) pp. 18031809. [9] Pendyurin E.A., Rybina S.Yu., Smolenskaya L.M. (2020). The use of the Black soldier fly zoocompost as an organic fertilizer. Agrarian Science. Pp. 106-110. [10] Serebryansky D.N. (2015). Processing of food and agricultural waste by black soldier fly larvae. Obtaining feed protein. fertilizers and chitin. https://agrobook.ru/blog/user/sdn15/pererabotka-pishchevyh-iselskohozyaystvennyh-othodov-lichinkami-chernoy-lvinki [11] Ushakova N.A., Nekrasov R.V. (2015). Prospects for the use of insects in feeding farm animals. Biotechnology: the state and prospects of development. Materials of the VIII Moscow International Congress. CJSC "Expo-Biohim-technologies". RSTU n.a. D.I. Mendeleev, Moscow, Pp. 147-149. Dr.Bryukhanov Dmitry Sergeevich is an Associate Professor of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding of the FSBEI HE South Ural State Agrarian University. He graduated from the Ural State Academy of Veterinary Medicine. He hold a Ph.D. He is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences. His research interests are Biotechnology, Technology of Production and Processing of Agricultural Products.

Dr.Yulia V. Matrosova is an Associate Professor. Head of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding of the FSBEI HE South Ural State Agrarian University. She graduated from the Ural State Institute of Veterinary Medicine. Doctor of Agricultural Sciences. She hold a Ph.D. from the Kurgan State Agricultural Academy named after T.S. Maltsev. Her research interests include Poultry Feeding, Feed Additives, Digestibility of Nutrients in the Body, Daily Metabolism.

Vlasova Olga Anatolyevna is an Associate Professor of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry. She graduated with Honors from the Ural State Institute of Veterinary Medicine. She got a Ph.D. in Agricultural Sciences. She is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences. Her research interests are Animal Science. Biotechnology, Technology of Production and Processing of Agricultural Products.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Investigating Criminal Thinking Behavior and Interpersonal Reactivity among Adolescents: A View of Dark Personality Triad Amna Hassan1*, Mariam Arshad2, Nazia Iqbal3, Rukhsar Bibi2, Sana Tariq2, Abeera Naseem Khan2, Kaiynaat Kaneez2, Haleema Khawar1 Department of Psychology, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, PAKISTAN. Department of Applied Psychology, Riphah International University, Islamabad, PAKISTAN. 3 Department of Psychology, International Islamic University Islamabad, PAKISTAN. *Corresponding Author (Email: amna_wah@hotmail.com). 1 2

Paper ID: 13A1H Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

An individual’s personality consists of different traits some of them are innate and some are learned. This study was conducted at Riphah Received 03 August 2021 Received in revised form 19 International University, Islamabad, Pakistan, and comprised of 180 October 2021 participants including 103 females and 77 males, with age ranges from 18 to Accepted 29 October 2021 35 years from different cities of Pakistan. A cross-sectional research design Available online 09 was used and the sample was collected through a purposive sampling November 2021 technique. Short Dark Triad Scale, Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and Keywords: Criminal Thinking Scale were used to investigate the variables. Data were Interpersonal Reactivity analyzed using SPSS-21. Results indicate a significant positive correlation Index (IRI); Criminal thinking; Interpersonal between interpersonal reactivity and dark personality triad, a positive reactivity; Self-control; relationship between Dark personality triad and Criminal Thinking behavior. However, no significant gender difference is found in the perspective of these Machiavellianism; SD3 variables. This study will help future researchers to explore more about dark scale; Narcissism; Affective empathy; personality traits and their roles in the development of mental health issues Homicide, Psychopathy; among adults.

Domestic violence; Morality; Selfishness; Unemotional traits; Sex crimes; Cognitive empathy.

Cite This Article: Hassan, A., et al. (2022). Investigating Criminal Thinking Behavior and Interpersonal Reactivity among Adolescents: A View of Dark Personality Triad. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1H, 1-12. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.8

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1 Introduction The personality of an individual has always remained a point of discussion in the field of Psychology. It is comprised of various traits including good or socially accepted and bad including antisocial traits. Some of the traits are innate however many of them are learned from the environment. The purpose of the current study is to find out the interrelationship of criminal thinking, empathic attitude, and interpersonal reactivity. These traits contribute to making a positive society. Many criminal activities are committed just for the sake of gaining pleasure, satisfying their evil id, or taking revenge. As a result of domestic, spousal, interpersonal conflicts, a number of criminal activities are performed, most of the time planned and sometimes unplanned. In Pakistan, the prevalence of criminal activities has been increased since a few years ago. One of the responsible factors can be the personality traits that aid in enhancing the criminal mindset. If certain steps would not be taken to improve these traits then the criminal mindset will be strengthened. So the need is to work on the personality styles, traits, grooming, and nourishing positive or light personality traits instead of leaving negative or dark personality traits as they are. The dark triads are often used in business management, clinical psychology, and law. Individuals scoring high in these factors are likely to initiate social distress, destabilize the organizational peace within the business setting, and commit crimes (Shoemaker, 2018).

1.1 Dark Personality Triad The dark triad of personality is made-up of three negative traits Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and psychopathy. The present study focuses on the relationship between criminal thinking and empathy. Sympathy and empathy are two different traits. Sympathy is concerned with having feelings of sorrow for others but empathy is not just about understanding the suffering of others, but understanding it as if these were their own (Pajevic et al., 2018). The traits of dark triad personalities show that they have interpersonal dysfunction. These three dark traits are interlinked with each other and those who possess these traits have low empathy and high criminal thinking. The five-factor model of personality has significant relationships with each of the dark triad traits. The dark triad overall has a negative correlation with both agreeableness and conscientiousness. Machiavellianism deals with mistrustful versus trusting aspects of human nature which are also measured by the Trust sub-scale on the agreeableness trait. Extroversion deals with similar aspects of forcefulness, dominance, and self-regard as narcissism (Cherry, 2020). Narcissism is positively correlated with the achievement striving and competence aspects of Conscientiousness. Psychopathy has strongly related to lack of obedience and intentional aspects of Conscientiousness. The narcissism of the dark personality triad is more closely related to the lack of empathy in a person. Dark traits are strongly related to men and females show more empathic behavior (Jonason & Kroll, 2015).

1.2 Empathy and Interpersonal Reactivity Empathy refers to understanding the emotions and feelings of others. There are three distinct types of empathy that have been described; Cognitive empathy, emotional (affective)

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empathy, and somatic empathy. Empirical research conducted to find the association between the dark triad and two dimensions of empathy (cognitive and affective) showed that all personality traits comprising dark traits are inversely related to affective and cognitive empathy (Pajevic et al., 2018). Cognitive empathy is related to understanding another person’s perspective. Affective or emotional empathy refers to reacting to someone with an appropriate emotional response. The dark personality triad is related to the lower level of affective or emotional empathy and these traits show less impairment in cognitive empathy (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012). These results were measured through self-report and facial expressions. Dark personality triad traits can affect interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal circumplex is a model used to organize, conceptualize and assess interpersonal behavior, traits, and motives. This model shows that these dark traits lay at Quadrant 2 of the interpersonal circumplex reflect interpersonal exploitativeness (Jones & Paulhus, 2012). Interpersonal conflicts and dysfunction is marked as a significant feature of dark triad personalities (Dowgwillo & Pincus, 2015). Different studies had investigated a correlation between dark traits and marital instability. Dark traits of personality rated by the partner are more likely to affect marital stability and interpersonal rejection plays a mediating role in marital instability (He et al., 2018). Studies examine the lack of empathy in the dark triad personalities and measure both cognitive and affective empathy with the help of cognitive tasks. The dark traits are closely related to a lack of both cognitive and affective empathy. Primary psychopathy is the main indicator of such deficits in empathic concerns (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012).

1.3 Criminal Thinking Criminal thinking is defined as the content of one's thoughts and cognitive processes that lead to the instigation and maintenance of criminal behavior (Walters, 2006a). It is also empirically observed that a person’s thinking pattern and style always influence one’s behavior. Behavior can be predicted by evaluating an individual’s thought patterns. Likewise, criminal thinking patterns may predict the type of personality of an individual. Criminal personality theory by Eysenck (1997) suggests that three dimensions of personality traits i.e. extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism highly responsible for predicting an individual’s thinking styles. He argued that possessing the trait of psychoticism has the more tendency to instigate criminal thinking (Eysenck, 1994). Personality-type Psychology posits that deviant, psychopathic, anti-social, or sociopathic individuals possess a criminal personality and whenever they get the feasible environment they will implement their criminal thinking into behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2009). Dark Triad Personality has many traits such as aggression, impulsiveness, selfishness, and irresponsibility that could result in violent behavior and make an individual resort to committing crimes. The research that was done on Dark Triad Personality showed that it does possess a link with a crime or criminal thinking, to be more specific. Many individuals having dark triad personalities hinted at being delinquent and they especially displayed violent delinquency in their behavior (Wright, 2016). An individual who feels no empathy, who is narcissistic, manipulative, and

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antisocial will have no guilt feelings or remorse on hurting others to get what they want. Psychopathy indicates impulsiveness and lack of empathy and has been found in people who have been persistent with having criminal behavior.

1.4 Dark Personality Triad, Interpersonal Reactivity

Criminal

Thinking,

Empathy,

and

Machiavellianism is characterized by a foxy interpersonal style, a wish to use others for his/her own purpose, and a preference for emotionally detached relationships. Machiavellianism influences relationship satisfaction and the quality of interpersonal relationships. Females high in Machiavellianism trait express lower levels of relationship satisfaction (Brewer & Abell, 2017). Women with higher levels of Machiavellianism perceived their partners to be less dependable, reported a lack of trust in their partners, and were less willing to continue the relationship than those with low levels of Machiavellianism. This trait involves controlling behavior and emotional abuse (Brewer & Abell, 2017). A fundamental observation regarding the Dark Triad traits is that they are all associated with limited empathy. Empathy scores are related to narcissism in women which shows a low empathy score and empathy score is related to psychopathy in men who shows a low empathy score. Empathy scores mediate sex differences in having these dark traits (Jonason et al., 2013). The affective nature of psychopathy, predominantly lack of pitilessness and empathy, is related to abnormalities in information processing, whereas impulsivity and irresponsibility are correlated to low socioeconomic status and educational deficits (Pisano et al., 2017). Adolescents with high scores on the psychopathy scale tend to reflect more criminal thinking and delinquent behavior particularly, antisocial and aggressive behavior. Foster et al. (2018) claim that psychopathic individuals are sociable, open, and conscious of their surroundings, and, they violently attack the perceived threat. Leenarts et al. (2017) stated that psychopathic traits are found to be present in children and youth and are associated with delinquent behavior. Therefore, early screening of psychopathic traits is important for effective interventions (Barrett & Katsiyannis, 2017; Vogel & South, 2016). The positive relationship between criminal thinking and dark traits can also be due to some other shared characteristics such as selfishness, flat emotions, aggressiveness, etc.

1.5 The Rationale of the Study The purpose of the current study was to find out the connection between empathy or interpersonal reactivity, criminal thinking, and the dark personality triad. The study was conducted to discover the level of empathy, a person, with a high dark personality triad, shows towards others. This study will provide the researchers a platform to help those individuals having such traits but want to improve themselves. This study will help researchers to identify root causes of criminal thinking and interpersonal reactivity other than having dark personality traits. It will also help clinical psychologists to design such therapeutic interventions that particularly target these dark

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personality traits so that people with this issue would improve their personality styles and lessen the level of the dark triad.

2 Conceptual Framework This study indicates the relationship of the dark personality triad with criminal thinking and empathy and interpersonal reactivity among adolescents (conceptual framework Figure 1), based on hypotheses. 1. Individuals with dark personality traits show less empathy and interpersonal reactivity. 2. Criminal thinking is positively linked with dark personality traits. 3. Dark personality traits are more prevalent among males as compared to females. Criminal Thinking [Dependent Variable]

Dark Personality Triad [Independent Variable]

Empathy &Interpersonal Reactivity [Dependent Variable]

Figure 1: The effect of the Dark Personality Triad on the Criminal Thinking and Empathy & Interpersonal Reactivity

3 Conceptual Definition 3.1 Dark Personality Triad An individual with triad possesses an extreme level of these three antisocial personality traits; Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. This triad is characterized by a feeling of pride, exploitation of others, absence of morality, high self-interest, antisocial behavior, unemotional traits, and selfishness. These traits were operationalized through the SD3 scale (short dark triad scale).

3.2 Empathy and Interpersonal Reactivity Ability to understand others' feelings, problems, and pain. Placing oneself in other’s position. Emotional relationship with the people around an individual. How warmly and respectfully he/she try to understand them. Basically, interpersonal reactivity is the level of empathy in interpersonal relations. The empathy and interpersonal relation reactivity was operationalized through the IRI scale (Interpersonal Reactivity Index).

3.3 Criminal Thinking Any overt or covert law-breaking act in a given country or state, is a punishable activity. The two main broad categories are property crimes (e.g., fraud, theft) and violent crimes (e.g., domestic

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violence, robbery, homicide, and sex crimes). Criminal thinking was operationalized by using the Criminal thinking scale.

4 Research Design and Methodology A cross-sectional research design was used to conduct this study.

4.1 Sample The sample of the study was collected through a convenient sampling technique, comprised of (N=180; male=77, female=103), age ranged from 18 to 35 years from different cities of Pakistan.

4.2 Instruments The following instruments were used to collect the data.

4.2.1 Short Dark Personality Triad Scale (SD3-Short) The short dark personality triad was used to measure three dark traits machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy, developed by Paulhus and Jones in 2011. The total items of this scale are 27. A key feature of this SD3 is that it is neither too short nor too long. It is a Likert point rating scale from 1 to 5. Narcissism and psychopathy sub-scales have reversed scoring items as well. The triad (i.e., group of three) consists of Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism. Individuals with Machiavellianism traits are susceptible to being manipulative, callous and with strategic-calculating orientation, however, those having traits of psychopathy are used to being involved in deficits in effects and self-control. People with the trait of narcissism used to show grandiose behavior as well as a never-ending quest for ego-reinforcement.

4.2.2 Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) The interpersonal Reactivity Index was used to measure the individual’s interpersonal reactivity, developed by Mark (1980). IRI consists of 28 items and is divided into four sub-scales. These sub-scales are related to personality traits like fantasy (FS), empathic concerns (EC), Perspective Taking (PT), and personal distress (PD). The PD subscale is strongly associated with a specific "emotional" range of vulnerability, suspiciousness, and fearfulness.

4.2.3 Criminal Thinking Scale (CTS) This scale is a brief instrument developed by Knight et al in 2006, to assess cognitive functioning expected to be related to criminal conduct. It includes 36 items from 6 sub-scales. These scales are Entitlement (EN), Justification (JU), Power Orientation (PO), Cold Heartedness (CH), Criminal Rationalization (CN), and Personal Irresponsibility (PI). Respondents indicated to what degree they agreed with the statement using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Subscales of entitlement, justification, and power orientation include reverse-scored items.

4.2.4 Procedure The research consists of two parts. In the first part, the participants were selected through a convenient sampling technique. The selected sample was comprised of students from different

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colleges and universities of the locale. The consent regarding data collection was taken from the participants. It was allowed to leave research at any time in case of uncomfortable. In the second part, the questionnaires were distributed, a unique code was allotted to every participant. Participants were instructed by the researchers and they were asked to fill out the Reactivity Index Scale, Short Dark Triad scale, and Criminal thinking scale. Participants took 20-30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. All the ethical concerns like confidentiality, privacy, self-respect, and use of the research data were carefully discussed with the participants.

4.2.5 Data Analysis Tool The data was analyzed by using SPSS®21 to investigate the effects of the dark personality triad on criminal thinking, empathy, and interpersonal reactivity among adolescents.

5 Results To investigate the effects of the dark personality triad on criminal thinking behavior, empathy, and interpersonal reactivity, the quantitative data were analyzed through SPSS 21. Table 1 indicates the percentage and frequency of demographic variables depicted by a sample (N=180) of adolescents. Table 1: Frequency and percentage of demographic variables of the sample (N=180) Variable Gender Age

Family system Education level

Marital status

Financial status

Working status

Categories Male Female 18- 25 years 26- 30 years 30-35 years Joint Nuclear Matric Intermediate Graduate Postgraduate Married Single In a relationship I have enough money to buy things I need I have a hard time buying things I need Employed Unemployed

Freq. 77 103 143 30 7 69 111 3 61 80 36 15 145 19 126

% 42.8 57.2 79.4 16.7 3.9 38.3 61.7 1.7 33.9 44.4 20.0 8.3 80.6 10.6 70.0

30.0

37 143

20.6 79.4

Table 2: Descriptive statistics of Dark Personality Triad, Empathy and Interpersonal Reactivity and Criminal Thinking (N=180) Variables

Range Skewness Kurtosis Potential Actual SDT 88.85 13.50 .86 53-118 27-135 -.04 -.62 IRI 56.55 18.83 .85 8-99 0-112 -.35 -.31 CT 112.57 18.57 .84 71-164 36-180 .30 -.003 SDT= Short Dark Personality Triad; IRI= Interpersonal Reactivity Index; CT= Criminal Thinking; α = Cronback’s Alpha Reliability Coefficient

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Table 2 indicates the values of mean, standard deviation, alpha reliability of all three scales along with the values of skewness and kurtosis. Reliability analysis shows satisfactory results, as well as the values of skewness and kurtosis, are also within range i.e. ± 2. Table 3 indicates that Interpersonal Reactivity Index is significantly correlated with Machiavellianism (p<.01), Psychopathy subscale (p<.05) and with short dark triad as a whole (p<.01). This shows that individuals having dark personalities triad will have low interpersonal reactivity. Similarly, the criminal thinking scale is significantly correlated with Machiavellianism (p<.01), narcissism (p<.01), psychopathy subscale (p<.01), and with short dark triad scale as a whole (p<.01). This also indicates that people who possess dark triad personalities that are Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy; will have a high tendency towards criminal thinking behavior. Table 3: Relationship among Dark Personality Triad, Empathy and Interpersonal Reactivity and Criminal Thinking (N=180) Variables ECS IRI MS NS PS SDT CT

1 1 .821** -.094 .042 -.026 -.030 -.078

2 .821** 1 -.251** -.062 -.174* -.206** -.142

3 -.094 -.251** 1 .345** .366** .746** .410**

4 .042 -.062 .345** 1 .478* .778** .488**

5 -.026 -.174* .366** .478** 1 .794** .536**

6 -.030 -.206** .746** .778* .794** 1 .617**

7 -.078 -.142 .410** .488** .536** .617** 1

*p<.05, **p<.01. The t-test analysis in Table 4, shows no gender difference occurs among the interpersonal reactivity index, short dark triad scale, and criminal thinking. It depicts that the dark personality triad has an equal effect on both interpersonal reactivity and criminal thinking behavior irrespective of gender. Table 4: Gender differences in Interpersonal Reactivity, Dark Personality Triad and Criminal Thinking (N=180) Variables

Males (N=77)

Females (N= t(df) p 95% CI Cohen’s d 103) Mean SD Mean SD LL UL IRI 92.92 12.05 92.56 13.82 -.18(178) .85 -4.25 3.53 .02 SDT 89.10 13.76 88.66 13.36 -.21(178) .82 -4.48 3.58 .03 CT 114.39 16.69 111.20 19.83 -1.14(178) .25 -8.70 2.33 .17 *p<0.05 **p<0.01; Male = 108; Female = 92; CI = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit; df = degree of freedom.

Table 5: Dark Personality Triad as a predictor of Criminal Thinking among Adolescents (N=180) DV

Δ R2

S.E

(Constant) SDT

.38

36.93 .85

7.32 .08

.61

F 108.39***

95% CI LL UL 22.47 51.38 .69 1.01

***p<.000; S.E = Standard Error; β = Beta Table 5 shows the impact of the dark personality triad on criminal thinking. Findings indicate that the dark personality triad (p<.05, β =.61) was found to be significantly positively

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related to criminal thinking revealing that the individuals having dark traits like Machiavellianism, Narcissism, Psychopathy are more indulged in criminal thinking behavior. The model explains 38% variance in Criminal thinking. Table 6 shows the impact of the dark personality triad on empathy and interpersonal reactivity. Findings indicate that the dark personality triad (p>.05, β = -.21) was found to be nonsignificantly related with empathy and interpersonal reactivity revealing that individuals with the dark triad may not be low on interpersonal reactivity. The model explains the variance of 3.7% (Δ R2=.037). It also shows that R2= .04 and F=7.81. Table 6: Dark Personality Triad as a predictor of Interpersonal Reactivity Index among Adolescenents (N=180). DV

Δ R2

IRI

Constant SDT

.04

.037

82.10 -.29

Standard Error 9.19 .10

F 7.81

-.21

6 Discussion This study investigates the relationship of dark traits with empathy, interpersonal reactivity, and criminal activities. The research was conducted in different areas of Pakistan especially in Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Peshawar, and many other cities. In previous studies, the relationship between empathy and interpersonal reactivity and criminal activities and lack of empathy had been investigated but the relationship of dark triad traits, criminal vulnerability, and empathy have not been studied as single research. The first hypothesis of the study is that individuals with dark personality traits show less empathy and interpersonal reactivity this hypothesis is proved by this research. The correlational analysis of the dark triad scale score with the interpersonal reactivity index has shown that dark traits and lack of empathy or interpersonal reactivity are positively correlated. The values of correlation are r= 0.206, and p<.01. This study describes the role of dark traits in a lack of empathetic feelings. As individuals who scored high on the dark triad scale, have scored low on the interpersonal reactivity index. This hypothesis is supported by other researches as well. The research was conducted investigating a relationship of dark traits with slippage of empathy. That research had shown that the dark triad is more closely and positively related to affective empathy than cognitive empathy (Wai & Tiliopoulos, 2012). The second hypothesis of this research is that criminal thinking behaviors are positively linked with dark personality traits. This hypothesis is proved by this research. The correlational analysis of the dark triad scale’s score and criminal thinking scale have shown that dark traits and criminal thinking behaviors or patterns are directly related. They have a positive correlation with each other. The values of correlation according to this present research are r= 0.617, and p<0.01. This study explains the role of dark triad traits in increasing criminal thinking in individuals who score high on the dark triad scale. Individuals who score high on the dark triad scale may score high

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on the criminal thinking scale and vice versa. It is also estimated that the dark personality triad predicts criminal thinking behavior in adolescents through regression analysis. This hypothesis is also supported by other research findings. A study was conducted to investigate the relation of dark triad traits along with other variables namely crimes and low self-control. The analysis of this study had shown that dark triad traits are strongly related to criminal activities, especially related to violent crimes. These traits increase the vulnerability of individual who have dark traits and low self-control increase the effect of dark traits on criminal activities (Wright et al., 2017). The third hypothesis of this research is that dark personality traits are more prevalent among males as compared to females. This hypothesis was rejected by this study but previous studies support it. In this study, we did not find any significant gender difference in having these dark traits. This hypothesis is supported by previous research. A study was conducted to investigate the relationship of dark traits with HEXACO traits and find the gender differences. The results of this study show that psychopathy (one of the dark triad traits) is highly related to aggression in males where they try to control situations more than females (Dinić & Wertag, 2018). Another research was conducted to investigate a relationship between gender discrimination and dark triad traits. The results of the t-test indicate that males scored high on the dark triad scale than females. This study had highlighted that dark traits are the result of gender discrimination in society (Gluck et al., 2020).

7 Conclusion The findings of our study indicate that individuals having a dark personality triad will have low interpersonal reactivity. The dark personality triad significantly affects an individual’s personal life as well as interpersonal relationships. It is indicated through the results that individuals having dark triad will have low empathy and will attract more towards crimes and criminal thinking behavior, whenever they will get chance. It is also indicated that irrespective of gender, the dark personality triad has its effects on criminal thinking behavior and interpersonal reactivity. Data was heterogeneous which makes the findings stronger and more convenient. However, there are certain limitations too. One of the limitations of the research can be that the questionnaire was way too long and some of the participants were leaving it midway or randomly selecting the option without actually reading it. Another limitation is that the occurrence of heterogeneity suggests that confounds may have influenced the findings which makes it tough to interpret the results conclusively. The data was collected from some institutes, so it cannot be generalized worldwide.

8 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

9 References Ahmad, S. A. A. (2020) Delinquency as predicted by dark triad factors and demographic variables, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25:1, 661-675, DOI: 10.1080/02673843.2020.1711784

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Shoemaker, D. J. (2018). Theories of delinquency: An examination of explanations of delinquent behavior. (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press Vogel, M., & South, S. J. (2016). Spatial dimensions of the effect of neighborhood disadvantage on delinquency. Criminology, 54, 434-458. Wai, M., & Tiliopoulos, N. (2012). The affective and cognitive empathic nature of the dark triad of personality. Retrieved January 2021, from http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/wai2011.pdf Walters, G. D. (2006). Appraising, researching and conceptualizing criminal thinking: a personal view. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 16, 87-99. Wisse, B., Barelds, D. P. H., & Rietzschel, E. F. (2015). How innovative is your employee? The role of employee and supervisor Dark Triad personality traits in supervisor perceptions of employee innovative behavior. Personality and Individual Differences. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.020 Wright, J. P., Morgan, M. A., Almeida, P. R., Almosaed, N. F., Moghrabi, S. S., & Bashatah, F. S. (2017). Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 15(2), 191-215. Ms. Amna Hassan is a Lecturer at the Department of Psychology, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan. She is a PhD Scholar at International Islamic University Islamabad, Pakistan. Her pragmatic work includes Need Satisfaction, Psychological Capital, Media Burnout, Behavioural Problems, Depression.

Maryam Arshad is a student at the Department of Applied Psychology, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan. She got a Master’s degree in Applied Psychology from Riphah International University. Her research interests are Social and Clinical Psychology.

Dr. Nazia Iqbal is an Assistant Professor at International Islamic University. She completed her Post Doctoral Degree from Michigan State University. Her research interest includes Social, Family and Organizational Psychology.

Rukhsar Bibi is a student at the Department of Applied Psychology, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan. She got a Master’s degree in Applied Psychology from Riphah International University. Her research interests are Social and Clinical Psychology. Sana Tariq is a student at the Department of Applied Psychology, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan. She got a Master’s degree in Applied Psychology from Riphah International University. Her research interests are Social and Clinical Psychology.

Abeera Naseem Khan is a student at the Department of Applied Psychology, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan. She got a Master’s degree in Applied Psychology from Riphah International University. Her research interests are Social and Clinical Psychology.

Kinaat Kaneez is a student at the Department of Applied Psychology, Riphah International University, Islamabad, Pakistan. She got a Master’s degree in Applied Psychology from Riphah International University. Her research interests are Social and Clinical Psychology.

Ms Haleema Khawar is a Lecturer in the Department of Psychology, University of Wah, Wah Cantt, Pakistan. She got her Ms clinical psychology from the University of Management and Technology (Lahore). Her research interests are Clinical Psychology, Social Psychology, Perception, Cognition & Cognitive Neuroscience.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Analysis of the Activities of Religious Youth Organizations: the Civil-Patriotic Direction of Education Sergei I. Belentsov1*, Irina V. Ilyina1, Oksana Y. Brazhik1, Svetlana G. Sapronova1 Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education «Kursk State University», RUSSIAN FEDERATION. *Corresponding Author (Email: Belentsov @mail.ru). 1

Paper ID: 13A1I Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 12 August 2021 Received in revised form 24 October 2021 Accepted 29 October 2021 Available online 09 November 2021

Keywords:

Abstract

Civil and patriotic education of the younger generation in religious organizations was the leading activity of the German government at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Catholic and Protestant (Lutheran) branches of the German Church were an active social force, they were able to take into account the social situation in matters of maintaining law and order among young people. The purpose of the article is to describe the German religious adolescent organizations of the beginning of the XX century, their role, and their place in the civil and patriotic education of students. Systematic and historical-cultural approaches are used in the work. They demonstrate the essential characteristics of religious organizations in Germany during the period under review, their main types, and justify theoretical conclusions about the expediency of this work. The civil-patriotic education of teenagers in religious organizations was a purposeful work of the German government of Germany. Two main types of civil-patriotic education are presented. The first type was implemented in Catholic youth organizations. The second type is Protestant (Lutheran) youth organizations. Opposition to anti-government sentiments among the younger generation was the main task in the activities of religious organizations. This article is necessary for methodologists, educators, teachers to study the historical experience of the younger generation's participation in positive civic activities.

Germany education; The younger generation; Religious organizations; Civil and patriotic education; Germany; Catholic youth organization; Protestant (Lutheran) youth organization; New Germany; Union of Apprentices; Bible Circles; Union of German Youth Societies; Imperial Association of Protestant Youth Unions; Young brook; Disciplinary: Education, History of Education, Youth Studies (Upbringing of Cheerful brook.

Cite This Article: Arshad, M., et al. (2022). Analysis of the activities of religious youth organizations: the civil-patriotic direction of education. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1I, 1-12. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.9

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1 Introduction The problem of civil and patriotic education of the younger generation is being actualized in the period of instability of international relations, the involuntary growth of aggression, misunderstanding between state leaders and entire peoples. Directing the moods of the student youth in the direction of forming a love for the Motherland, loyalty, and respect for the authorities, giving the youth activity the character of peaceful work for the benefit of the Fatherland – these and other tasks are constantly facing the state, teachers, the parent community engaged in educational activities (Belentsov et al., 2017). In this regard, an appeal to the historical experience of civil and patriotic training of students in Germany at the beginning of the twentieth century will undoubtedly serve as a positive example of involving young people in creative work for the prosperity of their homeland. The religious associations of Germany at the beginning of the twentieth century had a certain set of moral principles that are part of its religious revelation. Catholic and Protestant children's organizations were a kind of repository of both their own history and the history of the country in which they existed. They carried out this function both by accumulating and generalizing religious information and by forming a system of worship, traditions, and rituals that also performed this function. This function is especially pronounced in Protestant organizations that relied on the national idea.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW The historiography of the article includes the pre-revolutionary period. The works of Dinze (1909), Pilenko (1906), Kuleshov (1916) refer to this time. The problem of civil-Patriotic education of students in Germany, during the study period, was described with ideological overtones (Vasilyev, 1921; Dianin, 1926; Miroszewski, 1924; Reinhard & Hoppe, 1928) in the Soviet historiography. The works on German youth organizations by Levitin (1916), Schiller (1918), Shlyunts (1917), Munzerberg, Schiller (1924) acquire considerable value.

3 Method The systematic, historical, and cultural approaches that allowed to identify the essential characteristics, patterns, and principles of civil and patriotic training of schoolchildren in Germany at the beginning of the ХХ century, its main types, as well as the justification of the theoretical conclusion about the expediency of this work, formed the methodological basis of the study. The principles of systematic historicism, which helped the authors to analyze the activities of military youth organizations in Germany at the beginning of the ХХ century, are the basis of the work (Vasiliev, 1921). Problem-chronological and comparative methods used for classifications, comparisons, characteristics of various youth associations in Germany of the studied period played a special role.

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The identification of cause-and-effect relationships, the unity of theory and practice within the framework of modern approaches to the study of historical and pedagogical phenomena was carried out (Dianin, 1926). The descriptive method of religious youth organizations of German youth in the early ХХ century, a retrospective analysis of the pedagogical experience of working with the younger generation is used in the work. The rejection of the ideological component of historical materials published after the revolution of 1917 allows us to revise the results of researchers on this problem. The originality of the work consists of an attempt to characterize the issues of civil and patriotic training of young people in Germany at the beginning of the twentieth century from the position of objectivity (Kuleshov, 1916). The approach implemented by us reflects the unity of the main directions of the principle of historicism in historical and pedagogical science.

4 Results and Discussion 4.1 Back to the History Question The origin of religious organizations of teenagers took place in Italy in the XVI century. The Jesuit Leunis founded the first youth organization «Marianishe Sodalitat» in Naples. Its motto is progress in science and piety («Progressus in Pietate et studies») (Pilenko, 1906). The first circles of young people in Germany were founded in Cologne (1578), Emmerich (1611), Trier (1617) – for students from vocational schools; in Cologne (1635) – for young soldiers; in Aachen – for young needleworkers, Munich (1644) and Augsburg (1649) – for teenagers who studied handicraft skills. In the XVII and early XVIII centuries, a large number of circles existed, especially in Bavaria, Westphalia, and the Rhineland. The Catholic clergy, with their inherent farsightedness, turned their attention, first of all, to the unprotected segments of the population and those teenagers who were easily involved in antigovernment activities. The youth of the lower socio-economic strata quite easily united on religious grounds, without adapting to their economic needs and without putting forward any social programs. In the second half of the XVIII century, the weakening of the activities of religious organizations occurs. By the beginning of the XIX century, they completely cease to operate. Researcher V. Miroshevsky finds two explanations for this. Firstly, the social atmosphere of that time was saturated with rationalistic and atheistic ideas. The «militant syllogism» was a tool in the hands of the bourgeois leaders. He actively crushed Catholic dogmatics, undermined church authority, and magically turned its bearers into pathetic, almost comic figures (Miroshevsky, 1923).

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Secondly, the Catholic representatives themselves have not yet had time to adapt to the new demands of the younger generation, they have not "spoken" with the youth in a clear and consonant language (Miroshevsky, 1923). Therefore, young people were reluctant to join religious organizations. Teenagers considered them insufficiently modern and relevant.

4.2 Catholic Youth Organizations Figure 1 and Table 1 show various German Catholic youth organizations in the late XIX-early XX centuries. Table 1: Catholic Youth organizations in the late XIX-early XX centuries. №

Name of the organization

Purpose of the activity

The Union of Apprentices

2. 3.

Association of Catholic Youth Societies Cheerful brook

Young brook

New Germany

Great German youth

Educational work among artisan youth, taking into account Catholic traditions Religious and moral education Preventing illegal behavior of the younger generation Preventing illegal behavior of the younger generation too Desire to protect the participants from being carried away by various radical theories and education them in the traditions of respect for the church, family, and state authority Extremely conservative positions in the issues of youth education

Number of participants 500

363 700 350 250

300

4.2.1 The Union of Apprentices In 1849, the Catholic priest Adolf Kolping founded the "Union of Apprentices". This organization has set itself the primary task of conducting educational work among artisan youth, taking into account Catholic traditions. It also provided for a large social and economic program. What did Kolping and his followers strive for? The Catholic priest K. Monsters wrote about A. Kolping: «He hoped… to save the craft, and with it the great social significance of philistinism from the growing industry. He was a typical petty-bourgeois, reactionary utopian» (Mosters, 1918). The entire social program of A. Kolping was built in the style of petty-bourgeois utopianism. He enlightened the teenager in the same way, in the style of petty-bourgeois utopianism. The Apprentices ' Union included an increasing number of participants over time. His program had two main directions: 1) religious and moral education of its participants; 2) the formation of the independence of apprentices in the craft through continuous professional training. Vocational training was organized for apprentices for these purposes additionally.

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The «Union of Apprentices», like all Catholic organizations, was strictly centralized. The authority and rights of the leaders were limitless. The members of the Union had to obey them unconditionally. By 1919, the number of members of the Union reached 500 people. Miroshevsky (1923) clearly considers the Union of Apprentices as a Catholic counterweight against the radical actions of students. A. Kolping brought a «fresh stream» to the system of religious education of students. He used new methods of working with her. The Catholic Church has taken this experience into account. The previous ignoring of the social interests of the students became unthinkable after the Coping. A new flourishing of religious associations of young people came in the late 80-s and early 90-s of the XIX century. It occurred based on conscious adaptation to new conditions. The task of enhanced vocational training and social education of young people has joined the already existing religious and educational tasks. The number of Catholic youth societies and their number were growing rapidly. The merger of individual companies took place in 1895. The Central Committee of the Presidium of Catholic Youth Societies was established (Dinze, 1909).

4.2.2 Association of Catholic Youth Societies The Association of Catholic Youth Societies was established in 1896 at the congress of leaders of youth associations held in Mainz. About 40 separate religious associations already existed at the time of the congress in Mainz. Already 120 societies were established in 1908 with a total of 140 people. By 1916, 382 societies had been formed with a total of 362 participants. In 1921, 383 religious circles were part of the Association with 363 members. The composition of participants in religious associations of teenagers was semi-proletarian and petty-bourgeois. Young artisans, office students, messengers, and, to a lesser extent, young industrial workers were part of youth associations. Catholic youth societies were strictly centralized. The management of Catholic associations was in the hands of priests. Every Catholic priest was obliged to take part in the activities of the youth society of a separate parish according to the resolutions of the highest church bodies. He was supposed to serve in this parish. The organizational work was carried out very efficiently and was carried out in accordance with a clearly developed program. Religious and moral education was, of course, in the foreground. Catholic youth societies actively cultivated educational forms of work, including excursions, sports events, holidays. Almost all societies had sports and football grounds. Various sections and theatrical and musical-vocal circles existed in religious associations. The religious association of young people had book publishing houses, bookstores, libraries, and a special cinema factory. Sometimes special conversations were held on social topics. The leaders of the circles took care of

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their wards in every possible way. They conducted active preventive work, sought to warn against radical moods, socialist hobbies, and to educate in the spirit of Christian humility. Work on the establishment of shelters for children, charity collections were also actively carried out. Thus, the counterbalance to the socialist hobbies and the communist movement of youth was the main goal of the activities of religious associations of young people.

4.2.3 Cheerful Brook The organization «Cheerful Brook» originated in Germany in 1913, similar to the German children's and youth organization «Migratory Bird». She borrowed many forms of work from it. It also saturated its activities with religious and Catholic content. The «Cheerful Brook» was aimed at preventing illegal behavior of the younger generation as well. Bernhard Streiler and Hermann Hoffman were the organizers of this youth association. The basic rules of behavior in this association are complete abstinence from alcoholic beverages, simplicity in food and clothing, conducting various excursions, and more. The actual leadership of the association is in the hands of the priests. Meanwhile, the participants of this organization had certain independence. Hans Kush, one of the leaders of this organization, wrote in his article: «Our goal is to unite in a Cheerful stream of youth amateur activity and the necessary solidarity» (Kush, 1923). The resolution of the second congress of this organization characterizes its attitude to authorities. «Authority is something that comes from God and represents him… We defend the authority of the family, the school, and the state as something sacred. First of all, we feel our responsibilities towards our parents and relatives. Secondly, these responsibilities extend to the Cheerful Brook (Engelhardt, 1920). In 1923, Cheerful Brook covered 45 local groups with 700 participants.

The financial

situation of the organization was quite good thanks to serious sponsors. The well-equipped Rothenfels Castle was at the disposal of the union. Meetings of the association, various holidays were held there.

4.2.4 Young Brook The youth organization of the Young Brook does not differ in anything on ideological issues from the Cheerful Brook. It was created for non-studying young people. The union united 13 men's and 15 women's groups with 350 members aged from 14 to 25 years. Priest Shik was the head of this youth association.

4.2.5 New Germany In July 1919, after the revolution, the union «New Germany» was created by the Archbishop of Cologne Felix F.-Hartmann. The participants of this association were not supposed to abstain from drinking alcoholic beverages. This distinguished him from the organization «Cheerful Stream».

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Quantitative growth was observed in the activities of this youth association. In 1919, the union had 100 members. In August 1920, there were already 180 participants. In August 1921, the union had 250 members. In 1923, 250 people were also part of the New Germany Union. Thus, «New Germany» was the largest Catholic youth organization in the period under study. The organizational structure of the union was imbued with extreme centralism. All decisions came from the priests. The members of the «New Germany» played no role in the management of the union. The main activity of this association was to conduct various conversations, excursions, sports events, and many charity events. The inner meaning of the union's activities was the desire to protect the participants from being carried away by various radical theories and to educate them in the traditions of respect for the church, family, and state authority.

4.2.6 Great German Youth The flexibility and elasticity of the behavior of the Catholic Church were revealed with the greatest clarity in the activities of another youth organization, the Great German Youth. This union appeared in 1915. It brought together mainly young students. The external forms of self-activity of the members of the organization were preserved in this union, in contrast to the «New Germany» with its extreme centralism and even from the «Cheerful Stream» with moderate centralism. Meanwhile, V. Miroshevsky testified to the lack of real self-government in the activities of the union «Great German Youth» (Miroshevsky, 1923). The Union held extremely conservative positions. Researchers even note some similarities with the fascist organizations that were created in this and further period.

The Union of Apprentices

Association of Catholic Youth Societies

Cheerful brook

Young brook

Catholic Youth organizations

New Germany

Great German youth

Figure 1: Catholic Youth organizations in the late XIX-early XX centuries.

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4.3 The History of the Creation of Protestant Youth Organizations Protestant youth organizations differed little from Catholic associations in the period under study. They were also a means against the radical movement of students and non-students. The first Protestant youth society was founded in 1805 in Stuttgart. Several more organizations were created later. All of them were few and did not have a clear and developed program of activities. All their activities were imbued with religious content. Teenagers performed prayers, they sang psalms in chorus. They also attended services together. The eventful 40-s of the ХIХ century brought new trends among Protestant youth. First of all, young people adapt to new socio-economic conditions. Quite large associations of artisan Protestant youth are emerging in the northern and northwestern parts of Germany. These areas were the stronghold of Protestantism in Germany. What is the purpose of these associations? One of the appeals to artisan youth answered this question: «We strive to prevent radical behavior of artisan youth. We want to distract them from the paths that are dangerous for morality and to keep them in the bosom of chastity, honesty, and good Christian morals» (Pilenko, 1906). The organizer of the so-called Rhenish-Westphalian association of Protestant youth societies, Pastor Durzelin, wrote in one of his articles back in 1848. «We hate Christianity. We must become personal enemies of God. Thousands of teenagers are thus involved in the abyss of unbelief, fornication, and immorality. We asked ourselves. What can we oppose to this phenomenon? We decided to create a youth union on a Christian basis» (Pilenko, 1906). The purpose of this statement was quite clear. The special task of Protestant associations was revealed in it. It was a counteraction to the influence of proletarian organizations on young workers.

4.4 Protestant Youth Organizations Figure 2 shows protestant youth organizations in the late XIX-early XX centuries.

Imperial Association of Protestant Youth Unions

Union of Protestant Societies of Young Girls

Protestant youth organizations

Bible Circles

Union of German Youth Societies

Figure 2: Protestant youth organizations in the late XIX-early XX centuries.

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4.4.1 Imperial Association of Protestant Youth Unions The first large organization of Protestant youth arose in 1882 under the name «Imperial Association of Protestant Youth Unions». This organization had about 150 members. They were mostly young working people. The Union had a powerful organizational apparatus. He produced quite serious periodicals. The Central Committee was the governing body of the union. All the governing bodies of this association are appointed. The All-German Association Conference was convened once every 3 years. The activity of the association consisted of the implementation of spiritual and moral education, charity events, various excursions, sports festivals, musical evenings.

4.4.2 Union of Protestant Societies of Young Girls The Union of Protestant Societies of Young Girls arose in 1893. He was closely associated with the Imperial Association of Protestant Youth Unions. The Union worked the same way as the Imperial Union.

4.4.3 Bible Circles Protestant students were organized into so-called Bible circles. The first circle was created in 1883 in Elberfeld, consisting of two high school students and one student. Bible circles joined the Imperial Association of Protestant Youth Unions. They retained internal self-government at the same time. «Youth Power» and «New Youth» were the printing bodies of Bible circles. Bible circles worked in 20 points of the country and numbered 80 people. In 1921 it had 180 members in 40 points. Pastor F. Killinger and engineer V. Reinaker were the leaders of Bible circles.

4.4.4 Union of German Youth Societies The desire to oppose the radical youth movement with saving religious and ethical ideas permeated all the activities of Protestant organizations. These ideas manifested themselves to the greatest extent in the Union of German Youth Societies. A brief history of this Union is as follows. In 1906, social-democratic propaganda among young people intensified. At the beginning of 1906, the article was published in the newspaper Evangelish Sozial (organ of Christian Socialists). «The working youth of the Protestant faith should not be given over to the organizers of injustice, discontent, and envy. We must preserve the working youth of their youthful happiness» (Enge, 1916). Such words were written in this article. The Protestant youth unions that existed were not able to meet the demands of student and working youth. The outdated programs of these unions corresponded to the already obsolete social conditions. They did not meet the conditions of modernity.

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This article was the impetus for the creation of the circle of «Friends of youth Labor». The circle set itself the task of working out the problem of youth labor and advocating the reorganization of the basic principles of Protestant youth guardianship. Prominent Protestant social reformists Clemens Schultz, Walter Klassen, Paul Reze joined the circle. On October 7, 1908, the meeting of the circle was held in Eisenach. The activity program was adopted. It demanded the strengthening of the purely social side in the activities of Protestant youth organizations. The tasks of Protestantism were formulated at this meeting in Eisenach: 1. Public interest should have been developed to the problems and tasks of youth labor. 2. The economic side of the issue of youth should be studied. 3. Reforms in the field of youth labor should be carried out. 4. Protection of youth labor should be provided. The new trends were, as it were, a response to the strengthening of social-democratic propaganda among working youth. The Eisenach program was a program to counterbalance the socialist reorganization of youth labor. Protestantism made concessions to the «spirit of the times» and adapted to new conditions. The program in Eisenach reflected the spirit of the era. It predetermined the spirit of evangelical socialism. The Eisenach program caused a sharp discussion. It led to the creation of a new organization, the Union of German Youth Societies. The Eisenach program was the basis for the activities of this union. One of the leaders of the Union of German Youth Societies wrote. The differences between the Union of German Youth Societies and the old Protestant organizations are as follows: 1. The Union of German Youth Societies conducts its work in the spirit of developing Christianity among young people, based on the experience they have gained. 2. The Union includes all kinds of spiritual and physical activities in its program. They contribute to the improvement of the inner life of a young man. 3. The Union conducts its work without any influence from the church or political parties. 4. The Union recognizes the need for social protection of minors (Siemering, 1906). According to researchers, the independence of the union from church influence has been greatly exaggerated. The Union was highly centralized. The amateur activity of the participants was minimal. The older comrades were in charge of everything.

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The Union of German Youth Societies had 322 members in July 1909. There were 542 participants in 1910. 742 members in 1911. The organizers decided to work among girls in 1912. There were 22 men's associations and 8 women's associations in 1916. The union had 150 members in 1919. The new Charter was adopted at the congress in Magdeburg on 28-30 September 1919. He somewhat softened the rigid centralism that had previously prevailed in the union. These changes were explained by the significant strengthening of communists and socialists in the working environment. Pastor G. Donndorf, V. Steilen, Countess von der Schulenburg were the leaders of the Union of German Youth Societies.

5 Discussion The comprehension of the socio-pedagogical, cultural, and historical material leads us to the conclusion about the purposeful, systematic, multifaceted, and competently coordinated activities of the German government and the religious community to form the civic-patriotic consciousness of the students, a sublime sense of love for the Fatherland, readiness to fulfill a civic duty. The formation of citizenship, patriotism as the main social and spiritual, and moral values, the development of skills and readiness for their active implementation in the religious sphere of society, discipline, and responsibility was the goal of religious education of the younger generation. Two main types of civic-patriotic education in religious associations stood out. The first type was implemented in religious Catholic associations. All Catholic organizations carried out their activities on the principle of guardianship of the younger generation. They were created to combat radical sentiments among young people and to counterbalance the existing radical youth movement. These unions had a significant number of participants and had a strong, solid core. The second approach was carried out in Protestant religious youth associations. The organizers of Protestant education considered it necessary to form a patriot of Germany with his inherent values, views, orientations, motives of activity, and behavior. They counted on the successful solution of the tasks of protecting the Fatherland. They brought up readiness for military, civil, and other types of service for the benefit of the Motherland.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 Acknowledgement Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

8 References Belentsov, S.I., Fahrutdinova, A.V., Okulich-Kazarin, V. (2017). Education of civic consciousness in George Kershenshteyner''s creativity. European Journal of Contemporary Education, 6(1), 4-13. Vasiliev. (1921). The history of the international youth movement.

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Dianin. (1926). Revolutionary youth in St. Petersburg. Dinze. (1909). Essays on the History movement. Enge. (1916). Die deutsche Jugendbewegung. Berlin. Engelhardt V. (1918). Die deutsche Jugenbewegung. Herlle T. (1922). Die deutsche Jugenbewegung. Pylenko. (1906). Strikes in the middle of St. Petersburg schools. Kuleshov. (1916). From the history of the movement among secondary school students. (from 90th October 1917). Kush. (1923). The history of the youth movement in the West. Levitin. (1916). The militarization of youth in Germany and other European countries. Miroshevsky. (1924). Bourgeois youth organizations in Germany. Mosters. (1918). The history of the proletarian youth movement in Germany. Siemering. (1918). Die deutshen Jugendpflegeverbande. Shlyunts. (1917). Die deutseben Jugendpflegever. Berlin. Schiller. (1918). Young workers of the West after the war. Professor Dr. Sergei I. Belentsov is Professor and Deputy Director of the Institute of Continuing Education, Kursk State University, RUSSIAN FEDERATION. He holds a Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences degree. His research interests are related to the Interdisciplinary Study of problems of Pedagogy and History.

Professor Dr. Irina V. Ilyina is Professor and Director of the Institute of Continuing Education, Kursk State University, Russia. She holds a Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences degree. Her research interests are related to the Interdisciplinary Study of Problems of Pedagogy.

Brazhik Oksana Yurievna is an Associate Professor of the Department of Pedagogy and Professional Education, Kursk State University, Russia. She is a Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences. Her research interests are related to the Interdisciplinary Study of Problems of Pedagogy.

Sapronova Svetlana Grigorievna is an Associate Professor of the Department of Biology and Ecology, Kursk State University, Russia. She is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences. Her research interests are related to the Interdisciplinary Study of Problems of Pedagogy and Ecology.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

A Hybrid New Gravitational Coefficient Function of Gravitational Search Algorithm with Mutation for Search Performance Pattrawet Tharawetcharak1* , Aumnad Phdungsilp1, Suparatchai Vorarat1 Graduate Program in Engineering Management, College of Innovative Technology and Engineering, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok, THAILAND. *Corresponding Author (Email: 637191120002@dpu.ac.th).

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1J Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 09 August 2021 Received in revised form 24 October 2021 Accepted 05 November 2021 Available online 15 November 2021

Keywords: Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA); Mutation; Search Performance; Benchmark Function.

This paper proposes a hybrid New Gravitational Coefficient Function of Gravitational Search Algorithm with Mutation (NGCFGSAM). Since most of the hybrid algorithms have been concerned with the search performance of the solution. This study investigates the features that influence the algorithm on global search performance. The novel hybrid algorithm is compared to previous functions in the literature based on six benchmark functions, including both unimodal landscape functions and multimodal landscape functions. The experimental results are shown that the proposed NGCFGSAM outperforms the conventional benchmark functions. The proposed hybrid algorithm worked well on multimodal landscape functions. Better solutions compensate for the slower convergence rate by balancing the exploration and exploitation phases. For future work, studies on the investigation and rigorously prove the parameter turning for convergence rate. More benchmark functions and more algorithm comparison tests should be investigated. Disciplinary: Optimization, Engineering Management. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Tharawetcharak, P., Phdungsilp, A., and Vorarat, S. (2022). A Hybrid New Gravitational Coefficient Function of Gravitational Search Algorithm with Mutation for Search Performance. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1J, 1-12. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.10

1 Introduction The Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA) is a popular metaheuristic in evolutionary algorithms (Rashedi et al., 2009). The algorithm’s concept is based on the Newtonian law of motion, which is “every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the

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distance between them” (Rashedi et al., 2007). The search solution of GSA is stated from the population. Each solution is represented as an agent that has mass, position, and velocity. The gravitational force of each agent is calculated according to Newton’s universal law of velocity. The gravitational constant of each agent is calculated according to Newton’s law motion with attracted by the gravitational force (Yin et al., 2018). In the literature, there are a number of studies related to succeeding GSA in many applications such as robot path planning (Das et al., 2016), energy and renewable energy management (Saravanan and Srinivasan, 2016; Packiasudha et al., 2017), logistics management (Hosseinabadi et al., 2016), transportation problem (Sosa and Dhodiya, 2020), economic load dispatch problem (Santra et al., 2021), and data analysis (Dowlatshahi and Nezamabadi-pour, 2014). However, these studies have not been able to search for complex optimization problems. Furthermore, GSA has been improved to cope with specific problems and for better search performances in unimodal landscape functions. Researchers have improved so-called the New Gravitational Coefficient Function of GSA (NGCFGSA) for enhancing gravitational search algorithm’s efficiency and convergence rate performance (Tharawetcharak et al., 2019) and the GSA based on chaotic local search to promote the algorithm’s local search ability (Guo et al., 2021). There is also a study on hybrid algorithms by artificial grasshopper optimization and metaheuristic algorithm for improving the exploitation and exploration search to solve discover global optimum in given search space (Dahiya et al., 2019). To solve the problem of green-based partner selection, Xiao et al. (2016) combined the GSA and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) to improve the problem-solving performance. The improved method is classified as a hybridization technique because it employs a co-evolutionary technique of PSO to GSA known as I-GSA/PSO. Computational experiments revealed that I-GSA/PSO produced better solutions than other competitors, particularly on conventional GSA and PSO. Nonetheless, these studies did not discuss the advantages of their improved methods over traditional GSA. Yin et al. (2018) proposed the GSA with crossover operation. The proposed method developed the performance of the crossover technique to explore the global optimization method and to promote the algorithm’s performance. Experimentally, the algorithm outperformed other optimization approaches in various tests and is appropriate for dealing with complex optimization problems. Based on the above literature, this study focuses on improving the search performance of algorithms for unimodal and multimodal landscape functions. Even there are a number of fancy GSA variants. This paper investigates the impact and performance of a hybrid GSA with a GA by a specific selected mutation method of GA. Thus, this study proposes a hybrid New Gravitational Coefficient Function of Gravitational Search Algorithm with Mutation (NGCFGSAM) for search performance. The contribution of this paper is the development of a novel hybrid algorithm for search performance. This paper is organized as follows: Section II describes the conventional GSA and GA. The paper has described the idea of this novel hybrid algorithm in Section III. Section IV presents parameter fine-tuning and illustrates the performance of the proposed novel hybrid

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algorithm by computational experiment. The results are compared and discussed in Section V. Finally, the conclusion is described in Section VI.

2 Literature Review This section describes the principle of GSA and GA. GSA is a population-based stochastic search, and the swarm algorithm (Rashedi et al., 2009). The method is based on Newton's laws of motion. As mentioned earlier that Newton's law states that every particle (mass) attracts another particle via gravitational force. Technically, each particle in GSA has four characteristics, including particle position, inertial mass, active gravitational mass, and passive gravitational mass. The position of a particle provides the solution to a problem, whereas the fitness function calculates the gravitational and inertial masses (Kumar and Sahoo, 2014). Based on the GSA literature such as Rashedi et al. (2009), the conventional gravitational coefficient function (𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡)) is a decreasing

function as shown in Eq. (1),

𝑡𝑡

𝛽𝛽

𝐺𝐺 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐺𝐺 (𝑡𝑡0 ) × � 0� , 𝛽𝛽 < 1 𝑡𝑡

(1),

where 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡0 ) is the gravitational constant value at the first cosmic quantum-interval of time 𝑡𝑡0 . 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡) is the gravitational constant value at time 𝑡𝑡 (Mansouri et al., 1999). The equation is an increasing function of 𝑡𝑡 and depends on the value of 𝛽𝛽. Figure 1 shows the values of 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡) when 𝑡𝑡 is varied for

the conventional gravitational coefficient function, which observes the convergence behavior of the optimal fast value. However, the conventional one tends to be premature. It could not do the exploitation phase considerably.

Figure 1: 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡) value of the conventional function.

Thereafter, researchers have developed the New Gravitational Coefficient Function of GSA (NGCFGSA) as shown in Eq. (2) and Figure 2. The NGCFGSA can search global optimization for unimodal landscape function, which deploys an exponential function based on the conventional gravitational coefficient function (Tharawetcharak et al., 2019). According to Figure 2, the advantages of convergence behavior for one could exploit the search satisfactorily. Thus, 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡0 ) of

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the NGCFGSA could conduct the fine search and yield a better solution continuously. Therefore, this paper is interested in hybrid NGCFGSA with mutation method in GA to search global optimization for multimodal landscape function. 𝑡𝑡 𝛽𝛽

𝐺𝐺 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡0 )𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒(𝑇𝑇)

(2),

where 𝑡𝑡 is the current iteration number, 𝑇𝑇 is the maximum iteration number, and 𝛽𝛽 is the constant

value number.

Figure 2: 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡) value of NGCFGSA. GA is an optimization algorithm influenced by natural selection. It is a population-based search method that employs the survival of the fittest idea (Michalewicz, 1992). The new populations are created by iteratively applying genetic operators to individuals already present in the population. The chromosome representation of GA includes chromosomal representation, selection, crossover, mutation, and fitness function computation (Michalewicz and Schoenauer, 1996). The first step of GA in the implementation is to compute an initial population. The algorithm is a family of search methods inspired by evolution (Whitley, 1994). It encodes a likely solution to a problem on easy chromosomes data, and crossover and mutation operators to these algorithms to conserve information (Premalatha and Natarajan, 2009). Technically, each population in GA has four methods for the operator during the search process, including encoding, selection, crossover, and mutation (Katoch et al., 2021). The most prevalent encoding method of GA is the binary encoding technique. Each gene or chromosome is represented by a 1 or 0 string. Each bit in binary encoding conveys the solution's properties. It allows for more rapid implementation of crossover and mutation operators. However, converting to binary needs more effort and the correctness of the process is dependent on the binary conversion. The bitstream is modified in response to the issue. Because of epistasis and natural representation, the binary encoding technique is inappropriate for several engineering design challenges (Katoch et al., 2021).

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The selection method of GA is a crucial phase in GA. The selection determines whether or not a certain string will participate in the reproduction process. The reproduction operator is another name for the selection process. The pace of convergence of GA is determined by the selection pressure, such as Roulette wheel selection, Rank selection, Tournament selection, Boltzmann selection, and Stochastic Universal Sampling, which are some well-known selection approaches (Jebari and Madiafi, 2013; Katoch et al., 2021). The crossover method is an operator that combines the genetic information of two or more parents to produce offspring. The most well-known crossover methods are single-point, two-point, k-point, uniform, partially matched, order, precedence preserving crossover, shuffle, reduced surrogate, and cycle (Fox and McMahon, 1991; Katoch et al., 2021). The next important step, the mutation method is an operator that preserves genetic variability from one population to the next. The most well-known mutation methods are displacement, simple inversion, and scramble mutation. The displacement mutation method displaces a substring of a given individual solution within itself. The position for displacement is picked at random from the specified substring so that the final solution is legitimate as well as a random displacement mutation. There are two types of displacement mutation variants: exchange mutation and insertion mutation. In the exchange mutation and insertion mutation operators, a portion of an individual solution is either swapped with another portion or inserted in a different spot (Jebari and Madiafi, 2013; Katoch et al., 2021). The mutation method is an inversion operator that also reverses a randomly chosen string and places it in a randomly chosen location, which is an interesting method.

3 The Proposed Hybrid Algorithm This paper is interested in the efficiency of the new gravitational coefficient (𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡)), as shown in Eq. (2). According to the previous studies, various researchers have introduced the concept of the NGCFGSA that varied over time and demonstrated its performance through computational experiments (Tharawetcharak et al., 2019). This paper contributes to the literature by integrating the advantages of NGCFGSA with the advantages of GA in the mutation method. The literature review found that the NGCFGSA as shown in Equation (2) can search global optimization for unimodal function, which deploys an exponential function based on the conventional gravitational coefficient function (Tharawetcharak et al., 2019). Therefore, the proposed algorithm in this paper is the proposed hybrid gravitational search algorithm using NGCFGSA with mutation. Moreover, the proposed algorithm can be search performance with both unimodal and multimodal landscape function perfectly. Figure 3 presents the process flow, and the step-by-step procedure for NGCFGSAM is given as Step 1: Identification of search space. Step 2: Generate the initial population. Step 3: Evaluate the fitness function for each particle in the population. Step 4: Update the gravitational coefficient value by using NGCFGSA.

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𝑡𝑡 𝛽𝛽

𝐺𝐺 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡0 )𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒(𝑇𝑇)

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 (𝑡𝑡) = min𝑖𝑖∈{1,…,𝑁𝑁} 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)

𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 (𝑡𝑡) = max 𝑖𝑖∈{1,…,𝑁𝑁} 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)

Start

Identification of search space

Generate initial population

Evaluate fitness function for each particle

𝑡𝑡

Update 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡0 )𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒( �𝑇𝑇 )

𝛽𝛽

Calculate 𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) Update 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 + 1) and 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 + 1) Particle selection operation

Discrete mutation operation Yes No

Meet the stopping criteria?

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

Figure 3: The procedure of NGCFGSAM. Step 5: Calculate the total force in different direction value at time 𝑡𝑡 (𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)), and (𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡)) is

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acceleration value at time 𝑡𝑡. Where 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is the active gravitational mass related to agent 𝑗𝑗, 𝜀𝜀 is a small

constant, 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is the Euclidian distance between agent 𝑖𝑖 and 𝑗𝑗, and 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 is a uniform random variable in the interval [0,1].

𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)

𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) = ∑𝑁𝑁

, where 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 =

𝑗𝑗=1 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)

𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) =

𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡)

𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)

𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡)

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡)−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊(𝑡𝑡)

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵(𝑡𝑡)−𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊(𝑡𝑡)

𝑑𝑑 , where 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) = ∑𝑁𝑁 𝑗𝑗=1,𝑖𝑖≠𝑗𝑗 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 𝐹𝐹𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑡𝑡) and 𝑀𝑀𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑡𝑡)

𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)+𝜀𝜀

�𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) − 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡)�

Step 6: Update the particle velocity and position. The velocity and position of a particle are calculated by the following equations. Where 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 + 1) is the particle velocity value at time 𝑡𝑡,

𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 + 1) is the particle position value at time 𝑡𝑡, and 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 is a uniform random variable in the interval [0,1].

𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 + 1) = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 × 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡), 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 + 1) = 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 + 1),

Step 7: Particle selection operation of two particles in the population of position without repetition, according to their fitness values. Step 8: Discrete mutation operation of each particle in the population. Step 9: Repeat step 3 through step 8 until the stopping criteria are met.

4 Computational Experiments The computational experiments were conducted to validate the performance of the proposed hybrid algorithm based on the NGCFGSAM (details see Figure 3). The numerical experiments were simulated based on six nonlinear benchmark functions, including unimodal and multimodal optimization problems. The unimodal landscape function consists of Sphere, Matyas, and Rosenbrock while the multimodal landscape function includes Griewank, Schwefel, and Ackley. For the computation, the proposed hybrid algorithm and all hybrid algorithms were written in Matlab version r2016a and simulated on PC with Intel Core i5-8250U CPU @ 1.80 GHz processor and 8 GB RAM for testing the proposed hybrid algorithm. The study began with a review of parameter settings from the literature and then conducted preliminary experiments. For the conventional 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡) function, the setting was 𝑡𝑡0 = 1000, 𝛽𝛽 = 0.01,

and 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡0 ) = 100. For the new 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡) function, the setting was 𝑇𝑇 = 1000, 𝛽𝛽 = 2, and 𝐺𝐺(𝑡𝑡0 ) = 100 (Rashedi et al., 2009; Tharawetcharak et al., 2019). In addition, the number of agents N was 50. Because the

GSA is a stochastic searching technique. It runs each combination of experiments for 30 independents to eliminate random discrepancy for six benchmark functions in the literature (Rashedi et al., 2009; Tharawetcharak et al., 2019). Theoretically, it is challenging to find globally

optimal solutions for multimodal landscape functions. Furthermore, it is determined by the

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search's starting point. The starting points in this study are generated randomly. Tables 1 and 2 show the complex formula of the functions, the search space boundary, and their optimal solutions for the benchmark functions. Figures 4 to 9 present the dimensional landscape in relation to the benchmark functions used in this study.

Figure 4: Sphere function.

Figure 5: Matyas Function.

Figure 6: Rosenbrock function.

Figure 7: Griewank function.

Figure 6: Rosenbrock function.

Figure 7: Griewank function.

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Table 1: Test Functions Name Function name

Description 𝑑𝑑

Search Range

Sphere

𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋) = �

Matyas

𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋) = 0.26(𝑥𝑥12 + 𝑥𝑥22 ) − 0.48𝑥𝑥1 𝑥𝑥2

[−10,10]𝑑𝑑

Rosenbrock

𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋) = 100(𝑥𝑥2 − 𝑥𝑥12 )2 + (1 − 𝑥𝑥1 )2

[−10,10]2

𝑖𝑖=1

𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖2

[−100,100]𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖2 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − � cos � � + 1 𝑖𝑖=1 4000 𝑖𝑖=𝑞𝑞 √𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑

Griewank

𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋) = �

Schwefel

𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 418.9829𝑑𝑑 − �

Ackley

𝑑𝑑

𝑖𝑖=1

[−600,600]𝑑𝑑

𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 sin ��|𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 |�

1 𝑑𝑑 1 1 𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋) = −20 exp �−0.2� � 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖2 � − exp � � � cos(2𝜋𝜋𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 )� + 20 𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑖=1 + exp(1)

[−500,500]𝑑𝑑 [−32.768,32.768]𝑑𝑑

Table 2: Optimal Solutions of The Test Functions Name Function name Sphere Matyas Rosenbrock Griewank Schwefel Ackley

𝑓𝑓(𝑋𝑋 ∗) 0 0 0 0 0 0

Optimal Solution 𝑋𝑋 ∗ (0, … ,0) (0,0) (1, … ,1) (0, … ,0) (420.9687, … ,420.9687) (0, … ,0)

5 Results and Discussion This section describes the experiment results and statistical tests of computational experiments. Table 3 summarizes the test results in terms of mean optimal solutions and their standard deviations. The best results of NGCFGSAM for each benchmark function are underlined. As shown in Table 3, the proposed algorithm outperforms the six benchmark functions. The NGCFGSAM produced results closer to the optimal solution for both unimodal landscape function and multimodal landscape functions. Additionally, it also resulted in a lower level of uncertainty. This means that the proposed algorithm is more trustworthy on the search path. Because results are subject to uncertainty. Therefore, the study cannot claim that the proposed hybrid algorithm is superior to the conventional algorithms. A one-way ANOVA analysis was employed to perform a statistical test (Kim, 2017).

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Table 3: Minimization experiment results of benchmark function Function name Sphere function Matyas Function Rosenbrock function Griewank function Schwefel function Ackley function

Minimization result Average mean fitness Average best-so-far Average mean fitness Average best-so-far Average mean fitness Average best-so-far Average mean fitness Average best-so-far Average mean fitness Average best-so-far Average mean fitness Average best-so-far

Algorithms GSA NGCFGSA

GA −11

6.3 × 10 6.2 × 10−11 5.6 × 10+3 5.6 × 10+3 1.1 × 10+3 1.0 × 10+3 1.16 1.14 −1.2 × 10+4 −1.2 × 10+4 2.16 × 10−4 2.13 × 10−4

−11

−17

7.3 × 10 7.1 × 10−11 0.16 × 10+3 0.15 × 10+3 0.25 × 10+2 0.25 × 10+2 0.29 0.04 −2.8 × 10+3 −2.6 × 10+3 6.9 × 10−6 6.9 × 10−6

9.7 × 10 4.8 × 10−17 0.15 × 10+3 0.12 × 10+3 0.23 × 10+2 0.22 × 10+2 1.32 1.31 −3.1 × 10+3 −2.7 × 10+3 3.5 × 10−5 3.5 × 10−5

NGCFGSAM 4. 8 × 10−17 4.7 × 10−17 0.95 × 10+2 0.95 × 10+2 0.21 × 10+2 0.19 × 10+2 0. 08 0. 02 −3.0 × 10+3 −2.7 × 10+3 4. 8 × 10−6 4. 8 × 10−6

The metaheuristics approaches are based on a stochastic search strategy and their results are varied and determined by chance. Accordingly, a statistical method was used to perform a systematic performance verification. The one-way ANOVA analysis with 𝛼𝛼=0.05 was applied for the

statistic test. This is due to there being only one factor for each tested NGCFGSAM. The research hypothesis is given as

𝐻𝐻1 : Minimization result of the proposed NGCFGSAM algorithm is less than conventional algorithms (GA, GSA, NGCFGSA).

Using a statistics software package on Microsoft Excel 2019 MSO (Version 2110 Build 16.0.14527.20270) 64-bit for hypothesis testing, the study discovered that the proposed hybrid algorithm differs significantly from benchmark functions. Table 4 presents the test values and decisions. According to Table 4, this study could claim that the proposed NGCFGSAM enhances the performance, better than the conventional algorithms (thus 𝐻𝐻1 is accepted (p-value less than

0.05)).

Table 4: Statistical test analysis (One-way ANOVA) 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨

Between Groups Within Groups Total

6 Conclusion

𝑺𝑺𝑺𝑺

1.107 × 10 8.452 × 107 1.952 × 108

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 5 18 23

𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴

2.214 × 10 4.696 × 106

𝑭𝑭

4.72

p-value 0.0063

𝑭𝑭 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 2.773

This paper proposed a hybrid algorithm based on the search performance phases of the latest NGCFGSA. The study used a mutation method of GA hybridized NGCFGSA for search performance. It improves the search procedure and ensures that the performance is carried out systematically. The proposed algorithm was verified on six benchmark functions, including unimodal landscape functions and multimodal landscape functions by comparing the search performance for conventional algorithms. The study found that the NGCFGSAM outperformed the conventional

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algorithms. The experiment also analyzed the results with statistical techniques. It could affirm that the proposed algorithm enhances the performance of search performance. Moreover, the study found that the proposed algorithm has the global optimum approach more than the conventional algorithms. However, the experiment of premature convergence rate is not tested yet in this paper. For future works, researchers would investigate and rigorously prove the parameter turning for convergence rate. More benchmark functions and more algorithm comparison tests are required.

7 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

8 References Dahiya, B. P., Rani, S., & Singh, P. (2019). A hybrid artificial grasshopper optimization (HAGOA) metaheuristic approach: A hybrid optimizer for discover the global optimum in given search space. International Journal of Mathematical, Engineering and Management Sciences, 4(2), 471-488. Das, P. K., Behera, H. S., & Panigrahi, B. K. (2016). A hybridization of an improved particle swarm optimization and gravitational search algorithm for multi-robot path planning. Swarm and Evolutionary Computation, 28, 14-28. Dowlatshahi, M. B., & Nezamabadi-pour, H. (2014). GGSA: A grouping gravitational search algorithm for data clustering. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 35, 114-121. Fox, B. R., & McMahon, M. B. (1991). Genetic operators for sequencing problems. In Foundations of genetic algorithms, 1, 284-300. Guo, Z., Zhang, W., & Wang, S. (2021). Improved gravitational search algorithm based on chaotic local search. International Journal of Bio-Inspired Computation, 17(3), 154-164. Hosseinabadi, A. A. R., Kardgar, M., Shojafar, M., Shanshirband, S., & Abraham, A. (2016). Gravitational search algorithm to solve open vehicle routing problem. In innovations in Bio-Inspired Computing and Applications, Springer, Cham, 424, 93-103. Jebari, K., & Madiafi, M. (2013). Selection methods for genetic algorithms. International Journal of Emerging Sciences, 3(4), 333-344. Katoch, S., Chauhan, S. S., & Kumar, V. (2021). A review on genetic algorithm: past, present, and future. Multimedia Tools and Applications, 80(5), 8091-8126. Kim, T. K. (2017). Understanding one-way ANOVA using conceptual figures. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology, 70(1), 22. Kumar, Y., & Sahoo, G. (2014). A review on gravitational search algorithm and its applications to data clustering & classification. International Journal of Intelligent Systems and Applications, 6(6), 79-93. Mansouri, R., Nasseri F., & Khorrami, M. (1999). Effective time variation of G in a model universe with variable space dimension. Physics Letters A, 259(3-4), 194-200. Michalewicz, Z. (1992). Genetic Algorithms+ Data Structure= Evolution Programs Springer, New York. Michalewicz, Z., & Schoenauer, M. (1996). Evolutionary algorithms for constrained parameter optimization problems. Evolutionary computation, 4(1), 1-32. Packiasudha, M., Suja, S., & Jerome, J. (2017). A new cumulative gravitational search algorithm for optimal

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placement of FACT device to minimize system loss in the deregulated electrical power environment. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, 84, 34-46. Premalatha, K., & Natarajan, A. M. (2009). Hybrid PSO and GA for global maximization. International Journal of Open Problems Compt. Math, 2(4), 597-608. Rashedi, E., Nezamabadi-Pour, H., Saryazdi, S., & Farsangi, M. M. (2007). Allocation of static var compensator using gravitational search algorithm, World. 1, 10. Rashedi, E., Nezamabadi-Pour, H., & Saryazdi, S. (2009). GSA: a gravitational search algorithm. Information sciences, 179(13), 2232-2248. Santra, D., Mukherjee, A., Sarker, K., & Mondal, S. (2021). Hybrid Genetic Algorithm-Gravitational Search Algorithm to Optimize Multi-Scale Load Dispatch. International Journal of Applied Metaheuristic Computing, 12(3), 28-53. Saravanan, C. & Srinivasan, K. (2016). Optimal extraction of photovoltaic model parameters using gravitational search algorithm approach. Circuits and Systems, 7(11), 3849-3861. Pattrawet Tharawetcharak is a Ph.D. student at the Graduate Program in Engineering Management, College of Innovative Technology and Engineering, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok, Thailand. He got a B.Eng. (Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology), and an M.Eng (Engineering Management) from Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand. His researches are Information Systems and Computer for Engineering Management.

Tekn. Dr. Aumnad Phdungsilp is an Assistant Professor of Energy Management at Graduate Program in Engineering Management, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok, Thailand. He holds an MSc. (Sustainable Energy Engineering), Tekn. Lic. (Energy Technology), and Tekn. Dr. (Civil and Architectural Engineering) from KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden. He also received a Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering from King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand. His research focuses on Multi-objective Optimization of Energy Systems and Building Services. Dr. Suparatchai Vorarat is an Assistant Professor of Engineering Management at the Graduate Program in Engineering Management, Dhurakij Pundit University, Bangkok, Thailand. He got a bachelor’s and a master’s degree in Production Engineering from King Mongkut's Institute of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand. He received a Ph.D. in Engineering Management from The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom. His research focuses on Life Cycle Costing and Maintenance Management.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Development Phases of the Larva of the Black Soldier Fly Hermetia Illucens on the Metabolic Byproducts of Monogastric Animals and Birds D.S. Bryukhanov1, Yu.V. Matrosova1, O.A. Vlasova1 FSBEI HE South Ural SAU, City of Troitsk, RUSSIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: bryuhanovd@inbox.ru). 1

Paper ID: 13A1K Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 24 June 2021 Received in revised form 31 October 2022 Accepted 6 November 2021 Available online 15 November 2021

Keywords:

Abstract

Processing of organic waste by insect larvae is a relevant and promising direction in biotechnology. The phases of fly development were studied, a comparative assessment of development phases was carried out on chicken droppings and pig manure. The terms of the complete biological cycle of the fly on different substrates were compared. The studies were carried out on specially prepared substrates with the addition of a probiotic preparation culture, namely a strain of soil spore bacteria Bacillus subtilis, which were added to reduce the content of harmful gases, shorten the decomposition time, as well as for disinfection from pathogenic microorganisms. On chicken droppings, the biological process, including all development phases, proceeds faster than on pig manure.

Black soldier fly; development phases; biological cycle; metabolic byproducts; chicken droppings; pig Disciplinary: Agricultural Sciences (Entomology). manure; Bacillus subtilis ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH. hay bacterium.

Cite This Article: Bryukhanov, D.S., Matrosova, Yu.V., Vlasova, O.A. (2022). Development Phases of the Larva of the Black Soldier Fly Hermetia Illucens on the Metabolic Byproducts of Monogastric Animals and Birds. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1K, 1-11. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.11

1 Introduction The processing of organic waste, obtained from farm animals and poultry, mainly pigs and chickens, is currently relevant. The most developed and promising biotechnology direction is the use of insect larvae, especially Diptera species. The black soldier fly from the Stratiomyidae family belongs to the species of Diptera. Droppings and manure are the main food of the larvae. With their help, the natural disposal of organic waste is carried out. Large larvae that are at the pre-pupa stage can be used to feed animals and birds. Insects, when processing pig manure and chicken droppings, convert residual proteins

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and other nutrients into their own biomass. It will be considered a high-quality protein feed. All this solves the problem of manure and droppings disposal [6]. Now, a promising direction in agriculture is the production of animal feed with the help of insects. As is known, the microflora of manure and droppings changes with the help of larvae, as well as a decrease in the number of harmful bacteria [10, 11]. The high nutritional value of fly larvae is in the content of a large amount of protein and calcium. Also, with a high growth rate of larvae, a significant amount of protein and fat accumulates [2, 3]. Larvae can be used for the processing of various organic waste: pig waste, bird litter, food waste, animal manure, bird droppings. After processing, the resulting substrate can be used for growing plants. For agro-industrial biotechnologies, this determines the prospects of this species of dipterous [9, 11]. The purpose of our research is to study the development phases of the larva of the Black soldier fly Hermetia illucens on the metabolic byproducts of monogastric animals and birds. Research tasks is to study in detail the development phases of the Black soldier fly on pig manure and chicken droppings, and compare the terms of the complete biological cycle of the fly on different substrates.

2 Material and Methods The research was funded by RFBR and Chelyabinsk Region, project number 20-416740008\20 "Development of a method for increasing the degree of biological usefulness of the processing waste products of monogastric animals and birds using Hermetia illucens larvae" and conducted in the conditions of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine of the South Ural State Agrarian University.

Figure 1: Insectarium for keeping flies, mating and laying eggs

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For this study, flies were taken from one insectarium (Figure 1) and the entire life cycle of a fly was studied from egg-laying to hatching of a new fly. The phases of fly development on different substrates were considered in great detail, there are five of them. All the data were analyzed, and the whole biological process was accompanied by photographs. The studies were carried out on specially prepared substrates with the addition of a probiotic preparation culture, namely a strain of soil spore bacteria Bacillus subtilis, which were added to reduce the content of harmful gases, shorten the decomposition time, as well as for disinfection from pathogenic microorganisms. Two containers were taken, one with pig manure (group 1), the second with chicken droppings (group 2), Bacillus subtilis hay bacterium was added to them. The resulting substrate was placed in a dark place and stored for a day at a temperature of 22°C. After the expiration of time, the first experimental substrate (pig manure + Bacillus subtilis,) and the second experimental substrate (chicken droppings + Bacillus subtilis) were brought to the optimal humidity of 78% set in a series of experiments earlier. This humidity was constantly maintained to obtain a positive effect of growing larvae. It should be noted that the optimal temperature for the development of larvae in the room is 27°C, which was monitored daily during the experiment. Natural lighting was mainly used with additional lighting during laboratory work. The larvae were cultured in plastic containers on tables, 3-day-old grown larvae were introduced on the surface of the substrate, at the rate of 150 g of larvae per 5 kg of substrate [1].

3 Results and Discussion Before proceeding to a more detailed study of the development phases of the Black soldier fly, we would like to note that its appearance and behavior are similar to a wasp, although it differs in one pair of wings, does not have a sting, but has a dark monochrome body color. The adult Black soldier fly is a rather gentle creature, despite the larvae' ability to survive in harsh conditions, it flies very little inside the insectarium cell. It does not bite, does not sting, has a weakly pronounced and poorly developed jaw apparatus. After hatching from the pupa, the fly does not eat. It drinks only water, because of the licking mouthparts. Its food is protein reserves, which accumulate when it is in the larval stage. This serves as a source of energy for its life. Like other flies, it does not tolerate diseases. It mates only with males and lays eggs. It lives a little time, about five sometimes up to eight days. In adults, sexual dimorphism is observed, females are larger than males in body size, but not significantly larger, although they may be the same since the length of the body varies depending on the food consumed by the larvae. As can be seen from Figure 2, females have a body length of 15-20 mm, black body color, with white tarsus and tibiotarsus. The wings are dark, the structure is dense, covered with membranes. Regardless of gender, they have a short and wide head, with wideset eyes, with long antennae that are almost 2 times the length of the head.

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Figure 2: Black soldier fly (magnified under a microscope) Mating takes place in the insectarium; we see this in Figure 3. Conditions close to nature are kept in it, which means like in the wild. In natural light and in sunny weather, mating occurs most intensively.

Figure 3: Mating flies in the insectarium The metamorphosis of the development of most insects takes place in several stages, and the Black soldier fly is no exception. The entire life cycle includes all the traditional stages, mainly insects have four of them, and the Black soldier fly has five of them (Figure 4). This is the first distinguishing feature of flies from other insects. Then we studied each stage in detail, as well as the entire life cycle of the insect on different substrates and compared these phases with each other.

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In the beginning, we would like to note that the life cycle from egg to egg is 42-45 days. Larvae need a moist and nutritious environment for development. To do this, the female after mating is looking for a more favorable environment for laying eggs. In this case, for laid eggs, this is the place of sponges or planks. After the female finds a suitable place for laying, she lays about 500-800 eggs at a time and if all the conditions are met their number increases.

Figure 4: The life cycle of the Black soldier fly For laying, it chooses a place closer to food for its offspring. In our research, we used meat broth and honey syrup. Laying lasts no more than 7 days. Egg laying is influenced by housing conditions, mainly temperature, humidity, lighting, feeding does not affect, as in other insects and animals. Many factors, such as lighting, humidity, temperature and feeding, affect the growth, development, and feed biomass when breeding the Black soldier fly. If we consider the habitat of the fly, then we can say that the insect is unpretentious. And its larvae are omnivorous and develop at different temperatures in their environment. The temperature can range from 20 to 50°C, and the humidity can range from 40 to 90%. For an adult insect, the temperature should be 30°C, and the humidity 70%. We also consider both natural and artificial lighting and the availability of drinking water. If the optimal parameters of the microclimate are observed, the hatching ability of eggs reaches 80 percent or more. Antonov et al. [4] argue that the minimum lighting required for mating adult flies should be 70 mmol/m2/s, the maximum – 100 mmol/m2/s. The temperature for laying eggs is 27°C, and the relative humidity of the environment is 60%.

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As we have already noted, the entire life cycle of the Black soldier fly should be about 45 days, but it may not correspond and will be delayed since ideal housing conditions will not be created, since breeding depends on external environmental conditions, and they greatly affect the development of the organism, mainly it is air temperature - 26-30°C, relative humidity up to 80%, natural lighting - 0.5-1.2%, availability of drinking water and abundant nutrition. The conditions should be close to the natural habitat to increase the percentage of hatching ability of eggs. In this case, the temperature in the insectarium was 27-29°C (at a norm of 26-30°C), the air humidity was 60-65% at a norm (75-77%), in this regard, a large waste of pupae was obtained, they simply dried out due to lack of humidity, and the laid eggs also dried quickly. Although, as we have already said, the insect is unpretentious, and the larvae are omnivorous and are able to develop at different temperature fluctuations from 18 to 41°C and humidity from 40 to 90 % [5, 7, 8].

Figure 5: Planks and sponges for laying eggs Egg laying is not a long period, the fly lays eggs for 4-5 days, the life span of an adult is only 5-8 days, then the flies die. Although we have observed that this process can be delayed for a longer time up to 20 days or more, this happens at low temperatures and insufficient weak lighting, flies become less active, mate poorly, are sedentary, sit, drink water, and if the fly is fed with honey syrup, then their life span increases and, consequently, the process. We also noticed that flies live much longer, but do not mate. From the moment the flies hatched from the pupa until all the flies died, the time could be up to a month. As we have noticed, the life expectancy of the adults is small, and the main function is reproduction, this is the meaning of the life of this fly. Flies lay eggs in the most suitable places for the survival of their offspring, in this case, we see in Figure 5 - these are sponges moistened with water or honey syrup, as well as planks that were placed over meat broth or honey syrup, and best of all these are honeycombs (Figure 6). Eggs do not need to be collected from them, they can be immediately laid in a prepared substrate, without growing in a nutrient medium, so there is less loss of eggs, and the larvae feed at first at the expense of honeycombs made of wax.

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Figure 6: Honeycomb for laying eggs Staying in the egg state is the shortest development cycle. The egg collection is shown in Figure 7. Eggs were collected and transferred to a nutrient medium for growing larvae, it consisted of steamed compound feed (oat, barley). It takes only three days for the egg to metamorphose into a tiny larva. In our experiment, the exit of the larva from the egg was from three to five days. Only the larvae that have hatched from the eggs are very small white, in the form of thin threads that are barely visible to the naked eye. After a couple of days, the larvae that appeared, which had a white or light yellow color and a yellow-brown head, had a body length of about 3 mm.

Figure 7: Egg collection At the first stage of the research, we studied the biological development cycle, according to which, the first stage of development, a slight growth of larvae, lasted about 14 days, more often not even more than 5 days, and the initial size was 5 mm. The larva is very difficult to detect, since it hides from direct sunlight, rushing into the depths of the nutrient medium from which it was born. The second stage is 10 days, an active increase in body size up to 10-12 mm. In Figures 8 and 9 we see the third stage (pre-pupa) - 8-12 days, larvae eat a lot, grow quickly, size up to 20 mm. From Figure 9 it can be seen that the larva body is light yellow, you can even say golden in color,

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consists of segments, the head is clearly visible. In Figure 10, we see the first molt of the larvae, in which the initial color changes and becomes dark brown. The shell becomes rigid and dense. For its development in the thickness of the nutrient substrate, the larva gains the calories it needs. It becomes fat, large, and the color changes from a pale shade to brown. Pupation takes place – this is a new stage – the pupal stage (Figures 11 and 12). This is the most passive stage of the insect's life, it lasts 10-11 days, during which the skin of the larva hardens (pupal cover, puparium) and a pupa is formed. Recent changes are taking place inside the puparium. The larva's tissues are disintegrating, and all its systems are being restructured. After that, an adult individual (imago) is formed. An adult fly comes out of the pupal chamber. The breeding cycle repeats again [6, 7].

Figure 8: Larvae in the pre-pupal phase

Figure 9: Larva (magnified under a microscope)

Figure 10: Molting of the pre-pupa

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Figure 11: Larva in the pupal stage

Figure 12: Larva in the pupal stage (magnified under a microscope) The length of adult larvae reaches an average of 25-27 mm, it depends on the substrate, in this case, the larvae develop faster and better on chicken droppings, they are more active compared to pig manure (Figure 13). For better processing of organic waste, we added Bacillus subtilis hay bacterium to chicken droppings and pig manure.

Figure 13: Larvae on pig manure and chicken droppings

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The life cycle of the Black soldier fly averages 6-7 weeks. Our studies have shown that the total life expectancy of the Black soldier fly was 42 days on chicken droppings and 45 days on pig manure. We put together each separate phase of development from egg-laying to fly hatching and got this period.

4 Conclusion Having studied in detail all the phases of the Black soldier fly development on pig manure and chicken droppings from egg to adult, we added up the duration of all phases and concluded that the duration of the complete biological cycle of the fly on different substrates corresponds to this period of 6-7 weeks. Our research has shown that the life cycle on chicken droppings is less by 3 days than on pig manure. It was 42 days on chicken droppings, and 45 days on pig manure. Also, based on the conducted research, we can shorten or increase the biological cycle of the fly, since it depends on several factors, mainly temperature, humidity, lighting, feeding and watering. The addition of Bacillus subtilis bacteria, in turn, contributes to favorable conditions for keeping larvae and shortens the decomposition time of droppings and manure, as well as disinfects pathogenic microorganisms.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6 References [1] Bryukhanov. D.S., Matrosova Yu.V., Vlasova O.A. (2021). Increasing the degree of biological full value of the litter with the use of black soldier fly (Hermetia Illucens) larvae. BIO Web of Conferences: International Scientific and Practical Conference, (Tyumen. EDP Sciences), 05012. [2] Jucker C., Erba D., Leonardi M.G., Lupi D., Savoldelli S. (2017). Assessment of vegetable and fruit substrates as potential rearing media for Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae. Environ Entomol. 46, 1415– 1423. [3] Oonincx D.G., van Itterbeeck J., Heetkamp M.J., van den Brand H., van Loon J. J., van Huis A. (2010). An exploration on greenhouse gas and ammonia production by insect species suitable for animal or human consumption. Plos One, 5(12), e14445. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014445. [4] Antonov A.M., Lutovinovas E., Ivanov G.A., Pastukhova N.O. (2017). Adaptation and prospects of breeding of the Black Lion fly (Hermetia illucens) in the circumpolar region. Principles of ecology, 3, 4-19. [5] Bochkarev A.K., Bryukhanov D.S., Ermolov S.M. (2018). The influence of temperature and humidity regime on the growth and development of larvae of Black soldier flies. Actual issues of biotechnology and veterinary medicine: theory and practice: mater. of national scientific conference Of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine. edited by M.F. Yudin, (Chelyabinsk: FSBEI HE South-Ural SAU) pp. 17-21. [6] Bochkareva M.A., Bochkarev A.K., Matrosova O.A. (2019). Obtaining eggs of the black soldier fly in the conditions of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding. Ideas of young scientists-agroindustrial complex: zootechny. veterinary medicine and technology of processing agricultural products: mater. of student scientific conference Of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine. edited by M.F. Yudin, (Chelyabinsk: FSBEI HE South-Ural SAU) pp. 36-39. [7] Vlasova O.A., Bryukhanov D.S., Bochkarev A.K. (2018). The biological cycle of the Black soldier fly in the conditions of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine of the SUrSAU. Actual issues of biotechnology and veterinary medicine: theory and practice: mater. of national scientific conference Of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine, edited by M.F. Yudin, (Chelyabinsk: FSBEI HE South-UralSAU) pp. 35-40.

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[8] Vlasova O.A., Matrosova Yu.V. (2021). Processing of food waste by larvae of the black soldier fly in artificial conditions. Innovative technologies of environmental protection in the modern world: materials of the AllRussian Scientific Conference with international participation, (Kazan: KNITU Publishing House) pp. 18031809. [9] Pendyurin E.A., Rybina S.Yu., Smolenskaya L.M. (2020). The use of the Black soldier fly zoocompost as an organic fertilizer. Agrarian Science. Pp. 106-110. [10] Serebryansky D.N. (2015). Processing of food and agricultural waste by black soldier fly larvae. Obtaining feed protein. fertilizers and chitin. https://agrobook.ru/blog/user/sdn15/pererabotka-pishchevyh-iselskohozyaystvennyh-othodov-lichinkami-chernoy-lvinki [11] Ushakova N.A., Nekrasov R.V. (2015). Prospects for the use of insects in feeding farm animals. Biotechnology: the state and prospects of development. Materials of the VIII Moscow International Congress. CJSC "Expo-Biohim-technologies". RSTU n.a. D.I. Mendeleev (Moscow. March 17-20. 2015), Pp. 147-149. Dr.Bryukhanov Dmitry Sergeevich is an Associate Professor of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding of the FSBEI HE South Ural State Agrarian University. He graduated from the Ural State Academy of Veterinary Medicine. He holds a Ph.D. He is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences. His research interests are Biotechnology. Technology of Production and Processing of Agricultural Products.

Dr.Yulia V. Matrosova is an Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry Breeding of the FSBEI HE South Ural State Agrarian University. She graduated from the Ural State Institute of Veterinary Medicine. She holds a Ph.D.(Agricultural Sciences) from the Kurgan State Agricultural Academy named after T.S. Maltsev. Her research interests are Poultry Feeding, Feed Additives, Digestibility of Nutrients in the Body, Daily Metabolism.

Dr.Vlasova Olga Anatolyevna is an Associate Professor of the Department of Animal Husbandry and Poultry. She is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences She graduated with Honors from the Ural State Institute of Veterinary Medicine. She holds a Ph.D. Her research interests are Animal Science. Biotechnology. Technology of Production and Processing of Agricultural Products.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

The Distribution Service Pricing for Third-Party Access to Preserve the Responsibility of National Distribution Service Operator in Thailand: The Case of Industrial Estates Sarayut Thitapars1, Panit Prukpanit1, Nopbhorn Leeprechanon1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Thammasat School of Engineering, Thammasat University, THAILAND. *Corresponding author (Tel: +66-25643001 Ext 3272, Email: nopbhorn@engr.tu.ac.th). 1

Paper ID: 13A1L Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 18 August 2021 Received in revised form 01 November 2021 Accepted 10 November 2021 Available online 15 November 2021

Keywords:

Wheeling charge; Wheeling revenue; Third-party access; Industrial estates; Distribution authority; Small power producer (SPP).

Abstract

This study proposes the wheeling charge (WC) calculation for industrial estates of Thailand to prevent the increase of unfair competition of distribution system services between distribution authority and a small power producer (SPP), which operates both generation and distribution systems. The WC is calculated based on the postage stamp method with the consideration of actual technical and financial constraints. The energy market is analyzed to formulate the problem. The annual fixed charge rate and the grandfathered principle are adapted in the model, whereas the sensitivity analysis of possible schemes is conducted to depict the distribution network owner’s wheeling revenue. The numerical example is solved by using distribution system data extracted from an industrial estate in the eastern part of Thailand. The results show that the WC can respond to principles of cost recovery, transparency, understandability, stability, predictability, and ease of implementation. Therefore, it can be used to prevent the exercising of SPP’s market power, the partial competitive distribution services, and the redundant distribution investments. Moreover, the distribution authority’s responsibility and SPP’s income are still maintained. Disciplinary: Energy Pricing Policy. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Thitapars, S., Prukpanit, P., Leeprechanon, N. (2022). The Distribution Service Pricing for Third-Party Access to Preserve the Responsibility of National Distribution Service Operator in Thailand: The Case of Industrial Estates. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1L, 1-18. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.12

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1 Introduction In several industrial estates of Thailand, there is a small power producer (SPP) generating and distributing energy to its customers using a private generator and distribution grid. Simultaneously, the national distribution Authority (NDA), i.e., the Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA) and Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA), supplies energy to its end users. Electricity pricing in Thailand is regulated by the government to a uniform tariff (UT) rate that includes energy, transmission, and distribution costs. Therefore, the NDA is imposed to charge their end users by using the UT rate. On the other hand, the SPP can offer its customers electricity prices lower than the UT rate in which the SPP seems to have more bargaining power than the NDA (EGAT, 2010; Levett, 1997; NEPO, 1997; PWC, 2005; PEA, 2006). From this situation, the facts can be ascertained: 1) From the structure of the national electricity tariff or UT rate, one key element is the national power demand charge (NPDC). The NPDC reflects the national distribution cost (NDC), which includes the subsidy cost for rural electrification. Conversely, when considering a confined area; such as an industrial estate, etc., the local power demand charge (LPDC) reflects the local distribution cost (LDC) which excludes the subsidy cost of rural electrification. This infers that, in the estate area, although the electricity service providers (NDA/SPP) bill the customers with the LPDC which is lower than the NPDC rate, both providers can still generate profit. Therefore, this results in unfair competition between NDA and SPP in that the SPP can freely exercise the price strategy using the LPDC to gain their new customers, whereas the NDA lacks the ability to compete with the SPP due to the regulatory constraint at the national level (Regulatory Commission Energy, 2007). 2) Although NDA and SPP can generate income using the same LPDC, the SPP has no transmission cost because it is closely located to the electricity users, whereas the NDA has to pay for transmission expenses to the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) (Leeprechanon, et al, 2002). For these reasons, it is not possible for NDA to compete with SPP without complying with its own distribution cost in the competitive area and unlock the regulatory constraint to use the price strategy to compete with the SPP, or enforcing the SPP to stop investing the distribution system by offering an acceptable wheeling charge (WC) rate for third-party access (TPA). Therefore, these facts lead to the situation that most parts of the NDA’s customers become the SPP’s energy users causes the following disadvantages: 1) The capacity of the NDA’s distribution grid, which is bulkily invested before the establishment of the SPP, cannot be used effectively, whereas the investment and maintenance costs still occur. 2) The NDA loses the opportunity to receive revenue from crucial end users, thus resulting in inappropriate income to compensate for the subsidization costs of the entire country. This causes a decrease in national benefits and an increase in the private sector’s profit.

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3) For the natural monopoly of the distribution system, the SPP redundantly installs new distribution lines for new customers, thus resulting in bulk investment, operation, and maintenance costs. 4) In the technical aspect, the distribution maintenance is managed with difficulty when the two distribution lines are closely and parallelly positioned (Allan, 2013). If there is no procedure to prevent the increase in unfair competition, there is a high chance that the SPP will continue to negotiate with all of the NDA’s customers. In addition to the mentioned disadvantages, other severe concerns are as follows: 1) The NDA will not receive any revenue in the industrial areas where there are SPPs located as competitors, thus losing the opportunity to generate income to cover the nationwide rural electrification subsidy. 2) The SPP will eventually become a complete monopoly, thus having full market power and excess income in crucial areas. Hence, there are solutions to prevent the increase in the SPP’s market power that should be chosen, announced, and regulated by the Energy Regulatory Commission of Thailand. The first solution is to relax the regulatory constraint for the NDA to compete with SPP by using the pricing strategy in the competitive industrial estate areas. This will lead to a more level playing field (Thuesen, et al, 1984). The second solution is that if the SPP has new customers who are connected to the NDA’s network, the SPP has to connect its generator to the NDA’s main grid and supply the energy as TPA. In this model, the SPP pays the wheeling expenses based on the WC method (Sood, et al, 2002). Unlike the first solution, the situation of the TPA is based on the regulatory strategy (Drahos, 2017) and can provide several benefits. Firstly, in the responsibility and financial aspects, without direct customers to buy electricity, the NDA can still provide the distribution system service and receive the appropriate revenue using WC rate to cover its financial budget. Secondly, to supply energy to new customers, the SPP does not have to pay for the bulk investment, operation, and maintenance costs of the new distribution lines. On the other hand, the SPP can gain profit based on the difference between the WC and NPDC. Thirdly, the revenue from the SPP’s existing customers is not affected. From the mentioned advantages, the situation of the TPA should immediately proceed. However, the problem is that there is no appropriate NDA data; such as the cost components, physical distribution system, energy market, data metering, etc, to input the WC model. As such, this can result in an ineffective and unstable rate for the NDA and cause disagreement with the SPP. Therefore, to prevent the increase in the private sector’s market power, the unfair competition in distribution services, and the difficulty of distribution maintenance, unlike previous studies, this paper proposes the WC model based on the main pricing principles; such as. cost recovery, transparency, stability, predictability, and ease of application by considering the NDA’s real data and the components of the energy market. The hurdle rate (Thuesen, et al, 1984) is used

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for the financial values, whereas the grandfathered concept (Authority of Thailand Petroleum, 2017) is utilized for the network capacity allocation. Lastly, to analyze the financial effects of the NDA, the WC and wheeling revenue (WR) are calculated based on several possible schemes.

2 Developments of Network Topologies and Energy Markets in Industrial Estates of Thailand To fulfill the description of the network topologies and the energy market mentioned in Section 1, the initial systems that have been developed until the present time and the upcoming systems that can severely affect the NDA are concisely explained (EGAT, 2010; Levett, 1997; NEPO, 1997; PWC, 2005; PEA, 2006).

Figure 1: The conventional vertical ESI system.

Figure 2: The ESI system with PPA contract. Initially, as shown in Figure 1, the electricity supply industry (ESI) system was operated as a vertical market. The main system’s components were EGAT, the NDA, and end-users. From the energy flow, the energy was consequently sent from EGAT to the NDA and from the NDA to the end-users. From the money flow, the end-users paid the revenue based on the UT rate to the NDA. Then, the NDA collected NPDC, whereas EGAT received the remainder. However, from the benefits of the distributed energy resources that could decrease the power loss in the transmission network and increase the system’s reliability (Ackermann, et al, 2001; El-Khattam and Salama, 2004), as demonstrated in Figure 2, the SPP was allowed to firmly sell energy to EGAT according to a power purchase agreement (PPA). The energy is directly distributed to the NDA’s main grid, whereas the revenue is directly sent to the SPP. To respond to the PPA, the SPP has to reserve its generation capacity, which results in investment and maintenance costs. Therefore, to cover this financial gap,

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the SPP has to find new customers for selling the surplus energy as a non-firm electricity contract. As such, when considering the national policy, there are the following criteria: 1) The SPP can make a contract with customers in the industrial area.

Figure 3: The ESI system operated as the unfair competition of the distribution services.

Figure 4: The ESI system leading to major disadvantages for the NDA.

Figure 5: The ESI system for the TPA situation. 2) There is no regulatory announcement to use the WC for the TPA. Hence, the SPP could not supply the energy by using the NDA’s network, 3) The SPP can build distribution lines in the private area.

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Therefore, the SPP built the distribution lines to directly supply the energy to its customers. In this case, the SPP could receive a large profit based on the transmission and distribution charges as mentioned in Section 1. When the SPP received this benefit, it could use the price and reliability strategies for new customers. Hence, several consumers, which had been the NDA’s former users, purchased energy from the SPP. This situation has been proceeded until the present time, thus resulting in the system depicted in Figure 3. Consequently, it can be seen that the NDA has more unused capacity, which cannot be effectively utilized but still used the maintenance budget. The distribution maintenance is also managed with difficulty when the two networks are simultaneously operated. Moreover, the SPP significantly has more market power than the NDA. If this situation to receive more money and market power is not prevented, there is a high chance that the SPP will build new distribution lines and persuade all of the NDA’s customers to purchase its energy, while the NDA will not be able to fairly compete in the market. Thus, the topology will be formulated as shown in Figure 4. As a consequence, this will definitely lead to more disadvantages for the NDA, whereas the SPP will become a monopoly organization in the estate area, which includes crucial customers. Therefore, an appropriate electricity market should be formulated for the TPA as represented in Figure 5.

3 The Wheeling Charge Methodology for Distribution System in Industrial Estate of Thailand 3.1 General Wheeling Charge Methodologies The WC and WR methodologies can mainly be categorized into six solutions, which are represented in Figure 6. The definition of each solution (Chen, et al, 2002; Economics, 2008; Regulatory Commission Energy, 2016; Happ, 1994; Lee, et al, 2001; Levett, 1997; PWC, 2005; Office of Utilities Regulation, 2012; Yu and David, 1997) can be briefly described as follows:

Figure 6: The wheeling methodologies. 1) The postage stamp method: The WC is based on the ratio of the total cost and total distribution capacity, while the WR is solved by the multiplication of the WC and the wheeling distribution capacity.

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2) The contract path method: The WC is based on the ratio of cost and distribution capacity occurring only in the focused path. For the WR, it is calculated by the multiplication of the WC and wheeling capacity as the postage stamp approach. 3) The boundary flow method: The WC is calculated by using the postage stamp solution, whereas the WR is based on the power flow in the boundary buses occurring before and after the connection of third parties. 4) The line-by-line or MW-mile method: In this solution, for the financial values, the WC is based on the cost and length of the distribution lines. For the distribution capacity values, the WC and WR are solved by using the power flow on every distribution line occurring before and after the connection of third parties. 5) The nodal method: The WC and WR are separately calculated for each node or small group of nodes. 6) The zonal method: The WC and WR can be solved by using the definition of the postage stamp approach. However, they are calculated based on the specified data of each subarea. Nevertheless, for the boundary flow, line-by-line, and nodal approaches, there are the considerations that if the situation of the TPA is included by several third parties, the power flow of each third party should be tracked by using the power tracing methods (Bialek, 1996; Bialek, 1997; Ng, 1981; Vidhya, et al, 2017) thus causing the complexation of the calculation procedures and data metering. In addition to the main approaches, there are the combined solutions proposed in previous research. For a brief description, the amp-mile method is calculated by considering congestion and risk assessment (Jain, et al, 2019a) and the MVA utility factor and marginal participation (Jain, et al, 2019b). The exporter and importer zones are combined with the zonal method (Payakkamas, et al, 2017). The principle of proportional sharing is also modified to support the MW-mile method by considering the network losses (Li, et al, 2017). Furthermore, the power flow tracing method is used for calculating the WC with optimal placement IPFC controller’s FACTS devices (Vidhya, et al, 2017). The wheeling charge is based on a power flow-based MW-mile method. The data on the NDA’s sub-transmission system is used to calculate the results (Wongkom and Chaitusaney, 2019). Moreover, the MW-mile method with the differentiation of the line flow magnitude before and after the connection of the third party is proposed (Larbwisuthisaroj and Chaitusaney, 2018). To choose the appropriate WC methodology for the distribution system in industrial estates in Thailand, the principles of the WC, the input data of the NDA, and the physical system in the area need to be taken into consideration The main principles (Lee, et al, 2001; Office of Utilities Regulation, 2012) can be described as: 1) Economic efficiency: The rate should send the pricing signal to the system’s users in order to adjust their behavior of the distribution capacity usage.

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2) Cost recovery: The rate should reflect the operation and development costs of the network owner. 3) Transparency: The pricing mechanism should be conveniently inspected by the users. 4) Understandability: The pricing mechanism should be clearly and appropriately described to the correlating users. 5) Stability and predictability: the rates should be probable and unchanging. This can benefit both the network owner and the third party to effectively set the distribution price and manage the financial budget. 6) Non-discrimination: The electricity users should be equally and fairly treated by the price mechanism. 7) Ease of implementation: The price mechanism must not be difficult and complex to use. It should be conveniently applied by the network owner. When considering the NDA’s data, it is found that the information below cannot be easily extracted. 1) The costs of the overhead lines. 2) The distance between nodea to node. 3) The smart meter system. 4) The geographic database; such s, the sizes of the distribution lines positioned in the single root. 5) The distances of the multilayer distribution lines. For the energy market in the industrial estates, this is as follows: 1) In the area, there is an SPP, which has the bulk generation capacity and firm distribution system. 2) The users that can be the SPP’s new consumers are located in the entire area. Therefore, the WC methodologies can be analyzed for the TPA situation as follows: 1) For the boundary flow, line-by-line, nodal, and combined methods: Tend to be very difficult and inappropriate to be used. This is because they need specific data of thonpower flow and equipment costs. Therefore, from the rack of the NDA’s data structure and smart mete system, the methods cannot respond to the principles of transparency, ease of implementation, and understandability. From the variable rate that depends on the value of power flow, the stability and predictability properties are also not fulfilled. 2) For the contract path: The financial and physical data of the distribution lines based on each distribution path are needed. Therefore, this cannot compete with the principles of transparency and understandability. In addition, the WC is based on the distribution cost and capacity of the entire path. This causes the WC to be very high or low compared to the actual capacity used by the SPP, thus resulting in the rack of non-discrimination property. Furthermore, if the SPP proposes to use the network for several TPA contracts, the NDA will have several WC, thus

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causing difficulty for the implementation and resulting in an unstable rate. Lastly, when the path is chosen, the power does not completely flow through the focused root following the electricity rules (Allan, 2013; Dorf, 2018; Grainger, 1999). The capacity allocation, hence, is complicatedly tracked. For these reasons, this method is suitable for the situation that the NDA separately builds new distribution lines only for the SPP, in which the data are conveniently corrected. 3) For the zonal rate: This method is similar to the postage stamp approach. However, this is appropriate for a large area that has multi boundary lines or subareas. When considering the industrial estates formulated in this paper, there is only one SPP that has a chance to persuade the customers in the whole area. Therefore, there is no need to divide the rate into several values. Moreover, the zonal WC is difficultly to calculate and adjusted when the NDA’s data structure is formulated for the entire area. 4) For the postage stamp method: From the NDA’s data structure and the energy market, this approach is simply used angivesve a single WC for the entire area. This results in benefits that the NDA and SPP can stably manage the financial values. The distribution capacity is also easily allocated although the power of third-party flowsthroughh several distribution lines. Therefore, this solution can respond to the principles of transparency, understandability, stability and predictability, and ease of implementation. Lastly, from the rate that is based on the cost of the entire system, it can complete the cost recovery factor. WC = AFCR × ∑

(1).

(PL + WL)

Hence, from the mentioned considerations, the WC in this paper is based on the postage stamp approach (Happ, 1994; Lee, et al, 2001), which its main definition can be expressed as (1).

3.2 The Adaptation of Annual Fixed Charge Rate (AFCR) FCR =

CostExpenses

(2).

CostNP

CostExpenses = CosttNP + (CostOM × FOM) + (CostAD × FAD )

AFCR =

CosttNP CostNP

CostOM CostNP

CosttNP = CostNP ×

FOM =

FAD =

rh − rgm 1

rh − rga

× FOM) + (

(1+rh )t .rh

(1+rh )t −1

∙ �1 − �

1+rgm tom 1+rh

�

1+rga tad

∙ �1 − �

1+rh

�

�∙

CostAD CostNP

× FAD )

(1+rh )tom .rh (1+rh )t −1

(1+rh )tad .rh (1+rh )t −1

(3). (4). (5). (6). (7).

From previous studies, although the annual fixed charge rate (AFCR) has been partly mentioned, its detail is not economically demonstrated. Hence, the adaptation of the AFCR is considered in this section. In (2), the AFCR is based on the ratio of the expenses and net plant cost. In (3), the expenses can be divided into three factors, which are an investment, maintenance, and

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administration costs. The AFCR then can be formulated as (4). The principle of the lowest rate of return or hurdle rate RH) (Thuesen, et al, 1984) is adapted for CosttNP , FOM, FAD as depicted as (5),

(6), and (7), respectively.

r = WACC + RP (1+r )t .rh

AFCR = (1+rh )t h

−1

(8). +

CostOM CostNP

CostOM = PTOM × CostNP

CostAD

(9).

CostNP

(10). (11).

CostAD = PTAD × CostNP

(12).

Actual Expenses = Per Unit x Base Value

(13).

CostTotal = AFCR x CostNP

(14).

Per Unit =

Actual Value Base Value

(1+r )t .rh

CostTotal = �(1+rh )t h

−1

CostOM CostNP

CostAD CostNP

� × CostNP

(15).

The hurdle rate (rh ) is expressed as (8). For the risk premium rate (rRP), it can be composed of

asset insurance and risk management rates due to the regression of the load demand. For the gm and ga, if they are neglected (rgm = 0%; rga = 0%), the FOM and FAD can be calculated as 1, thus resulting in the AFCR in (9). The CostOM and CostAD are depicted as (10) and (11), respectively.

From the principle of per unit expressed as (12), the actual expenses are supposed to be an actual value and can be demonstrated in (13). When the per unit is adapted in the model by assuming that actual expense is the total cost, the total cost can be calculated as (14) and (15).

3.3 The Wheeling Charge Based on Grandfathered Principle for Third-Party Access

Figure 7: The schematic diagram of the distribution network allocation.

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PDMC = PDL + PRWC WC = AFCR

WC = AFCR

Subject to

PDL +PRWC NP

PDMC

(16). (17). (18).

∑ni=1 PCo−peak,i ≤ ∑ni=1 PNco−peak,i

(19),

∑nj=1 PCWC,j ≤ PRWC

(21),

∑ni=1 PNco−peak,i ≤ PDL

PDMC < PDC

(20),

(22).

To complete the system reliability, in the technical aspect, the distribution capacity constraint must be satisfied. Therefore, the grandfathered principle (Authority of Thailand Petroleum, 2016; 2017), is adapted to operate the situation of the TPA. Firstly, the NDA has to firmly allocate the distribution capacity for its customers and define the remainder for the SPP. Then, each SPP has to complete the form relating to the location and capacity required. Consequently, the NDA technically considers every requirement following the first come first served principle and NDA’s grid code. If the constraints are satisfied, the TPA contract will be allowed. To mathematically formulate the mentioned steps, the allocation of the distribution capacity following the grandfathered method is depicted in Figure 7. The WC calculations are expressed as (16)-(18), whereas the distribution capacity constraints are depicted as (19)-(22).

Figure 8: The possibility of the TPA situation (a case of an HV system).

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Figure 9: The possibility of the TPA situation (a case of an MV system).

WCHV = AFCR HV

Figure 10: The possibility of the TPA situation (a case of HV and MV systems).

CostNP(HV)

(23).

CostNP(MV)

(24).

WCMV = AFCR MV

PDMC(HV)

PDMC(MV)

WCHV and MV = WCHV + WCMV

(25).

WR HV = ∑nj=1 WCHV × PCWC(HV),j

(26).

WR HV and MV = ∑nj=1 WCHV and MV × PCWC(HV and MV),j

(28).

WR MV = ∑nj=1 WCMV × PCWC(MV),j

(27).

When considering the situation of the TPA, there are three scenarios that the SPP can use with the NDA’s network. As shown in Figure 8, the first scenario is that both the SPP’s generator and SPP’s customers are connected to the high voltage (HV) system. In the second one, in Figure 9, only the medium voltage (MV) network is used for the SPP’s generator and SPP’s customers. For the last one, the SPP proposes to use the HV network, whereas the SPP’s customers are connected to the MV system. It is depicted in Figure 10. Therefore, the WC for these three cases can be expressed as (23)-(25), respectively. In addition, in (26)-(28), the wheeling revenue (WR) for all cases are formulated, respectively.

4 The Numerical Study To solve the WC, the NDA’s distribution system data from an industrial estate is extracted. The asset costs, load demand, and financial values are described. The distribution costs of HV and MV systems are corrected to be 499,109,386.14 THB and 2,795,089,312.80 THB, respectively. The capacities related to the WC are depicted in Table 1. The rWACC, rRP, rh , t, PTOM, and PTAD are

6.04%/yr, 0%/yr, 6.04%/yr, 25 yr, 1.5% of CostNP /yr, and 1% of CostNP /yr, respectively. The rgm and rga are assumed to be zero.

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Table 1: The distribution capacities for the WC calculation. Description

NCO-Peak (kW) 87,040 273,351

High voltage system Medium voltage system

DL (kW) 88,000 277,000

RWC (kW) 41,600 133,400

DMC (kW) 129,600 410,400

DC (kW) 270,000 540,000

Table 2: The WC and distribution charge in uniform tariff. Case

AFCR (p.u.)

The WCHV (THB/kW/ month)

The WCMV (THB/kW/ month)

0.1035

7.97

58.76

The WCHV and WCMV (THB/kW/ month) 66.73

The DCUTHV (THB/kW/ month) 71.14

The DCUTMV (THB/kW/ month) 132.93

Table 3: The scenarios of CWCs. The jth CWC CWC1 CWC2 CWC3 CWC4

The location connected by SPP HV system HV system MV system HV system

The location connected by customers of SPP HV system MV system MV system HV and MV systems

From the input data, the AFCR, WCHV, and WCMV can be solved and shown in Table 2. To calculate the difference between the WC and NPDC, the NPDC (PEA, 2015) is also demonstrated in Table 2. The possible situation that the SPP can supply electricity as a third party is formulated. The number of the TPA contracts is assumed to be four requirements, which are respectively defined as CWC1, CWC2, CWC3, and CWC4. Table 4: The distribution capacity submitted and used by SPPs The scenario

The submitted capacity of the HV system (kW)

The submitted capacity of the MV system (kW)

The CWCHV (kW)

The CWCMV (kW)

CWC1 CWC2 CWC3 CWC4

20,000 0 0 10,000

0 40,000 50,000 43,000

20,000 0 0 10,000

0 40,000 50,000 43,000

The remaining RWC for the HV system (kW) 41,600 21,600 21,600 21,600 11,600

The remaining RWC for the MV system (kW) 133,400 133,400 93,400 43,400 0

Table 5: The results of WR. The jth CWC CWC1 CWC2 CWC3 CWC4

The WRHV 0.1595 0 0 0.0797

The WR based on the WC (MTHB/month) The WRHV The WRHV and MV 0 0 2.6692 0 0 2.9378 2.8961 0

Total 0.1595 2.6692 2.9378 2.9758

Table 6: The financial values for the cases of WC. Case

RP (%/yr)

gm (%/yr)

gd (%/yr)

1 2 3 4 5

0 2 2 2 2

0 2 2 2 5

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The cost factor of reliability improvement (pu) 1 1 1.5 1 1

Reliability premium charge (%/yr)

Target operating profit margin (%)

Variance of network peak demand (%)

0 0 10 5 5

0 0 0 0 30

0 0 0 -10 -10

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Table 7: The WC and the WR in possible schemes. Case

The WCHV (THB/kW)

1 2 3 4 5

7.97 9.53 14.46 11.11 15.59

The WCMV (THB/kW) 58.76 70.19 106.55 81.89 114.86

The WCHV and MV (THB/kW) 66.73 79.72 121.01 93.00 130.44

Table 8: The difference between WRs of possible schemes. The difference between WRs of possible schemes (%) Case 1 -

Case 2 19.46

Case 3 81.35

Case 4 39.37

Case 5 95.48

The CWC’s scenarios are shown in Table 3, whereas the distribution capacities allocated using the grandfathered principle are depicted in Table 4. Therefore, the WR based on the WC and NPDC are shown in Table 5. To analyze the possible WC and WR that can occur for the NDA, the financial values are divided into five cases (Table 6). The results are illustrated in Tables 7 and 8. From the results of Table 2, it can be seen that the NPDC HV and NPDC MV are almost higher than the WCHV and WCMV by ten and two times, respectively. This demonstrates that the rate the NDA has to charge users is very expensive compared to the local distribution cost. Moreover, when considering the SPP’s distribution cost that only occurs in the industrial area, it should not be much higher than that of the NDA. Therefore, this clearly shows that the SPP can decrease the price by almost double to persuade the NDA’s customers, while still generating a profit. If there is no regulatory policy to formulate the situation of the TPA, the SPP can become a monopoly in the system, whereas the NDA will have no chance to service customers. This will cause the NDA to lose an income of 8.7423 million THB/month. On the other hand, if the TPA can be processed, the NDA can at least charge the WR of 8.7423 million THB/month covering its financial budget and income, whereas the SPP can collect the benefit from the range between the WC and NPDC without the distribution of the investment, operation, and maintenance costs. In addition, the rates that are fixed and calculated based on the uniform mathematical equations can be conveniently adjusted and tracked by the NDA and SPP, respectively. Therefore, they can respond to the principles of ease of the application, cost recovery, stability, predictability, and transparency. Simultaneously, they can be varied according to the factor of the AFCR, which depends on the NDA’s policy; such as risk premium depending on the weather conditions. The CostOM could also be resolved by using many factors; such as import tax, etc, whereas the CostAD can be collected based on the changeable inflation. The adjustments of these two parts can be

appropriately considered for the time periods; for example, a year or three years. In terms of the NP, it should be added when the distribution expansion is operated. To analyze the adjustment of the WC in possible and reasonable schemes, from Tables 6-8,

the results can be described as follows:

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Case 1: For the financial parameters, these are the values that have already been used for Table 2. Therefore, the WCHV, WCMV, and WCHV and

are 7.97 THB/kW, 58.76 THB/kW, and 66.73

THB/kW, respectively. Case 2: The WC calculation is based on 2% of the rRP, which comes from the unexpected

failure of the distribution equipment based on natural events. The rgm and rga are 2%/yr and 2%/yr, respectively. The WCHV, WCMV, and WCHV are 9.53 THB/kW, 70.19 THB/kW, and 79.72 THB/kW, respectively. The WR is 19.46% higher than that of Case 1.

Case 3: The RP, gm, and ga have the same values as Case 2, whereas the cost factor of the reliability improvement is set to be 1.5 pu. This is invested to increase the NDA’s network reliability in order to negotiate with the SPP. Moreover, the NDA adds the reliability premium charge of 10%. This is reserved to be the compensating cost when the network is out of the system. Then, the WCHV, WCMV, and WCHV are 14.46 THB/kW, 106.55 THB/kW, and 121.01 THB/kW, respectively. The WR of this case is 81.35 % higher than that of Case 1. Therefore, from the results, it can be seen that the NDA’s investment cost and reliability charge are increased by 50% and 10%, respectively. The WCMV , which is in the main network and used by the SPP, is still lower than the NPDC (132.93 THB/kW). This clearly demonstrates that the NPDC is inappropriate for a competitive situation. Case 4: In this case, the rRP is set to be 2%/yr, while the reliability premium charge is 5%/yr.

To allow the NDA to reserve the distribution capacity for supporting the fluctuations of the energy

demand, the variance of PDMC is -10%, meaning that the DMC is also decreased by 10%. The. WCHV ,

WCMV, and WCHV are 11.11 THB/kW, 81.89 THB/kW, and 93.00 THB/kW, respectively. The WR is higher than that of Case 1 by 39.37%. Similar to the results of Case 3, the WC is still much lower than the NPDC.

Case 5: The rRP is 2%/yr. The rgm and rga are 1%/yr and 1%/yr, respectively. The variance of

PDMC is -10%, whereas the reliability premium charge is 5%/yr. Unlike previous cases, the NDA adds

the expected profit of 30%. From all the factors, the WCHV , WCMV, and WCHV are 15.59 THB/kW,

114.86 THB/kW, and 130.44 THB/kW, respectively. The WR is higher than that of Case 1 by 95.48%. In these results, it should be noted that although the NDA receives 30%/yr, 5%/yr, 2%/yr from the profit, reliability premium charge, and rRP, respectively, the WC is still not higher than the NPDC.

Hence, it can be concluded that although the NDA’s expected profit and financial income are significantly added to the WC, the range between the WC and NPDC (132.93 THB/kW) is still very high. From the results of these cases, they demonstrate that: The NPDC is very expensive for competitive services. If the NDA cannot charge a lower rate to the users, it cannot definitely persuade the customers. On the other hand, the SPP can approximately drop its distribution prices by 30-35% and still generate a profit. Hence, it is impossible to fairly process the energy market for the NDA and SPP. For the TPA situation, the NDA can charge a higher WC to the SPP. This results in the NDA’s increasing revenue to compensate the subsidization costs outside the estate area, whereas the SPP

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can still receive new benefits without any incremental costs of the distribution system. This is based on the difference between the higher WC and NPDC that comes from SPP’s new customers. Therefore, it can be concluded that the situation of the TPA can prevent the increase of the SPP’s redundant investment, unfair competition services, difficulty to maintain distribution lines, and the decrease of the NDA’s main responsibility.

5 Conclusion To prevent the increase of unfair competitive distribution services between the NDA and SPP in the industrial estates in Thailand, this paper, unlike previous studies, proposes the WC to support the situation of the TPA in the estate area. The hurdle rate is adapted in the financial values, whereas the grandfathered principle is used to allocate the distribution capacity for the third party. The input data are extracted from the real industrial area. The WC is calculated based on several possible schemes to analyze the income of the NDA. As a consequence, the results show that the WC can respond to the principles of cost recovery, transparency, understandability, stability, predictability, and ease of implementation. Also, the WC can be regularly announced as a tool to simultaneously maintain the main service of the NDA, allow the SPP to collect new revenue, and resist the increase of the SPP’s market power. On the other hand, if the WC is not used, there will be a chance that the NDA loses its large income, while the SPP becomes a monopoly generation and distribution service provider in the special area, that includes industrial customers of the country. Therefore, this will result in the lower benefit of the national organization and the higher market power of the private generation and distribution sectors.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 Acknowledgement The data survey and correction supported by the key players mentioned in this paper are greatly appreciated and acknowledged. The authors thank all anonymous reviewers for their suggestions and comments. The conclusions in this paper represent the views of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect the views of any governmental or non-governmental organization.

8 References Ackermann, T., Andersson, G., Söder, L. (2001). Distributed generation: a definition. Electric power systems research, 57(3), 195-204. Allan, R.N. (2013). Reliability evaluation of power systems. Springer Science & Business Media. Authority of Thailand Petroleum. (2016). GM: TPA code development. (in Thai). Authority of Thailand Petroleum. (2017). Onshore TPA Code. Bialek, J. (1996). Tracing the flow of electricity. IEE Proceedings-Generation: Transmission Distribution. 143(4), 313-320. Bialek, J. (1997). Topological generation and load distribution factors for supplement charge allocation in

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transmission open access. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 12(3), 1185-1193. Chen, L., Suzuki, H., Wachi, T., Shimura, Y. (2002). Components of nodal prices for electric power systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems. 17(1), 41-49. Dorf, R.C. (2018). The Electrical Engineering Handbook. Six Volume Set. CRC press. Drahos, P. (2017). Regulatory theory: Foundations and applications. ANU Press. Economics, F. (2008). Review of distribution use of system charging methodology. Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT), Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA), Metropolitan Electricity Authority (MEA). (2010). Purchasing regulation from SPP: Cogeneration firm contract. (in Thai). El-Khattam, W., Salama, M.M. (2004). Distributed generation technologies, definitions and benefits. Electric power systems research, 71(2), 119-128. Grainger, J.J. (1999). Power system analysis. McGraw-Hill. Happ, H. (1994). Cost of wheeling methodologies. IEEE Transactions on Power systems, 9(1), 147-156. Jain, G., Palwalia, D.K., & Mishra, A. (2019b). Transmission Wheeling Pricing in Embedded Cost Using Modified Amp-Mile and MVA Utility Factor Methods. Advances in Technology Innovation, 4(3), 177. Jain, G., Palwalia, D.K., Mishra, A. (2019a). Congestion Cost and Risk Assessment Cost Evaluation in Transmission Pricing Wheeling. Paper presented at the 2019 Third International Conference on Inventive Systems and Control (ICISC). Larbwisuthisaroj, S., Chaitusaney, S. (2018). Wheeling Charge Considering Line Flow Differentiation based on Power Flow Calculation. The 15th International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and Information Technology (ECTI-CON). Lee, W.J., Lin, C., Swift, K. (2001). Wheeling charge under a deregulated environment. IEEE Transactions on industry applications, 37(1), 178-183. Leeprechanon, N., David, A.K., Moorthy, S.S., Liu, F. (2002). Transition to an electricity market: A model for developing countries. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 17(3), 885-894. Levett, A. (1997). Distribution Wheeling For Small Power Producers Within Industrial Estates. Li, B., Robinson, D.A., Agalgaonkar, A. (2017). Identifying the wheeling costs associated with solar sharing in LV distribution networks in Australia using power flow tracing and MW-Mile methodology. The 2017 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC). National Energy Policy Office (NEPO). (1997). The measure in solving problem of small power plant (SPP) and the open access of distribution system for third party. (in Thai). Ng, W.Y. (1981). Generalized generation distribution factors for power system security evaluations. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus, (3), 1001-1005. Office of Utilities Regulation. (2012). Electricity Wheeling Methodologies. Consultation Document. Payakkamas, P., Bangviwat, A., Menke, C., Trinuruk, P. (2017). Price Determination of Electricity Supply in Thailand Based on Externalities, Wheeling Charges, and Losses. Science Technology Asia, 49-64. Price Water House (PWH). (2005). Electricity Power Tariff Energy Policy and Planning Office.

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Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA). (2006). Wheeling Charge and Standby Rate. (in Thai). Provincial Electricity Authority (PEA). (2015). Electricity Tariff. Regulatory Commission Energy. (2007). Energy Industry Act 2007. Regulatory Commission Energy. Rules for settings distribution wheeling rates for privately owned electricity distribution utilities operating under performance-based regulation. Sood, Y.R., Padhy, N.P., Gupta, H. (2002). Wheeling of power under deregulated environment of power system-a bibliographical survey. IEEE Transactions on Power systems, 17(3), 870-878. Thuesen, G.J., Fabrycky, W.J., (1984). Engineering Economy. Prentice Hall International Series in Industrial and System Engineering. Vidhya, P., Kumar, R.A., Asokan, K. (2017). Performance Analysis of Wheeling Charges Determination Using Bialek’s Tracing Method Employing with IPFC Controller in Deregulated Environment. IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE), 12(2), 64-75. Wongkom, T., Chaitusaney, S. (2019). Wheeling Charge Calculation with Consideration of Investment Lifetime and Power Transaction Locations. The 16th International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and Information Technology (ECTI-CON). Yu, C., David, A. (1997). Pricing transmission services in the context of industry deregulation. IEEE Transactions on Power systems, 12(1), 503-510. Sarayut Thitapars is a student at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Thammasat University, Thailand. He completed his Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical Engineering), Institute of Engineering, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand, and Master of Engineering Degree (Electrical and Computer Engineering) from the Faculty of Engineering, Mahasarakham University, Mahasarakham, Thailand, His research interests are Electricity Economics, Energy Policy, Pricing, and Renewable Energy. Panit Prukpanit is currently pursuing his Doctor of Philosophy Program in Engineering at Thammasat University, Thailand. He earned both a Bachelor's and Master’s degree in Electrical Engineering from Thammasat University, Thailand. His research interests include Energy Management, Energy Market, Renewable Energy, and Generation Maintenance Scheduling.

Dr.Nopbhorn Leeprechanon is an Associate Professor at the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University, Thailand. He obtained his Bachelor’s degree (Honors) and Master of Engineering degree, specialized in Electrical Power Engineering from the King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok, Thailand, and received his Ph.D. in Power System Economics and Policy from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT University), Victoria, Australia. He later obtained another Master of Arts degree in Politics and Government from Thammasat University, and a Bachelor and a Master of Laws from Sripatum University, Bangkok, Thailand. His research interests are Renewable Energy Optimization Modeling, Smart Grid Technology, Electricity Economics, Tariffs, Restructuring and Reforming of State Enterprise and Public Utilities.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Composition Optimal Marketing Strategy Using a Combination of Fuzzy Hierarchical Analysis Technique and SWOT Analysis for a Case of the Insurance Industry Malihe Taghdirifar1, Lale Shamsnejad2* Sabzevar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sabzevar, IRAN. Hamadan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Hamadan, IRAN. *Corresponding Author (Email: L.Shmsnezhad @gmail.com).

1 2

Paper ID: 13A1M Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 15 March 2021 Received in revised form 22 October 2021 Accepted 27 October 2021 Available online 01 November 2021

Keywords:

Marketing strategy, Insurance industry, SWOT matrix, fuzzy hierarchical analysis, upto-date technologies, online insurance purchase; FAHP.

Abstract

The main purpose of this article is to develop the optimal strategy of insurance industry representatives by using the SWOT analysis technique and combining it with fuzzy hierarchical analysis. For this purpose, fuzzy hierarchical analysis and SWOT analysis have been used. The data collection tool in this research is a questionnaire and the statistical population includes representatives of the insurance industry, about 130 representatives were selected as a statistical sample. The method is as follows: at first, the second binary method comparison with the FAHP method. Then, the binary comparison was calculated separately, and finally, the strategic area of the insurance industry was determined. According to the results of the research, the country's insurance industry deals with more opportunities in terms of external factors and more strength in terms of internal factors. Using Up-to-date software and providing the possibility of online insurance purchases, making targeted investments to improve financial capacity and speed of compensation, as well as eliminating strict rules for industrial centers and also providing suitable conditions for the growth of insurance companies in the stock market and increasing useful advertising. Disciplinary: Management Sciences. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Taghdirifar, M., Shamsnejad, L. (2022). Composition Optimal Marketing Strategy Using a Combination of Fuzzy Hierarchical Analysis Technique and SWOT Analysis for a Case of the Insurance Industry. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1M, 1-11. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.13

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1 Introduction The concept of strategy is derived from the competitive advantage and environment, resource constraints. Competitive advantage is a set of resources or capabilities that enable a company to continuously beat its competitors. The meaning of marketing strategies is Researching and finding suitable markets in various dimensions, both economically and socially, as well as culturally and legally (Roosta et al ,2019). Hence Adopting appropriate strategies in organizations, especially in the competitive insurance industry is an effective element. Because today due to the sharp increase of Competitive indicators, the arrival of alternative products and services, as well as severe market disruptions and changes in various industries, the importance, and power of the "marketing process" in generating revenue and access to enterprises is much more prominent than before (Karimian et al, 2019). insurance industry not only free from these environments; effects, rather, among the most difficult markets it considered as marketing implementation. Although the value of insurance for its customers is very expensive in the event of a crisis, there is no tangible compensation of time of payment. It const benefit analysis will be difficult for menta; formats to get the expected value on the future events. And so, marketing for insurance is one of the classic examples of difficult marketing (Harun et al, 2018). Currently, most of the marketing strategies and approaches used in the country's insurance companies are based on promotional policies and price discounts due to repeated purchases and customer loyalty. But these approaches until There is no complete flexibility in competitive and different planning of other "value propositions" in the insurance portfolio, neither economically for the supplier nor in terms of value for the customer. And it does not make an insurance company more competitive than other competitors. Hence the macro indicators of the insurance industry do not indicate success in achieving the goals of the promotion. Sales and revenue generation and success stories are mostly summarized on a micro-scale and individual and also cross-sectional effort and initiative (Ćurčić et al, 2019). But in recent years, there have been many innovations in the strategies of the insurance industry and emerging strategies have succeeded in this industry making significant marketing leaps. For example, a very efficient method for insurance marketing will be the possession of information on the organizational risks of firms or participation in their analysis and development. Promoting risk analysis of organizations by insurance companies in industries and organizations can trigger behaviors in purchasing insurance services. Also, today it is possible to promote and sell different types of insurance on cyberspace platforms is provided. Although this is minimal use of the digital feature in insurance marketing. But the capabilities of virtual technology by providing analytical content, directly and indirectly, make it easy for customers to make the difficult decision of buying insurance The use of new technologies such as the Internet of Things is another innovation in the field of insurance. As the global megatrends show, utilizing this technology will create the next industrial revolution in the world. Today Leading insurance companies by promoting the use of the Internet of Things, have been able to measure and analyze insurance risks with great precision (Wang et al, 2019). This feature has created flexibility in

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providing insurance options and prices to customers and an impressive reception. And has generated sustainable revenue for them. And, on the other hand, the use of information that indicates the future status of an asset. It can easily lead to corrective and repair interventions and the like which will greatly reduce the cost of losses for insurance companies. Whereas The situation of the insurance industry in Iran, such as the existence of a very high potential market for various insurance disciplines in different sectors of society, structural and managerial weakness of insurance companies in terms of employing skilled and knowledge-based labor force, disproportionate growth of insurance companies with technological growth of other organizations. And the community sectors, etc., all indicate the need for serious decision-making to use new and entrepreneurial methods in the insurance industry. Therefore, determining and continuing the optimal marketing strategy in the insurance industry is critical for active companies to succeed and increase competitiveness. Despite this, insurance companies have not paid due attention to this issue due to their involvement in daily activities or lack of knowledge and consistent strategic planning. as far as Most of their activities are cross-sectional, aimless, passive, and responsive to current market issues. Therefore, due to the gap in strategic planning methods and tools and in terms of importance to achieve a competitive and active situation in the market, this study will try to identify weaknesses and strengths and threats and opportunities facing the insurance industry, possible strategies. Analyze marketing in this section using a combination of fuzzy hierarchical analysis and SWOT analysis techniques.

2 Research Background This research studies on marketing strategy in the insurance industry show that most of the studies conducted in this field of study have been scattered. So far, no comprehensive research has been done in this regard. Rafiei and Khali (2014) formulated optimal strategies for the branches of the Social Security Organization in Mazandaran province. This study has identified a preferential strategy by analyzing the situation of self-employed insurers in Mazandaran province. And has provided strategic recommendations for improving this market. The purpose of providing strategic recommendations is to try to improve the quality of insurance services of the Social Security Organization and to improve the quality of decision-making in different parts of the organization. Aghazadeh et al. (2015) studied the innovation strategies in the insurance industry with a blue ocean approach. The results of their study showed that the dimensions of Internet services, physical evidence, and creativity are at an inappropriate level of performance. And companies active in the country's insurance industry have similar performance in all dimensions except the physical evidence dimension. In the following, the way to achieve the blue ocean of the country's insurance industry is shown in the form of a four-step model and four steps of creating, increasing, decreasing, and removing. Fatemi et al. (2015) in study examining and tested strategic entrepreneurship metrics on the performance of Iran Insurance in Iran Insurance Company in Isfahan. The results of this study show

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that entrepreneurial culture, entrepreneurial mentality, entrepreneurial leadership, strategic resource management, and the use of creativity and innovation development have a significant effect on the performance of Iran Insurance Company. Pirayesh and Nazari (2016) developed a strategy in insurance companies. In this research, the HISSPM model, which is a suitable combination of the CSF method, AHP technique, and genetic algorithm, has been tested in a part of Central Insurance of Iran. Identification of required information systems using CSF method, prioritization using AHP technique, and fast finding of optimal combination of systems is achieved by using genetic algorithm. Applying the results of excellence management and the participation of all managers in the strategic planning process of information systems. Soleimani et al. (2016) targeted the development of competitive strategies of insurance companies with a strategic management approach. In this study, based on the opinions of 12 managers and experts in the insurance industry, first, internal and external factors affecting the strategic planning process are identified, then, by analyzing them, the best possible strategies are proposed. The result of SPACE matrix analysis in this study has placed the organization in the Strategic Offensive Area (OS), which by examining that area, along with some offensive strategies based on the capabilities of the organization, has led to the proposal of 3 strategies. Omidi and Poursalimi (2019) designed an interactive model of marketing intelligence and effectiveness of insurance industry performance using fuzzy AHP technique in Pasargad Insurance. Based on the obtained results, a marketing information system is a set of processes and methods that are designed to produce, analyze, publish and maintain the anticipated information of marketing decisions based on a regular and continuous process. Which can create a very good competitive advantage for Pasargad Insurance. And the management of this insurance is suggested to design and create such a system with a strong expert team. Also, based on the results of the hierarchical analysis in this study, having the behavior and strategic vision of the organization and training sales and marketing forces are other important indicators in this sector.

3 Research Methodology This research, in terms of method, is descriptive-survey research and in terms of nature, analysis, and exploration, which is done using quantitative and qualitative models. This research is logical in terms of induction and applied in terms of results. The whole research process will provide a model for identifying the optimal marketing strategies in the insurance industry in four areas: social, political, technological, and economic. In each stage of the research, the opinions of experts are used to identify the effective factors and weigh the required factors Finally, the optimal strategy for the insurance industry will be identified. It should be noted that 130 managers and experts of insurance companies have formed a statistical sample of this study. After identifying weaknesses, strengths, opportunities, and threats, external performance evaluation matrices and internal performance evaluation and the final matrix of fuzzy pairwise

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comparisons were formed by FAHP method to determine in which strategic area the industry is located.

4 Society, Statistical Sample and Sampling Method The statistical population of the study includes all managers and experts representing some active insurance companies in the country, which is about 200 people. The number of managers and employees of the statistical community was identified as 200 people, which using the above formula, the number of samples is estimated to be 130 people.

4.1 Data Collection Method To evaluate the weaknesses, strengths, opportunities, and threats in the field of the marketing strategy of insurance companies as well as to identify fuzzy pair comparisons and present the optimal strategy in this field, three separate questionnaires were prepared and distributed and completed among managers, experts, and elites. Also, another questionnaire will be designed to identify the prioritization of existing strategies in the field of insurance based on the method of pairwise comparisons and will be distributed and completed among experts in this field. The validity of the questionnaires was confirmed by presenting the extracted indicators to experts and their opinions in removing and adding some indicators and the reliability of the initial questionnaires was confirmed by using Cronbach's alpha method.

5 Research process In this research, to extract the best marketing strategy for the oil and gas industry, first, based on the fuzzy hierarchical analysis method, different levels of analysis were identified. The first level means the goal of choosing the best strategy, the second level means the criteria include four factors S and W, O, and T and the third level means the options include general marketing strategies: offensive, defensive, conservative, and competitive. The method is that first the second level binary comparison with FAHP method is done. Then the binary comparison of the sub-criteria is calculated separately and finally, the strategic area of the insurance industry is determined Finally, the industry strategies in the strategic area are listed and the best strategy is determined.

6 Research results and findings Determining the final matrix of fuzzy pairwise comparisons of the main factors by the FAHP method First, we combine the collected questionnaires using the geometric mean method and identify the relative importance of the SWOT matrix factors. Table 1: Determining the relative importance of factors factors strengths weakness opportunities threats

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strengths 1 -

weakness 1.8 1 -

opportunities 4.4 1.44 1 -

threats 1.23 1 0/28 1

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Then we convert the numbers and values of the above matrix to fuzzy numbers corresponding to the preferences, and obtain the fuzzy mean value: Table 2: Comparison matrix Fuzzy pair of main factors criteria

S W O T

)1,1,1( )0.33,0.85,1( )0.25,0.41,0.33( )0.25,0.81,2(

)1,1.18,3( )1,1,1( )0.33,0.69,1( )0.5,1,2(

(2,2.44,4) )1,1.44,3( )1,1,1( )2,3.57,5.14(

)0.33,1.23,4( )0.5,1,2( )0.14,0.28,0.5( )1,1,1(

The fuzzy geometric mean value (1/44, 1/56, 1.86) (1.30,1.44,1.63) (1.15,1.24,1.30) (1.39,1.59,1.78)

Then we calculate the fuzzy weight, For this purpose, the Si vector is calculated by multiplying two vectors as follows: To obtain the first vector, we add the components of the fuzzy numbers in each row. The second vector is the sum of all the triangular numbers in the above matrix, which is inverted. This vector is the same in calculating all SIs. The inverse of a triangular number is

aij−1 = (1 / u ,1 / m,1 / l ) If (l, m, u) = aij is a triangular fuzzy number, its inverse will be as follows: The descriptions of Si vectors will be calculated as follows: 𝑆𝑆1 = (1/441.1/5/6.1/86) ⨂ (

1 1 1 . . ) = (0.22.0.27.0.35) 6.57 5.83 5.28

𝑆𝑆2 = (1.30.1.44.1.63) ⨂ (

1 1 1 . . ) = (0.19.0.25.0.31) 6.57 5.83 5.28

𝑆𝑆1 = (1.39.1.59.1.78) ⨂ (

1 1 1 . . ) = (0.21.0.27.0.34) 6.57 5.83 5.28

𝑆𝑆3 = (11.15.1.24.1.30) ⨂ (

1 1 1 . . ) = (0.17.0.21.0.25) 6.57 5.83 5.28

Therefore; Weight w will be equal to w ́= (0.28,0.25,0.21,0.27)

And the corrected and normal weight is equal to W = (0.275,0.247,0.208,0.270) Therefore, based on the AHP method, the criteria will be prioritized as follows: Table 3: Final matrix of criteria prioritization using FAHP method Indicator S W O T

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Weight of criteria (average line) 0.275 0.247 0.208 0.270

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7 Calculate the Weights of Internal and External Factors and SWOT Matrix Formation The results of binary comparison of each criterion with its sub-options for each of the internal factors (IFE), external factors evaluation (EFE), and the matrix of threats, opportunities, strengths, and weaknesses (SWOT) are presented and has been achieved. From the perspective of this matrix, an appropriate strategy maximizes strengths and opportunities and minimizes weaknesses and threats. Therefore, by forming a matrix, a list of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats has been prepared to evaluate the optimal marketing in the insurance industry. Then, by conducting a survey of experts using the Likert scale, they attempted to weigh (a weight coefficient between zero and one) each of the internal and external factors. And after calculating their total final score (for each of the factors of opportunities and threats a score between 1 to 5), finally the evaluation matrix of internal and external factors and the overall score (to each of the factors of strengths and weaknesses based on comments Experts assigned a weighting factor between zero (insignificant) to one (very important). And then score 3 to 5 for each factor of strengths. For weaknesses score 1 or 2 and in the next step, the weighted score/degree of the important factor of each factor is calculated and the total score is obtained. The results are presented in Tables 4 and 5. According to the final weights obtained from internal factors, people's trust in the insurance and trained workforce. and expert of the most important strengths of the insurance industry and advertising of insurance companies and investment in online sales of insurance products are among the most important weaknesses. The existence of foresight in people and the importance of education and increasing the average level of education are the most important opportunities of the insurance industry and the most important threats can be the recession and the inability to direct working capital in profitable investments, restrict the use of foreign investment and strict rules to attract representatives. The insurance was referred by Central Insurance. Table 4: Internal Factor Evaluation Matrix Factor Strengths

Questions S1: Insurance specialization of senior managers S2: After sales service S3: High financial capacity to pay damages S4: Trained and specialized workforce S5: Having up-to-date insurance software programs S6: Ability to issue all insurance policies related to insurance services S7: People's trust in insurance S8: Number of suitable branches of insurance companies S9: High rate of compensation S10: Personal characteristics of agencies S11: Assignment reinsurance S12: Appropriate information for announcing insurance rates S13: High limits on damages and discounts The final score of the forces

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Coefficient 0.047 0.045 0.04 0.015 0.019

Score 4 4 4 4 3

The final score 0.188 0.18 0.16 0.204 0.057

0.02 0.052 0.05 0.036 0.048 0.035 0.034 0.023 -

3 2 4 3 4 3 3 3

0.06 0.208 0.2 0.108 0.192 0.105 0.102 0.069

1.83

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Weaknesses

W1: Investment portfolio management W2: Manpower productivity and human resource training W3: Organizational structure of insurance companies W4: Employee performance appraisal systems. Employee service compensation W5: Expertise in investment opportunity analysis W6: Profitability of existing investments W7: Familiarity of agents with up-to-date marketing techniques W8: Creativity in providing new services W9: Advertising of insurance companies W10: Investing in online sales of insurance products W11: Lack of coordination and proper communication with other bodies (insurance companies, judicial and disciplinary authorities, hospitals, etc.) W12: Lack of agility and speed in responding to inquiries about rates, tenders and licenses W13: Poor monitoring of delegates' performance The final score of weaknesses The final score of internal factors

0.044 0.044 0.033

2 2 1

0.088 0.08 0.0325

0.033 0.050 0.039

1 2 1

0.033 0.1 0.0385

0.052 0.048 0.054 0.053

2 2 2 2

0.102 0.096 0.107 0.105

0.014

0.019 0.023 0.750

1 1 20 0.2673

0.019 0.023 0.84

Table 5: External Factor Evaluation Matrix Factor Opportunities

threats

Questions O1: High number of industrial centers O2: High number of transport and shipping companies O3: The presence of foresight in people O4: Decrease in bank interest rates O5: The importance of education and increasing the average level of education O6: Exchange membership and the possibility of using derivative financing instruments The final score of opportunities T1: Increasing customers' credit risk due to the country's economic issues T2: Upward trend in marketing costs T3: Recession and inability to direct working capital into profitable investments T4: Restrictions on the use of foreign investment T5: Establish coordination between inflation-proportional bank deposits T6: Lack of government concern in implementing the laws governing investment activities in the country T7: Poor supervision of central insurance T8: Increase in ransom rate per year (third party damages) T9: Strict rules on the recruitment of insurance agents by Central Insurance The final score of the threats The final score of external factors

Coefficient 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.06

Score 3 3 4 3

The final score 0.177 0.2595 0.442 0.1725

0.10

0.396

0.09 -

4 21

0.35 1.797

0.06 0.05

2 1 2

0.11 0.05

0.07 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.06 1

2 1 2 2 2 2 16 0.27

0.14 0.12 0.05 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.12 0.91

The calculated incompatibility index (I.R) rate for all criteria is between zero and 0.01, which indicates the significance of the whole model and confirms the accuracy of the calculation process. Determine the strategic marketing area The purpose of this step is to determine the strategies that can be implemented. Internal and external matrices as well as opinions of experts have been used to determine the executive strategies.

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If the sum of the total final score of the insurance industry in this matrix is more than 2.5. This means that according to the opportunity, the organization will overcome the threats. And if this score is less than 2.5, it will indicate the dominance of threats over opportunities. The same is true for strengths and weaknesses. The results of plotting the information obtained from the SWOT matrix of the insurance industry marketing are presented in Figure (1). It indicates the evaluation of internal factors of insurance (2.673) and the matrix of evaluation of external factors (2.7). This indicates the strategic position and offensive strategies as the most appropriate marketing strategy of the insurance industry. According to insurance experts and people's trust in insurance, using up-to-date software and providing the possibility of online insurance purchases are some of the best marketing strategies in this industry. The final score of the evaluation of internal factors=2.673 1 2 3 4 1

Offensive strategy

Conservative strategy

Competitive strategy

Defensive strategy

2 3

Figure 1: Internal and External Factor Evaluation Matrix (IE) Table 6: Insurance industry marketing strategy strategies internal factors External factors Strengths S1-13

weak points W1-13

Opportunities O1-6 According to insurance experts and people's trust in insurance, using up-to-date software and providing the possibility of online insurance purchases are one of the best marketing strategies in this industry Increasing use of insurance technology and software to provide appropriate information on insurance rates and guidance to receive damages and related follow-up Make targeted investments to improve the financial capacity to pay damages as well as increase the speed of payment of damages Increase insurance branches and training of specialized personnel and with experience in up-to-date insurance techniques Provide appropriate conditions To grow insurance companies in the stock market and encourage people to invest in it increase useful and effective advertising Strategies Review (WO)

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Threats T1-9 Diversity Strategies (ST)

Defensive Strategies (WT)

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The fact that the intersection of internal and external factors is strategically located in house No. 1 of the table, means that this group of indicators has more opportunities in terms of external factors and more strength in terms of internal factors. An aggressive or development strategy (SO) should be adopted for this group of indicators. The results of the calculations of this matrix are described in Table 6.

8 Conclusion The insurance industry is one of the most important pillars of the economic development of countries. This is no exception in the case of Iran.in recent decades, regulatory changes and the approach

regulators

towards

increased

competition

and

precautionary

regulations.

Liberalization of the insurance industry, entry of private insurance companies, economic conditions, and sanctions of the country. and insurance culture is one of the issues facing the insurance industry today; in particular, the competitiveness of the insurance business environment in Iran, as a major change in the cultural, legal, and economic context of the country, has led to advantages and disadvantages for the insurance industry.

Hence, due to the dynamic and

competitive environment of the insurance industry continuity competitive strategies based on knowledge of the environment, the opportunities, and environmental threats and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of this organization are very important because, without this analysis, the insurer's efforts will not be effective and will not lead the organization to its destination. Therefore, in this study, determining the optimal strategy of insurance industry representatives is the subject of this study. The results of fuzzy hierarchical analysis and SWOT matrix formation indicate that there are more opportunities and more strengths of this industry than its threats and weaknesses. Therefore, the best strategy recommended by this study is an aggressive strategy (SO) in the form of using up-to-date software and providing the possibility of online insurance purchases, increasing use of insurance technology and software to properly inform insurance rates and guidance to receive Damages, and related follow-ups, targeted investments to improve the financial capacity to pay damages, as well as increase the speed of payment of damages, creating discounts and eliminating strict rules for industrial centers, transport and shipping companies, etc., providing appropriate conditions It is useful and effective for the growth of insurance companies in the stock market and encouraging people to invest in it, as well as increasing advertising.

9 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

10 References Aghazadeh, H., Mahdavi, G., Chorn, E., Reza, A., 2015. A Study of Innovation Strategies in the Insurance Industry with a Blue Ocean Approach. Insurance Research Journal (Insurance Industry), 30(1), pp. 214-187. Christina, I. D., Fenni, F. and Roselina, D. 2019. Digital marketing strategy in promoting product. Management and Entrepreneurship: Trends of Development, 4(10), pp.58-66. DOI: 10.26661/2522-1566/2019-4/10-05. Curcic, N., Piljan, I., Simonović, Z., 2019. Marketing concept in insurance companies. ЕКОНОМИКА, 65(3), pp.21-33.

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Fatemi, B., Mirabi, V., Ranjbar, M. H., 2016. A Study of Strategic Entrepreneurship Metrics on Iran Insurance Performance Study: Iran Insurance Company, Isfahan. 2nd International Conference on New Research in Management, Economics and Accounting, https://civilica.com/doc/439846 Harun, N. A., Noor, M., Nazri, M., Afrah, H. A. R., 2018, Relationship Marketing in Insurance Industry: A Systematic Analysis of Literatures, Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research. 1st International Conference On Economics Education, Economics, Business and Management, Accounting and Entrepreneurship (PICEEBA 2018), 57. Karimian, L., Amirshahi, M., Heidarzadeh, K. and Ghaffari, F., 2019. Designing a Branding Model for Commercial Insurance Companies in Iran With the Help of a Mixed Research Method. Consumer Behavior Studies, 6(1), pp.245-265. Kaveh, M., Saeida Ardekani, S. and Tabatabaeenasab, S.M., 2020. Marketing Strategy Evaluation by Integrating Dynamic Systems Modeling and Network Data Envelopment Analysis. Journal of System Management, 6(1), pp.19-34. Nourian, H., 2019. Marketing Strategies in the Insurance Industry, Isfahan World Economy Editorial, published in 2019-09-25, http://hosseinnourian.com Omidi, A. and Poursalimi, M., 2019. Designing an Interactive Model for Marketing Intelligence and Effectiveness of the Insurance Industry Performance using Fuzzy AHP Techniques Case Study: Pasargad Insurance. New Marketing Research, 9(2), pp.149-168. Pirayesh, R. and Nazarianpour, Z., 2016. Strategy Development in Insurance Companies. The First National Conference on the Role of Third Generation Universities in Skills Training, Entrepreneurship and Sustainable Development in the Context of Resistance Economy, Zanjan. https://civilica.com/doc/590691 Prymostka, O., 2018. Life insurance companies marketing strategy in the digital world. Insurance Markets and Companies, 9(1), pp.66-73. Rafiei, S. and Khalkhali, A., 2014. Development of optimal strategies for branches of the Social Security Organization in Mazandaran province, International Conference on Industrial Management and Engineering, https://civilica.com/doc/415777 Roosta, A. Venus, D. Ebrahimi, A. 2019. Marketing Management. Publications of the Organization for the Study and Compilation of University Humanities Books (Semat), 21. Samiee S, Chirapanda S. 2019. International marketing strategy in emerging-market exporting firms. Journal of International Marketing, 27(1):20-37. Valimi, F., Fatahi, M., Ranjbar, M., 2021. Designing a model of marketing strategies in Hafez Atieh Sazan Insurance Company. Iranian Journal of Health Sciences, 9(1), pp.22-34. Valimi, F., Fattahi, M., Ranjbar, M., 2020. Factors Affecting Marketing Strategy with Health Insurance Educational Approach. Clinical Excellence, 10(2). Wang, M., Zhou, H., Zhang, Q. and Zhang, Y., 2019. InsurTech: Infrastructure for New Insurance. KPMG International. kpmg.com/cn/socialmedia. Lale Shamsnejad is a Lecturer at the University of Applied Sciences. She holds Bachelor's and Master’s degrees in Accounting from the Islamic Azad University of Iran. She got an MBA from EBS Sweden. She is a DBA student.

Malihe Taghdirifar graduated from the Islamic Azad University, Sabzevar Branch, She holds a MBA degree from EBS Sweden. She is a DBA student. She works in the Insurance and Marketing Industry (Teacher Insurance and Asia Insurance).

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Anatomical and Topographic Features of the Major Masticatory Muscle in Sheep N.A. Slesarenko1*, E.O. Oganov1, V.A. Ivantsov1, E.O. Shirokova1 FSBEI HE MSAVMandB - MVA named after K.I. Scriabin, Moscow, RUSSIA. Corresponding author (Email: slesarenko2009@yandex.ru).

1 *

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1N Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 12 August 2021 Received in revised form 23 October 2021 Accepted 29 October 2021 Available online 15 November 2021

Keywords: Chewing muscles; Small cattle; Sheep head; Masseter muscle.

The article provides information about the anatomical and topographic features of the major masticatory muscle in sheep. The research was carried out on the basis of the Department of Animal Anatomy and Histology named after Professor A.F. Klimov MSAVMandB - MVA named after K.I. Scriabin on 10 animals using the method of fine anatomic dissection, followed by functional analysis of the studied structures and skeletotopic projection of areas for fixing parts of muscles. The biomechanical capabilities of the jaw apparatus and the transformative effect of the chewing function on the head bony frame in sheep have been established. The data obtained are basic for deciphering the biomechanics of the temporomandibular joint in small cattle. Disciplinary: Animal and Biology Sciences, Biomechanics, Veterinary Sciences. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Slesarenko, N. A., Oganov, E. O., Ivantsov, V.A., Shirokova, E.O. (2022). Anatomical and Topographic Features of the Major Masticatory Muscle in Sheep. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1N, 1-6. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.14

1 Introduction As is known, the masticatory apparatus in ruminants is capable of performing various types of movements: closing, opening, abduction, adduction. Among the mandibular clamps, the major masticatory muscle makes up 50% of their total mass. Its two-layer structure, especially pronounced in herbivores, with alternating reduction of the surface and deep parts, it allows for lateral, millstone-like movements when grinding feed (Slesarenko and Sharovatova, 2014; Tuganov, 2000; Paiva Neto et al., 2018; Herring et al. 2001; Pares-Casanova et al., 2018; Herring, 2007; Turnbull, 1970).

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In representatives of other taxonomic groups, the authors distinguish the superficial, deep, intermediate (cranio-dorsal) parts in the major masticatory muscle, as well as the temporal dorsal part (Sovetbek, 2021; Slesarenko et al., 2021; Kuznetsov, 1994; Slesarenko and Sharovatova, 2014; Herring et al., 2001; Herring, 2007; Turnbull, 1970). Nevertheless, in the available literature, there is practically no information on the functional anatomy and topography of this muscle in small cattle (Slesarenko and Sharovatova, 2014; Tuganov, 2000; Pares-Casanova et al., 2018). The purpose of this research is to establish anatomical and topographic features of the major masticatory muscle in sheep.

2 Material and Methods of Research Sectional material was examined - heads (n=10) selected from sexually mature (1.5 years old) sheep of the Romanov breed. Age was determined by the method of Sh. Korneven and F.-K. Lesbr (2011). Methods of fine anatomical dissection were used, followed by functional analysis of the studied structures and skeletotopic projection of areas for fixing parts of muscles (Slesarenko, 2018).

3 Research results It was found that under the scalp there is its superficial fascia, which is a continuation of the superficial fascia of the neck. It is divided, as known, into the surface and deep sheets. In the area of the sheep's head, the subcutaneous muscle of the head is enclosed between its leaves (Figure 1), located ventrally to the zygomatic. In the orbit area, the superficial fascia tightly fuses with the skin, the corneal processes of the frontal bone, the lateral surface of the nose, lips and nostrils. The deep fascia is located under the superficial fascia (Figure 1-a, 2-b). Between the sheets of the superficial and deep fascia, the zygomatic muscle and the lower eyelid depressor are enclosed. The deep fascia in this area is attached to the zygomatic arch, the skin of the lower eyelid and further, in the rostral direction, arched extends to the facial cristae. Under it, there is the subfascial fatty tissue, and under it, there is the major masticatory muscle (Figure 2).

Figure 1: Gross specimen of the sheep's head: 1- subcutaneous muscle of the head; 2- zygomatic muscle; 3- superficial fascia of the head; 4- deep fascia of the head.

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Figure 2: Gross specimen of the sheep's head: a- deep fascia of the head was opened, b- after removal of the deep fascia: 1- deep fascia; 2- major masticatory muscle; 3- lower eyelid depressor; 4- zygomatic muscle (cut off); 5- ventral part, 6- posterior dorso-rostral part and 7dorso-caudal part of the superficial masticatory muscle. In our study, we concluded that the major masticatory muscle in sheep is a complex muscle represented by 6 muscles that form three layers - superficial, intermediate and deep. They differ in their external shape, structure, direction of muscle fibers and attachment points. Thus, the surface layer is represented by 3 parts (Figure 2). 1. The ventral part is triangular in shape, starting from the facial cristae with a powerful tendon, which in the caudal and caudo-ventral direction diverges in flabelliform to the edge of the lower jaw angle up to the mandibular notch, forming a tendon mirror on the muscle surface (Figure 2-b-5). The myogaster is well developed in the ventro-caudal part, in the region of the mandibular fossa (Figure 3). The aboral end of the muscle is attached to the corner of the mandibular bone, which in the form of a narrow platform continues to the vascular tenderloin (Figure 3 (5- bare area)).

Figure 3: Gross specimen of the sheep's head. Ventral part of the superficial masticatory muscle: 1- tendon mirror of the ventral part of the muscle (the muscle is cut off from the facial cristae); 2- myogaster of the ventral part; 3- dorso-rostral part and 4- dorso-caudal part of the superficial masticatory muscle; 5- area for attaching the ventral part of the superficial masticatory muscle. 2. The dorso-caudal part in the form of a trapezoid is located caudal to the dorso-rostral and above the ventral part of the superficial masticatory muscle (Figure 3, 4), occupying the upperposterior surface of the lower jaw branch. Its proximal end is attached by a flat tendon, starting from the middle part of the zygomatic arch to the middle part of the zygomatic process of the

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temporal bone, while its anterior edge is tendon-like to half of the muscle. The muscle fibers are directed caudo-ventrally, the anterior-lower part of the muscle merges with the ventral part of the surface layer for a short distance. Most of the dorso-caudal part is attached with its lower end to the caudal edge of the mandibular bone branch, above the ventral part of the muscle (Figure 4 (2.2- cut off). There is an intermediate layer under it.

Figure 4: Gross specimen of the sheep's head. The surface layer muscles are abducted (A), the intermediate part is additionally abducted (B): 1.1- ventral superficial muscle, 1.2- area of its distal attachment; 2.1- dorso-caudal muscle, 2.2- place of its attachment; 3.1- myogaster of the superficial dorso-rostral muscle; 3.2- its tendon part and the place of attachment; 4, 4.1intermediate muscle, 4.2- distal area for its attachment; 5- temporal dorsal muscle; 6- deep dorso-rostral muscle. 3. The superficial dorso-rostral part (muscle) (Figure 3 (3), 4 (3.1, 3.2)) is attached in archshape with the dorsal end to the anterior half of the zygomatic arch and the facial line extending from the zygomatic arch to the facial cristae. The dorsal part of the muscle is more fleshy, it narrows somewhat to the ventral end and is attached by a wide tendon (the tendon forms the medial surface of the muscle) to a narrow area on the mandibular bone slightly above the area for the ventral part of the muscle, more caudal to the vascular notch. The direction of the muscle fibers of this part is dorso-ventral. The intermediate layer is represented by one part located under the dorso-caudal and posterior dorsal parts of the ventral superficial muscle (Figure 4 (4, 4.1, 4.2). Its rostral edge borders with the posterior edge of the superficial dorso-rostral muscle. It has a rectangular shape, muscle fibers are oriented dorso-ventrally. The dorsal end of the muscle is attached by a flat tendon to the lower surface of the middle part of the zygomatic arch, under the place of attachment of the dorsocaudal part of the muscle. The ventral end of the muscle (fleshy) occupies an extensive area in the mandibular fossa, above the area for the ventral part (Figure 4, B-4.2). The deep layer of the major masticatory muscle is represented by two parts - deep dorsorostral and temporal dorsal. 1. The deep dorso-rostral part, in comparison with other muscles of this muscle complex, is the most extensive. It is located under the superficial dorso-rostral and along its caudal edge it is covered by the intermediate part of the muscle.

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Figure 5: Skeletotopic markings of parts of the major masticatory muscle in sheep: 1.1, 1.2- points of fixation of the ventral part of the superficial masticatory muscle; 2.1, 2.2- points of fixation of the dorsocaudal part of the superficial masticatory muscle; 3.1, 3.2- points of fixation of the superficial dorsorostral muscle; 4.1, 4.2- points of fixation of the intermediate muscle; 5.1, 5.2- points of fixation of the temporal dorsal muscle; 6.1, 6.2 - points of fixation of the deep dorso-rostral muscle. The lines on the bones indicate the boundaries of the attachment areas of the parts of the major masticatory muscle (A), the colored lines indicate the direction of the muscle fibers (B). The deep part of the muscle is attached to 2/3 of the anterior part of the zygomatic arch (in the recess of its lower surface), and then the arched facial line reaching the facial cristae and the area below the facial line (Figure 4 - B (6)). Muscle fibers converge to the anterior edge of the branch and the lateral surface of the mandible (at the level of the vascular notch), where they attach to the mandibular bone (Figure 5 (A -6.1, 6.2, B- 6, 6.1)). Thus, the direction of the muscle fibers from the ventral tendon to the dorsal tendon is flabelliform. With its front edge, it covers the caudal part of the buccinator muscle. 2. The temporal dorsal (temporomandibular) part is small, nevertheless, fleshy (Figure 4 (A, B-5)), on the branch of the lower jaw it is covered by an intermediate muscle. Muscle fibers are directed from the posterior part of the zygomatic arch to the proximal part of the mandibular bone branch in the ventro-rostral direction (Figure 5 (A, B - 5.1, 5.2).

4 Conclusion Thus, the major masticatory muscle in sheep is complex, that is, it is a complex combination of various parts having a three-layer structural organization, a special macroarchitecture, structural composition, orientation of muscle fibers, skeletotopic markings for fixing parts. Specific features of the orientation of muscle fibers provide versatile movements in the temporomandibular joint, mainly the closing of the jaws (ventral part, dorso-caudal, superficial and deep dorso-rostral, and intermediate muscles). Nevertheless, the direction of the muscle fibers of the temporal dorsal, in combination with the intermediate and dorsal caudal parts of the muscle suggests the abduction of this joint. Ventro-rostral orientation of the muscle fibers of the temporal dorsal part of the muscle in combination with the digastric muscle can contribute to the opening of the jaws. It is found that the biomechanical capabilities of the jaw apparatus are determined by the topical features and morphometric indicators of the masticatory muscles. The transformative effect of the chewing function on the bony frame of the sheep head has been established. Correlations

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between the action of muscles and movements of the lower jaw contribute to craniofacial morphology.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6 References Anarbek uulu Sovetbek. (2021). Topographic anatomy of the cerebral and maxillary region of the head of the Kyrgyz Sighthound. Abstract of Dissertation Cand. Biol. Sciences, Bishkek, 19 p. Herring Susan W. et al. (2001). Jaw muscles and the skull in mammals: the biomechanics of mastication. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A. 131, 207-219. Herring Susan W. (2007). Masticatory muscles and the skull: a comparative perspective. Arch Oral Biol. 52(4), 296299. Korneven Sh. And F.-K. Lesbr. (2011). Age recognition by teeth and epithelial derivatives: Horses, cows, dogs...- 3rd ed. Moscow: Book House "Librocom", 256 p. Kuznetsov S.I. (1994). Development of chewing muscles, lower jaw and teeth in silver-black foxes in the postnatal period of ontogenesis and domestication changes in the chewing apparatus: abstract. dis.... Cand. Biol. Sciences. Moscow, 18 p. Paiva Neto A.O. et al. (2018). Biomechanical analysis of the masticatory movement before and after adjusting dental occlusion in equine. Arq. Bras. Med. Vet. Zootec. 70(1), 6-12. Pares-Casanova P.M. et al. (2018). Mastication in goats shows a chewing side preference. Anim Husb Dairy Vet Sci. 2(1), 1-3. Slesarenko N.A. et al. (2021). Anatomy of a dog. Somatic systems: textbook. St. Petersburg: Lan, 96 p. Slesarenko N.A. (2018). Methodology of scientific research. St. Petersburg: Lan, 268 p. Slesarenko N.A. and Sharovatova A.A. (2014). Comparative anatomical and functional characteristics of the masticatory muscle group in animals. Bulletin of the Voronezh State Agrarian University. 1-2(40-41), 125-130. Tuganov M.N. (2000). The jaw apparatus of domestic sheep of the Karachay and North Caucasian breeds in postnatal ontogenesis. Abstract of Dissertation Cand. Biol. Sciences, Stavropol, 21p. Turnbull William D. (1970). Mammalian masticatory apparatus. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. 356p. Slesarenko Natalya Anatolyevna is Head of the Department, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor Scriabin. Her scientific interests are Structural and Functional Characteristics and Adaptive-Compensatory Mechanisms of Somatic, Visceral and Integrating Systems in Animals

Oganov Eldiyar Ormonovich is an Associate Professor, He is a Candidate of Veterinary Sciences, Associate Professor Scriabin. His scientific interests are Morphofunctional Changes in the Body of Poultry, Morphological Features of the Muscular System of Ruminants

Ivantsov Vyacheslav Alekseevich is an Associate Professor of the Department, He is a Candidate of Biological Sciences Scriabin. His scientific interests are Morphological Features of the Structural Organization of the Head Region in Various Animal Species.

Dr.Shirokova Elena Olegovna is an Associate Professor of the Department. She holds a Ph.D. Scriabin. Her scientific interests are Morphological Features of the Structural Organization of the Knee Joint in Various Animal Species and Risk Factors for the Development of Damage.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Redesigning the Base Eye of a Telescopic Hydraulic Cylinder with Topology Optimization Method Zejnelabedin Aziri1*, Elizabeta Hristovska1 Faculty of Technical Sciences, University St. Kliment Ohridski –Bitola, R.N.MACEDONIA. *Corresponding Author (Te l: +38978229990, Email: zejnelabidin.id@gmail.com). 1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1O

Recently, various optimization methods are being used in the design process in order to find the optimized form of products under different Received 01 August 2021 given conditions. The use of topology optimization has enabled engineer Received in revised form 02 November 2021 designers and industrialists to achieve lighter-weight products costAccepted 11 November effectively and at less time-consuming processes without losing their 2021 intended design purposes. In this study, topology optimization using Available online 19 Autodesk Inventor Software is applied to a component of a front-end November 2021 telescopic hydraulic cylinder to reduce the mass by at least 30% of the Keywords: original weight while satisfying the pressure constraints of 18 MPa. Topology optimization; Furthermore, sketches are drawn based on the forms derived from topology Mass reduction; optimization and the final design is generated into CAD. Finally, finite Autodesk Inventor; Finite Element Analysis; element analysis is done upon the final model in order to conduct the Shape generator; Digital durability analysis. The results show that the model of the component obtained with topology analysis has been reduced by 30.77% of the original sketching; CAD; Von weight while ensuring normal operation under the given constraints. Mises law. Volume 13 Issue 1

Cite This Article: Aziri, Z., and Hristovska, E. (2022). Redesigning the Base Eye of a Telescopic Hydraulic Cylinder with Topology Optimization Method. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1O, 1-8. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.15

1 Introduction The increase in competitiveness in the global market creates the need for increased innovation in the product design development process. This forces the designers, engineers and industrialists to find ways to manufacture high-quality products with minimal costs and in a less time-consuming process. In the conventional design approach, the designs are upgraded based on the evaluation of the design feedback and the perception of the design engineers (Ragai et. al. 2011). As reaching a compromise between the design objectives and constraints is difficult, there

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are no clear ways how to redesign a product. As a result, the conventional design approach may not always be the right method to achieve the best-needed design solution (Stander et. al. 2004). With the implementation of the techniques of optimization in the process of design, engineers have been able to produce powerful designs without hard prototyping and testing all possible options physically, which moreover leads to more cost-effective and less time-consuming design processes. (Ragai et. al. 2011). One of the techniques that designers and engineers use for product optimization is the topology optimization method. Topology optimization has been used by engineers to reduce the amount of used material and the stress-energy of products while preserving their mechanical strength (Bendsoe et. al., 2003). This is a numerical method that physically optimizes the material distribution within a defined domain, by satisfying given conditions and minimizing the cost (Rosinhaa et. al. 2015). In this study, topology optimization is used in the redesign process of a front-end telescopic hydraulic cylinder part (base eye), intending to reduce its weight by at least 15% of the original weight while improving its performance and avoiding deformations.

2 Literature Review The main idea behind the topology optimization is to distribute the material within the designed structure in the best way possible by also meeting the required constraints (Ragai et. al. 2011). In terms of design, a topology method considers a repetitive design process of a products’ form until it will reach the preferred optimized goal - such as minimizing mass, balancing the specific stiffness or minimizing maximum amplitude - based on the applied loads and geometric restrictions. (Dassault Systèmes, 2018). In other words, a topology optimization uses a repetitive algorithm in order to get a simpler shape based on the defined limitations, geometric constraints, and manufacturing controls (Dassault Systèmes, 2018). Topology optimization has been widely used especially as a result of the progress and development of computing power and speed, which has had an outstanding effect on the design process, by replacing the conventional design based on paper and hand calculations with a digital design (Querin et. al. 2017). With topology optimization, we can get more innovative, cost-effective and less timeconsuming designs as it enables us to skip some long processes of traditional design phases. By starting to work on an existing model from which an optimal shape based on the defined design requirements, we can avoid wasting time on the creation of the model and instead focus more on the purification and improvement of the design. Considering the new trends towards the products getting smaller and smaller, minimizing the mass has become an important task for industrialists and engineering designers. Many industries work on reducing product weight and material usage, which is easily and effortlessly done through topology optimization techniques that aim at reaching an optimized design through the best specific stiffness, minimizing mass and maximum displacement (Dassault Systèmes, 2018).

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In other words, with topology optimization, we get lighter and smaller components and less material usage, while functioning properly under the required constraints.

3 Method The methodology is based on the use of topology optimization and the finite element method. The workflow of the design process is presented in Figure 1. As it can be seen the design process contains four main phases: The first phase starts with generating a CAD model of an old design of the base eye. Next, the topology optimization is applied using the Autodesk Inventor, with the help of the shape generator module. The third phase consists of idea generation through numerous hand sketches and their final design interpretation in CAD.

Figure 1: Phases of the design process using topology optimization method. Finally, FEA is conducted for durability analysis (applying fixtures on the structure, applying loads, meshing, determining strains and deformations). The material used for the old base eye model is AISI 1035 SAE Carbon Steel, and its properties are shown in Table 1. Table 1: Characteristics of old models’ material. Properties Young modulus Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity Elongation Fatigue Yield strength Specific heat Density

Value 20000MPa 585MPa 190-210GPa 8-25 % 275MPa 370MPa 434 J/kg.K 7850 kg/m3

The properties of the meshing process in the performed topology optimization are represented in Table 2. Table 2: Mesh characteristics Number of nodes Number of elements

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348577 235486

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3.1 Topology Optimization The product optimization is done upon an existing model of a front-end telescopic hydraulic cylinder component. Firstly, the old model is generated in CAD (Figure 2) and by using the design system Autodesk Inventor we start with the form optimization. The steps performed in this process are the material selection, application of fixtures on the supporting surfaces and application of 18MPa pressure to this model. To reach the optimal form, we have to set the percentage of weight reduction that we want to achieve for the final model. The required percentage of weight reduction is set in the parameters of the shape generator; in our project, the objectives for the percentage of weight reduction were 15%, 25%, and 35%.

The optimized forms derived from the topology

optimization are shown in Figure 3. The shape generator derives a proposed design for each detail, visually reflecting where we have material excess in order to cut unnecessary parts while maintaining stiffness and durability (Figure 4).

Figure 2: CAD model of the old design.

Figure 3: Mass reduction of the existing model with topology optimization tools.

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Figure 4: Different views of mass reduction of the original model using topology optimization.

3.2 Idea Generation and Design Interpretation According to the results of the shape generator, a number of sketches are drawn by hand in order to obtain the final design (Figure 5). The final sketches are derived (Figure 6) from which concept B is chosen by the team. The chosen design is generated in CAD (Figure 7) regarding the shape generator recommendations, in order to recalculate its durability using the FEA approach.

Figure 5: Hand-drawn sketches of the base eye based on the shaper generator recommendations.

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Figure 6: Final sketches for the proposed base eye design.

4 Result and Discussion To test and evaluate the final design, FEA study is conducted on the model with the help of the Solidworks software program. Firstly, based on the topology optimization recommendations, the final model of the base eye is generated in CAD (Figure 7).

Figure 7: CAD model of the new design After that, the specifications are analyzed based on the collection of product information in relation to the functional specifications, loading conditions and materials to be used in FEA. FEA is used to predict stress distribution and deformation by simulating a redesigned model. To determine the load, Von Mises law is applied which is the value used to determine if the product material will

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be rigid/elastic or "loose". The simulation helps achieve easier, faster, and more cost-effective design cycles that will replace the prototype's time-consuming and expensive testing.

Figure 8: Results of FEA simulation Figure 8 shows the durability analysis using the FEA module by applying a fixture on the bottom end (Figure 8) and a pressure of 18 MPa on the upper side directed towards –y-direction. As we can see from the results the form derived from topology optimization and the selected material shows great durability with regard to the relevant pressure and good distribution of stress.

5 Conclusion Designing optimal products with maximum durability is a time-consuming and costly process. The application of topology optimization in the early phases of the design process can lead to a more cost-effective and less time-consuming design process by avoiding the steps of physical prototyping during that process. This study proposes a redesign methodology for a component of a telescopic hydraulic cylinder used in dump trucks, called the base eye of the cylinder, using CAD / CAE methods and sketching techniques in the redesign process. This redesign was made in order to overcome the problems that arose in the production phase of the hydraulic cylinders and to reduce the costs and the material used to create the base eye of the telescopic hydraulic cylinder. In this study, topology optimization is successfully used in order to obtain an optimal form and lighter product of a frontend telescopic hydraulic cylinder component – the base eye. Using the optimization method, the metal capacity of the existing model was reduced by 30.77% where the mass of the product was reduced from 13.05 kg to 9.07 kg. Finite element analysis was conducted in the final model, by which the obtained model ensured normal operation under the pressure of 18 MPa, thus satisfying the loading constraints and the functions that it was aimed

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to perform. Given these results, topology optimization can be seen as a great method to achieve faster and decent designs at economic costs and at less time-consuming processes.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 References Bendsoe M. P., & Sigmund, O. (2002). Topology Optimization: Theory, Methods and Applications. 2nd Ed., Heidelberg: Springer, Berlin, Germany. Dassault Systèmes (2018). Design Through Analysis: Improving Product Design and Automating Manufacturability with Topology Optimization. [White paper ]. 3DEXPERIENCE®Company. https: //www.solidworks.com/sites/default /files/2018-10/DS-18031-Designer-to-Analyst -Topology Whitepaper .pdf Ragai, I ., Tempelman, H., & Kirby, D. (2011). Application of Topology Optimization in Product Design and Manufacturing. ASME 2011 International Manufacturing Science and Engineering Conference, 1. DOI: 10.1115/msec2011-50049 Rosinha, I. P., Gernaey, K. V., Woodley, J. M., & Krühne, U. (2015). Topology optimization for biocatalytic microreactor configurations. Elsevier B .V., 1463–1468.

Stander, N., Roux, W., Eggleston, T., and Craig, K. (2004). LS-OPT User’s Manual: A design optimization and probabilistic analysis tool for the engineering analyst. LSTC, Livermore, CA. Querin O., Victoria M., Gordoa C., Ansola R. & Marti P. (2017). Topology Design Methods for Structural Optimization. Academic Press. M.Sc. Zejnelabedin Aziri is a PHD student at the faculty of Technical Sciences, St. "Kliment Ohridski" - Bitola University, R. North Macedonia. He got a Bachelor's degree at the Department of Industrial Design, Middle East Technical University, in Ankara, Turkey, and a Master's degree at the faculty of Wood Technologies and Furniture Design, Ss. "Cyril and Methodius University" in Skopje, R. North Macedonia. His research areas are CAD/CAE Technologies in Product Design. Dr. Elizabeta Hristovska is a Full Professor at the Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, Faculty of Technical Sciences, St. "Kliment Ohridski" -Bitola University, R. North Macedonia. She got her Master’s and PhD degrees in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at Ss. "Cyril and Methodius" University in Skopje, R. North Macedonia. Her research focuses on the Design of Machine Structures, Machines and Vehicles.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Conceptual Approaches to the Development of the Mechanism of Effective Interaction Between Business and Government in Russia Olga Boris1*, Galina Vorontsova1, Oksana Momotova1, Valentina Parakhina1, Elena Shatskaya1 Department of Management, North Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, RUSSIA. *Corresponding Author (Email: oboris@ncfu.ru). 1

Paper ID: 13A1P Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 24 August 2021 Received in revised form 07 November 2021 Accepted 14 November 2021 Available online 19 November 2021

Keywords:

Business; government; regional development; the interaction of government and business; coronavirus pandemic; agricultural region

Abstract

This article develops recommendations for identifying the system of models and tools of interaction implemented in the region and testing it on the example of one of the Russian regions – the North Caucasus Federal District. The importance of effective interaction between authorities and business structures to achieve the goals of socio-economic development of the region is substantiated. The expediency of a new format of cooperation and application of a holistic approach providing optimal results of interaction between government and business structures is shown. The content of the formation process of the mechanism of interaction between government and business in the region is revealed from the standpoint of considering the main factors that ensure its effective functioning and development in the future. A multi-criteria procedure is proposed for evaluating the system of models of interaction between government and business implemented in the regions of the North Caucasus Federal District according to two key parameters: the impact of government institutions on the development of entrepreneurship and the impact of business on society. Within the framework of each of the parameters under consideration, the impact is detailed according to a number of criteria and expert assessments are given to each of them. It is concluded that the mechanism of interaction between government and business in the region should consider the specifics of the sectoral orientation of its national economic complex. Measures for the development of the mechanism of interaction between government and business in the agrarian region are proposed. Disciplinary: Business Management & Public Administration. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Boris, O., Vorontsova, G., Momotova, O., Parakhina, V., Shatskaya, E. (2022). Conceptual Approaches to the Development of the Mechanism of Effective Interaction Between Business and Government in Russia. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1P, 1-12. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.16

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1 Introduction From the point of view of achieving the goals of socio-economic development of the region, it is difficult to overestimate the effectiveness of interaction between government authorities and business structures. In modern conditions, its achievement is conditioned by the understanding of the need for a new format of cooperation and the application of a holistic approach. Trends and directions of socio-economic development of regions depend on the degree of activity and cooperation of all subjects (Schneider, 2013). The implementation of regional development strategies is impossible without the interaction of its government and business structures on the principles of partnership and respect for mutual interests. In many ways, the process and results of strategic planning in the regions now represent a "niche" of partnership between regional authorities and business community. Effective cooperation between government and business in the regions is based, in our opinion, on a new format of their interaction, in which: •

collective actions of entrepreneurs carried out to consistently express and defend the interests of the business community are recognized as a way of establishing interaction, not an obstacle to economic growth;

•

strengthening the role of voluntary associations of representatives of business structures, both within individual sectors of the economy and intersectoral, the development of various business associations is interpreted as a tool for adapting business to the conditions of modern market conditions, developing a collective policy to protect the interests of small and medium-sized businesses that create conditions for regional development;

•

an important tool for establishing optimal interaction is a public dialogue involving not only representatives of the interests of regional business communities, but also representatives of civil society, including scientists and researchers (Kvitkaetal, 2019).

In our opinion, the new format of interaction necessitates the use of a holistic approach, which provides for a constant assessment of the effectiveness of the forms, models and tools of interaction between government and business, improving methodological approaches to the design and evaluation of the effectiveness of joint projects, identifying trends and promising areas of cooperation, searching for directions for their development.

2 Methodology The study is an analysis of existing approaches to the design and provision of a mechanism of interaction between authorities and business structures in modern conditions based on an understanding of the need for a new format of cooperation and the application of a holistic approach. The conduct of this research is based on the methodological basis of general scientific, organizational, and managerial research. The methodological basis of the research is the methods of comparative, structural-logical, and system analysis. Expert survey methods were used to ensure greater relevance of the obtained

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research results. These methods will allow obtaining the most accurate results of the study and the possibility of checking them for compliance with the stated research goals and objectives. Thus, the scientific work contains a theoretical justification of the analyzed problem; the main provisions and characteristics of the object under study, namely, the characteristics of the stages of designing the mechanism of interaction between government and business in the region and the necessary support for its formation. The study includes an analytical part containing the substantiation of a multi-criteria procedure for evaluating the system of models of interaction between government and business implemented in the regions of the North Caucasus Federal District according to two parameters: the strength of the impact of government institutions on the entrepreneurship development and the strength of business impact on society. The main attention is paid to the critical analysis of the problems of interaction between government and business in the North Caucasus Federal District; factors affecting the strength of mutual influence of government and business on each other; the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships and dependencies between various criteria of such influence. The conclusion contains a summary of recommendations and the results obtained on the identification of a system of models of interaction between government and business, substantiation of recommendations and proposals for considering the specifics of the mechanism of cooperation between government and business structures of the agrarian region. The results of the study have theoretical and practical significance, since the problems raised by the author's team are in the focus of attention of many domestic and foreign researchers.

3 Result The result of the holistic approach is the formation of a well-established purposeful mechanism that allows for optimal interaction between regional authorities and the business community in terms of the use of resources and the goals of the socio-economic development of the region. Based on the study of existing approaches to identifying the main stages of the process of forming the mechanism of interaction between government and business in the region, we consider it appropriate to focus on the most significant of them (Nikitaeva, 2007; Zubaydullina, 2017): •

formation of a mechanism as a target setting is to increase the budgetary, commercial, and social efficiency of interaction between regional authorities and business on the basis of achieving sustainable development goals (Sakharov & Kolmar, 2019; Guttman, et al, 2018);

•

identification of the key interests of the subjects of interaction, identification of the circle of key stakeholders and ensuring coordination of their interests using various forms and tools of public dialogue;

•

identification of the system of interaction models and tools implemented in the region (including the characteristics of individual models in various territories included in the region);

•

monitoring the strengths and weaknesses of interaction, evaluating its effectiveness, determining private and integral performance indicators, assessing the contribution of individual interaction

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subjects to achieving the resulting indicators (Angelina & Roslavtseva, 2016); •

development of proposals to improve the system of models and tools of interaction used in practice (changes in the normative and legal foundations and methodological approaches to cooperation between government and business, ensuring a full transition to a partnership model of interaction, increasing the effectiveness of interaction for government, business, society (Figure 1).

Principles of interaction

Regulatory and legal support

Interaction tools

The purpose of the mechanism is to increase the budgetary, commercial, and social efficiency of interaction between regional authorities and business on the basis of achieving sustainable development goals Identification of the key interests of the interaction subjects, identification of the circle of key stakeholders and ensuring coordination of their interests Risks of interaction

Financial support Identification of the system of models and tools of interaction implemented in the region Monitoring the strengths and weaknesses of the interaction, evaluating its effectiveness

Development of proposals for improving the system of models and tools of interaction used in practice

information and communication platform

Economic and administrative aspects

Organizational and infrastructural aspects

Figure 1: Designing and ensuring the mechanism of interaction between government and business When designing the mechanism of interaction between authorities and business in the region it is important to define clearly points to ensure its efficient functioning and development in the future: principles; tools; possible risks and risk management practices; regulatory support; financial

support;

economic administration;

organizational

and infrastructural

support;

information and communication platform of interaction, used forms of social dialogue (Mikhailov et al., 2018; Aspal & Ali, 2020). The main approaches to determining the goals and objectives of the mechanism of interaction between government and business, the interests of its main subjects are defined in previous studies of the author's team (Vorontsova et al, 2020; Boris et al, 2021).

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We consider the identification of the implemented system of interaction models to be an integral stage in the process of forming a regional mechanism of interaction between government and business, which should be supplemented later by an assessment of cooperation level that has developed in the region. In such an assessment, it is advisable to include a description of the qualitative and quantitative dynamics of joint projects, their sectoral orientation and compliance with the trends in the regional economy development. Only based on such a comprehensive feedback it seems reasonable to proceed to the development of proposals for improving the system of models and tools of interaction used in practice in the region. The basis of this stage of designing and ensuring the mechanism of interaction between government and business is the development of recommendations to eliminate the gap between the implemented and desired model, which ensures an increase in the efficiency of interaction between government and business structures (Khlebnikov, 2011). In this study, the object is the mechanism of interaction between the government and the business community in the North Caucasus Federal District, which includes 7 regions. The first stage of the study involves the development of the multi-criteria procedure for evaluating the system of models of interaction between government and business implemented in the regions of the North Caucasus Federal District according to two parameters: the impact of power institutions on the development of entrepreneurship and the impact of business on society. Each of the parameters under consideration provides for a detailed impact according to ten criteria (Figure 2). Criterion 1. Assessment of the impact of government institutions on the entrepreneurship development

Criterion 2. Parameters for assessing the impact of business on society

1.1 Development and implementation of a system for encouraging socially responsible business by the authorities 1.2 Existence of a regulatory framework that ensures interaction between government and business structures 1.3 Availability of developed infrastructure

2.1 Social and environmental responsibility of business

1.4 Creation of conditions for dialogue between regional authorities and business, availability of strategic mechanisms for coordinating their interests 1.5 Quality of business climate 1.6 Development of public-private partnership 1.7 Financial support for business 1.8 Training of human resources for the business sector

2.2 Creation of associations and other non-profit organizations representing the interests of business in relations with the authorities 2.3 Development of social and technical infrastructure 2.4 Participation of business in strategic mechanisms of coordination of interests with the authorities 2.5 Development level of the market of goods and services 2.6 Development of social entrepreneurship 2.7 Creation of jobs and improvement of social security of the population 2.8 Creation of favorable conditions for personnel development

Figure 2: Criteria indicators for assessing the interaction of government and business structures in the regions of the North Caucasus Federal District Recognizing the fact that in a significant number of regions of Russia the partner model of interaction is dominant, we consider it necessary to note that in several regions, especially lagging

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behind the rest in terms of socio-economic development, other models of interaction between government and business structures are being implemented. In this regard, we consider it expedient to form an information field of research by including expert assessments of entrepreneurs developing their business in the region, representatives of regional authorities and researchers dealing with the problems of interaction between government and business in the NCFD. To ensure the relevance of the research results, a survey of 228 (at least 30 from each region of the North Caucasus Federal District) experts was conducted. The experts included representatives of regional authorities - 45%, heads and representatives of top management of regional business structures - 30%, representatives of business associations - 5%, public councils under the authorities - 5%, scientific community - 15%. The obtained expert estimations allow, in our opinion, to identify the model of interaction between government and business structures in a particular region (Table 1). Table 1: - Evaluation of criteria indicators of interaction between government and business structures in the regions of the North Caucasus Federal District Criteria

Average amount of points 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Assessment of the impact of government institutions on the entrepreneurship development: 1.1 Development and implementation of a system for encouraging 2.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.6 socially responsible business by the authorities 1.2 Existence of a regulatory framework that ensures interaction 4.2 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.1 2.4 between government and business structures 1.3 Availability of developed infrastructure 4.3 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1 1.4 Creation of conditions for dialogue between regional 4.1 2.7 2.8 2.8 2.6 1.4 authorities and business, availability of strategic mechanisms for coordinating their interests 1.5 Quality of business climate 3.5 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.2 1.9 1.6 Development of public-private partnership 3.1 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.8 1.6 1.7 Financial support for business 3.7 3.0 3.1 3.1 3.0 3.0 1.8 Training of human resources for the business sector 4.3 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 3.1 Arithmetic mean for the 1st subgroup of criteria 3.66 2.33 2.33 2.30 2.20 2.13 2. Parameters for assessing the impact of business on society: 2.1 Social and environmental responsibility of business 2.1 1.7 0.8 2.3 2.1 1.0 2.2 Creation of associations and other non-profit organizations 2.4 2.3 1.7 2.1 2.0 1.7 representing the interests of business in relations with the authorities 2.3 Development of social and technical infrastructure 3.0 2.1 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.4 Participation of business in strategic mechanisms of 2.0 1.4 1.3 1.7 1.9 1.7 coordination of interests with the authorities 2.5 Development level of regional market of goods and services 3.1 1.9 1.8 2.7 2.8 1.9 2.6 Development of social entrepreneurship 2.1 1.6 1.2 1.9 1.8 1.3 2.7 Creation of jobs and improvement of social security of the 2.9 3.0 1.9 2.4 2.3 2.2 population 2.8 Creation of favorable conditions for personnel development 3.5 3.2 2.0 2.4 2.3 2.8 Arithmetic mean for the 2nd subgroup of criteria 2.63 2.15 1.67 2.25 2.20 1.86 Note: 1 - Stavropol Territory; 2 - Republic of Dagestan; 3 - Republic of Ingushetia; 4 - Kabardino-Balkarian Republic; 5 - Karachay-Cherkess Republic; 6 - Republic of North Ossetia - Alania; 7 - Chechen Republic.

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7 2.0 2.0 2.5 1.7

2.4 1.9 3.0 2.4 2.23 1.1 1.5

2.5 1.3 1.9 1.1 2.2 2.8 1.80

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The conducted expert survey allowed to obtain more accurate, in our opinion, results of identifying the models actually used in the region (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Results of identification of the used models of interaction between government and business in the NCFD The updated assessment shows that in most regions of the North Caucasus Federal District (four out of seven) a Partnership model of interaction is being implemented, in three - a Business Suppression model: in Ingushetia, Chechnya, North Ossetia. Thus, now, the most popular forms of interaction between government agencies and representatives of the business community in the Stavropol Territory are considered to be: •

public-private partnership (an effective method of solving economic issues with a budget deficit);

•

participation of entrepreneurs in tenders and competitions.

The following measures are most often used in the Stavropol Territory to enhance the interaction of government and business: • organization and holding of forums with discussion platforms with the participation of business and government representatives; •

associations of entrepreneurs, for example, the union "Chamber of Commerce and Industry of the Stavropol Territory", which promotes an active dialogue between business and government, and can also act as a platform for experience exchange, assistance to young entrepreneurs and provides an opportunity to convey local problems in the regions to public authorities.

The dynamics of the analysis of the volume of investments in fixed assets in the context of municipalities indicates the uneven economic development of municipalities of the Stavropol Territory, because of which problems may arise or worsen in various spheres of life of the region, for example, the standard of living of region population may decrease, etc. These consequences, in turn, may pose a threat in the form of a personnel shortage, as highly qualified specialists will leave to more developed regions.

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Among other problems of interaction between the business community and authorities in the NC, the following should be noted: •

difficulties of participation of small and medium-sized entrepreneurs in electronic auctions on the sites of the Stavropol Territory;

•

weak use of small and medium-sized businesses to solve social problems;

•

small amount of funds raised for the modernization of equipment of existing small and mediumsized enterprises;

•

high tax rates for non-residents of Priority Social and Economic Development Area (Bikeeva, 2019).

The mechanism of interaction between government and business in the region, of course, should consider the specifics of the sectoral orientation of its national economic complex. Thus, in the North Caucasus Federal District, the largest economic clusters are agriculture and tourism. The most economically developed subject of the district, the Stavropol Territory, is also characterized by the predominance of these industries. Let's consider the features of interaction between government and business in the agrarian region using the example of Stavropol Territory. The program bases for the development of the agricultural sector of the region are defined by the regional authorities in the state program of the Stavropol Territory "Development of Agriculture" (period of validity 2016-2021). To finance this program, significant financial resources have been allocated 37,724.4 million rubles for all major branches of agriculture: crop production, animal husbandry and land reclamation for agricultural purposes. Within the framework of the program activities, it is planned to implement joint projects of the authorities with representatives of the agricultural business. Most of the joint projects in the region aimed at the development of its agricultural sector are implemented in the form of PPP. As a comparative analysis shows, a similar situation is typical for other agricultural regions of Russia (Baycherova, et al., 2017). One of the reasons for the low competitiveness of several the agricultural sector branches of Russian regions, in our opinion, is the low level of application of innovative management and production technologies, low investment attractiveness of the agricultural sector of the economy for large businesses, which brings to the fore for regional authorities such a task as stimulating innovation in agricultural industries. The technological base of a significant part of the agrarian regions is morally and technologically outdated, there is a constant underfunding of scientific research in the industry. The reengineering of agricultural production, which will ensure the necessary increase in labor productivity to the level achieved by economically developed countries, simultaneously with the greening of the production process provided for by the UN Sustainable Development Goals, requires serious private investment, since budgetary resources are currently limited, including due to the ongoing pandemic of coronavirus infection (Zakirova & Akhmedina, 2017).

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At the same time, the relative low profitability of agricultural production and the high risks inherent in it limit the possibilities of attracting investments to overcome crisis phenomena at the expense of private capital of agricultural business representatives. In our opinion, the formation of an innovative and investment trend in the development of an agricultural region is possible due to effective interaction between the state and business, the implementation of large joint projects, including infrastructure ones, allowing to optimize costs and risks during their implementation to meet the existing need for innovative products and technologies of the agro-industrial complex, which, of course, should be considered in the process of designing and improving the regional mechanism of interaction between government and business proposed by the authors of this study within the framework of the first and second stages, by reflecting in the target setting of the mechanism and determining the key interests of the subjects of interaction (Yemelyanova, 2016). In the Stavropol Territory, the most appropriate solution to the problem seems to be a set of measures to identify the circle of key stakeholders and ensuring coordination of their interests, stimulation of innovation and investment activity of large integrated business structures of the agricultural sector of the economy and targeted work with medium and small agricultural enterprises that form the basis of Stavropol agriculture (Kozlova, et al., 2019). It is also necessary to provide comprehensive support and interaction with the main executive body of state power - the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation - industry unions and associations of the agroindustrial complex of the Stavropol Territory, such as regional branches of the Association "Agrarian Education and Science", the AEP of the agro-industrial complex of the Stavropol Territory, other organizations which activities are aimed at developing innovative activities in the regional agro-industrial complex; stimulating import substitution and increasing the export potential of the region.

4 Conclusion The successful functioning of the country depends on the partnership between the state, business structures, and society since each of these subsystems has internal forces of own development. Nevertheless, the socio-economic development of the country as a whole can be effective only when a balance is maintained between these forces and the interests of each of the parties are considered. Based on the identified problems, we will determine ways to improve the efficiency of interaction between business and authorities to solve the problems of regional business structures. Due to the fact that about half of the subjects of the NCFD have an average and below average level of development of interaction between government and business, a significant task at the present stage is to increase the indicator under consideration to the average level in the Russian Federation, and then the transition of the regions to a higher level of cooperation between government and business structures. To overcome the differentiation of the subjects of the North Caucasus Federal District in terms of the level of development of interaction between government

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and business, we consider it appropriate to make greater use of information and communication platforms using the latest digital technologies for public dialogue. Within the framework of which the exchange of experience in the development and implementation of joint projects will be carried out, the parties interested in cooperation will be able to find each other, representatives of the regional business community will receive the necessary information in the field of information and advisory support of joint projects. In all regions of the North Caucasus Federal District, there is a problem of synchronization of strategic documents for the development of the territory and business, due to insufficient coordination of the interests of business structures and authorities with respect to the main object of their interests – regional resources. The mechanism of coordination of the most important strategic documents defining the future of the territory and business structures carrying out the necessary investments in the economy of the region for their practical implementation has been violated. We consider it rational to synchronize regional development strategies with investment programs and strategies of the main regional business structures. For business structures to coordinate their strategic plans with the development plans of the territory, it is necessary to ensure the satisfaction of their interests through an iterative process of applying the mechanism of coordinating the interests of government and business (Dyachkov, Surnina & Shishkina, 2016). To improve the mechanism of interaction between government and business in the North Caucasus Federal District, the following actions can be proposed 1) formation of special economic zones to increase investments, including on special conditions, and increase production and infrastructure development; 2) formation of financial and credit interaction in the organization and implementation of financial programs, including subsidies, preferential and tax credits, tax benefits; 3) wider involvement of public-private partnership in solving problems of social infrastructure, improvement of forms and methods of development of PPP projects, allowing to increase private investment in the creation of infrastructure facilities; 4) development and optimization of the public procurement system in the maximum possible areas for goods and services for the public sector; 5) optimization of the functions of the subjects of joint projects, including outsourcing of non-core and redundant functions previously performed by the state partner to business representatives; 6) increasing the synchronization of strategic documents for the territory and business development. These measures will allow us to adjust the situation in the North Caucasus Federal District to the level of economically developed regions of Russia and move on to further improve the mechanism of interaction between government and business in the region under study.

5 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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6 Acknowledgments The reported study was funded by RFBR grant, project number No. 20-510-00025 “Development of a concept for the formation of effective models of interaction between authorities and business structures at the regional level within the framework of digital integration of the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation.”

7 References Angelina I.A., Roslavtseva E.A. (2016). Analysis of the effectiveness of interaction between government and business structures. Russian entrepreneurship. 17(18), 2301-2318. doi: 10.18334/rp.17.18.36571. Aspal, P. K., and Ali, I. S. (2020). Nature and Extent of Corporate Social Responsibility Disclosure: A Content Analysis Approach. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 11(16), 11A16Q, 1-12. DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.326 Baycherova A.R., Vaitsekhovskaya S.S., Orel Yu.V., Gunko A.Yu. (2017). Public-private partnership as a tool for the development of innovative and economic potential of the agro-industrial complex of the region (on the example of the Stavropol Territory). KANT. №1(22). 102-106. https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=28847367. Bikeeva M.V. (2019). Strategic partnership of government and business structures as a factor of socio-economic development of the region. Bulletin of the Altai Academy of Economics and Law, 6-1, 27-33. https://www.vaael.ru/ru/article/view?id=587 Boris, O. A., Vorontsova, G. V., Momotova, O. N., &Parakhina, V. N. (2021, March). Peculiarities and prospects of interaction between government and business in the agricultural sector. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 699(1), 012063. IOP Publishing. Dyachkov A.G., Surnina N.M., Shishkina E.A. (2016). Coordination of strategic interests of authorities and the business community in planning the development of the territory. Collection of reports of the XI International Conference "Russian regions in the focus of change" Yekaterinburg: LLC "Publishing House of UMC UPI". Pp. 253-262. Emelyanova E.V., Novgorodtseva A.N., Sivkova N.I. (2016). Interaction of authorities and business structures at the regional level. Collection of reports of the XI International Conference "Russian regions in the focus of change". Yekaterinburg: LLC "Publishing House of UMC UPI", pp.592-601. https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=29954420 Guttman, D., Young, O., Jing, Y., Bramble, B., Bu, M., Chen, C., ...&Zeidan, R. (2018). Environmental governance in China: Interactions between the state and “nonstate actors”. Journal of environmental management, 220, 126-135. DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.04.104 Khlebnikov K.V. (2011). Public-private partnership in the implementation of regional development strategies. STAGE: Economic theory, analysis, practice. No. 3, 83-91. Kvitka, S., Borodin, E., Koval, V., Yemelyanov, V., &Ivashova, L. (2019). Innovative mechanisms of the crosssectoral interaction between business and public authorities in conditions of information society’s transformation. Dilemascontemporaneos-educacionpolitica y valores, 7, 133. Kozlova, O.A., Sukhostav, E.V., Anashkina, N.A., Tkachenko, O.N., Shatskaya, E. (2019). Consumer model transformation in the digital economy era. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computingthislink is disabled, 726, р. 279-287. Mikhailov Y.I., Sokolitsyn A.S., Ivanov D.V. (2018). Project financing in the interaction of regional and municipal authorities and business structures // Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference Quality Management, Transport and Information Security, Information Technologies, IT and QM and IS 2018 (24 28 September 2018. St. Petersburg, Russian Federation). Pp. 854-856. IEEE. Nikitaeva A.Yu. (2007). Strategies and mechanisms of interaction between the state and business in the regions of Russia. Regional Economics: Theory and Practice, 9(48), 19-26.https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=9515666.

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Official website of the Agency for Political and Economic Communications (2021). Development of the Russian agro-industrial complex in the first half of 2021. http://www.apecom.ru/projects/item.php?SECTION_ID=91&ELEMENT_ID=7235

Sakharov A.G., Kolmar O.I. (2019). Prospects for the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals in Russia. Bulletin of International Organizations: Education, Science, New Economy. 14(1), 189-206. https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=39141944 Schneider, Ben Ross, Institutions for Effective Business-Government Collaboration: Micro Mechanisms and Macro Politics in Latin America (October 2013). IDB Working Paper No. IDB-WP-418. Vorontsova Galina, Momotova Oksana, Boris Olga, UstaevaMalvina, UstaevRustam. (2020). Theoretical and methodological approaches to identifying models of interaction between government and business in the context of digital transformation. Conf-Corp 2020 International Scientific-Practical Conference «Transformation of Corporate Governance Models under the New Economic Reality». DOI: 10.1051/shsconf/20208 901004. Zakirova A.E., Akhmedina G.B. (2017). Interaction of government and business structures in the context of modernity. Economics and Entrepreneurship, 9 - 1(86), 459-464. https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=30632041 Zubaydullina D.V. (2017). Improving the mechanism of interaction of subjects in regional management. Regional problems of economic transformation, 10(84), 62-68. https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=30737760. Boris Olga Aleksandrovna is an Associate Professor of the Department of Management of the North Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, Russia. She holds a Doctor of Economics. She is Head of the Master's program "International Management". Her research interests are Strategic Management, International Management, Innovation Management.

Vorontsova Galina Vladimirovna is an Associate Professor of the Department of Management, North Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, Russia. She is a Candidate of Economic Sciences. Her research interests are Management, Territory Marketing, Management Decision-Making, Management of Territorial Development

Momotova Oksana Nikolaevna is an Associate Professor of the Department of Management, North Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, Russia. She is a Candidate of Economic Sciences Her research interests are Management, Strategic Management, Innovation Management

Professor Dr. Parakhina Valentina Nikolaevna is a Professor, and Head of the Department of Management, North Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol, Russia. She holds a Doctor of Economics. Her research interests are Management, Strategic Management, Innovation Management

Shatskaya Elena Yurievna is an Associate Professor, Department Of Management, North Caucasian Federal University, Stavropol, Russia. She is a Candidate of Economic Sciences. She is Head of The International Research Laboratory For Project Management, Innovation, Strategic and Marketing Research in The Russian and International Business Environment, Functioning in Cooperation with the University Of Trento (Italy). Her Research Interests Are Innovation Management, CrossCultural Management, Change Management.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http//:TuEngr.com

Dialectical Analysis of Sustainability Assessment Framework in India for Agenda 2030 Neeharika Kushwaha1*, Charu Nangia1 Amity School of Architecture and Planning, Amity University, Noida, INDIA. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +91-9717656536, neeharika.kushwaha@s.amity.edu). 1

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1Q

The pragmatic adoption of Agenda 2030 lies in acclimatizing its 17 goals as the objectives of sustainable vision for future cities. In a quest Received 24 July 2021 Received in revised form 01 to attain these objectives, Indian cities are thus continuously challenged for November 2021 the effective transference of country-wide SDG targets as the local level Accepted 11 November indicators of urban development. This paper intends to examine the 2021 dialectics around the sustainability assessment framework in India, as the Available online 19 country stands at the juncture of releasing dynamics for social, economic, November 2021 and environmental growth of cities. The methodology adopted to conduct Keywords: the research work includes a semantic literature perusal and an indicatorSustainable based communication mapping of proposed assessment indices, to analyze development; SDGs; Sustainability indicators; the competency of the existing framework. It has been observed from an aggregated analysis that the issues of data reliability and non-inclusivity of Ease of Living index; Municipal Performance contextual elements at the local level act as critical challenges for ecological vulnerability and the economic feasibility of the goals. This paper intends to index; Sustainability abate these gaps existing in the literature focusing on sustainability issues of index; SDI; India and direct the discussion towards reorienting the current role of indicators from being ‘performance assessors to becoming catalytic enablers of sustainable cities. Volume 13 Issue 1

Cite This Article: Kushwaha, N., Nangia, C. (2022). Dialectical Analysis of Sustainability Assessment Framework in India for Agenda 2030. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1Q, 1-12. http//:TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1Q.pdf DOI : 10.14456/ITJEMAST.20223.17

1 Introduction Do In the last few decades, the concept of sustainable urban development has evolved colloquially worldwide. Being at an essential moment in time of global crises, United Nations (UN) positions this concept at the center stage of urban development under Agenda 2030 [1]. 17

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interlinked Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the agenda maneuver the issues of climate change, inefficient use of resources, migration, inequality, and the ever-increasing environmental deterioration of the planet. These SDGs progress from their predecessor’s Millennium Development Goals as more ambitious and ubiquitous, in order to expand their scope, reach and participation [2]. Thus, to yield a corroborated framework for their implementation, UN Statistical Commission has endorsed the Sustainable Development Indicator (SDI) framework for quantitative measurement of SDGs [3]. The framework utilizes indicator-based sustainability assessment (SA) tools as prime auditors of the goal’s progress and measures their performance with a set of 232 global indicators [4] acting as touchstones or references, against which the objectives of sustainability are measured [3] [5]. The utilization of such framework presents a contested debate around the globe, on the inception of the SA tools being dealt with defined indicators, as the definition of sustainability differs locally in conjunction with its objectives. Therefore, even though the 17 goals are supported with a concrete set of targets for measurement, most of them remain qualitative and vague in nature following their limited application across the nations [6]. Another vulnerable trait making the SA tools contextually inflexible is the requisite use of “ a fixed” set of indicators and their dependency on only publicly available data, which at occasions prevents reliable assessment of specific locations and stakeholders with the application of these goals [7]. In the study conducted by environmental scientist Janoušková in 2018 on performance measurement of global SDGs, results show inconsistencies in comparison of similar countries along with different indices due to unclear interpretation of data for goals and fixed selective approach of indicators for index measurement. For instance, one SDG index assessing 34 OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) countries, rank the Czech Republic at the bottom third place in sustainability performance while the welfare Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare, assessing 157 countries, ranks the country at a positive fifth place [8]. This indicates that in theory although these assessment tools are presented as an indivisible whole to measure the sustainable growth of the urban areas, in practice there is little knowledge of synergies between them and their efficiency in translating goals at the local level [9]. Consequently, the adoption of these SDGs has become essentially critical for developing economies such as India, where resource consumption and environmental damage are already pressing concerns for the cities [10]. India reaching a population of 583 million by 2030 as per UN estimates, will account for 18-19 percent of the global increase in urban population and therefore the importance of evolving efficient sustainable strategies becomes crucial for the country [11]. Anatomizing the sustainability assessment framework in India for Agenda 2030, the study indicates certain inefficiencies in the complimentary enactment of the adopted SA tools and their ineffectiveness in promoting transference of economic and environmental targets at the local level. These scenarios propel us to comprehend how competently do India’s SDG assessment framework foster sustainable urban development, and what are the challenges faced for the adoption of the Agenda in the process.

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2 Literature Review India is advancing with an exponential growth rate of urbanization. This is not just a “democratic shift” but it places India’s response to various SDGs at a global focus. Urban indicators of these shifts are expected to not only contribute towards cities’ performances in achieving SDGs but simultaneously elevate complex issues of planning in various urban sectors [12].

These

aggravated issues further highlight the urgency of necessary actions needed for sustainable development of Indian cities before their prevalence worsen [13]. The literature review thus examines the dialectics around India’s response to these issues with the help of adopted SDG assessment frameworks. It further comprehends the complexity of the framework adoption in the country’s urban systems. The discussion is explored through the coverage of varied sources ranging from journals, policy reports, published case studies and the official Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) reports prepared for the indices acting as SA tools and their supporting urban policies. India’s commitment to attaining SDGs is catalyzed through the initiatives taken in form of policies, programs, schemes, and index measurement by the governing authorities. Given the importance of the urban sector to achieve sustainability, India aims at assessing the performance of existing urban policies and programs as mentioned in Figure 1 with the benchmarks set up under the National Indicator Framework monitored by NITI Aayog. At the macro level, the country’s key developmental programs and schemes align themselves with SDG targets and contribute towards their implementation with monitoring mechanism of Sustainability Indices. For instance, MoHUA has floated schemes (Figure 1) such as AMRUT, Housing for All under PMAY, SBM, which are aligned with the targets set under SDG 11 with indicators concerning issues of housing, waste processing and urban sewerage capacity, etc. Though this presents a wide area of coverage for the promotion of sustainable cities and communities, unfortunately, the policies seem to have restricted their focus to providing only basic infrastructure services and utilities [13]. This has resulted in unattended attention toward achieving sustainability in cities holistically with negligible coverage of indicators for environmental SDGs such as SDG 14 (Life below water), SDG 15 (Life on Land), which are heavily impacted by city systems.

Figure 1: Government of India (GoI) schemes linked towards the progress of sustainable development goals

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Another major requisite for sustainable cities are linked with SDG 5(Gender Equality) indicator covering crime against women. It has been observed that crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) is a growing fashionable approach globally for preventing crime and the fear of crime in cities but sees limited inclusion as a built environment planning tool [14] or policy initiative in India. It indicates that the existing programs and policies, hence, do not come across as multidimensional or multisectoral, keeping in mind the interlinking nature of SDGs and alignment of policy initiatives to the overall concept of the Agenda [15].

Ayushman Bharat

(Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana) acts as another major policy intervention providing the largest health protection scheme in the world and is aligned in relation to SDG 3 (health and well-being) and SDG 10 (reduced inequalities). However, strong policy implementation in the areas of proper nutrition, quality of education, decent economic and work growth, which in turn act as supporting framework for SDG 3 and 10, still need a push among other socio-economic indicators of goals [16]. The progress towards sustainability is driven by the above-mentioned policies and programs of the government only to an extent. To track and monitor the pace of these initiatives, India further adopts an assessment framework of Sustainability Assessment (SA) tools with a defined set of indicators, targets and benchmarks covered across three major officially proposed indices [17][19] as mentioned in Figure 2.

SUSTAINBILITY INDEX

(17 goals, 169 targets,115 indicators)

EASE OF LIVING (EoL) INDEX

(4 Pillars, 15 categories, 78 indicators)

MUNICPAL PERFORMANCE INDEX (MPI)

(5 verticals, 15 categories, 79 indicators)

Figure 2: Official indices proposed by Niti Aayog as sustainability assessment tools to measure the performance of Indian states and cities towards SDGs The Sustainability Index (SI) measures the performance of 17 SDGs across 28 states and 8 Union territories on the lines of adapted global benchmarks and hence provides an eclectic assessment framework for the complex and composite nature of goals [17]. It only initiates competition and understanding among States/UTs across the broader concept of the Agenda 2030 [17]. To further accompany the Sustainability Index (SI) and measure the livability standards in cities, the“Ease of Living (EoL) Index” is adopted. It examines economic and social opportunities available to the citizens across 4 pillars of development covering 78 indicators, focusing their impact on the quality of life. Since the EoL index focuses on the assessment of the outcomes rather than the inputs, the “Municipal Performance Index (MPI)” has been further launched as an

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accompaniment to provide the inputs at the local level. The index seeks to examine local government practices of Indian municipalities, which act as enabling factors to municipal performance output. Research on the urban dimensions of the SDGs depicts that the application of indicator systems in cities of the Global South is challenging with shortcomings of data availability and reliability [1]. In an insightful study carried out by academician Prof. David Simon to test a set of proposed indicators of SDGs in the city of Bangalore, it was found struggling to access adequate data and an incompatible relationship emerged between the scientific characterization of goals through India’s indices and the practical city planning systems [20]. Such scenarios can be seen as a result of generic global benchmarks being adopted for the identification of targets, leaving little room for contextual elements of a city to play a role [21]. These elevated issues of assessment framework further result in a lack of data comparison of cities through indices and their association with the performance of regions’ planning systems. Sustainable Development Goals India Index (SDGII) report 2019-20 [17] states these issues as the limitations of the indices in the report. It states that for some indicators, data for all States/UTs, cities are not available and in computing the Index, “null”

is assigned

such

States/UTs and

cities

[17]. Therefore, where

international/national norms are available for standardization, the state, or the city with the best performance in its group is treated as a benchmark that may not appropriately weigh a region’s performance towards sustainable urban development. This indicates that in practice, the official sustainability assessment frameworks limit the usage of contextual data indicators and apply broad SDG performance indicators for the ease of standardization and measurement, further decrementing a potential translation of national policies at the local level [2]. Another issue regarding contextual data sets comes across as the broad categories of Sustainability Index, ranking the states as: Aspirants (<50), Performers (51-64), Front runners (65-99), Achiever(100) [17] to explain their achievements. For instance, in Figure 3, the category of Front Runner spanning from 65-99 (35 points) is too broad of a range as Tripura and Andhra Pradesh both are placed in the same category despite large difference (27 points), in their achievement scores.

Figure 3: Broad range of categories across Sustainability Index result in creating data information gaps on consideration of contextual elements for their respective cities under different goals

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As data is captured and publicly available for only a few Smart cities of the states which are considered under the EoL index [22], the holistic lookout towards state’s performance considering contextual factors of all its cities remains questionable. Therefore, initial adoption of the indicator set from an established global framework may seem like an easier process for alignment of SDGs performance [7], but a specific, measurable and contextual data set comes as more challenging for the developing countries [23].

3 Method The discussion on the SDG assessment framework of India is further explored by analyzing the individual monitoring reports of the existing three official indices, acting as data sources in Figure 4 for the mapping.

Figure 4: Data extraction of sustainability indicators from Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) reports on Sustainability index; Ease of Living (EoL) Index; Municipal Performance Index (MPI) and categorization of the targets under various verticals and sectors.

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The referred reports are prepared by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) endorsing over 300 indicators across all the indices adopted by the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) in alignment with the National Indicator Framework (NIF) [17]-[19]. The focus of the analysis is to represent a semantic mapping on an indicator-based communication method of sustainable development at the local level. It sheaths indicators across 16 SDGs (SDG 10: “Reducing Inequality” excluded as its qualitative indicators do not continue in the local level indices) for the assessment of sustainability targets promoting principles of Prosperity, People, Planet, Peace & Partnership. The transference of SDGs under sustainability index is thus further contemplated across categories of EoL index and MPI and are communicated as either neglecting (No significant impact on the goal), enabling (aids the achievement of a goal to a limited extent), or promoting (Inevitable to the goal) indicators. The complexity of mapping this translation is reduced by grouping 15 categories of EoL index under 4 major pillars of comprehensive development and categorizing 19 sectors of Municipal Performance Index (MPI) under its 5 functional verticals as shown in Figure 4. The results intend to indicate the efficiency of the adopted sustainability assessment framework in India and the significant impact of indicators under various SA tools in achieving the goals.

4 Result and Discussion Aggregated analysis across the key principles of sustainability in Figure 5, indicates that goals advocating planet conservation tend to be most neglected in their translation as the local level indicators of EoL index and MPI in India. The results, inclusive of the other principles of sustainability, indicate a broad incompatibility among all three indices that are represented as supporting SA tools to one another for performance measurement of states and cities. A sizeable fraction of neglecting indicators is observed across SDG 14 (Life below water), SDG 7 (Affordable and clean energy), SDG 12 (Responsible consumption and production), SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 15 (Life on Land) in their transference as local indicators (Figure 5b). For instance, SDG 13 talks about solar share in renewable power generation as a target, but it sees limited inclusion in finance, physical planning, and technology categories across indices. Proper inclusion of the indicators under these categories may otherwise serve as the backbone for adherence to the abovementioned SDGs, as the indicators cover fields of transportation and infrastructure planning along with issues of resource mobilization and fiscal decentralization. SDG 14 as well disintegrates with the urban planning and technology category which affects the potential actions taken in the direction of climate change against different city systems for the SDG. It is important to understand the indicators of planning violations, coverage of information in the form of GIS mapping and penalty efficiency while measuring the performance of these SDGs in relation to the urban planning vertical. This is indicative of the fact that the distortions are found mostly between the resources acting as city planning tools and knowledge of earth system clusters because in-depth coverage necessary for the representation of climate adaptation and energy consumption is lacking in the

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Figure 5a. Translation of SDGs under Sustainability Index as local level indicators with Ease of Living (EoL) Index and Municipal Performance Index (MPI)

Figure 5b. No. of categories neglecting, enabling, and promoting SDG indicators under EoL index and MPI Figure 5: Fostering SUD for cities through SA tools: a) Interpreting SDGs translation from sustainability index with indicators under EoL index and MPI categories. Three stars in a category promote the goal with comprehensive adoption of SDG targets at the local level; two stars enable the achievement of a goal to a limited extent; a single star depicts that the local indicators have no significant impact on the SDGs. Columns with no stars indicate exclusion of targets in the index category b)Bar height of each SDG represents no. of categories containing neglecting, enabling, and promoting indicators for the respective goal.

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process. The contrasting indicators across all three indices not only ignore the holistic coverage of goals promoting actions for an individual SDG also neglects the synergy between other sustainability indicators. Thus, it becomes unlikely to achieve these goals without a comprehensive strategy to involve the cross-integration of targets across all three indices. The environmental goals are followed by SDG 8 (Decent work and economic growth) and SDG 9 (Industry, infrastructure, and innovation) with neglecting indicators in almost six and five categories of EoL index and MPI respectively. Since these SDGs are meant to promote the principle of prosperity for a sustainable city, the economic category under the EoL index well captures their targets and provides promoting indicators as seen in Figure 5a. But the negligible attention in physical, social, and urban planning categories further represents a possibility of hindrance in the achievement of economic goals to a much greater extent.

On the other hand, the overall

translation of the SDG 1(No poverty) and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) targets tread towards a sustainability path with enabling and promoting indicators at the local level. SDG 4 (quality education), SDG 11 (Sustainable cities and communities), SDG 16 (peace, justice, and strong institution) advance as well with an effective transference of the indicators. For instance, indicators of SDG 11 considering waste collection and processing are successfully inherited in categories of physical and urban planning which covers aspects related to sanitation, waste management, and infrastructure development, while technology and services seem to be enabling these targets. The analysis substantiates the fact that though the efforts are visible in the transference of certain SDGs as local level indicators, the comprehensibility of all the three indices depicts a discordant nature in fostering sustainability as an integrated concept for cities. For sustainable urban development of Indian cities, the study indicates a scarce occurrence of potential synergies across different sustainability indices. This results in an ineffective translation of SDGs as local level indicators through the proposed assessment indices. A large fraction of neglecting indicators lies across goals enhancing the principle of planet preservation and promoting prosperity. The ecological vulnerability and economic inclusivity in indices must be sensitized to the changes occurring in the cities. Different urban morphologies face unique challenges in their local contexts associated with mitigating the effects to achieve sustainability and it is important for them to be accounted as crucial SDG indicators. Another essential focus is to put across technology category indicators of MPI at the forefront for effectively linking city planning systems whilst providing real-time data. The category covers aspects of digital access, literacy, and governance, capturing service provision of internet facilities and e-governance tenders. This further needs to be evolved in measuring contextually adopted intelligent integrated grid systems, to reduce crimes by enhancing peace under SDG 16 and prevent crime against women under SDG 5 for the built environment of cities [24]. These combined issues raise a grave concern about India’s path towards Agenda 2030. Such distortions stipulate that numerous fields of sectoral policies, index categories and actions of city planning are required to be linked with sustainability targets from the very beginning of the urban planning process in an efficient manner. The study

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clearly corroborates that EoL Index and MPI may include certain indicators enabling the transformation of cities on a sustainable path, but cannot be seen as an accompaniment to the Sustainability index or to one another in a holistic way. The translation of SDGs is lost in the process and only specific municipal issues are substantiated through these indices at the lowest level.

5 Conclusion The successful implementation of Agenda 2030 can only be addressed with a system where all SDGs are seen as “interacting cogwheels” [26] ensuring social welfare, economic growth, and environmental planning. The report “India and Sustainable Development Goals: The Way Forward” represent the choice of indices and their cross-sectional comparability as major issues for evaluating an impact of a development program across varying physiological and socio-economic characteristics of an Indian city [11]. Our study indicates that though the current sustainability assessment framework of India provides a quantitative and measurable definition towards elements of national development programs, there remains a gap in associating these goals with the contextual sustainability elements captured as local level indicators. It is impossible to measure sustainability with a definitive quantitative approach [27]. Rather it can only be assessed after the fact that sustainability targets across various indices either leverage synergies with local planning components or their non-inclusion needs to be tackled with appropriate policy measures. As India moves forward towards achieving sustainable urban development for cities, the quest for inclusive and informed decision-making, articulating interlinkages between city planning elements and SDGs becomes a critical issue [28]. An important connecting link to establish this relation is to further strengthen the importance of capturing people’s perception towards attributes of the built environment [29]. Therefore, the indicators need to be comprehended as guides for the evaluation of progress towards sustainable cities but not as prescribed benchmarks to judge them by the same yardstick. Reorienting the current role of indicators from performance measurers to catalytic enablers of promoting context-specific sustainability, can support the sustainable urban development of Indian cities. Once the paradigm comes into effect, India may be able to look towards more sustainable cities beyond Agenda 2030.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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C. Nangia, D. P. Singh, and S. Ali, “Built environment and its impact on crimes related to women in NCT of Delhi: A pilot survey,” Int. J. Adv. Res. Eng. Technol., vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 57-68, 2019, DOI: 10.34218/IJARET.10.3.2019.006. Neeharika Kushwaha is a research scholar at Amity School of Architecture and Planning, Amity University Noida, India. She has a Bachelor’s degree in Architecture from VNSG University, Surat, and a Master’s degree in Urban and Regional Planning with a specialization in Landuse Planning. Her research interests are Spatial Planning Scenarios in India, Sustainable Urban Development in City Planning and Governance.

Dr. Charu Nangia is an Architect - Town Planner by profession presently working as Professor at Amity School of Architecture and Planning (ASAP), Noida. She got her Ph.D. in the Domain of Architecture and Planning to link the Impact of Built Environment on Crimes related to Women in Urban Areas from ASAP, Noida. Her research interests consist of topics around Built Environment, Sustainable Cities, Safe Neighborhood, CPTED, Urban Planning & Development Plan.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Location Selection Model for a Dental Clinic in a Low to Medium Rent Commercial Building Umaporn Vimonkittipong1, Kongkoon Tochaiwat2*, Suriya Sirithanyarat2, Varalee Thumvisuttivarakorn3 College of Dental Medicine, Rangsit University, THAILAND. Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, THAILAND. 3 Narai Property, Co. Ltd., THAILAND. *Corresponding Author (Tel: +66-9922893328, Email: kongkoon@gmail.com). 1 2

Paper ID: 13A1R Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 14 August 2021 Received in revised form 09 November 2021 Accepted 16 November 2021 Available online 21 November 2021

Keywords:

Modified Analytic Hierarchy Process; Dental clinic location; Commercial Building; Multi-Criteria Decision Making; Location selection.

Abstract

As Thailand has the highest market share in dental services in Asia and the choice of business location is critical to the business success, the objective of this research was to create a model for selecting a suitable location for a dental clinic business in a commercial building in Bangkok with rent less than $750 per month. The data were collected from 30 samples of owners, partners or dentists of dental clinics in commercial buildings in Bangkok with rents less than $750 per month. The data were then analyzed by the descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean and Modified Analytic Hierarchy Process. The study results found that the priorities of the main criteria for selecting the location of commercial buildings in Bangkok are, respectively transportations, communities, parking, facilities and competitors. The first six sub-criteria of the most important are: adjacency to the main road, adjacency to the secondary road, parking in the clinic area, being near the residential area, being near residential condominium and fewness of competitors’ clinics in the area, respectively. This research is an example of the application of the Modified Analytic Hierarchy model to quantify the level of importance to make a decision based on a variety of factors, or Multi-criteria Decision Making (MCDM), more efficiently. Disciplinary: Business Management, Architectural Science & Spatial Planning. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Vimonkittipong, U., Tochaiwat, K., Sirithanyarat, S., Thumvisuttivarakorn, V. (2022). Location Selection Model for a Dental Clinic in a Low to Medium Rent Commercial Building. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1R, 1-11. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.18

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1 Introduction Location selection for business establishment is a complex and strategic decision. It may affect a company’s future and profitability in the long run. Making a decision to select a location may be boiled down to a careful analysis of various economic factors done by the entrepreneurs who are driven by several significant contributions to choose the best location. One of the important characteristics of the promising location is that it should be situated in a low-wage area, leading to an increase in profits. Most entrepreneurs have been focusing on starting their businesses or relocating to areas of the like (Dixit et al., 2019). Location selection for a business establishment is therefore essential to the success of a business because it is the procurement of the most efficient business venue. Entrepreneurs must also take into account profits, expenses, employees, customer relations, convenience and a good environment throughout the business which must be carefully considered to minimize future problems (Wanitdee, 2022; Hellberg et al., 2021). A dental service business is an important business according to Thailand’s strategic plan for development to be Asia’s healthcare hub and generates high income for the country. It is a business that grows by leaps and bounds. The factor that drives a large number of foreign customers, especially those from developed countries, to use dental services in Thailand is that it is highly costly and takes a long to be in waiting for queues to meet with dentists in the developed countries. In addition, some developed countries' health insurances do not cover dental services and Thailand is the top destination that foreigners choose to use dental services, making the country achieve the highest market share in dental services in Asia (Khaosod Online, October 10, 2019). These growth and business opportunities certainly incentivize more people to invest in this business. Jain et al. (2018) revealed a precise and efficient selection of location and property for a dental business is one of the keys to success for a dental practice in India. For such service in Thailand, commercial building is a type of property mostly chosen and developed by dental clinic operators for dental business establishments. Therefore, the objective of this research was to study the criteria and the weight of criteria to select a suitable location for a dental clinic business which is a commercial building in Bangkok. Moreover, the development of a model for location selection can be demonstrated to be a guideline for dental clinic business entrepreneurs to choose the location of commercial buildings in Bangkok to become a potential establishment and support their business success.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Location Selection Location refers to the place or situation of an establishment for carrying out activities that can promote and facilitate operations to achieve the set objectives by taking into account costs, profits and other related factors (Sricharoen, 2016). The location of the property is the point where the business starts and adheres to a long-term relationship and if a defect or error occurs, it will be

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complicated to fix. The factors commonly used in the decision-making process to choose a location include environments, utilities, transportations, laws and taxes, and land, among others (Praneetpolgrang et al., 2000; Wattanachai, et al., 2021). Location selection of a dental clinic depends on the target customer group, for example, if they are private office workers, the location should be in downtown or city-center area, meanwhile, if they are tourists, the clinic should be placed in touristy areas, etc. However, the good location for dental clinics is the area where customers can travel to and fro with convenience, such as the areas close to the BTS stations or near the expressway, among others. The convenience for customers includes travel patterns, parking, visibility and accessibility, as well as safety and comfort in using the service (Leenanuruksa, 2016). In this research, related works were studied to find the criteria for location selection by doing a literature review on related research as shown in Table 1. Table 1: Summary of criteria for selecting a location from the literature review Criteria Characteristics Raw Transportation Research

of Lands and Labour Material and Laws and Growth Environments Resources Resources Customers Competitors Accessibility Logistics Facilities Regulations Opportunity

Sirithananonsakun (2017) Chaiyawong (2017) Kongsuk (2015) Jain et al. (2018) Tochaiwat, et al. (2017) Indarti (2004) Halstead & Deller (1997)

   

     



 



     

   

      



From Table 1, the main criteria can be summarized to be used in the study in five areas: (1) Transportation criterion (adjacency to the main road, being near the BTS or MRT, adjacency to a secondary road, being near a bus stop, van or motorcycle stations) (2) Community criterion (being near a residential area, condominium, office place, educational institute, industrial factories, government service center or hotel) (3) Daily-life facility criterion (being near shopping mall, convenient store or market, pharmacy, restaurant or beauty salon) (4) Parking criterion (parking near the clinic, free nearby parking, paid nearby parking or parking that requires the use of certain services in the facility) and (5) Competitor criterion (fewness of competitor clinic, hospital or health center). This is because the dental clinic is a service business that requires a lengthy time to serve and has a tendency of high competition. The researcher, therefore, took the main criteria of parking and competitors into consideration as well.

2.2 The Modified Analytic Hierarchy Process: Modified AHP The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a process for analyzing and determining the optimum solution or choice by using a set of criteria and dimensions (Vargas, 2010). It is a decision-making method done by evaluating multiple criteria by comparing the priorities of each of the criteria in pairs (pairwise comparison) to prioritize the criteria and find the best option (Aguezzoul, 2012). The Analytic Hierarchy Process is a method to weigh values of abstract opinions in numerical manner to make them concrete. There are five steps to the process including: (1) the

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decision-making hierarchical structure which consists of the targets, the key criteria, the subcriteria and the options, respectively, (2) considering and comparing the importance of the decision criteria in pairs by specifying numbers of the importance weight (3) determination of each criterion weight, (4) consistency ratio validation and (5) prioritizing options. However, many researchers have used the Modified Analytic Hierarchy Process in response to their research objectives such as Kallas et al. (2011) and Likitanupak & Tochaiwat (2012) who used the Likert Scale instead of the pairwise comparison scale to reduce the number of questions in the questionnaires, as well as the works of Kongsuk (2015) and Tochaiwat et al. (2021) which adopted the pairwise comparison and analysis of the original AHP but stopped the analysis once the weight of each criterion was achieved and consistency of rationality was verified. The process was done without prioritizing the alternatives in order since the researchers aimed to only acquire the weight of each criterion. In this research, the researchers modified the original Analytic Hierarchy Process by analyzing only some steps of the process to obtain the importance weight of the criteria for selecting the location of commercial buildings in Bangkok with rents less than $750 per month for a dental clinic business, according to the guidelines of Kongsuk (2015) and Tochaiwat et al. (2021). It should be noted that the exchange rate used in this research was 33.34 baht per US dollar (Bank of Thailand, 2021).

3 Method This research used mixed methodology by interviewing five experts who had past experiences in the location selection for more than three dental service establishments, in order to screen the criteria obtained from the literature review. The criteria were then included in the questionnaires to be used as a tool for data collection from 30 sample groups of owners, partners or dentists of dental clinics situated in commercial buildings with rents less than $750 in Bangkok. The data analysis was done by using descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean and Modified AHP, which compared the weights of each main and sub-criteria in the pairwise comparison manner with scoring criteria as shown in Table 2. Table 2: Comparison of each main and sub criterion in pairwise comparison (Adapted from Saaty (1994)). Importance Level 1 3 5 7 9

Meaning Equally Important Less Important Moderately More Important Highly More Important Ultimately More Important

Description Both factors being compared are equally important. The first factor being compared is slightly less or more important than another factor. The first factor being compared is moderately less or more important than another factor. The first factor being compared is highly less or more important than another factor. The first factor being compared is ultimately less or more important than another factor.

In this regard, the researcher found the mean of importance scores of each criterion from a pairwise comparison of the samples, if criterion A was more important than criterion B that was being compared, the mean would be calculated using the score as shown in Table 2. But if criterion A was less important than criterion B that is being compared, the mean would be calculated using the reciprocal of the score as shown in Table 2. For example, if criterion A was significantly more

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important than criterion B, the score would be seven. At the same time, if criterion A was significantly less important than criterion B, the score would be 1/7 and so on.

4 Result of the Study 4.1 Results of the Expert Interviews The researcher screened the sub-criteria for selecting a location to be used in the pairwise comparison by considering the sub-criteria obtained from the experts’ interview results and screening these sub-criteria with average importance scores at the medium to highest level according to Best (1977), of which the average score between 2.61 to 5.00. The sub-criteria for each main criterion can be summarized as follows. (1) Main criterion of transportation consists of three sub-criteria including adjacency to the main road, being near the BTS or MRT, being near a bus stop, van or motorcycle stops and adjacency to the secondary road (with an average of 4.20, 3.80, 3.60 and 3.20 respectively). (2) Main criterion of the community consists of six sub-criteria including being near a residential area, office place, educational institute, industrial factories, government service center or hotel (with an average of 4.60, 4.60, 4.20, 4.20, 3.60, 3.60 and 2.80 respectively). (3) Main criterion of the daily-life facility consists of five sub-criteria including being near a shopping mall, convenience store or market, pharmacy, restaurant or beauty salon (with an average of 4.00, 3.80, 3.40, 3.20 and 3.00 respectively). (4) Main criterion of parking consists of three sub-criteria including parking near the clinic, free nearby parking, paid nearby parking or parking that requires the use of certain services in the facility (with an average of 5.00, 4.80 and 3.60 respectively). (5) Main criterion of competitor consists of two sub-criteria including the fewness of competitor clinic or hospital (with the average of 4.80 and 3.60 respectively).

4.2 Results of the Questionnaire Surveys From the data collection done on 30 samples, general information of the respondents can be summarized as shown in Table 3. From Table 3, it was found that most of the sample groups are dentists working in the dental clinics (56.67%) and have five to ten years of experience (60.00%). However, most of the sample groups’ commercial buildings established as dental clinics are parental buildings (53.33%) of two units (63.33%). The researcher verified the Consistency Ratio (C.R.) of the main criteria for the location selection which can be calculated from the comparison of ratios between the Consistency Index (C.I.) (Table 5) and the Random Consistency Index (R.I). In this research, the matrix size of the main criteria for the location selection was five with the Random Consistency Index of 1.12, and the Consistency Ratio should not exceed 0.1 (Saaty, 1994). The verification of the consistency can be displayed as follows.

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Table 3: General information of the respondents Information 1. Type of sample 1) Owner or partner of a dental clinic 2) Dentist working for a dental clinic 2. Related experiences 1) 5 - 10 years 2) 11 – 15 years 3) 16 - 20 years 4) Over 20 years 3. Ownership of buildings 1) Full ownership (not rented) 2) Rental 4. Number of building unit 1) 1 unit 2) 2 units 3) 3 units 4) Over 3 units

Frequency (n=30)

Percentage

13 17

43.33 56.67

18 9 2 1

60.00 30.00 6.67 3.33

14 16

46.67 53.33

6 19 3 2

20.00 63.33 10.00 6.67

Table 4: Comparison of the main criteria importance for location selection Main Criteria Transportations Communities Facilities Parking Competitors Vertical Sum

Transportations 1.00 0.31 0.32 0.52 0.40 2.55

Communities 3.20 1.00 0.26 0.64 0.40 5.50

Facilities 3.15 3.90 1.00 1.26 0.49 9.80

Parking 1.91 1.56 0.79 1.00 0.26 5.52

Competitors 2.50 2.51 2.05 3.85 1.00 11.91

From the comparison result of the main criteria importance of the location selection (Table 4), the importance weight of the main criteria for the location selection can be calculated by adjusting the sum of columns to be 1.00 and dividing the result of the main criteria comparison by the vertical sum, for example, the comparison result of the main criteria of the transportations and transportations is 1.00, the importance weight can be calculated as 1.00/2.55, resulting in 0.39, etc. The weight value is calculated by finding the average weight value of the main criteria in each row. The weight of importance of the main criteria for selecting the location can be displayed as shown in Table 5. Table 5: The importance weight value of the main criteria for location selection Main Criteria Transportations Communities Facilities Parking Competitors Vertical Sum

Transportations 1.00 0.31 0.32 0.52 0.40 2.55

Communities 3.20 1.00 0.26 0.64 0.40 5.50

Facilities 3.15 3.90 1.00 1.26 0.49 9.80

Parking 1.91 1.56 0.79 1.00 0.26 5.52

Competitors 2.50 2.51 2.05 3.85 1.00 11.91

The Consistency Index (C.I.) can be calculated by using 𝐶𝐶. 𝐼𝐼. =

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𝜆𝜆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛−1

5.44−5 (5−1)

= 0.11

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Where

𝜆𝜆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

is the Maximum Eigen Values which are the sum of the data in each vector which is calculated from the sum of each vertical column (Table 4) x weight values (Table 5) equals [(2.55 x 0.37) + (5.50 x 0.24) + (9.80 x 0.12) + (5.52 x 0.19) + (11.91 x 0.08)] equals 5.44

𝑛𝑛

is the matrix size (which is 5 in this research)

The Consistency Ratio of the main criteria matrix can be calculated using the ratio between the Consistency Index (𝐶𝐶. 𝐼𝐼.) and the Random Consistency Index (R.I.) suggested by Saaty (1994). Consequently, the result of consistency verification of the main criteria of the location selection in

this research is 0.11/1.12 equals 0.098 which is less than 0.100, indicating that the experts’ ratings were consistent. The researcher applied the Modified Analytic Hierarchy Process which uses the pairwise comparison of the main criteria and sub-criteria importance weights to find the value of importance weight of criteria for location selection of the commercial buildings with rents less than $750 per month in Bangkok to be used for dental clinic business establishments, see Table 6. Table 6: Importance weight of the main criteria for location selection Main Criteria

Importance Weight

1. Transportations

0.37

Communities

0.24

Daily-Life Facilities

0.12

Parking

0.19

Competitors

0.08

Total

1.00

Sub-Criteria Adjacency to Main Road Being Near the BTS of MRT Adjacency to Secondary Road Being Near a Bus Stop, Van or Motorcycle Stops Being Near Residential Area Being Near Condominium Being Near Office Place Being Near Educational Institute Being Near Industrial Factories Being Near Government Service Center Being Near Hotel Being Near Shopping Mall Being Near Market Being Near Pharmacy Being Near restaurant Being Near Beauty Salon Parking in Clinic Area Free Nearby Parking Paid nearby parking or parking that requires the use of certain services in the facility Fewness of Competitor Clinics in the Area Hospital Total

Local Importance Weight 0.39 0.13 0.37 0.11 0.31 0.27 0.16 0.12 0.06 0.04 0.04 0.41 0.23 0.17 0.12 0.07 0.65 0.28

Global Importance Weight 0.14 0.05 0.14 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.13 0.05

0.07 0.80 0.20 5.00

0.01 0.06 0.02 1.00

From Table 6, when considering the main criteria of the location selection for dental clinic business establishments in commercial buildings with rents less than $750 per month in Bangkok, it is found that the transportations aspect has the highest importance weight (with the importance weight equals 0.37), followed by the communities, parking, daily-life facilities aspects which bear

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the importance weights of 0.24, 0.19 and 0.12, respectively, while the competitor criterion has the least importance weight at 0.08. If we consider the overall picture of the sub-criteria for the location selection of dental business establishments in commercial buildings with rents less than $750 per month in Bangkok, it was found that the first six sub-criteria with the highest importance weights are adjacency to the main road, to a secondary road, parking in the clinic area, being near a residential area and fewness of competitor in the area, all of which yield a total of 60 percent of the importance weight. Each sub-criterion bears importance weight of 0.14, 0.14, 0.13, 0.07, 0.06 and 0.06, respectively). It should be noted that the global importance weight of each sub-criterion was calculated from the local importance weight of each sub-criterion multiplied with the importance weight of its main criterion, for example, the global importance weight of the sub-criterion of an adjacency to the main road is 0.47 x 0.38 which equals 0.18, meaning that the sub-criterion of an adjacency to the main road has an important weight of 47 percent, comparing to other sub-criteria in the main criterion of transportations and has an important weight of 18 percent, comparing to all other subcriteria, etc. However, considering the global importance weight of each sub-criterion in the main criteria is considered, the result can be displayed individually as follows. (1) The transportation criterion: It was found that the sub-criteria of the highest importance weight is the adjacency to the main road and secondary road (with the importance weight of equally 0.14), followed by being near the BTS or MRT, a bus, van or motorcycle stations, which have the importance weights of 0.05 and 0.04, respectively. (2) The community criterion: It was found that the sub-criterion of the highest importance weight is being in a residential area (with the importance weight of 0.07), followed by being near condominium, office place, educational institute, industrial factory, government service center and hotel, which have the importance weights of 0.06, 0.04, 0.03, 0.02, 0.01 and 0.01, respectively. (3) The daily-life facilities criterion: It was found that the sub-criterion of the highest importance weight is being near a shopping mall (with an importance weight of 0.05), followed by being near a convenience store or market, pharmacy, restaurant and beauty salon, which have the importance weights of 0.03, 0.02, 0.01 and 0.01, respectively. (4) The parking criterion: It was found that the sub-criterion of the highest importance weight is the parking in the clinic’s area (with the importance weight of 0.13), followed by free nearby parking, and paid nearby parking or parking that requires the use of certain services in the facility, which have the importance weight of 0.05 and 0.01, respectively. (5) The competitor criterion: It was found that the sub-criterion of the highest importance weight is the fewness of competitor clinics in the area (with the importance weight of 0.06), followed by the hospital which has an importance weight of 0.02. The acquired results suggested that the main criterion of transportations has the highest importance weight for the location selection of commercial buildings with rents less than $750 per

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month to be developed to dental clinic business establishments in Bangkok. The first five subcriteria with the highest importance weights are adjacency to main and secondary roads, parking in the clinic area, being in a residential area and being near condominium, respectively. This result is consistent with the work of Leenanuruksa (2016) who stated that an efficient location of a dental clinic is a point where customers can travel to and fro conveniently such as an area close to main roads, sky trains or expressways, etc. This inclusively refers to transportation means, parking, visibility, accessibility, as well as safety and comfort for the users or customers. This research identified the importance weight of each criterion in the form of numerical weight value, which clearly emphasizes the importance level of the decision to select the location of a commercial building in Bangkok to be developed as a dental clinic business. For the competitor sub-criterion, it appears to be an important factor for business operation (Porter, 1996). However, the research results found that the entrepreneurs also focus on the issue, but not as much as they should.

5 Conclusion The main criterion of transportations has the highest importance weight on the location selection for dental clinic business establishments developed in a commercial building with rents less than $750 per month in Bangkok, followed by the communities, parking, daily-life facilities and competitor criteria. The first six sub-criteria with the highest importance weight are adjacency to main and secondary roads, parking in the clinic area, being in a residential area, being near condominium and fewness of competitor establishments in the area, respectively. Those who are interested to invest in the dental clinic business, aiming to develop a unit of commercial buildings with rent less than $750 per month in Bangkok, should choose the location with easy access and a building with high visibility. The place should provide ample parking spots which will result in the customers’ convenience and help build awareness of passersby or residents in the area. However, the entrepreneurs should select the most suitable location by applying the research result as a guideline for consideration along with other factors such as rental rates, target customer groups, etc. Moreover, interested investors should study consumer demand to compare with the results obtained in this research. This study is an example of the application of the Analytical Hierarchy Analysis model to quantify the importance of weight to increase the efficiency of the Multi-criteria Decision Making (MCDM).

6 References Aguezzoul, A. (2012). Overview on supplier selection of goods versus 3PL selection. Journal of Logistics Management, 1(3), 18-23. Bank

of Thailand. (2021). Exchange Rates. Retrieved on September 2021, from www.bot.or.th/english/statistics/financialmarkets/exchangerate/_layouts/application/exchanger ate/exchangerate.aspx

Best, J. W. (1977). Research in Education. 3rd Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Chaiyawong, K. (2017). A Guideline for Selecting the Location of Super Store. (Master’s Thesis). Thammasat University, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Innovative Real Estate Development Program.

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Dixit, A., Clouse, C. & Turken, N. (2019). Strategic Business Location Decisions: Importance of Economic Factors and Place Image. Rutgers Business Review, 4(1), 73-91. Halstead, J., & Deller, S. (1997). Public Infrastructure in Economic Development and Growth: Evidence from Rural Manufacturers. Community Development, 28, 149-169. Hellberg, R., Guaralda, M. & Rinchumphu, D. (2021). Urban Walkability Profiles in Brisbane. International Review of Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development, 9(3), 1-15. Indarti, N. (2004). Business Location and Success: The Case of Internet Café Business in Indonesia. Gadjah Mada International Journal of Business, 6(2), 171-192. Jain, S. et al. (2018). Strategic Planning of a Dental Clinic in India. International Dental Journal of Student’s Research, 6(4), 74-76. Kallas, Z., Lehnhardt, F., & Gil, J. M. (2011). A Stated Preference Analysis Comparing the Analytical Hierarchy Process versus Choice Experiments. Food Quality and Preference, 22(2), 181-192. Khaosod Online. (2019). Doctorate Degree of Communication, University of Thai Chamber of Commerce Reveals Research Results of Thai Dental Tourism Industry Is the Biggest in Asia. Retrieved from www.khaosod.co.th/pr-news/news_ 2963295 Kongsuk, S. (2015). The Location Selection Model for Condominiums Development in Bangkok. Master’s Thesis, Thammasat University, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Innovative Real Estate Development Program. Leenanuruksa, A. (2016). Dental Business. Retrieved from http://dentalbusinessblog .com Likitanupak, W., & Tochaiwat, K. (2012). Criteria for Infrastructure Contractor Selection in Housing Projects. KMUTT Research and Development Journal, 35(2), 235-251. Porter, M.E. (1996). The Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy. Havard Business Review: HBR’s Must-Reads on Strategy. United States: Booz & Company. Praneetpolgrang, P. (2000). Production and Operations Management. Bangkok: Thanatat Printing. Saaty, T. L. (1994). How to Make a Decision: The Analytic Hierarchy Process. Interfaces, 24, 19-43. Sirithananonsakun, N. (2017). The Location Selection Model for Housing Development in Bangkok. Master’s Thesis, Thammasat University, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Innovative Real Estate Development Program. Sricharoen, W. (2016). Factors Affecting the Decision to Purchase Homes in Housing Estates of Civil Servants and State Enterprise Employees in Nonthaburi. Master’s Independent Study, Bangkok University, Graduate School. Tochaiwat, K., Hankamolsiri, N., & Larpcharoen, V. (2021). Development of Balanced Scorecard for Real Estate Development Companies by Modified Analytic Hierarchy Process. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 12(8), 12A8G, 1-10. Tochaiwat, K., Likitanupak, W., & Kongsuk, S. (2017). Location Selection Models for Low-rise Condominium Development in Bangkok. Veridian E-Journal, Silpakorn University, 10(5), 266-280. Vargas, R. V. (2010). Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to Select and Prioritize Projects in a Portfolio. Proc. PMI Global Congress 2010-North America, held by Project Management Institute, Washington DC, 9-12 October 2010.

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Wanitdee, W. (2002). General Business. Bangkok: Prasanmit Printing House. Wattanachai, P., Sundaranga, C., Kridakorn Na Ayutthaya, T., Phichetkunbodee, N. & Rinchumphu, D. (2021). Study of Universal Thermal Comfort Index in Housing Estate Public Space in Bangkok, 21(2), Thailand. Journal of Design and Built Environment, 10-18. Umaporn Vimonkittipong is an Assistant Professor at the College of Dental Medicine, Rangsit University, Thailand. She received a Diploma of Thai Board of Prosthodontics. She has many years of experience working in several clinics and hospitals. Her research focuses on dental materials.

Dr.Kongkoon Tochaiwat is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand. He received Ph.D. in Civil Engineering (Construction, Engineering and Management) from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. His research focuses on Real Estate Business and Development.

Suriya Sirithanyarat is a graduate of the Master’s Degree of Innovative Real Estate Development Program, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand. His research focuses on the Location Selection Model.

Varalee Thumvisuttivarakorn is an Assistant Manager of Design Department at Narai Property Co., Ltd. She received a Master’s Degree in Innovative Real Estate Development Program, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand. Her research focuses on the Factors Affecting Real Estate Buying Decisions.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

A Qualitative Study of Women Entrepreneurs in Education Sector in Punjab Kiran Fazal1, Uzma Sarwar1, Nargiza Nuralieva1, Samina Zamir1, Badar Khan2, Qi Zhan Yong1* School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710062, CHINA. Department of Chemistry, The University of Lahore, Lahore 40050, PAKISTAN. *Corresponding Author (Tel: 86-13279899517, Email: qizhanyong@snnu.edu.cn). 1 2

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1S Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 03 September 2021 Received in revised form 19 November 2021 Accepted 26 November 2021 Available online 24 November 2021

Keywords:

Entrepreneurship; Women Entrepreneurs; Field of Education; School Principals; Barriers & Support.

In the 21st century, educational entrepreneurs are expected to make school administration go smoothly including developing teaching and learning. School leaders must have a feature and skills that are outstanding and different from the previous school administrators to compete with the educational market and to get success in their field. The purpose of this research was to explore the hidden factors which influence women entrepreneurs to start their business and to identify the salient features as school principals, as well as the impact of those features on their performance. The study is qualitative in nature; therefore, an interview protocol was developed to get the insight of the women entrepreneurs. Interpretive Phenomenological analysis technique was used to derive the meaning out of data and it was found that women are facing various challenges including finances, lack of training, unfavorable social condition, non-provision of government support and family-related issues. The findings of the present study suggest that women entrepreneurs in the field of education can play an effective role in many aspects if they are provided with help and support. Disciplinary: Social Sciences, Education, Entrepreneurship ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Fazal, K., Sarwar, U., Nuralieva, N., Zamir, S., Khan, B., and Yong, Qi. (2022). A Qualitative Study of Women Entrepreneurs in Education Sector in Punjab. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1S, 1-14. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.19

1 Introduction The recent development and changes in the sphere show that women are currently making prominent input towards the wealth of the nation. Forbes reports that women are becoming more entrepreneurial, holding more than 36% of all businesses in 2012 (Stengel, 2016). This was an

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incredible hop from the year 2007. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) accounted that there are 126 million women initiating or running businesses. Amongst them, 98 million functioning established (over three and a half years) businesses. That’s how women entrepreneurs are influencing the worldwide economy (VanderBrug, 2013). According to many research women, entrepreneurs grant potential economic development benefits for the larger economy and community (Mas-Tur et al., 2015; Millán et al., 2019; Riebe, 2012). The world has turned into a global village. Advance means of transportation and communication have decreased the distance among people and places. This has led to a multicultural world that has posed challenges for its inhabitants. In order to survive and to be the productive citizen of the new globalized world, one needs to be equipped with 21st-century skills. Tony Wagner enlisted the 21st-century skills in his book “The Global Achievement Gap” which are “i) critical thinking and problem solving, ii) collaboration and leadership, iii) agility and adaptability, iv) initiative and entrepreneurialism, v) effective oral and written communication, vi) accessing and analyzing information, vii) curiosity and imagination” (Saavedra &Opfer, 2012). School administrators in the twenty-first century are expected to obey the organization's directions in order to keep school administration running smoothly. Because learning cannot occur without leadership, principals must seek to ensure that he or she has behaved as a leader for student learning. School leaders are those who understand academic material, evaluation, and teaching strategies, collaborate with teachers to improve their skills and collect, analyze, and use data to make choices. School principals are supposed to collaborate with teachers, students, parents, community members, and other agencies to meet each student's educational requirements. Some abilities are critical for leaders in today's world, such as team building and conflict resolution abilities to ensure that universal learning environments exist in every classroom if the school's leader cannot accomplish this many work objectives on his or her alone (Phonsa et al., 2019; Vail, 2010). The qualifications that school principals must possess in order to be successful in their management roles included modern talents. In short, executives must be skilled at their tasks in order to instruct/recommend subordinate teachers in their regular duties and assign them to the appropriate positions. Furthermore, administrators would be able to strengthen deficiencies, promote strengths, inspire teachers, and collaborate with other relevant parties (Grigsby-Williams, 2018; Peterson & Van Fleet, 2004). Being a woman, I was curious about how female school leaders run their businesses and how they become entrepreneurs. What are the roadblocks and motivators for them? As a researcher, I was interested in learning more about female entrepreneurs' success and how they are portrayed. The preponderance of male entrepreneurs in the literature has fueled a desire to learn more about women, and the modest number of journal papers on women entrepreneurs, in general, has fueled this desire. Female’s business dreams and conditions are inclined by communal and cultural variables. There are numerous concealed factors that can hinder or promote a woman entrepreneur’s success.

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This topic has completed its consideration and a great deal of research is being done on it in advanced countries, but there is a dearth of study in underdeveloped and developing countries, such as Pakistan (Nawaz, 2018), which is why this issue was considered for investigation in Pakistan. Female entrepreneurs have been hailed as new development engines and economic lights in emerging countries, promising prosperity and well-being. Women have been identified as an important 'untapped source' of economic progress by a variety of stakeholders (Minniti & Naudé, 2010). The goal of this research is to give findings on the nature of women school proprietors' leadership in Pakistan, as well as to analyze their experiences with entrepreneurship in the field of education. The purpose of this research is to find out how and why women get to become entrepreneurs, as well as what factors hampered or aided their success. The research questions are 1. How do female start their business in education? 2. What are the features of these educational female entrepreneurs?

2 Literature Review 2.1 Entrepreneurship There is no universal definition of entrepreneurship because it is influenced by factors such as economic functionality, institutional ownership, firm size and life cycle, resource base, and level of entrepreneurship. Some definitions of entrepreneurship include topics such as innovation, financial value, new products and marketplaces (Blundel & Lockett, 2011), or identifying, seizing, and exploiting opportunities (Bolton & Thompson, 2002). According to Bolton and Thompson (2002), entrepreneurs seek out, seize, and exploit opportunities. If you add 'to develop a business suited to their needs,' you'll get a good idea of how entrepreneur innovation fits in with any lifestyle goals.

2.2 Women Entrepreneurship This kind of definition for women entrepreneurs is distant from my thoughts of being a woman, it does not address women's demand for family flexibility, which is vital to me and I believe to other female businesses. The government promotes women to see entrepreneurship being fastpaced and high-growth by sponsoring and supporting organizations that help high-growth enterprises, such as The Business Growth Hub, and by depending on turnover and personnel figures to verify business worth. This strategy appears to be gendered, as it eliminates many women that do not want to conduct business in this manner. Consequently, for the women entrepreneur I found this definition more general and satisfying: “An individual, who seeks, seizes and exploits opportunities, to develop businesses suitable for their needs”. This definition is non-gender relevant, and it encompasses various levels of entrepreneurs, even those who work in a more strategic capacity, such as those who want to

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operate a company or businesses that will work for them instead of continuing to work in the business at all times, as other definitions suggest (Bourne, 2016).

2.3 Gender Equality and Women Empowerment Gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals outlined in the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Martin, 2018). According to Keller and Mbewe (1991), empowerment is defined as: “A process whereby women become able to organize themselves to increase their own self-reliance, to assert their independent right to make choices and to control resources which will assist in challenging and eliminating their own subordination.” Women's empowerment in emerging economies would boost not only household welfare but also the social and budgetary health of countries through improved education, poverty reduction, and reduced violence (De Vita et al., 2014; Dolan & Scott, 2009; Scott et al., 2012). Scholars have identified information communication technology as one tool that can assist women's empowerment in the developing world (Ajjan et al., 2014). Virginia Woolf (1929) claimed in her classic article A Space of One's Own that women need an additional source of income and a room of their own for their imagination to fully blossom. Over the last 30 years, an incredible infrastructure of gender-specific governmental and commercial organizations has emerged continue providing women entrepreneurs with the information, support, and financial backing they require to build the fastest-growing part of the economy (MasTur et al., 2015; Riebe, 2012).

2.4 Barriers of Women Entrepreneurship Studying women entrepreneurship is currently an under-researched field (Carter & Weeks, 2002), and recent inquiring routes are needed (Ahl, 2006). According to Grigsby-Williams (2018), successful women have many barriers to success in common; this could include discrimination or lack of resources that could be preventing the success of women. Not all women who are entrepreneurs are successful, and this leaves quite a bit of confusion regarding what makes or breaks success in the entrepreneurial realm (Dyke & Murphy, 2006). There are different beliefs regarding how women's businesses could be successful. With the increase in women entrepreneurs, it is important to understand what is influencing their success (Jones, 2014). Raab (2008) describes barriers for women entrepreneurship as “those factors, which circumvent or inhibit their entry into jobs, occupations, and organizations. Barriers are seen in the face of inequity”. Raab proposed counting self-esteem, an inner barrier, and self-improvement, restricted external relationships, motherhood or families, mentorship, and loneliness are all factors to consider. Historically, these impediments have been neglected, but in order to shift perceptions about female entrepreneurship, these barriers should be identified and addressed. (Raab, 2008). Lack of motivation or stress could be considered barriers for women.

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In the past, women have been put in positions that make it challenging to become entrepreneurs. With this reality, women have often shown less interest in roles of this capacity. Presently, with women breaking through the barriers, more insight is needed to better understand this shifting dynamic. According to (Raghuvanshi et al., 2017), barriers to women’s success in entrepreneurship are all researched equally. They also state that understanding these barriers could yield better insight into the influence that they have on women. Arora (2014) highlighted that women entrepreneurs are much higher on dependence, workgroup relation, intrinsic motivation, along with material incentives than that of their male counterparts. These are said to be the traits and factors that motivate women. Arora also found that women are focused more on relationships instead of things. These traits played a large role in the overall success of women leaders. Arora offered that when women assign meaning to their work, their motivation increases their stress. According to Arora, it is common for women to place meaning as a priority within their roles in relation to success; however, the study had a small sample size, so the findings may not be generalizable. Choosing a career path is a personal decision and can also be directly related to an individual’s creativity and personal skills. More exciting challenges are found in post-2000 literature. Several academics have pointed out that the twenty-first century represents a watershed moment for female entrepreneurs. In this traditionally male-dominated field, women entrepreneurs have made significant progress. Women entrepreneurs have more severe problems in the twenty-first century, according to various researchers. The advancement of technology, which drives strenuous service or product innovations, as well as weak communication and advocacy, financial restrictions, insufficient means and possibilities for advancing skills and talents, and a lack of role models (Halkias et al., 2011; Hatthakijphong & Ting, 2019; M., 2016; Zainuddin et al., 2017) are some of the major issues that stymie women entrepreneurs.

3 Method The topic of the present research study falls under qualitative research as it suggests an exploration of the prospects, issues and challenges women entrepreneurs use to face while working in the field of education. So, for this particular study, we opted exploratory researcher design which comes under the qualitative methods of research. “Qualitative research is a method of inquiry used mainly in the Social Sciences and humanities with the aim of gathering data for an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that propel such behaviors” (Nwolise, 2011). This design is used to get an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon, particularly when the topic is new and there are fewer available studies done in this regard.

3.1 Population The population of the present study takes in women entrepreneurs working in the education sector and running their institutes in district Sargodha. Keeping in view the importance of contextual factors the results of the present study could only be generalized to female entrepreneurs, who are working in the education sector in small cities like Sargodha.

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3.2 Sampling Size and Sampling Technique Snowball sampling technique is employed for the current study keeping in view the very nature of decided sample. Snow ball is also called chain referral technique; it is a type of nonprobability sampling, which is commonly used in qualitative research studies. This sampling technique is considered helpful, particularly for identifying the subjects which are otherwise hard to access, for example when there is no database or proper channel available to access the research subjects as per the need of a specific research study. Apart from this snowball sampling technique also saves time and financial resources (Sadler et al., 2010). Due to the limited time for this research, we conducted fifteen interviews of those female entrepreneurs who were working in the educational field and managing their own small schools for more than five years.

3.3 Research Instrument The semi-structured interview protocol was developed, consisting of eight factors, which were identified after a review of related literature. This process aids the researcher to travel around the views and feelings of the respondents in the related issue. For this research, firstly female entrepreneurs running educational institutes in Sargodha city were listed and then the researcher got their consent by explaining the purpose of the study and took their contact numbers, later by telephonic calls appointments were taken as per the convenience of both sides. Secondly, semistructured telephonic interviews were conducted with fifteen of the women entrepreneurs.

3.4 Data Analysis The interpretive phenomenological analysis technique was used for the analysis of data (IPA). This analysis technique is used to reconnoiter the way participants view a particular entity, occurrence, or issue. This is not about making an objective statement about under the study concern rather focuses on the way an individual looks at it, thus the interpretive phenomenological analysis technique provides a basis to get the “insider’s perspective” (Smith & Osborn, 2007).

4 Result and Discussion 4.1 Motivational Factor One common factor that is identified by many of the researchers in this field is “the motives” behind starting a business venture. The motives behind starting the business influence the working and nature of business and decide the objectives of the business. Studies conducted by Tambunan (2017) and Vossenberg (2013), argue that most women in low-income countries are compelled by need or what we call pure survival, they do not come into the field for their needs of achievement but their personal situations lead them to start a business,” out of necessity rather than an opportunity- because there are no jobs or any other options for income generation” (Vossenberg, 2013, p. 3). For this purpose, the researcher identifies the objectives and motives for starting entrepreneurship. The important key terms derived from collected data are work experience in the

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same field (either negatives or positive), academic family background, passion or ambition, earning, authoritative personality trait, social settings, chance and social service. The majority of the responses nearly 65% fell under two main key terms work experience in the same field and academic family background. As denoted by a respondent: “My family environment made me start this school, my mother was a school teacher, and when I got married my father in law was a retired school principal, they have been a source of inspiration for me and that’s why I came into the field of education”. Another lady said: “I have been teaching for many years, and have been working as a principal in a well-known school as well; through my experience and working I got the motivation to start my own school”. Opportunity recognition has become hot talk when it comes to entrepreneurship, this is also realized in this particular research study, as 26 % of respondents said that they felt the need of starting entrepreneurship in their surrounding areas and this has been one of the important factors that motivated them to go ahead.

4.2 Starting Entrepreneurship There are many hurdles that female entrepreneurs face at the very start of their business. The researcher felt that, while talking about this phase most of the women entrepreneurs got sentimental there were lots of expressions while speaking of the stories of ups and downs they had to bear when taking their first step. Competition and rivalries in the surroundings were said to be the biggest challenge by 47% of the female school heads. Apart from this, 14% of women found it difficult to set up the initial arrangements, 20 % said that getting admission was a big challenge to them as there were already many schools working in the surroundings; thus convincing people to send their kids to another newly established school was proved to be a tough task. Explaining this, a woman said: “It was difficult for me to convince people; even people were hesitant of paying a quite reasonable amount”. Another issue in this regard was social restrictions 20% of females pointed to this problem. Lack of capital was pointed out as a problem by 26% of the women; again the same amount of responses was recorded for work together. Female entrepreneurs said that having family responsibilities along with a business venture becomes a challenge itself. For instance, the following statement of a school head describes her pain: “Living in a joint family system makes it difficult to run a school as you have to fulfill your family responsibilities and have to pay full attention to your work too”.

4.3 Financial Factors Another hurdle for women entrepreneurs is a lack of funding and a better understanding of how to use finances. Starting or running an enterprise requires a sufficient amount of capital, thus

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respondents were asked if the financing was an issue in beginning their businesses. Different statements were uttered by the school heads. The first impression that appeared was like: “ahh, it’s a long and painful story”. “I sold my jewelry. And I am pretty much satisfied with my decision what if I had loads of jewelry”. Besides this, money was borrowed from siblings in many cases; a lady stated “My elder sister provided me with the money and brother gave his building to be used as school”. 52% of the overall respondents revealed that they have started their business with the support of their families, some of them have been provided with money from parents, some from siblings and a few by in-laws. Nearly 28% of the school heads that they used their personal assets and savings for the establishment of the school.

4.4 Family Related Challenges Family has a great importance in one’s life, particularly in a female’s life its even greater as she is the one who bears more family responsibilities. The researcher aimed at measuring the extent to which the family of a female entrepreneur influences her work, and to see either that influence is more of positivity or negativity. In this regard following kinds of sentences were occurred by: “Yes, when I had to buy something for school I take help, rest I do myself nobody helps in management”. Another lady said: “My husband helps in management he keeps accounts of school”. During interviews researcher came across with many emotional kinds of statements uttered by women school heads, for instance pointing to the issues one of the females says: “My home and family gets neglected because of my work. It becomes difficult to manage both the things together, but because I have to earn for my family’s betterment so I don’t quit”. While on the other side some women agreed that their families become hurdles to them sometimes. Saying this, a lady uttered: “Yeah, I do feel like that when I have to ignore my work because of family. See you have different roles, your mother-in-law demands you to be a good daughter-in-law, your husband wants a good life, your kids want a good mother and these demands become hurdles in your way”.

4.5 Socio-Cultural Factors In the process of entrepreneurship, socio-cultural factors play a significant role. This phrase refers to the invisible components made by man that primarily influence people's behavior, perceptions, and way of life (Akhter & Sumi, 2014). Respondents were encouraged to express their opinions. The interviews revealed five sub-themes, which are described further down. Pakistan is a predominantly male-dominated society, with males typically leading households. Male dominance

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is also visible in the lives of female entrepreneurs. About 40% of respondents denoted that women are compelled to accept this dominance because this is deeply rooted in their society. Social settings require women to accept whether they do it willingly or not. The below-given statement says it all: “Yes it plays a great role, Sargodha is a totally male-dominated society, see I am a working woman I do play a significant role in supporting my family, I own this school still I am being dominated by my husband, in spite of the fact that I am running an institute and I have been awarded teacher of the teachers, still my great teacher is my husband. I need to take his permission whatever decision I make even its simply changing the school timing”. Entrepreneurial women are not generally customary; this view was shared by one of the respondents: “In Pakistan, society does not allow women to do business outside their homes”. Another respondent also discussed that: “I have more issues from my surroundings that nobody likes to see me working or being successful”. Women entrepreneurs described that there are certain social boundaries, keeping in those boundaries a woman can exercise her independence but they can never cross those limits. This is said by 35 % of the women school heads. Discussing the same thing a lady said: “Yes it does up to a great limit; you need to be in a cover (protection by your husband/father). Otherwise, I feel I wasn’t able to sit in the place I use to do now. Because our society doesn’t allow this”. Many interesting facts were revealed by women entrepreneurs 53% of women described that socio-cultural issues are deeply rooted in society and we have to accept it whether we want to or not, the reasons were said to be feudal background, illiteracy, religious perspective, brought up the pattern, narrow-mindedness percentage for above-mentioned terms was found 13%, 7%, 7%, 13% and 20% respectively.

4.6 Education and Experience Entrepreneurial education is distinct from commerce and economic education. The primary goal of entrepreneurial education is to foster creativity, innovation, and self-sufficiency while also cultivating personal attributes that support an entrepreneurial mindset (Srivastava, 2017). As a result, a woman's education and experience are critical when starting a business. Many of the survey participants believed that they were having difficulties as a result of a lack of entrepreneurial education and understanding. For example, one of the participants stated; “I feel I’m not confident in the sense that whenever I have to visit some office I become scared and I literally feel that I should improve my public dealings” Another respondent said: “I need to learn dictatorship, I’m very polite and sometimes people get the advantage of this weakness”.

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The results from data showed that 20% of women used to attend workshops which come their way through book publishing companies or any other body. Says a woman; “Well I use to attend the workshops conducted by book publishers time and again, these workshops are short though but are informative and helpful” Apart from attending workshops, 35% of female school heads said that their related experience helps them to manage the school. 45% said that they have attended teaching courses like CT, B.Ed. and M.Ed. which are supportive of their work. The overall results described that not even a single women entrepreneur has done with some management degree of professional training in this regard and this is what points to the real challenge in their way to progress.

4.7 Relationship with Stakeholders Researchers tried to identify the gender-related challenges women entrepreneurs face in terms of their employees. In response to the above-mentioned question, nearly 80% of the people stated that working with a female is easier as compared to men. The reasons they quoted were of diverse nature. Both kinds of statements, favorable and non-favorable were uttered by respondents. Most of the school heads said that they prefer female staff as it is easier to communicate with the same gender which leads to better understanding. They also talked with reference to Islamic and social perspectives and gender-related attributes of female employees. According to women entrepreneurs, it is easy to handle female staff as do not try to dominate their coworkers like men. Only 14% of the respondent described men as better employees than females for their noninvolvement in the internal politics of the institute, one of the ladies explained: ” Males are to the point, they don’t get involved in leg-pulling and backbiting like women”. Another argument came up in the favor of male workers, but interestingly the lady who favored men didn’t have any male staff in the school except her peon. This shows the double standards, many times during the data collection researcher found contradictions in what people were talking about and what was actually happening. Only 6% of all school heads denoted that there is no difference in working with males or females, one can comfortably work with both. On the other hand, about 33% of women entrepreneurs use to face payment issues, as the school dues are not paid on time; moreover, usually, the concessions are demanded from the parent’s side which leads to many problems for the school. Stating this, a lady uttered the following words; “Parents do not pay school charges on time. They don’t have any feelings that I have to run an institute I have to meet my expenses, they don’t even bother”. As cooperation between the school and parents is highly needed for the better learning of the students, the researcher tried to find whether both the parents and school authorities go hand in hand for the betterment of child; the answer was shocking as 45% of the school heads complained that parents don’t attend their children properly and leave everything up to school.

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4.8 Expectancy Factor In terms of growth and expansion women, entrepreneurs seem to be so excited and high. 67% of the overall respondents stated excitedly they have expansion plans, though their plans are different the data described that most of them wanted to have their personal school buildings and to have campuses over multiple sites. These types of intentions were expressed by 40% of the ladies working in the educational sector. 13% of females said that want to take their school to college level, while 7% dream to have Hifz sections and again 7% want to have separate campuses for girls and boys. Well on contrary to above-mentioned results, 26% of the respondents were found confused in terms of expansion and growth, they uttered the kind of statements which can have any sort of meanings, for instance, talks a lady; “Expansion Mmmmm (pause) it’s complicated so many systems are working in this country until and unless you become sure of what thing you should go for. Again each time the education budget comes it is curtailed. So I’m not sure”. Besides this, 7% of the ladies said that they have no expansion plans yet and would like to focus on what is already available to them.

5 Conclusion Women entrepreneurship has been a hot topic for decades throughout the world, its need and importance have been well understood. And education for being socially preferred and respectful field attracts women for investment; women do represent a higher number in educational entrepreneurship. They are running small-scale schools throughout the country but are still unheard of. The present study explored the perspectives of women's entrepreneurship in education and its challenges. The findings indicated that women are facing many problems: first of all, they didn’t come into the field with clear goals and intrinsic motivation rather social norms and individual context seemed to have performed their role in this regard. Secondly, women have financial issues, thus their enterprises are small, moreover, they find it difficult to survive in a competitive atmosphere as schools are being run every here and there. This doesn’t end here rather getting admissions becomes a challenge which further makes it tough to meet expenses. Thirdly women lack managerial training, data shows that not even a single lady has attended management courses, thus they are unable to manage effectively. Fourthly women entrepreneurs are not given proper space to progress and excel as they are being ruled by men, seems like they don’t actually want to get rid of male dominance or maybe they think it’s not possible. This issue influences their decision power negatively. Apart from that many problems still women think positively in terms of growth and expansion; which could be the way forward if women are provided with the support they can definitely work more effectively and productively.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding authors.

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Tambunan, T. T. H. (2017). Women Entrepreneurs in MSEs in Indonesia: Their Motivations and Main Constraints. International Journal of Gender and Women’s Studies, 5(1). DOI: 10.15640/ijgws.v5n1a9 Vail, L. M. (2010). Teaching in the 21st century. 76. VanderBrug, J. (2013). The Global Rise of Female Entrepreneurs. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/09/global-rise-of-female-entrepreneurs Vossenberg, S. (2013). Women Entrepreneurship Promotion in Developing Countries: What explains the gender gap in entrepreneurship and how to close it? Working Papers No. 2013/08, Maastricht School of Management. https://ideas.repec.org/p/msm/wpaper/2013-08.html Zainuddin, A., Ahmad, J., Puteh, F., Chandran, S. D., Hassim, A. A., & Ismail, T. N. T. (2017). The 21st Century Challenges Among Women Entrepreneurs: Revisiting the Literature. Advanced Science Letters, 23(8), 7845-7848. DOI: 10.1166/asl.2017.9591 Kiran Fazal is a Ph.D. scholar at the School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian, China. She holds a Master's degree in Education. Her research interest includes Teaching Methods, and Curriculum & Instructions.

Uzma Sarwar is a Ph.D. scholar at the School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian, China. She holds a Master's degree in education. Her research interest includes Comparative Education, Teaching strategies, Leadership, and Management in Education.

Nuralieva Nargiza is a Ph.D. scholar at the School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian, China. She holds a Master's degree in Linguistics. Her research interest includes Linguistics, Education, Educational Psychology, and Marketing.

Samina Zamir is a Ph.D. Scholar at School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian, China. She holds a Master’s degree in education. Her research interest includes Teaching Learning Methodologies, Learning Attitude, and Rural Education.

Badar Khan is an MPhil scholar in The University of Lahore, Pakistan. He holds a Master's degree in Chemistry and Bachelor's in Education. His research interests include Teaching Methodologies, Science, Technology, Society and Environment.

Professor Dr.Qi Zhan Yong is a Professor at the School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian, China. He got a PhD degree in Education from Shaanxi Normal University Xian, China. His research focuses on Education Policy and Law, Leadership and Management in Education.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Petroleum & Mineral Geochemistry of Pyroxene & Plagioclase in Eocene Basin Volcanic Rocks of Baladeh Region of Central Alborz of Iran Hossein Hossein Zadeh1, Seyed Jamal Sheikh Zakariaei1*, Mohammad Reza Ansari1, Mansour Vosoughi Abedini1 Department of Geology, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, IRAN. *Corresponding Author (Email: Sheikhzakariaee@srbiau.ac.ir). 1

Paper ID: 13A1T Volume 13 Issue 1

Abstract

The Baladeh volcanic area in Northern Iran (specifically located in Central Alborz) contains continental alkaline basaltic volcanic Received 15 August 2021 Received in revised form 14 outcrops. The most significant minerals in this group of rocks are plagioclage November 2021 and pyroxene. Accordingly, these minerals were studied and assessed via Accepted 19 November mineral geochemistry. Compliant with our analysis, the chemical 2021 composition of pyroxene and plagioclage are in the range of diopside-augite Available online 24 and bitonite-labradorite, respectively. The temperature and thermodynamic November 2021 conditions of the parent magma were estimated based on the diagrams of Keywords: Baladeh Region; Mineral mineral chemistry. High oxygen fugacity, medium to high pressure range, temperature 600-1200°C were the most important conditions governing the Chemistry; Alkaline Basalt; Intercontinental parent magma. Geochemical and mineralogical tectonomagmatic diagrams Rift; Garnet-Containing indicate that these basalts are formed locally in an intercontinental tensile Harzburgite; Smelting; basin (constituted as a consequence of the lithospheric thinning of eocene Alborz. compaction processes). Volcanic assemblages are induced by the formation lava due to the removal of adiabatic pressure from metasomatized mantles, formed as small-scale volcanic rocks that represent an alkaline volcanism and metamorphic rocks with a similar composition to primary lava-derived (or near-primary) lava. Elemental ratios (such as Zr/Nb, La/Nb) represent and are indicative of an elemental model of magmas formed by multiple degrees of smelting of garnet-bearing harzburgite and heterogeneous mantle sources. Disciplinary: Geology. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Zadeh, H. H., Zakariaei, S. J. S., Ansari, M. R., Abedini, M. V. (2022). Petroleum & Mineral Geochemistry of Pyroxene & Plagioclase in Eocene Basin Volcanic Rocks of Baladeh Region of Central Alborz of Iran. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1T, 1-9. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1T.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.20

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1 Introduction The study region is located in Baladeh, Mazandaran Province and approx. 80-km Northeast of Tehran, (geographical coordinates: 6°, 36° -11, 36° north latitude & 52°, 51-35°, 51° east longitude). Geologically, it is situated in the central part of Iran’s primry northern mountain range (Alborz mountain range). The study area was first surveyed by Jenny (1977) and Stampeli (1978) (Figure 1). In this area, cretaceous and earlier volcanic rocks were studied by Jenny (1977). Although this lower Eocene volcanic assemblage is important in understanding the geological conditions of Alborz, but to date, detailed geochemical and mineral chemistry analysis has not been preformed on them. In this research, grounded on mineral chemistry and geochemical diagrams, it has been endeavored to determine the tectonomagmatic environment, the prevailing thermodynamic conditions and the formation environment of the Eocene basin volcanic rocks.

2 Region’s Geology The study area is part of the northern Central Alborz zone; pursuant to the end of the alpine phase, it has formed a single terrain in the northern region of Kandavan (separating it from south Kandavan). This environment is also tectonically active and Alborz’s elevation is due to the action/movement of east-west faults, caused some formations to be out of their normal state. In the south of Baladeh region, the middle-upper jurassic-chilean sandstone units (with fault boundary along with basilic volcanic rocks), have spread to the middle (below the Azar Aavaari Formation of Karaj to Lower to Middle Eocene Age). Major diversity of volcanic rocks of the Lower-Middle Eocene are in the range of alkalinebasalt, alkaline-basalt, basaltic andesite, andesitic basalts, olivine-trachy-basalt & olivine-trachyandesite (mainly seen in the layer, or with them) (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Geological map of the study area (Quoted By Nabavi 1998 with changes).

3 Research Methodology During field visits, 120 rock samples were collected from various sections of basaltic volcanic outcrops. After examining the hand samples, 50 thin sections were selected and upon preparation were studied utilizing a polarization microscope. Twelve samples were chemically analyzed in the

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Binalood Deposit Spectrum Laboratory, Mashhad, Iran, via the ICP-MS method. Pursuant to detailed petrographic studies, in order to study the microprop and mineral chemistry on the basalts of the study area, a thin section of the index sample was selected from the logic outcrops and analyzed via Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA).

4 Findings 4.1 Lithography Consistent with the petrographic study, basalt rocks have porphyric texture with microlytic to glassy paste. The paste in these rocks is composed of plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine and OPAC minerals. Plagioclage is dispersed from shaped to amorphous and of differing sizes within the paste (Figure A2). These plagioclase have albite-pericline and albite-carlsbad macules and are labradorite based on optical properties. These minerals are observed as single crystals and in groups. The tissues present in these plagioclase include sieve, growth, dissolution margin and oscillating zonation. In line with the existence of these tissues, indicating an imbalance in magmatic conditions, their presence can be due to magma mixture. Some plagioclase have been converted to clay, sericite and chlorite minerals via alteration. Pyroxene (Px) is dispersed from shaped to amorphous with an average size of 330 µm and an approximate frequency of 10% within the rock texture (Figure 2B). Olivines are shaped amorphously with an average size of 280 µm (severely altered in most instances).

Figure 2: Microscopic studies of volcanic rocks; A) View of the first type of social plagioclase phenocryst (red dotted line) with pyroxene inclusions (yellow arrow) and the fifth type of microlithic plagioclase present in the paste. B) View of the highly altered pyroxene phenocryst itself (in XPL optical state).

4.2 Mineral Geochemistry Due to their mineralogical significance, in this study the two minerals pyroxene & plagioclage were analyzed (Figures 3A & 4B). In line with the mineral chemistry of these two primary minerals in basalt rocks, the heat level, formation depth as well as the effective oxygen pressure in the parent magma can be projected. To determine the type of pyroxene, the classification diagram was utilized [as an indicator of the separation of clinopyroxene minerals from the proposed diagram] (Morimoto et al., 1988). In

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this diagram, pyroxene has a compound spectrum within the diopside-augite range (Figure B3). Utilizing the diagram of AlIV + Na versus AlIV + 2Ti + Cr, itself a function of trivalent iron in pyroxenes level, the oxygen fugacity can be obtained. In this diagram, all samples of Clino pyroxene mineral are located above the line = 0Fe + 3 and in the fugacity range above oxygen (Figure 3C). In the diagram of changes of the main oxides of SiO2, Al2O3 in kami pyroxen to determine the tectonic environment (Le Bas, 1962), most specimens are located in the intercontinental rift environment and intercontinental tholeites (Figure 3D). In Figure 4A, with the aid of tectonic setting diagrams and consistent with the chemical composition of pyroxene, all samples are located in the intercontinental rift environment and reveal the intercontinental tensile environments associated with deep faults in the region, which are probably due to higher degrees of melting. Part of the Tolitic to alkaline magma mantle is produced subcontinental, which can be related to the rate of opening of intracontinental tensile faults or the rate of adiabatic ascent of the parent mantle.

Figure 3: Electron Prop Propagation Microanalysis (EPMA) Studies on Pyroxene; A) The points analyzed on the electron microscope images are marked as numbers, B) The classification of pyroxenes in basalt on the diagram (Morimoto & Associates, 1988). C) AlIV+Na versus AlIV+2Ti+Cr diagram for estimating oxygen fugacity (Schweitzer 1979), D) The use of clinopyrox mineralization to determine the tectonic environment (Le Bas, 1962; Hout et al., 2002).

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With the assistance of the diagram presented by Aoki & Shiba (1993), the peak pressure and temperature during the crystallization of rocks can be determined based on the composition of pyroxene. It is in equilibrium with AlVI and the Cr*100/Cr+AlVI ratio in pyroxenes is directly related to pressure (Nimis & Taylor, 2000), in such a manner that in clinopyroxenes containing aluminum at high pressure with the action of NaALSi3O8-NaALSi2O6+SiO2 and at low pressure with the reaction CaAl2Si CALl2Sio6+SiO2 it is controlled (Green & Ringwood, 1967). The first reaction occurs at a depth of about 120 km (containing garnet peridotite), and the second reaction occurs at a depth of less than 40 km. To determine the depth of the magmatic reservoir, aluminum in the structure of pyroxenes was utilized. Researchers, including Helz (1983) emphasized that the distribution of aluminum in the quadrilateral and octahedral positions of clinopyroxenes is a satisfactory measure of the amount of magma water and the amount of pressure on the igneous rock formation environment. With this model, magma production at medium depths and crystallization process of some minerals continue at lower depths, and therefore all pyroxenes are crystallized at a pressure of 5 kb and with magma water content between 5 & 10% (Figure 4C). In response to increased temperatures in the crystallization medium of pyroxenes, AlVI values decrease (Heltz. 1973). In order to thermometrize the rocks of the region, the OW-Eb-Fs ternary system was deployed. Temperatures of about 600-1100°C at atmospheric pressure 1 are estimated for the rocks in the area (Figure 4D).

Figure 4: Diagrams of mineral chemistry in pyroxene. A) Use of clinopyroxene mineralization to determine the technical environment of AB. (Le Bas, 1962) Alkaline Basalt, WPA Alkaline Intermediate Basalt WPT Interstitial Tolitic Intermediate Basalt: Oceanic Basalt, B) Barometric Diagram of AlVI vs. AlVI (Aoki & Shiba, 1993) C) Clinical Barometric & Hydrometric Diagram (Helz, 1973) D) Wo-En-Fs diagram of clinoproxen for temperature estimation (Lindsley, 1983)

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With the aim of assessing the exact composition of plagioclase in the rocks of the region, an 18-point analysis was performed on these minerals (Figure 5A). On the Or-Ab-An triangular diagram (Deer et al., 1999), there are plagioclase of igneous rocks in the area, in the range of bitonite, labradorite and two andesine samples (Figure B5). Toward thermometrically measuring the basaltic rocks of the study area (with the help of chemical composition of plagioclage mineral), the Or-Ab-An ternary system was utilized. Temperatures are estimated to be between 650-900°C for various rocks (Figure 5C).

Figure 5: Image and diagrams of plagioclase mineral chemistry, A) Image of electron prop analysis (EPMA) of plagioclase (points analyzed on electron microscope images as marked numbers), B) Determination of feldspar composition of igneous rocks in the area (Deer et al., 1999), C) Or- Ab-An diagram for estimation of temperature (Seck, 1971).

4.3 Tectonomagmatic Environment With the aim of determining the tectonic nomagmatic environment of the basalts of Baladeh area, diagrams from Pearee & Cann (1973), Pearee & Norry (1979), Sun & McDonough (1989), Wood (1980) and Meshede (1989) were utilized (Figures 6A & 6B). In these diagrams, incompatible and non-moving elements Ti, Y, Th, Nb, Ta and Zr are used to divide different fields. All samples are in the range of in-sheet basalts (WPB) and primarily display a process of mantle metasomatism with varied degrees of melting with changes in Zr. In the Nb*2-Zr/4-Y triangular diagram from (Meschede, 1989), the major samples are adjacent to the range of alkaline basalts within AI sheets and even wetter alkaline samples with lower melting degrees and higher Zr content are located inside the surface alkaline basalts (Figure 6C). Basalt samples in the diagrams presented by

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(Agrawal, 2008), (Verma & Associates, 2006) exhibit CAB sheet active margin basalts as well as a trend toward in-sheet basalts (WPBs) (Figure 7).

All diagrams confirm the source/sources of

oceanic island basalts (OIB), asthenospheric mantle enrichment and varying degrees of melting in the formation of early volcanic magma formation primarily belong in the range of alkaline to transitional basalts as far as chemical composition.

Figure 6: Determination of Tectonomagic Environment of Lower Eocene Mafic Volcanic Rocks in Baladeh Regon Utilizing Diagrams (Pearee & Cann, 1973; Pearee & Norry, 1979; Sun & McDonough, 1989; Wood, 1980; & Meshede, 1989).

Figure 7: Determination of Tectonomagic Environment of Volcanic Rocks Utilizing Diagrams (Agrawal, 2008; Verma et al., 2006).

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5 Conclusion Petrographic studies of the studied basalt rocks in the Baladeh region demonstrate that they have porphyric texture with microlytic to glass paste which is in a paste of plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine and Opac minerals. Compliant with the mineral chemistry studies, the chemical composition of pyroxene and plagioclage are in the range of diopside-augite and bitonitelabradorite, respectively. Mineral chemistry diagrams reveal that high oxygen fugacity, moderate to high pressure range, 600-1200°C were the most important conditions governing parent magma. Geochemical and geochemical tectonomagmatic diagrams all indicate that these basalts are locally formed in an intercontinental tensile basin, constituted in connection with the lithospheric thinning of eocene compaction processes. The Alborz mountain range in central Iran is a member of the Arabic plate. In the Hersinian cycle, the two continents of Europe and Asia converged towards each other and in the late triassic and simultaneously with early-cimmerian, this collision became complete and in the younger orogenic phases, this orogenic process as well as tensile phases with pressure caused the formation of young magmanisms in the eocene period (together with volcanic assemblages) creating formations such as the Baladeh region (Agha-Nabaati, 2005). Enrichment in Th/Yb-Nb/Yb elemental ratios indicate the association of primary magmas with OIB enriched sources and different degrees of melting from a lherzolite garnet source, primary magma from these heterogeneous garnet sources, low melting degrees of rich sources of lherzolite garnet, hence these changes in melting degrees are a function of alterations in the depth and enrichment of incompatible elements in various mantle sources. Changes in melting degrees are moreover the consequence of frequency and pulses of flow changes in temperature of clove mantle or mantle as well as high melting degrees of mantle material related to the early stages of asthenospheric ascent and reduced with the decreasing intensity of asthenosphere ascending melting degrees. Therefore, in a general conclusion, we can point to the role of ascent of water-saturated asthenosphere with amphibole-phlogopite garnet lerzolite combination in order to generate primary magma of Baladeh region basalts. It is a passageway for magma to reach the surface, and the asthenosphere, with high levels of water present, melts to varying degrees as part of an amphibole-phlogopite peridotite garnet source.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 References Agha-Nabaati, A., 2005. Geology of Iran. Iran Geological Survey Publications, 586p. Nabavi, J. 1998. Geological Map of Baladeh (Scale: 1:100000). Geological & Mineral Exploration Organization of Ira Jenny, J., Stampfli, G., 1978. Lithostratigraphie du Permien de l’Elbourz oriental en Iran. Eclogae geologicae Helveticae 71, 551e580. Krienitz, M, S, Hasse, K,M, Mezger, K, Shaikh-Mashail, M, A., 2007. Magma genesis and mantle dynamic at

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the Harrat Ash Shaam volcanic field (South Syria). Journal of Petrology, 48, 1513-1542. Le Bas MJ, Le Maitre RW, Streckeisen A, Zanettin BA. (1986). Chemical classification of volcanic rocks based on the total alkali-silica diagram. J Petrol 27, 745-750. Macdonald, G.A. & Katsura, T. (1964). Chemical composition of Hawaiian lavas. J.Petrol. 5, 82-133. Meschede, M. (1986). A method of discrimination between different types of mid-ocean-ridge basalt and continental tholeiites with the Nb-Zr-Y diagram. Chemical Geology .56, 207-218. Stampfli, G.M., Etde geologique generale de l’Elbourz oriental au sud de Gonbad-e-Qabus, Iran NE. Sun, S.S.& McDonough,W.f. (1989). Magmatism in the oceanic basalts. A.D. Saunders & M.J.Norry, Her ausgeber. Geol.Soc.Special Publ. 42, 313-345. Thomposon, R.N. (1982). Magmatism of the british Tertiary Vilcanic Province. Scott Journal of Geology. 18, 49-107. White Marsh, R.B. & Miles, P.R. (1995). Models of the development of the west Iberia rifted continental margin at 40 30’ N deduced from surface and deep-tow magnetic anomalies. J.Petrol.Res. 100, 37893806. Hossein Hossein Zadeh is a PhD student in Geology from Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran..

Dr.Seyed Jamal Sheikh Zakariaei is an Assistant Professor in Department of Geology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. He is currently the Vice Chancellor of the Faculty of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering in Iran. .

Dr.Mohammad Reza Ansari is an Assistant Professor in Department of Geology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Dr.Mansour Vosoughi Abedini is an Associate Professor in Department of Geology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.

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ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Hemostatic Profile of Holstein Heifers Depending on Age T.V. Yanich1, M.A. Derkho1*, A. Tegza2 Department of Natural Sciences, South Ural State Agrarian University, Troitsk, RUSSIAN FEDERATION. Department of Veterinary Medicine, Kostanay Regional University named after A. Baitursynov, Kostanay, KAZAKH-STAN. *Corresponding author (Email: derkho2010@yandex.ru). 1 2

Abstract

Paper ID: 13A1U Volume 13 Issue 1 Received 22 August 2021 Received in revised form 14 November 2021 Accepted 21 November 2021 Available online 29 November 2021

Keywords: Hemostasis; blood; heifers; age variability

We have studied the age-related changes in indicators of platelet and plasma-coagulation hemostasis in heifers in the plant-based nutrition phase. Holstein heifers were studied within the research. Blood was taken from animals aged 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 months. Also, the hemostatic profile was determined in them. It was found that 9 months is a critical age in the dynamics of PLT, PCT, MPV, PDW, and P-LCR. It affects the direction of their changes. The indicator of extrinsic (prothrombin activity, prothrombin ratio, INR) and intrinsic (APTT) coagulation pathways balance the biological significance of each other. The age-related dynamics of fibrin formation indicators (prothrombin time, fibrinogen) and the anticoagulant system (antithrombin III) is intended to maintain the fluid blood condition. According to the principal component analysis, a total variability of hemostatic blood composition is associated with the age of heifers defining 73.18% of the explained variance of parameters. The obtained data may be used as a standardized one in evaluating the hemostasis condition in the body of Holstein heifers as well as in performing therapeutic interventions with drugs affecting blood coagulation. Disciplinary: Hematology, Animal Science, Biology. ©2022 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

Cite This Article: Yanich, T. V., Derkho, M. A., Tegza, A. (2022). Hemostatic Profile of Holstein Heifers Depending on Age. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 13(1), 13A1U, 1-11. http://TUENGR.COM/V13/13A1U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2022.21

1 Introduction The hemostatic system is a protective mechanism enabling to stop the bleeding in case of vascular damage [1] as well as regulating the viscoelastic properties of blood. It has got the

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following main structural and functional components: blood cells (platelets), vessel walls, and plasma enzyme systems. Platelets are specific small anucleate cells [2] produced by bone marrow megalokaryocytes [3]. They are eliminated in the reticuloendothelial system by macrophages [4]. Cells in a subpopulation of platelets differ not only in size and density but also in function. For example, adhesive and aggregating function, as well as vasotrophic one of platelets, decreases as their life span in the bloodstream increases; the concentration and transport function are associated with cell density [5]. According to [1], platelets are not only mediators of hemostasis but also of immunity. They can bind to bacteria and produce immunomodulating chemokines [6]. Granules are of key importance in terms of physiological functions implementation of platelets. Thus, αgranules contain various proteins, chemokines, cytokines, and growth factors ensuring normal cell function [7]. Dense granules contain molecules of ADP, serotonin, glutamate, histamine, and calcium, which are essential for platelet activation [8]. Lysosomes contain proteolytic enzymes [9] and enzymes hydrolyzing glycoproteins, glycolipids, and glycosaminoglycans [10]. Platelets are involved in the formation of the “first wave” of hemostasis (accumulation of cells at the place of vascular disruption) due to the ability to adhere, activation and aggregation, as well as in the “second wave” (blood clotting). This is due to the ability of activated cells to enhance the formation of thrombin. It initiates the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin [3-4]. These cells are the main subjects in stopping bleeding when the vascular wall is damaged. The patterns of functioning of the hemostatic system have been studied for a long time, but most of these researches have been performed in humane medicine. Only recently some papers have appeared concerning the following: in animals, unlike humans, the homeostatic balance of platelet functions (primary hemostasis) and the coagulation system (secondary hemostasis) has specific features [11]. In turn, exposure to a large number of endo- and exogenous factors cause hemostatic derangements. For example, it was found that camel platelets have a lower aggregation than human cells. Meanwhile, the breed of camels affects the quantitative expression of this parameter [12]. According to [13], calves, goats, and pigs have considerably higher blood clotting parameters in comparison with humans. It is dog plasma that is characterized by lower values of prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin and thrombin time, and considerably higher concentrations of fibrinogen and factor VIII coagulation protein than human one [14]. The clotting time in sheep and humans is about the same [15]. Pigs have a fibrinolytic pathway similar to humans [15]. Nevertheless, the influence of the anti-aggregation ability of the vascular wall on the processes of hemostasis increases in them with age [16]. The differences in the rate of thrombin and plasmin formation in various animal and human species are up to 10 times, which is due to substantial alterations in the regulation of hemostasis [17]. In the body of cattle, the condition of the hemostatic system depends on the breed, health status, gestation phase, lactation phase, number of births, and productivity [18-20]. Moreover, environmental conditions of cultivation also

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affect. For example, in calves of Holstein breed in the conditions of the Kursk magnetic anomaly, the aggregation activity of platelets reduces with their normal content in the blood [21]. In the body of farm animals, the hemostatic system is closely associated with somatic characteristics [22], affecting the rate of their growth and development as well as the formation of productive qualities. Nevertheless, in most species, including cattle, there are scattered data concerning the parameters of the hemostatic system. They do not permit the identification of specific standards even by animal species. According to the fact that the regularities of the formation of hemostasis in the body of young cattle have not been identified, the purpose of our paper was to evaluate the age-related changes in the parameters of platelet and plasmacoagulation hemostasis in Holstein heifers in the plant-based nutrition phase.

2 Materials and Methods Ethical Statement. The study was confirmed by the Bioethics Committee of the South Ural State Agrarian University. It was done in compliance with the principles of humane treatment of animals. Animals. The research was performed in 2020-2021 under the conditions of Belagash LLP being a part of the Agrofirma TNK LLP group of companies (Republic of Kazakhstan). The company specializes in grain production and dairy farming. In 2011, the company imported young cows and heifers of the Holstein-Friesian breed from the USA. The company is engaged in breeding these animals to the present. The technology of young-stock breeding provides for their maintenance up to 60 days of age in the unit for newborns. For feeding, an imitation of powdered milk is used being drunk 3 times a day. Then the calves are separated by gender: the bulls are transferred to the fattening unit; the heifers to the farming unit. In the unit for heifers, there are sections for the nursery (from 2 to 7 months) and sections for coupling (from 7 months). The way of keeping is a cubicle system. The enterprise has its own feed processing building and mainly uses a feed of its own production. The feeding is twofold. In the nursery sections, heifers are fed with concentrated feed mixture, hay, and vitamin granules; from the age of 4 months, succulent feeds are added. Animal feeding regimes correspond to the standards of the All-Russian Institute of Animal Husbandry [23]. Sample Collection and Analysis. To carry out the research, an experimental group (n=10) was formed from 3-month-old heifers under the principle of approximate analogues. The blood was taken in the morning (before feeding) in animals aged 3, 6, 9, 12, and 15 months. Prior to blood sampling, the heifers of the experimental group were subjected to a clinical examination. Blood from animals was obtained by vacuum method from the tail vein using a vacuumcontaining system. To do this, the tail of the animal was fixed with a hand in the middle third area and slowly raised up. The injection site (in the area of 2-5 tail vertebrae) was disinfected with alcohol; the needle was inserted at an angle of 90 ° until it stops at a depth of 5-10 mm. Blood samples were collected in vacuum tubes (VACUETTE) designed for the study of the hemostatic

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system (blue lid) and hematologic studies (purple lid). The test tube was carefully turned over 4 times after taking the blood to mix with the stabilizer. The blood in the insulated shipping container was delivered to the Laboratory of I. V. Smolin LLP (the city of Kostanay) on the first day after its sampling. The thrombocytogram was part of a hematologic study performed on Sysmex, XS-500I hematology analyzer (Japan). It included platelet count (PLT), plateletcrit (PCT), mean platelet volume (MPV), platelet distribution width (PDW), and large platelet ratio (P-LCR). ACL TOP 500 automatic coagulation analyzer (USA) was used to identify the parameters of plasma coagulation hemostasis. It included the determination of activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), international normalized ratio (INR), prothrombin activity, prothrombin ratio, thrombin time, fibrinogen, and antithrombin III concentrations. Statistical Analysis. The statistical analysis was done using the Statistica 6.0 software. It included normality testing of the distribution of values in the sample using the Shapiro-Wilk test, calculation of the mean value (X) and its standard error (Sx). To evaluate the total variability of hemostasis indicators in the body of heifers, the principal components method was used [24]. The similarity was defined using the Spearman correlation coefficient; the number of main components was determined by the Cattell's scree test [25]. The statistical significance of the links was taken equal to P ≤ 0.05. The PAST package [26] was used to perform calculations.

3 Results One of the crucial parts of the hematologic study is platelets and their indices. They make it possible to control the condition of the hemostatic system in the animal body. Its indicators describe the functions of platelets, allowing to identification of primary bleeding disorders [2]. Thus, it is essential to know the reference limits of the platelet parameter in the body of animals in a physiological state. For example, the number of platelets in the blood of Holstein heifers in the raising phase steadily increased, exceeding the level of 3 months of age by 1.50 times (Table 1). On average, during the raising phase, it amounted to 356.78±6.74 109/l. The thrombocrit value, i.e. the volume fraction of cells in the blood [2], was not equal to the number of platelets. The age-related variability of thrombocrit, as well as platelet indices, had the following direction. Their value increased from 3 months to 9 months of age, at which it reached a maximum, and then declined, reaching a minimum at the age of coupling time (Table 1). Meanwhile, the average value of the parameter for the entire phase of heifer breeding was equal to 0.23±0.02%. Platelets circulating in the blood have a certain size, which can be indirectly judged by the size of mean platelet volume (Table 1). For example, in the blood of 3-6 months old heifers, the MPV had the lowest value and amounted to 6.20± 0.03 and 6.50± 0.05 fl. By 9 months of age, cell volume increased to 7.70±0.13 fl and then decreased to 7.20±0.03 fl by the end of the heifer raising phase. The average value for the studied phase of postnatal ontogenesis of animals was 7.03±0.05 fl.

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Such parameters as PDW and P-LCR were characterized by similar age-related variability; their average values during the raising were 7.79±0.05 and 5.84±0.15%, respectively. Table 1: Platelets and their indices in Holstein heifers (n=10) Indicator

3 294.30±4.31 0.18±0.01 6.20±0.03 6.73±0.04 3.52±0.04

PLT, 109 /l PCT, % MPV, fl PDW, % P-LCR, %

6 305.30±2.20* 0.21±0.01 6.50±0.05 6.80±0.03 3.76±0.04

Age of heifers, months 9 12 351.30±9.17* 391.30±12.81* 0.29±0.01 0.25±0.02* 7.70±0.13* 7.57±0.05* 9.60±0.03* 8.50±0.05* 7.70±0.03* 7.47±0.48*

15 441.70±5.22* 0.22±0.04* 7.20±0.03* 7.33±0.04* 6.76±0.16

Average for raising phase 356.78±6.74 0.23±0.02 7.03±0.05 7.79±0.05 5.84±0.15

Note: * - Р≤0.05 in relation to the age of 3 months Therefore, the number of platelets in the blood of heifers during the raising phase increased with age. Platelet and thrombocrit indices changed in the form of an ascending parabola with a maximum at 9 months of age. It is this age that can be attributed to the “critical” one in the formation of functional activity of thrombopoiesis in the body of growing animals. It is reasonable to assume that the revealed dynamics of platelets and their characteristics provide the required level of liquid properties of blood, determining the perfusion of internal organs, the intensity of metabolism, and the rate of growth and development of heifers. Table 2. Indicators of plasma coagulation hemostasis in Holstein heifers (n=10) Indicator Quick prothrombin ratio Prothrombin activity, % INR, IU APTT, sec Thrombin time, sec Fibrinogen, mg/l Antithrombin III, mg/l

3 2.31± 0.03 32.63± 0.41 2.40± 0.03 67.50± 4.47 22.50± 0.59 2013.00± 46.50 0.33± 0.05

6 2.13± 0.01* 35.93± 0.30* 2.22± 0.02* 58.70± 1.34 19.07± 0.36* 1457.00± 30.81* 0.37± 0.04

Age of heifers, months 9 12 1.80± 1.95± 0.08* 0.07* 45.70± 41.10± 2.24 1.95* 1.86± 2.02± 0.08* 0.08* 56.70± 57.17± 1.39* 2.92* 18.70± 18.53± 0.37* 0.65* 1414.00± 1403.00± 38.76* 43.54* 0.37± 0.35± 0.04 0.02*

15 2.48± 0.16 31.70± 2.39 2.60± 0.18 59.10± 4.04 18.07± 0.79* 1377.00± 32.29* 0.33± 0.05

Average for raising phase 2.13± 0.07 37.41± 1.46 2.22± 0.08 59.83± 2.90 19.37± 0.55 1532.80± 38.38 0.35± 0.04

Note: * - Р≤0.05 in relation to the age of 3 months The components of plasma coagulation homeostasis are responsible for direct blood clotting, which follows an extrinsic and intrinsic pathway, differing only in the mechanisms of activation of clotting factors. The condition of the extrinsic blood coagulation pathway was judged by the status of the prothrombin complex. In the studies we characterized it by the amount of prothrombin activity, the value of the international normalized ratio (INR) and the prothrombin ratio. The age variability of the values of these parameters has revealed a critical point. It is 9 months old heifers. From this phase, the indicators changed the direction of alterations (Table 2). Therefore, the activity of prothrombin, starting from the age of 3 months, increased and reached the maximum value in the

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blood of 9-month-old heifers (45.70 ±2.24%), which corresponded to the minimum level of prothrombin ratio (1.80±0.08) and INR (1.86±0.08 IU). Then the prothrombin activity began to decrease and had the lowest value in the blood of 15-month-old animals (31.70 ±2.39%) with the highest values of prothrombin ratio (2.48±0.16) and INR (2.60±0.18 IU). Activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) was defined to characterize the intrinsic coagulation pathway. Its age dynamics were opposite to the prothrombin activity. From the age of 3 months, the APTT value decreased, reaching a minimum in the blood of 9-month-old heifers (56.70±1.39 s), and then increased by the end of the raising phase to 59.10±4.04 sec (Table 2). Therefore, the key parameters of the extrinsic and internal coagulation pathways were in reciprocal relationships, balancing the biological effects of each other. The final stage of blood clotting - fibrin formation was evaluated by the value of thrombin time and fibrinogen concentration. The value of these parameters in the blood of heifers during the phase of their raising systematically declined by 19.69 and 31.59%, respectively (Table 2). The antithrombin III concentrations gave an idea of the anticoagulant system condition in the body of heifers. The level of the parameter did not depend on age. It fluctuated in the range of 0.33-0.37 mg/l, averaging 0.35±0.04 mg/l during the phase of growing heifers in plant-based feeding. Thus, we have evaluated the condition of plasma-coagulation homeostasis in the body of heifers using basic coagulation tests (thrombin, prothrombin, and APTT). This made it possible to establish the fluctuations of blood clotting factors aimed at maintaining its fluid state, ensuring the performance of its physiological functions, as well as the ability to thrombosis (if necessary). At the next stage, we attempted to describe the complete variability of the parameters characterizing the hemostatic system in the body of Holstein heifers during the plant-based raising phase using the principal component meth-od [24]. To identify statistically significant factors, the Cattell's scree test was used [25]. According to the graph, two factors were significant: the main component 1 (MC1) and the main component 2 (MC2), and the rest fell into the “factorial scree”. Loads of hemostasis parameters on MC 1 and MC 2 are given in Table 3. Table 3: Loads of hemostasis parameters on MC 1 and MC 2 Indicator PLT, 109 /l PCT, % MPV, fl PDW, % P-LCR, % Quick prothrombin ratio Prothrombin activity, % INR, IU APTT, sec Thrombin time, sec Fibrinogen, mg/l Antithrombin III, mg/l Explained variance

Main component 1 Load P ≤0.05 -0.812 ≤0.05 -0.749 ≤0.05 -0.763 ≤0.05 -0.723 ≤0.05 -0.736 0.457 0.231 ≤0.05 0.912 0.541 0.151 ≤0.05 0.791 ≤0.05 0.817 ≤0.05 0.723 0.349 0.412 73.18

Main component 2 Load P ≤0.05 -0.675 ≤0.05 -0.678 ≤0.05 -0.754 -0.561 0.087 ≤0.05 0.648 -0.157 0.702 0.321 0.468 -0.141 0.724 0.487 0.202 0.403 0.287 -0.089 0.867 0.147 0.734 9.79

Note: Bold indicates statistically significant effects (P≤ 0.05)

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Statistically significant MC1 and MC2 in total explained 82.97% of the variance of hemostasis indicators in the body of Holstein heifers during their raising. Meanwhile, on the main component 1, almost all parameters of cellular and plasma-coagulation hemostasis gave statistically significant loads. This gave us grounds to suppose that it reflects the influence of the age of animals on the formation of hemostatic mechanisms in the body of heifers. It means that age defines the complete variability of hemostatic parameters in the blood by 73.18%. For the main component 2, statistically significant loads were given by the number of platelets and megalothrombocytes, hematocrit and mean platelet volume (Table 3). It is reasonable to suppose that the main component 2 reflected the influence of PLT and their population characteristics on the ability of heifers to coagulate blood if necessary. Therefore, the principal component method enabled us to establish the following: a complete variability of hemostatic parameters in the blood of heifers depends on their age; the ability to coagulate blood depends on the number of platelets and their functional properties.

4 Discussion Coagulation is one of the most essential functions of blood. This is a complex physiological process as a result of which a clot forms, preventing blood loss and bleeding. The coagulation system includes the endothelial lining of blood vessels as well as cellular (platelets) and soluble (plasma proteins) blood components [26]. An important component of the hemostatic system is platelets, which recognize vascular damage and trigger coagulation, increasing the formation of a clot at the injured site [27]. The environmental changes affect platelets [4]. Hence, the age-related growth in their number in the bloodstream is the outcome of an increased amount of blood in the body of heifers. That happens to owe to the growth of the body and the compounds of various chemical structures circulating in it. It is reasonable to suppose that the platelet concentration correlates with the value of thrombocrit, reflecting the volume fraction of cells in the bloodstream [2]. Yet this dependence has not been revealed. For example, in 9 months old animals, the platelet count was 351.30±9.17 109/l with hematocrit 0.29±0.01%; before coupling time, the 15 months old animals showed the platelet count of 441.70±5.22 109/l. It corresponded to the thrombocrit value of 0.22±0.04%. Therefore, the cells, depending on their age, had different sizes and volumes. In accordance with [27], the size (volume) of platelets circulating in the blood varies greatly even in an animal. Earlier it was suggested that the size of platelets is associated with the phase of their life in the bloodstream and varies in the range from young to old cells. However, this idea did not go any further [27]. At present, it has been established that the functional status of the animal body is related to the condition of physiological systems [22]. Thus, not only the number of platelets but also their features reflect the structural development of the body at the appropriate age under the implementation of hereditary information. Therefore, the number of blood plates, their volume fraction in the blood, the average volume of platelets, the variability of the parameter and the

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number of megalothrombocytes among themselves are in a balanced condition. Due to it, the blood has optimal liquid properties and can circulate through the system, providing the metabolic needs of cells. According to [27], the variability of platelet parameters is associated with their diverse biological functions. The authors [28] have come to similar conclusions in their studies. They pointed out that in a stable condition of the body, the number of platelets entering and leaving the blood is equal. It means that the production of platelets corresponds to their destruction (“turnover”). The physiological meaning of this comes down to the fact that to keep the number of platelets in the blood while reducing the survival of cells, the rate of their production (turnover) by megakaryocytes accumulates. Platelet homeostasis is primarily controlled by thrombopoietin, synthesized in the liver, bone marrow, and spleen [29]. It was discovered that the mean platelet volume (MPV) is an activation marker of large platelets [30]. Meanwhile, large platelets show higher enzymatic and metabolic activity than other cells [31]. Our studies are compatible with this conclusion. In the blood of heifers, the MPV value was proportional to P-LCR one. Plasma-coagulation homeostasis in conditions of physiological standards is supported by a balance between indicators characterizing the state of the extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathway, fibrin formation, and anticoagulation system. The age variability of certain parameters of hemostasis is aimed at maintaining the viscoelastic properties of blood and the ability to clot in case of vascular damage. The balance between the hemostatic system components with pro-and antithrombotic activity is supported by the hemopoietic and liver organs [16, 32]. According to [33], the blood coagulation system development in the body of animals occurs in the first year of life. Yet at birth, they have “excellent” hemostasis. Additionally, our studies have proven the hypothesis that platelet count is correlated with fibrinogen concentration [4]. This is because the age-related increase in the level of plates in the blood of heifers was followed by a decrease in fibrinogen content. As we know, fibrinogen is a crucial blood clotting protein; its quantity characterizes the rate of conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin, which affects the amount of blood viscosity [26]. Thus, a reduction in thrombin time and fibrinogen concentration is a tool aimed at maintaining blood flow in a growing body. The correlation of thrombin concentration with fibrinogen and its ability to form a fibrin clot was reported in the study [34]. The authors have observed that the amount of thrombin affects the thickness and density of the fibrin clot. In conditions of disordered proportionality between their concentrations, the clots have poor stability [35]. Meanwhile, the amount of thrombin is related to the concentration of activated platelets. Nevertheless, in our studies, the thrombin content, as estimated by thrombin time, reduced with age, and the amount of P-LCR had wave-like dynamics with a peak at the age of 9 months. We consider that the content of circulating P-LCR is not equal to their activity. The same conclusions were drawn in the studies [5], pointing out that up to 30% of circulating platelets have the procoagulant ability.

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While analyzing the complete variability of blood indicators reflecting the hemostatic system in the body of Holstein heifers, it was determined that 82.97% of their explained variance is associated with MC1 and MC2. It was found due to by the principal components method. In the main component 1, all indicators of hemostasis, with the exception of the prothrombin ratio, INR and antithrombin III, gave statistically significant loads, which provides an opportunity to link MC1 with the age of heifers. In the main component 2, significant loads were connected with plate-lets and their parameters reflecting the role of cells in maintaining hemostasis. Therefore, the hemostatic system formation in the body of Holstein heifers depends on the age of the animals and the functional development of physiological systems.

5 Conclusion This work studies the level of platelets and their parameters in the blood of Holstein heifers during the plant-based raising phase depending on age. The “critical age” in their variability is 9 months, since from this time the direction of the age dynamics of PCT, MPV, PDW, and P-LCR changes. The indicators of the extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathways during heifer raising show reciprocal relationships, balancing the biological significance of each other. The age-related dynamics of fibrin formation indicators (prothrombin time, fibrinogen) and the anticoagulant system (antithrombin III) is intended to maintain the fluid blood condition. The principal component method demonstrates that the complete variability of the hemostatic composition of blood is related to the age of heifers. It defines 73.18% of the explained variance of parameters. The obtained data may be used as a standardized one in evaluating the hemostasis condition of Holstein heifers and in performing therapeutic interventions with drugs affecting blood coagulation.

6 Availability of Data and Material Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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[23] Order of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation dated October 21, 2020 No. 622 On the approval of the Veterinary rules for keeping cattle for the purpose of their reproduction, growing and sale [Electronic resource]. Access mode: https://docs.cntd.ru/document/566135217 (access date: 15.09.2021). [24] Joliffe, I.T. (2002). Principal component analysis. NY Springer-Verlag. 488. DOI:10.1007/b98835. [25] Jackson, D.A. (1993). Stopping rules in principal component analysis: a comparison of heuristical and statistical approaches. Ecology. 74(8), 2204–2214. [26] Kamenska, T., Abrashev, M., Georgieva, M., Krasteva, N. (2021). Impact of Polyethylene Glycol Functionaliza-tion of Graphene Oxide on Anticoagulation and Haemolytic Properties of Human Blood. Materials (Basel). 14(17), 4853. DOI: 10.3390/ma14174853. [27] Handtke, S., Steil, L., Greinacher, A., Thiele, T. (2018). Toward the Relevance of Platelet Subpopulations for Transfusion Medicine. Front Med (Lausanne). 5, 17. DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2018.00017. [28] Kuter, D.J., Gernsheimer, T.B. (2009). Thrombopoietin and platelet production in chronic immune thrombocyto-penia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 23(6), 1193-1211. DOI: 10.1016/j.hoc.2009.09.001. [29] Koride, S., Nayak, S., Banfield, C., Peterson, M.C. (2019). Evaluating the Role of Janus Kinase Pathways in Plate-let Homeostasis Using a Systems Modeling Approach. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol. 8(7), 478-488. DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12419 [30] Thombson, C.B., Eaton, K., Princiotta, S.M., Rushin, C.A., Valeri, C.R. (1982). Size dependent platelet subpopula-tions: Relationship of platelet volume to ultrastructure, enzymatic activity, and function. Br. J. Haematol. 50, 509–519. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2141.1982.tb01947.x [31] Uysal, A.İ., Altıparmak, B., Korkmaz Toker, M., Dede, G., Sezgin, Ç., Gümüş Demirbilek, S. (2020) The effect of preoperative anxiety level on mean platelet volume and propofol consumption. BMC Anesthesiol. 20(1), 34. DOI: 10.1186/s12871-020-0955-8. [32] Ng, V.L. (2009). Prothrombin time and partial thromboplastin time assay considerations. Clin Lab Med. 29(2), 253-263. DOI: 10.1016/j.cll.2009.05.002. [33] Nellenbach, K.A., Nandi, S., Kyu, A., Sivadanam, S., Guzzetta, N.A., Brown, A.C. (2020). Comparison of Neonatal and Adult Fibrin Clot Properties between Porcine and Human Plasma. Anesthesiology. 132(5), 1091-1101 DOI: 10.1097/ALN.0000000000003165. [34] Wolberg, A.S., Campbell, R.A. (2008). Thrombin generation, fibrin clot formation and hemostasis. Transfus Apher Sci. 38(1), 15-23. DOI: 10.1016/j.transci.2007.12.005. [35] Kaufmanova, J., Stikarova, J., Hlavackova, A., Chrastinova, L., Maly, M., Suttnar, J. Dyr, J.E. (2021). Fibrin Clot Formation under Oxidative Stress Conditions. Antioxidants (Basel). 10(6), 923. DOI: 10.3390/antiox10060923 Yanich Tatyana Valerievna is a full-time postgraduate student of the Department of Natural Sciences of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "South Ural State Agrarian University" in the direction of 06.06.01 Biological Sciences, profile Physiology. She graduated from the South Ural State Agrarian University. Her scientific interests are Age-Related Physiology, Indicators of Hemostasis in Animals. Professor Dr.Derkho Marina Arkadyevna is a Professor and Head of the Department of Natural Science Disciplines of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "South Ural State Agrarian University". She earned her Doctor of Biological Sciences from the Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology. K.I. Scriabin. Her research interests are Ecological Biochemistry, Age Physiology, Neuro-Humoral Regulation, Adaptation Processes, Biotechnology of Food Production.

Professor Dr.Tegza Alexandra Alekseevna is a Professor of the Department of Veterinary Medicine of NAO "Kostanay Regional University named after I.I. A.Baitursynov. She got her Doctor of Veterinary Sciences. from the Kazakh National University (KazNAU) Almaty, Kazakhstan. Her research interests are Age-Related Morphology, Pathology of the Reproductive System of Animals and Birds, Treatment and Prevention of Reproductive Health of Animals, Forensic Veterinary Examination.

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