V8(4) 2017:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Tech

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Sustainable Architecture: Learned Scientific Lessons from Ghadames, a Traditional Libyan City Earth Architecture in Syria between the Past Heritage and the Contemporary Experiences Investigation of Mental Mapping in Urban Design: Case of Queensbay, Penang The Melanau Cultural Influence in the Melanau Tall Longhouse Space Planning of Sarawak Political Buildings as Symbol of Political Culture A Review on the Impact of Building Geometry Factors of Glass Façade High-rise Buildings Trends Towards Professionalism – Case Study of Architectural Graduates from the Universiti Sains Malaysia Identifying Feng Shui’s Form School Influence in the Internal Layout of Peranakan Architecture

Cover photo is the Melanau Tall Longhouse, main level floor plan, included in an article in this issue (The Melanau Cultural Influence in the Melanau Tall Longhouse Space Planning of Sarawak Political Buildings as Symbol of Political Culture).

2017 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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International Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, PhD Professor Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

Executive Editor Boonsap Witchayangkoon, PhD Associate Professor Thammasat University, THAILAND

Editorial Board:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Gadi (University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM) Professor Dr.Hitoshi YAMADA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Professor Dr. Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN ) Professor Dr.Mikio SATOMURA (Shizuoka University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN) Emeritus Professor Dr.Mike Jenks (Oxford Brookes University, UNITED KINGDOM ) Professor Dr.I Nyoman Pujawan (Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, INDONESIA) Professor Dr.Toshio YOSHII (EHIME University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Neven Duić (University of Zagreb, CROATIA) Professor Dr.Lee, Yong-Chang (Incheon City College, SOUTH KOREA) Professor Dr.Dewan Muhammad Nuruzzaman (University Malaysia Pahang MALAYSIA) Professor Dr.Masato SAITOH (Saitama University, JAPAN)

Scientific and Technical Committee & Editorial Review Board on Engineering, Technologies and Applied Sciences:

Associate Prof. Dr. Paulo Cesar Lima Segantine (University of São Paulo, BRASIL) Associate Prof. Dr. Kurt B. Wurm (New Mexico State University, USA ) Associate Prof. Dr. Truong Vu Bang Giang (Vietnam National University, Hanoi, VIETNAM ) Dr.H. Mustafa Palancıoğlu (Erciyes University, TURKEY) Associate Prof.Dr.Peter Kuntu-Mensah (Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, USA) Associate Prof.Dr. Rohit Srivastava (Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, INDIA) Assistant Prof.Dr. Zoe D. Ziaka (International Hellenic University, GREECE ) Associate Prof.Dr. Junji SHIKATA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Assistant Prof.Dr. Akeel Noori Abdul Hameed (University of Sharjah, UAE) Madam Wan Mariah Wan Harun (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA ) Dr. David Kuria (Kimathi University College of Technology, KENYA ) Dr. Mazran bin Ismail (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA ) Dr. Salahaddin Yasin Baper (Salahaddin University - Hawler, IRAQ ) Dr. Foong Swee Yeok (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA) Dr.Azusa FUKUSHIMA (Kobe Gakuin University, JAPAN)

©

2017 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies Volume 8 Issue 4 (2017) http://TuEngr.com

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES

Sustainable Architecture: Learned Scientific 233 Lessons from Ghadames, a Traditional Libyan City Earth Architecture in Syria between the Past Heritage and the Contemporary Experiences

243

Investigation of Mental Mapping in Urban Design: Case of Queensbay, Penang

261

The Melanau Cultural Influence in the Melanau Tall Longhouse Space Planning of Sarawak Political Buildings as Symbol of Political Culture A Review on the Impact of Building Geometry Factors of Glass Façade High-rise Buildings Trends Towards Professionalism – Case Study of Architectural Graduates from the Universiti Sains Malaysia Identifying Feng Shui’s Form School Influence in the Internal Layout of Peranakan Architecture

275

283 295

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Contacts & Offices: Professor Dr. Ahmad Sanusi Hassan (Editor-in-Chief), School of Housing, Building and Planning, UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA, 11800 Minden, Penang, MALAYSIA. Tel: +60-4-653-2835 Fax: +60-4-657 6523, Sanusi@usm.my Editor@TuEngr.com Associate Professor Dr. Boonsap Witchayangkoon (Executive Editor), Faculty of Engineering, THAMMASAT UNIVERSITY, Klong-Luang, Pathumtani, 12120, THAILAND. Tel: +66-2-5643005 Ext 3101. Fax: +66-2-5643022 DrBoonsap@gmail.com Postal Paid in MALAYSIA/THAILAND.

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Sustainable Architecture: Learned Scientific Lessons from Ghadames, a Traditional Libyan City Mariam M T Shibub a

a*

Department of Architecture and Urban Planning Faculty of Engineering, Tripoli University, LIBYA

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 31 August 2017 Accepted 30 November 2017 Available online 15 December 2017

Keywords: Sustainability; traditional city; Ghadames City; Architects, Physical, Social Aspects; Sustainable Architecture.

A B S T RA C T

Specifications exist for architects and other designers to respond to required sustainable architecture. Radford, Williamson and Bennetts (2003:12) note the presence of “checklists of recommended design actions in many books and web sites,” adding that, “some green architects, like William McDonough, have set down principles upon which they believe sustainable design should be based.” These principles, known as the Hannover Principles, “were developed when McDonough was commissioned by the city of Hanover, Germany, to develop guidelines for design for sustainability for the Expo 2000 World's Fair.” (ibid.) Ghadames is a famous Libyan traditional city, located in the desert. It is successful environmentally and demonstrates many principles of sustainable design. This research highlights the physical and social patterns of the ancient city of Ghadames, Libya. These patterns are common to old Islamic cities in the Middle East. This paper also discusses the social and physical aspects of low energy architecture in Ghadames. Furthermore, it presents an outline for upgrading methodology and a proposal for new development, in which grass with palm wood and suitable design technique is displayed as an excellent solution for providing a home. This paper aims to answer the following questions: What are principles of sustainable design in the traditional houses in Ghadames? What are the techniques Libyan builders in Ghadames used that display the Hanover principles? Which may be redeveloped by architects and designers in a newly built environment? © 2017 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction In the previous periods, before oil was discovered in Libya in the sixties, it was difficult to produce and transport building materials. Libyan builders, as well as other builders, designed their living environment, traditional houses, using existing conditions and materials in various ways, which were successful environmentally, climatically and socially. In Ghryan there was stone, but *Corresponding author (M. Shibub). Tel/+218923020089 E-mail: dr.mariamshibub@gmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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no joint material could withstand strong rain in winter. Without the ability to cut big stone to build a house, digging out a square hole in suitable soil to make a number of rooms in the first lower level was the easy way to have a shelter for the Ghryanies and their animals. In the deserted area of Ghadames, where there is little fear of rain and very little stone, mud was the main building material. The desert city of Ghdames lies at 30.08N latitude near the western border of Libya at an altitude of 326M (Dioxides, 1972). The genius of people who designed and lived in the city has earned it a place in international heritage. The city flourished on important trade routes between north and central Africa. In 1980 the population of old and new Ghdames was 6000 persons. This figure has now increased to about 25000 persons.

Figure 1: The old city; depicting resident tribes or group

Figure 2: The Growth of the Old City of Ghadames.

2. Learning from the Old City of Ghadames The public realm of old Ghadames includes mosques, schools, sooq and manufacturing units.

Some of the schools near the sooq trained artisans in crafts like leather working. The large open spaces near the city gates were places for dealing in bulk commodities like wholesale agricultural produce, sheep, cattle and carpets. The housing in the private realm of the city consists of mohallahs (places) accommodating different sub-clans. At the micro level of mohallah (place), large parcels of land were allotted to small groups of kinsmen. These people decided among themselves on matters such as internal circulation, open spaces, house design and building over the streets according to their internal social order. A variety of plot sizes housed a mixed population of rich and poor kinsmen.

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The circulation system had a hierarchy of main city streets acting as spines of mohallahs (places). There was also a network of cul-de-sacs opening up from the main street. Some of the main streets connected to the city were linear "centers" or sooqs (moll) for commerce, vending and manufacturing (Shibub, 20017). The main mosques, plaza, and hotels are located on the main streets. This system of circulation divides the urban space into public, semi-public and private spaces. Many of the main streets run diagonal to the north-south axis. In Muslim culture, segregation of sexes is a dominant feature of house design. The houses in Ghadames have vertical zoning as a result of climate control as well as a shortage of agriculture land. The ladies’ domain is at roof level where the kitchen is also located. They can go from roof to roof by climbing steps built against the parapet walls in Figure 3. The household consisted of patrilineal extended family as in other cities of Libya and the institution of kinship binds as in other cities of Libya. The institution of kinship binds the community together and manifests in the physical patterns of mohallahs (places).

Figure 3: Roof building in Ghadames city

3. Social Aspects A community builds a settlement to satisfy its socioeconomic and cultural needs. The design and construction have to modulate to the climate in addition to satisfying these needs. The type of dwellings and their clustering follows the behavioral patterns of residents and with the passage of time, life style changes cause changes in behavior patterns. This in turn necessitates a change in dwelling design, layout and links with other urban facilities. These points are illustrated by the architecture of old and new Ghadames city.

For the development of societies and institutions, King (1980) stated, "One can say institutions are the primary design elements of the environment. For the institutions to survive, grow, expand and be part of the culture, there is usually an organizational structure (and buildings) evolved by the society�. The residents of different mohallahs in Ghadames were a unique society and were forming a micro scale housing institution. They can be called the forerunners of modern housing *Corresponding author (M. Shibub). Tel/+218923020089 E-mail: dr.mariamshibub@gmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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organizations. There was also a congruence of social and physical patterns with the social organizational structure being eminent in the distribution of water from the spring. There remains an open court between the two main mosques to enhance social contact. The main streets have seats in plazas for people to socialize and rest. The joint ownership of land allotments and the community bond allowed building over the streets and enlargement of a dwelling into neighbors over the street and enlargement of a dwelling into neighbor’s lots by building a room into this dwelling. These egalitarian principles extended to agriculture and the distribution of spring water.

4. Physical Aspects Ghadames is situated at 30.08 N and 9.30 E has a desert climate of Hamadah Al Hamra. Global solar irradiance on horizontal surfaces range between 3-7 kw/hr//sq.m/Day (Hasen, K, 2007). The mean relative humidity is 33%. The mean monthly rainfall is 20 mm and the mean dry bulb temperature in summer is around 45 degrees Celsius. The above climatic indicators require special architectural design and city planning techniques to avoid overheating in summer, Fig 4. When we consider housing in Ghadames we find low energy passive systems have been incorporated into the design. The narrow, sometimes covered, streets provide shaded circulation spaces and at the same time reduce irradiance of walls of the houses. A width to height ratio of 1:2 is a common design feature, giving a vertical obstruction angle of 65 degrees Celsius. During the winter the roof terrace is used for sitting in the sun. The main streets in mohallah (places), run in a diagonal direction to the north-south axis. In this situation the streets will get both sun and shade throughout the year. The main streets are covered at intervals by "sabat" (shelters) rooms built across the street providing shaded spaces for street groups of differing ages. In some of the dark parts of the streets "iumiduct" (bay) types of light wells have been built over the street to provide light and ventilation. The IHVE Guide (Inst & Vent. 1998) explains that when the difference between outdoor and indoor temperature is not more than 10 degrees Celsius the pressure difference "p" between two openings at high and low levels is given by the relationship between (P, H).

Figure 4: Environmental Concerns and Materials.

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The higher opening of the light well is smaller than the lower one to increase the stack effect.

These light wells are constructed approximately 15 M apart. The east winds are dominant in the area and therefore the city is built on the west side of agricultural land and date palm gardens as this improves relative humidity. The average wind speed is in the range of 4-6 m/sec. The psychometric chart in Table 1 shows human comfort conditions during the months March, April and October.

During the months November to February passive solar heating is needed. For the rest of the year, the high thermal capacity of structures and the clustering of houses are advantageous. The thermal capacity "Q" is expressed by the following relationship: Q=Mass x SP. Heat J/Kg C.

(1)

Table 1: Temperatures in Ghadames city during a year 2017 (www.world-climate.com) Month:

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct Nov Dec

Average Temperature in °C 10.6 13.2 16.7 21.75 26.2 31.05 31.35 31.15 28.25 22.5 16.4 11.3 Max Temperature in °C

17.6 20.7 24.4 29.7 34.6 39.8

40.3

39.8

36.4

30 23.8 18.2

Min Temperature in °C

3.6

22.4

22.5

20.1

15

5.7

9

13.8 17.8 22.3

9

4.4

The relationship indicates that thermal capacity is directly proportional to mass since the range of specific heat of traditional building material is limited. Adobe and date palm are the local building materials in Ghadames. Figure 3 shows wall and roof sections with thermal conductance values for adobe, stone and concrete (Eben Salah M, A, 1990). The table 2 below gives outdoor and indoor temperature measurements in Ghadames (Hasen, K, 2007:4).

Table 2: Summer Temperatures -- day & night 12 Clock Summer temp 2016 4/5 1/6 2/6 7/30 7/31 8/28 Outdoor temp 22 :23 :21 : 24 :22 :25 40: 41 40 42 41 39 Indoor temp :32 :34 :33 37 :34 :35 modern unit 39 39 37 34: 38 38 Indoor temp :28 :28 :28 28 :29 :29 traditional unit 28 28 28 28: 29 28

29 /8 :24 40 :36 39 :28 28

Figure 3: left diagram illustrates the pattern, the right diagram shows the unit *Corresponding author (M. Shibub). Tel/+218923020089 E-mail: dr.mariamshibub@gmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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Table 3: Hanover Principles No Hannover Principles How it was at Ghdames traditional City 1 Insist on rights of humanity and nature to coexist in All the rights of humanity and nature a healthy, supportive, diverse and sustainable exist. condition.

2 Recognize interdependence. The elements of No negative distant effects; human human design interact with and depend upon the design is integrated and interacts with natural world, with broad and diverse implications and depends upon the natural world at every scale.

Expand design aspects to consider even distant effects.

3 Respect relationships between spirit and matter.

The pattern of the city and the unity Consider all aspects of human settlement including evolves around connections between community, dwelling, industry, and trade in terms spiritual and material consciousness, of existing and evolving connections between considers all aspects of human spiritual and material consciousness. settlement including community, dwelling, industry, and trade.

4 Accept responsibility for consequences of design All the human activities that affect their decisions upon human well-being, the viability of well-being are benefited by the viability natural systems, and their rights to coexist. of natural systems, and their rights to coexist is considered.

5 Create safe objects of long-term value.

Requirements for maintenance or Do not burden future generations with vigilant administration is very low, and requirements for maintenance or vigilant there is no potential danger. administration of potential danger due to careless creation of products, processes, or standards.

6 Eliminate the concept of waste. Evaluate and The concept of waste is prevented by optimize the full life cycle of products and the use of natural systems, in which processes, to approach the state of natural systems, there is little waste. Any waste is reused in which there is no waste. for agriculture areas.

7 Rely on natural energy flows. Human designs The entire city relies on natural energy should, like the living world, derive their creative flows and the design is dependent on forces from perpetual solar income. Incorporate the low energy theory. this energy efficiently and safely for responsible use.

8 Understand the limitation of design. No human The design uses the local limited creation lasts forever and no design can solve all materials, treats nature as a model and a mentor, not as an inconvenience to be problems. Those who create and plan should evaded or controlled. practice humility in the face of nature.

Treat nature as a model and a mentor, not an inconvenience to be evaded or controlled.

9 Seek constant improvement by the sharing of The designers and the builders and the knowledge. holders are in open communication Encourage direct and open communication regarding design and implementation between colleagues, patrons, manufacturers, and processes. users to link long term sustainable considerations with ethical responsibility, and re-establish the integral relationship between natural processes and human activity.

4.1 Climate control point of view A terraced house having two common party walls with adjoining owners has less surface area 238

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exposed to the sun and a cold exterior can reach higher densities. The houses in Ghadames generally have dwellings with exposed roofs. Villas, semidetached, terraced and courtyard-type houses have been compared (Mirza, R. H., 1991). The four dwelling types have almost equal floor areas but the villa has the highest exposed area and courtyard-type has the lowest exposed area.

4.2 Sustainability Lessons It's clear from points 1-4 that Ghdames has different principles of design and it could be a school of sustainable design and development for the desert areas. Table 3 shows the Hanover principles of sustainable design (Radford, Williamson and Bennetts, 2003:12) in the left column and how they are displayed in the Ghadames traditional city on the right.

5. Contribution The contribution is comprised of upgrading the old city of Ghadames as a tourist attraction and starting new developments on the outskirts of the city. The outline of upgrading methodology is as follows: A) Aim: the main aim is to tie the developmental goals to the economic goal of tourist trade.

The majority of the upgrading is historical conservation with some recycling and change of use in outer areas of the old city. The small motel, Ain al Feris, at the western gate of the city is already catering to tourists.

B) Agencies: the agencies involved in the joint venture will be local government organizations (LGO) and community based organizations (CBO). LGO can provide technical assistance and interactions concerning the supply and delivery of materials. CBO will organize upgrading and tourist services.

C) Finance: the LGO can provide financial support and incentives in the form of credit support to small businesses and cooperatives. The commercial plots can be sold to commercial developers.

D) Program: the upgrading program will pin point action areas in infrastructure, shelter, tourist development etc.

A training program for operatives will form part of the upgrading

program.

E) Implementation: the implementation can be carried out by CBO through co-operatives.

Each successive phase has to be monitored and feed-back considered for the next stage.

6. Conclusion The new development is needed as a tourist service base. It can be developed as a co-operative housing project. A land parcel in the west of the city can be purchased by a co-operative and *Corresponding author (M. Shibub). Tel/+218923020089 E-mail: dr.mariamshibub@gmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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serviced by the government. A sketch of the new development for a community of 7000 persons is shown in Figure 4. The three-story houses link covered pedestrian streets and have a minimum area exposed to the sun. The scale of this model community is close to Dioxides (1972 King A.D. 1980) community class IV. The level of services in the community is as follows:

(A) (B) (C) Figure 4: Proposal sketch of the new development for a 7000-person community A-Total area = 64 Ha B- Housing Dwelling units =1180 Persons = 6490 Gross Density = 101 C- Land-use Housing = 30% Amenities = 13% Roads = 21% Parks & Open Spaces = 36% Total = 100% The social pattern consists of street groups or mohallah (places) of 32 dwelling units for up to 176 persons with its own community center for weddings and other social functions. The covered pedestrian streets provide shaded social gathering space and interaction places. A group of four to six such mohallahs (places) are linked to a services’ spine of green pedestrian area; religious and educational buildings; and other community services. The services’ spine leads to the district spine of bazaar, retail and manufacturing units. The complete modular community forms a building block of a small town.

7. References Abul Lughod J. (1980). Islamic Urban Principles. Ekistics.

Ahmed M. I. (1985). Passive Heating and Cooling Strategies for Libya. Solar & Wind Technology.

Pergamon Press, London.

Al Muzughy S. B. Housing in Gadames. B. Arch. Thesis, Fall, (1990). Department of Arch and 240

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Urban Planning, University of Al Fatah, Tripoli Libya Dioxides. C. Ekistics. (1970). The Science of Human Settlements. Constantinos A. Doxiadis. 17 (3956). 393-404 Eben Salah M.A. (1990). Adobe as a Thermal Regulating Material. Solar & Wind Technology.

Pergamon Press Plc. UK.07 (04).

Hasen, K. (2007). Strategy for the conservation of the historical heritage of Ghadames symposium.

Inst. & Vent. (1998). IHVE Guide Book. London.

King A.D.Ed. (1980). Buildings and society-essays on the social development of the built environment. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.

Mirza, R. H. (1991). Low Energy Housing Concerning Ghadames and Ras Lanuf. Nasar University AL Khums, Libya.

Radford A, Williamson T, and Bennetts H. (2003). Understanding Published by Spon Press

Sustainable Architecture.

Shibub, Mariam. (2017). Traditional and Modern House in Libya. International Journal of Arts and Sciences 09 (04) 511-520.

World-climate. (2017). Temperatures in Ghadames city. www.world-climate.com Dr.Mariam M T Shibub is an assistant professor at Tripoli University, Libya. He earned his PhD in Architecture from The University of Edinburgh, UK. His research focuses on Green Sustainable Architecture.

Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering, Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th November 2017.

*Corresponding author (M. Shibub). Tel/+218923020089 E-mail: dr.mariamshibub@gmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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Earth Architecture in Syria between the Past Heritage and The Contemporary Experiences Nadia Kandakji

a*

a

Department of Architecture & Environmental Planning, Faculty of Engineering & Petroleum, Hadhramout University, YEMEN ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 31 August 2017 Accepted 30 November 2017 Available online 15 December 2017

Keywords: Earth building; Sustainability; Adobe Cob; Domes; Sustainable Architecture; Green Architecture, Earth construction.

A B S T RA C T

Earth is one of the oldest building materials known to man that was used widely in the building in different parts of the world, and it has been developed through many different techniques. It has been an ongoing tradition in Syria since 11 thousand years as one of the important architectural styles in Syria. This form of architecture has been neglected in cities and even rural buildings because of many factors. This paper examines the feasibility of reconsidering this form of architecture since it emphasizes the importance of earth as a building material and it provides some local residential models that reflect the culture of adopting with nature and the economic and social aspects. Besides, this paper highlights the most important modern works in Syria that were considered as conservation and revival measures of this form of architecture. The paper concludes that earth building should be reconsidered and relied on in rebuilding the residential units in the countryside areas in Syria, by depending on both traditional experiences as well as modern techniques in this field. © 2017 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction Earth architecture in Syria is a part of the culture; it depends on community participation and achieves environmental and economic efficiency as well as cultural heritage in the memory of society. This architecture has been neglected in cities and this neglect has extended to rural architecture due to the reliance on modern construction methods and materials, while many of the buildings in the Syrian countryside have been destructed because of the war. This research paper examines the feasibility of restoring earth architecture by adopting it to improve the growing housing rate in the countryside. This enables one to reconstruct the destroyed areas, using the local experience and the methods and techniques used in modern earth architecture.

*Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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2. Literature Review The following sections provide a survey of theoretical literature including earth architecture in the world and its advantages and disadvantages and methods of earth architecture in the world in general and in Syria in particular.

2.1 Earth Architecture in the World Through the study of the history of human architecture across ages, it can be emphasized that earth architecture was the most widespread form of building throughout history and in various periods. Earth construction has spread in harmony with the environment in the civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Arab and Islamic civilization, India and Mexico, and in diverse civilizations in Africa. This architecture dominates the world, and according to United Nations statistics, onethird of the world's population still lives in earth-built houses, and earth is a major component of building material. Recently, earth architecture has been considered one of the most important approaches and methods to solve the problem of housing; to achieve sustainable development; to reduce the problems of manufacturing building materials, and to reduce environmental pollution in both industrial and developing worlds. Thus, there has been a great interest in earth as a major building material and in carrying out relevant studies and research.

2.2 Characteristics and Disadvantages of Earth Architecture Earth architecture has many characteristics: •

Availability: earth is available in most areas except mountainous ones and its widespread availability leads to the low cost of transporting it for construction

•

Earth architecture is an organic form of architecture that is closely related to the environment. The earth material has responded to the great variation in climate, environmental conditions and all social and cultural influences through the distinctive forms of each society

•

Earth architecture is clean; it does not cause any pollution at the different stages of construction or demolition process. Disposal of the old earth building products does not cause pollution. These products can be recycled into arable soil or re-used in earth construction

•

Earth architecture provides the requirements of all social segments; it is a housing architecture, in cities and the countryside, that is suitable for simple and luxurious dwellings

•

The earth construction technique allows for popular participation in the construction process, which contributes to the provision of suitable employment opportunities for local community members

•

Fire safety: earth is fireproofing.

Despite the advantages of earth, there are disadvantages that cannot be ignored, summed up in 244

Nadia Kandakji

the following points •

The difference of the basic components of soil from one area to another and hence different ways to deal with it

•

The weak resistance of earth material to the effect of water resulting from rain or rising from floors, which leads to loss of hardness

•

The large-volume change of earth products, especially those with a high percentage of silt, causing cracking when exposed to successive cycles of different weather factors: moisture and drought and so on. This requires continuous maintenance to prevent corrosion

•

The ability of earth to be a shelter for rodents and insects, as a result of cracking and thermal properties that characterize it

2.3 Methods of Earth Construction There are many methods of earth construction in former and modern times. An investigator of earth architecture can count more than 15 construction methods of this widespread material in different countries of the world Figure (1).

Figure 1: Methods of earth construction in the world (Houben & Guillaud, 1994) These methods range from the full use of earth in all elements of the building to the use of earth bricks in the construction of the entire building, i.e. walls and roofs. Between these two methods lie many earth building methods and techniques, which use this material either alone or in combination with other materials to build walls in different parts of the world.

There are four main methods that are the most prominent in the construction of earth; they are widespread in the world and of great interest because of their characteristics and being widespread.

These methods can be described briefly as follows: 2.3.1 Adobe Construction Bricks are prepared by mixing soil, which often contains a high percentage of earth, with water and chopped straw. It is mixed well with feet or using oxen or cows; then earth is formed using a wooden mold without a bottom, containing one or more empty spaces to make adobe. The dimensions of this mold and the number of spaces it contains vary from one area to another. The *Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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mold is filled with an earth mixture and pressed by hands to make sure that all the blanks in the mold are filled and to get a homogeneous block. The mold is then removed, leaving an earth block formed on the ground, which is left for a few days to dry. The mold is cleaned from earth stickers with dry soil or a wooden tool. The brick manufacturing process continues in compact rows, separated by a slight distance and left to dry in the sun, together with turning the sides of the bricks, to ensure their drying thoroughly before use in construction (AlJadeed, 2003, p.139).

This method is still prevalent in the manufacture of brick in most countries of the world that adopt this method of construction, but in some developed countries, the United States in particular, the mechanization of mixing and manufacturing of earth was introduced to produce earth brick in commercial quantities.

2.3.2 Cob Construction: The method of earth construction is very similar to adobe construction, regarding preparation and mixing of earth, noting that the cut straw is added to the earth mixture in larger quantities in this method to avoid cracks caused by dry silt material, which is often in large quantities in the soil used in the preparation of cob. The importance of silt being fermented with straw is that this material is responsible for the interconnection between the soil components used, because this method of earth construction requires a degree of plasticity and cohesion, so that it can be made. The importance of earth fermentation with straw lies in the melting of some cellulosic materials in the mixed straw, which gives it better resistance to rainwater effect (AlJadeed, 2003, p.140) The earth in this method is prepared by cutting it from the mixture in the form of spherical pieces so that the worker can handle it manually and hand it to the builder who takes these blocks, and presses them next to each other in a tier of about 30 cm high. Then the builder trims and forms these blocks manually to form a continuous layer along the wall, left about two days to dry before starting to build the next tier. In spite of the widespread use of this method of earth construction in the past, and the strength it provides, it has not received great development at present.

2.3.3 Rammed Earth Construction: This method of earth construction is different from the previous two methods in that little water, not exceeding (10%), is added to soil, which gives the soil wetness and plasticity, contributing to its good compression. The wet soil is then moved and placed in molds similar to the molds in which the concrete is poured. These molds are installed on the base of the walls to be constructed, and the soil is well pressed in these molds, whether using special wooden pieces, as in developing countries or using some simple mechanisms, as in developed countries (AlJadeed, 2003, p. 141). When the molds are filled with compressed earth, they are removed and moved horizontally until a continuous layer is completed from that compressed earth on the entire wall, and then the molds are vertically raised to form another layer, and so on up to the roofing level.

2.3.4 Compressed Stabilized Earth Block Technology CSEB: Stabilized earth blocks are the post-World War II version of compressed earth. This method of 246

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earth construction combines the method of construction with earth and the method of construction with compressed earth. This method of earth construction is one of the most widespread methods at present, due to its many advantages, the most prominent being the ease of construction and the availability of appropriate techniques(Correia, et al., 2014, p. 4 ).

Residence, HelensVille, New Zealand –Recycled timber, Adobes by hand from local soil. Completion: 2005-Area: 180 m2 (Minke, 2013, p. 170-171)

Residence and studio, Gallina. Canyon, New Mexico, USA. The two-story residence of sun-dried unsterilized and local Adobes. Completion: 2001-Area: 390 m2 (Minke, 2013, p. 160)

Kindergarten, Sorsum, Germany-Exterior walls, plinth: Porous bricks. Roof: Mud brick domes, timber structure, covered by 15 cm mineral wool, water and rainproof plasticcovered fabric, 15 cm earth, wild grass vegetation. Completion: 1996, Area: 595 m2 (Minke, 2013, p. 176-177).

Figure 2 The appropriate soil is prepared and mixed, while dry, with some improved materials such as cement, tar, lime or other improved materials to increase strength or resistance to water. The soil is wetted in the same manner as compressed earth and then it is pressed in special molds or presses.

The compressed bricks are then taken to dry and be processed before use in construction. The bricks are then used in construction like the adobe construction method, using and mixing the soil. Some machines and presses have been developed to facilitate soil preparation, mixing and compressing. *Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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2.4 Earth Architecture in Syria Earth architecture in Syria goes back to 11,000 years. The characteristics of this architecture vary depending on its history, place, and the surrounding economic, social and climatic environment.

2.4.1 The Geographical Spread Earth-built houses are currently in the centers of large cities such as Damascus, Homs and Hama and in most of the Syrian countryside. This architecture is no longer alive in the large cities, and the earth dwellings in the historical centers of these cities have turned into archeological monuments. In contrast, this architecture is still alive in the Syrian countryside and is still used to build new earth dwellings, where the people have construction experience and maintain and spread this architecture although it is in marked decline Figure 3.

Figure 3: Earth architecture in Syria

3. Methodology This research has been conducted according to two axes: - The documentary approach was used by adopting the relevant sources and references. The importance of earth architecture in the world in general and in Syria, in particular, was examined together with some modern studies and experiments applied in the world that focus on the positive aspects of earth as a building material, in addition to documenting the local experience in earth architecture as organic and sustainable architecture.

- The analytical method to monitor the current situation of earth architecture in Syria was used, and the newly implemented experiments were highlighted.

4. Analysis and Findings Earth architecture in Syria reflects the culture of dealing with nature to provide suitable living conditions. It varies according to the characteristics of each area, type of building, materials used and climatic conditions. This difference is evidence of a new and flexible architectural language that has produced different architectural patterns as they interact with the overall economic, social and climatic factors and spatial environment. In the following sections, some examples will be analyzed in order to demonstrate the sustainability factors of architectural patterns.

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A plan of a two-story dwelling of a simple A plan of a dwelling. At the same level, the living and the livestock sections have been villager, the ground floor for the livestock, and the separated from each other (Azad, 2010, p. first-floor for living (Azad, 2010 p. 233).

272).

A dwelling of a well-off villager, A plan of a doctor’s dwelling, built in three accommodating a place for livestock, feed, stages 1944-1957 to suit the needs of the and a garage. Upper Mesopotamia population (still existing) – the section of consultation and waiting – Al-Qamishli City, Countryside (Azad, 2010, p. 230) Syria. (Azad, 2010, p. 187) Figure 4

Maardis Village -

Northern Syria - Aleppo Countryside.

Hama Countryside

Figure 5: Domed Dwellings.

4.1 Earth Architecture is Sustainable 4.1.1 Architectural Patterns and Social and Economic Factors The architectural patterns of earth architecture have absorbed the type of social life of each area. The shape, pattern, size, functional characteristics, the degree of development, building materials and decorations of each dwelling were defined. Thus, design forms are various and have a mechanism of accommodating the various social needs. The dwellings are flexible and grow according to the increase in family members. Besides, the design form can be added to and modified continuously. In different areas, we distinguish between dwellings of wealthy families, middle-income families, low-income families, and poor families, Figure 4.

For example, in poor areas in northern and central Syria, domed dwellings are widespread, *Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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where poor families, do not have enough money to use wood or build their dwellings using adobe on a high base of stone. According to a square plan topped by a circular dome that can be up to five meters high, having a door and small ventilation openings below. On the outer side of the dome, protruding flat stones, called da’wasat, are installed at regular intervals between adobe tiers to enable access to the higher parts of the dome for the periodic repair of the external mortar and for whitewashing the domes, Figure 5.

Figure 6: Courtyards in dwellings 4.1.2 Architectural Patterns and Climatic Factors: Climate factors have influenced the design of dwellings in the Syrian countryside. Different treatments can be observed to deal with the nature of climatic zones 1. Using the inner courtyard in different areas, which is surrounded by rooms, provides a space for family activities, and works to achieve a thermal balance of the dwelling through the presence of plants and a water pond. Figure 6.

2. Dwellings face south, in general to be protected from the cold winter winds and to take advantage of sunrays.

3. The difference of roofing method according to the climate of the area: •

•

•

The double-slope (gable) surface is used in the northeastern areas of the Syrian Upper Mesopotamia and in the Ghouta of Damascus, where there are wet climate and high rainfall rates.

The convex surfaces are used to place a thick layer of straw over a horizontal wooden structure in areas of heavy rainfall. The convex shape helps to drain rainwater as well as providing thermal insulation.

Flat surfaces are flat or slightly domed in areas of lower rainfall rates. Figure 7.

4. Roofs are insulated with a layer of plastic foil. Metal gutters installed on the earth façade are used to drain rainwater 5. Using stone material to insulate and protect eastern walls from rain when wind is eastern in winter.

6. Using horizontal umbrellas by raising the last roof one meter at least toward the outside to protect against rain in winter and sunrays in summer.

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7. The difference of window size in dwellings according to the climate of the place. Windows are large in dimensions, ranging from 80-100 cm to 110-180 cm in the countryside of Upper Mesopotamia, and are narrow and small in domed dwellings in the north and center of the desert of Upper Mesopotamia, and in the center of Syria in the countryside of Homs and Hama.

Figure 7: Methods of roofing according to the environment and climate

4.1.3 Architectural Patterns and Spatial Environment (Construction Materials) This architecture depends on unfired earth, that is, the earth that is only dried in the sun. It is soil mixed mainly with water and straw. It also depends on the stone and timber available in the area.

1. Walls: walls are constructed in two ways: •

Earth-block walls: this is the most common method of building the walls of dwellings. The main material is earth mixed with straw and water, which makes up the basic building blocks (earth blocks) and mortar that will connect these blocks. Earth is brought and mixed with straw, which gives it strength and then is put in molds to form blocks, with dimensions often of 10*20*40 cm. Mortar is made from the same raw materials of earth blocks, but it is sifted to become smoother. After mixing with water and earth, it becomes more viscous and extendable. These walls are built directly on the ground if it is rocky. If the ground is not solid, walls are built on stone foundations with a depth of 50 to 75 cm and sometimes a height of 50 cm or more. The thickness of walls ranges from 60 to 70 cm and is covered from the outside with a layer of earth or limestone.



Rammed-earth walls: they are mostly used to build the fences of dwellings or orchards and sometimes to build the walls of dwellings, which consist of a sequence of relatively large earth blocks. These walls are relatively inexpensive; earth is placed in wooden frames, which are 150 cm high, 80 to 90 cm long, and 50 to 60 cm wide. These walls are built on a stone foundation with a depth of 120 cm and a width of 60 to 80 cm. The surface of the stone foundation is made level, and then the wooden frame is put over it in the corner of the building. The frame is filled with earth that is pressed with a stick to form the first piece of the wall, and then the operation is repeated next to the previous piece, and so on until the wall is built. Small stones are used to connect the wall pieces together. Walls are covered with a layer of earth or lime.

2. Roofing: Timber, if available, is used in roofing. The shape and technique of roofing have *Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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been affected by climatic factors and the economic level of occupants as well as the nature of materials available in the region. Figure 8 shows the constructional forms used in the roofing of earth architecture in Syria:

Figure 8: constructional forms (Khezam, 1991, p 240).

4.2 The Current Situation of Earth Architecture in Syria Earth architecture in the countryside faces face major challenges that can be summed up on several levels •

At the urban level: The lack of pre-planning of villages has led to unplanned urban growth dominated by social relations such as kinship and topography of the earth, and has led to a disintegrating fabric that lacks the basic elements of the provision of streets and public facilities. Poor planning was reflected in the permanence and sustainability of earth dwellings.

•

At the design level: The absence of pre-design of dwellings has led to random design. The gradation of construction, which was related to the development of housing needs, has had a negative impact on the unit size of the dwelling and sometimes has led to the emergence of housing patterns with disjointed and unconnected elements, in addition to the desire of the population to have vast tracts of land. All these factors have led to isolated dwellings that lack design and technical conditions and thus were rapidly deteriorating.

•

At the technical and constructional level: The occupant who builds his dwelling lacks a comprehensive knowledge of the basic characteristics of earth. He deals with different types of earth material and does not distinguish between them regarding composition and constructional characteristics. This lack of information can lead to weak housing patterns that can rapidly collapse.

4.2 Recent Experiments to Revive Clay Architecture Despite the unfortunate reality of earth architecture in Syria, there have been attempts to revive it through documentation, studies and the construction of some earth buildings, using new techniques. Among these attempts are: • Modern construction using the earth architecture in Mary Nadia Kandakji 252

•

Earth building, using old models in Dura Uropos and the archaeological mission house in the archaeological Tell Beydar (Nabada) in Al-Hasakah Governorate.

•

Building a kindergarten in Idlib Governorate

•

Assigning the historical parts of earth architecture, in major cities such as Damascus, to the list of human heritage, and developing restoration work in these cities

•

Earth village to provide disaster shelters for displaced families.

Four examples were chosen to be highlighted:

4.2.1 The House of the Excavation Mission in Tel Baidar, Al-Hasaka (NABADA), Syria. Architect Andre Stevens 1997 Architect Andre Stevens 1997.

Supporting bodies: the European Archaeological Mission The project objective: Restoration of a site in Tel Baidar and its use as a complex for the establishment of the European Archaeological Mission in Tel Baidar, Al-Hasaka, Syria.

Functional components: A set of functional spaces with a celestial courtyard.

Construction technique: Adobe construction together with the use of domes in roofing, see Table 1.

Table 1. Construction technique of Tel Baidar.

The excavation site of the Syrian-European archaeological mission dominates the scene as a desert vessel.

Project Site

Plan of the facade of the excavation mission house, Tal Baidar. (NABADA) Domes-inside of the central courtyard-courtyard.

*Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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4.2.2 A kindergarten in the Village of Kafr Jalis in Idlib Governorate, Syria, 2007 Supporting bodies: A non-governmental organization in Idlib Governorate.

The project objective: Building an environment-friendly kindergarten with an area of 1000 m2, accommodating about 300 children. The earth material was adopted as a building material to achieve this objective. The project started in 2007 and was completed by the end of 2009 at an estimated cost of about $210,000 Functional components: Twelve Classrooms Four playing rooms a reception hall an inner courtyard Service facilities

• • • • •

Architectural form: - The roof contains 10 domes.

- A pyramidal earth roof above the reception hall.

- Stone arches and columns to solidify and maintain the building, and insulating the roof and domes so as not to be affected by weather factors.

- Construction technique: in the process of construction was used light and cost-cheap adobe blocks, using a kind of earth with distinctive local characteristics being free of organic and agricultural materials. This earth is mixed with 15% of straw, and after the process of mixing, the mixture is left for a period of 15 days. Then it is poured into special molds in the form of ordinary concrete blocks, and then the molds and emptied and left for about a week. After this, they become ready for construction, and the process for coating the walls is done with earth and straw, with increasing the proportion of straw. Figure 9.

traditional manual

Courtyard

method of

inside of the

Project Site

classrooms

construction Figure 9: Construction of the village of Kafr Jalis

4.2.3 The Revival of the earth domed dwellings and turning them into an ecotourism cultural project in the village of Al-Sheikh Hilal, Hama Governorate, Syria, in 2010 Supporting bodies: A local non-governmental organization together with support from the 254

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Swiss Agency for Development.

The project objective: The main objective is to stabilize the local population; to improve their incomes and create job opportunities for them, especially women; and to provide participation for women in promoting tourism. The project has sought women’s participation in all aspects of tourism and development of the project through the manufacture of handicraft tools and products for which the village is known.

Components of the project: - Hotel Suites: Maintenance of earth domed dwellings in the village and using them as suites equipped with all the rich Syrian folklore and heritage. These dwellings become beneficial through renting them form their owners.

- Facilities: a large hall as a multi-purpose cultural center, a popular celebration hall, a lecture hall and tourist facilities, built of earth.

Only 146 domes of the total 348 were completed and the service complex was not completed.

Architectural description of the domed dwellings: The earth dwellings in the village are characterized by having more than one earth dome in each dwelling. The domes open to each other are used for living. They provide occupants with warmth in winter and mild weather in summer.

Besides living, they are used for various purposes such as storage. They are polished with soft cement, equipped with sanitary extensions, and most of them are coated with white lime from the inside and outside. These domes have three forms: The first: An ordinary pyramidal dome, and at the top is a cylindrical stone called colloquially al-tantour.

The second: A dome carrying a circular roof 3 meters in diameter, which is lower than the previous one by a meter or two, is covered with timber and earth, and is called tuza.

The third: The Sultanic dome. It starts at the height of two meters in a square room, on which is circularly built a dome that has a circular roof of timber and earth, which is up to 3 meters high.

The name comes from the domes being suitable for the residence of sultans because they are the most luxurious type of earth domes, Figure 10.

plan of a dwelling with four domes

"Sultanic"

domed dwellings

"Tuza"

Project Site

" Al-Tantur"

Figure 10: Construction of the village of Al-Sheikh Hilal *Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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4.2.4 Earth village to provide disaster shelters for displaced families in Idlib Governorate in 2015 Supporting bodies: Non-governmental organizations in Idlib Governorate, funded by the Qatari Red Crescent.

The project objective: Providing earth housing and accommodation with necessary services for the displaced persons of the war, in the city of Saraqeb in Idlib Governorate Components of the project: 2200 small housing units. Each unit contains two rooms, a kitchen and a bathroom with an

•

approximate area of 24 m2 General services: A mosque, a school, shops, a cultural center, an educational institute, a

•

cow farm, a poultry farm, and vegetable nurseries around the dwellings as well as the necessary streets and playgrounds for children.

Public facilities: A sewage system, a large reservoir fed by a well to secure water, and an

•

electric generator to secure electricity.

Only 100 housing units were built at the cost of $750 per unit. Compared to prefabricated caravans, which cost about $3,500, these housing units were found to be cheaper. It was planned to build a series of earth villages elsewhere, based on lessons learned from the current project.

Construction technique: The unit was built on a foundation 50 cm high, of stones available in the region to insulate the floor from the moisture of the earth. Cement render was used to

•

cover the floor of the unit. The method used was of manually manufactured adobe blocks, composed of earth and some straw, to build the walls. The floor was polished from the inside and outside with a cement layer to give it more durability. Wooden panels were used in roofing, placed over them is a layer of earth, protected by a nylon coat, Figure 11.

A roof of rafters insulated by nylon bags

Manual manufacturing of earth block molds

The stone foundation of the housing unit

plan and facade of the housing unit Figure 11: Construction of the village in Idlib.

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Project Site

5. Discussion 1. The importance of the presence of cultural objectives and community participation to ensure the success of the experiment of earth construction. Community participation does not only mean the participation of the people in the process of construction and restoration by providing employment opportunities for the beneficiaries of the project in particular and the members of the community in general, but it also means the adoption and promotion of these projects by a nongovernmental organization. Recognizing the importance and advantages of earth architecture and showing it in a modern and acceptable form is a collective responsibility that rests with several parts, including academic, engineering, and architectural ones, as well as organizations and bodies that responsible for culture, heritage, environment, etc.

2. The attempt to benefit from the architectural heritage and to promote its area is a strong response to the possibility of the continuation of earth architecture and its ability to meet various functions (residential, tourist and educational).

3. Construction projects (kindergarten and housing) were carried out with the same traditional construction technique of adobe, with the use of stone, timber and render coating. Advanced techniques were not used.

4. The population’s satisfaction with the project is realized if the necessary services are provided for its continuation. This effect was evident in the earth village project. The project was planned to be an integrated complex of housing and basic services. However, the delay in carrying out the services led the displaced persons to a feeling of dissatisfaction with the project in general.

5. There is a widespread belief among the population, especially the urban population, that earth dwellings represent poverty and backwardness. In contrast, there is a kind of nostalgia for the traditional architecture of the past. This difference is shown in the degree of satisfaction with previous projects; recipients were satisfied with the projects except for the earth village project, where it was found that the feelings of the displaced persons about housing varied markedly. While rural residents see housing as appropriate and meet most of their needs, urban internally displaced persons feel contempt for and discontent with the idea of living in earth dwellings. These feelings seem normal due to the lack of public services, as well as the vast difference between the kinds of houses that they were forced to leave and the current level of earth shelter.

6. Results The research yields the following results: 1. Earth material is one of the oldest building materials known to man; it was used widely in the architecture of the past in different parts of the world, and it has been developed through many different techniques in order to benefit from its advantages and reduce its disadvantages.

2. Earth architecture in Syria is organic architecture, closely linked to the environment and geography of a given place, and has produced different patterns due to the impact of the overall economic, social, environmental and other factors. *Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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3. The Syrian earth heritage is extraordinarily rich, but it is suffering day after day from the consequences of the profound changes that have been affecting the Syrian society, such as changes in lifestyles, the desire to modernize, turning the village into a city, rural migration and abandonment of agricultural culture, in addition to the negative effects of the destruction caused by the war in recent years.

4. There are some experiments and attempts that were carried out in order to raise awareness of the importance of earth architecture and to establish the development of this architecture through documentation and some of research studies. It should be noted that the results of these studies have not been applied yet in reality.

5. The attempts related to the construction and maintenance of some earth buildings prove the efficiency of earth material as a flexible material that responds to different stages of development if the planning of its facilities and the design of its components are done well. This confirms the validity of the research hypothesis that there are feasibility and necessity to rehabilitate earth material and its use in rural architecture in Syria.

7. Recommendations: - The need to develop a participatory scientific strategy in which the pattern of earth architecture is integrated with economic, environmental and cultural objectives. The strategy should include raising awareness of the importance of this heritage; building capacities at all levels to develop it such as establishing specialized institutions that disseminate information about earth architecture; holding exhibitions and lectures and using other means that encourage and contribute to the use of earth construction.

- Introducing the earth construction technique within the curricula of architecture and civil engineering in Syrian universities to familiarize students with the architectural culture related to earth architecture and the necessary information about this material, its characteristics, and seeking ways to develop it.

- Evaluating practical and field experiments in which earth was used in a modern construction method to draw on lessons and avoid defects.

- Communicating with international research and pragmatic centers concerned with this material through a global information network; benefiting from recent studies; and working on translating sourcebooks into Arabic.

7. Conclusion Earth is one of the oldest building materials in the world used by humans and has been developed through many methods. Earth architecture in Syria is part of the culture; it depends on community participation. It reflects the culture of dealing with nature to provide suitable living conditions. It is linked with social and economic conditions, in addition to the cultural heritage in the memory of society. This architecture has been neglected in cities and this neglect has extended to rural architecture as a result of many factors. The research concludes that it is important to 258

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rehabilitate this pattern, to take advantage of the existing traditional experience, and to communicate it with the latest developments and treatments on how to deal with earth as it is a viable option to ensure the necessary of housing crisis, especially in rural areas.

8. References Ali, A. A. (2010). Earth architecture types in Euphrates Island. Publications of the Syrian General Book Organization. Damascus, Syria.

AlJadeed, M. A. (2003). Earth building in the Arab countries and Western countries, building methods and proposed development axes. Journal of the Center for Research and Studies of Medina El-mounwara 8, 107-146.

AlSakkaf, Y. Kh. (2009). Durability properties of stabilized earth blocks (doctoral dissertation).

University Seins Malaysia (USM), Malaysia.

Correia, M., Carlos, G. & Rocha, S. (Eds.). (2014). Vernacular heritage and earthen architecture contributions for sustainable development. Taylor & Francis Group: Boca Raton.

Douhgman, M. (1995). Earth buildings architecture in the territory of Damascus (master dissertation). Damascus University, Damascus, Syria.

Doughman, M. (1999). Documentation and development of building materials for local residences (doctoral dissertation). Damascus University, Damascus, Syria.

Houben, H. & Guillaud, H. (1994). Earth construction- a comprehensive guide. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Khezam, A. A. (1991). Rural agricultural housing earth architecture in the conditions of the Syrian Arab Republic (doctoral dissertation). Moscow Institute of Architecture, Russia.

Maini, S. (2005). Earthen architecture for sustainable habitat and compressed stabilized earth block technology. Heritage Conservation Program: Lecture on earth architecture and building techniques with compressed soil.

Mileto, C., Vegas, F., Garcia Sociano, L. & Cristini, V. (2014). Earthen architecture: past, present, future. Taylor & Francis Group: Boca Raton.

Minke, G. (2013). Building with earth design and technology of a sustainable architecture (3rd ed).

Birkhauser: Basel.

Dr. N. Kandakji is an Assistant Professor of Department of Architecture and Environmental Planning at Faculty of Engineering and Petroleum Hadhramout University, YEMEN. She received her B.Eng. from Hims University.

She continued her PhD study at Aleppo University, Syria, where she obtained her PhD in Architectural Design.

Dr. Kandakji current interests involve applications of modern architectural design methods for low-income housing.

Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering, Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th November 2017.

*Corresponding author (N. Kandakji). Tel/Fax: +967735020884. E-mail: n_n_alwnan@hotmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. http://TUENGR.COM/V08/243.pdf.

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Investigation of Mental Mapping in Urban Design: Case of Queensbay, Penang Norliza Mohd Yasin a

a*

a

, Ahmad Sanusi Hassan and Najib Taher Al-Ashwal

a

School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 31 August 2017 Accepted 25 November 2017 Available online 01 December 2017

Keywords: Urban Design Element; Modern Urban Design; Sustainable Architecture.

A B S T RA C T

Configuration of urban design in Queensbay, Penang has played an important rule to highlight image of this city. The main goal for this research is to investigate mental mapping based on the observer perception. This study approaches an inventory of the layout plan Queensbay for the case study. With scientific research from books and internet, the study will help to determine five important elements namely paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. The analysis shows the city was derived from modern urban design. It was constructed with a gridiron system as a primary layout plan. Vehicular access road was smooth but lacks of arterial and collector roads.

The north-south building arrangement was well oriented and being design to capture sea breeze and vista. Residential houses, commercial buildings and promenade have a direct access to the sea front. Even though this is one sample of a successful new urban planning in Penang, the development needs to have clear and dominant landmark. © 2017 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction According to urban legend, the town of Bayan Lepas was founded in the late 19th Century by a family from Sumatra whose aviary pet parakeet (Bayan). Unfortunately, the pet was escaped. To commemorate their beloved pet, that place was named Bayan Lepas or escape bird. Queensbay, formerly known as the Bayan Bay before being interrupted with Asian financial crisis, is located in the district of Bayan Lepas, near the southeastern tip of Penang Island. It takes about 11 km or 25 minutes’ drive from George Town and about 10 km or 20 minutes’ drive from Penang Airport.

Queensbay is also linked to the mainland Peninsular Malaysia by Second Penang Bridge.

Queensbay is one of the earliest developments on reclaimed land. Even though the development now is growing quite slow compared to the other reclaimed land, Queensbay has its own attraction to adore visitors to come for shopping, gathering, banking and own the property. The *Corresponding author (M.Y.Norliza). Tel/Fax: +604-5381793 Hp: 6012-4022135 E-mail: norlee.yasin@gmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/261.pdf.

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location of the site is also quite interesting because it is in the middle of the island with a few listed hotels to serve local and international tourists.

The study objective is to investigate the mental mapping of the urban design elements i.e. nodes, districts, edges, path and landmarks in the case study. It also aims to determine if the layout plan design has applied latest urban design either a compact city or intelligent city concept also known as city of short distance or smart growth or new urbanism (Lynch, Garsia and Dhany,2015).

This report will also study on elements that emphasis friendly environment for pedestrian and cycling, social interaction, mixed-used buildings, transit systems and complete street design.

2. Literature Reviews The literature study review on urban design elements from a study by Kevin Lynch which are as follows (Lynch,1960):

2.1 Paths Paths are one of the dominant elements in urban space. Typical spatial characters, unique façade decorations are both helpful to strengthen the image of particular path. In Lynch’s view, these parts of the city are the routes along which the observer customarily, occasionally, or potentially moves. Along these path, people usually observe the city and the arrangement of the environmental elements. Paths is also the streets, sidewalks, trails and other channels in which people used to travel.

2.2 Edges Edges are boundaries which separate two districts with visually predominant and continuous form. While continuity and visibility are crucial, strong edges are not necessarily impenetrable.

According to Lynch’s, edge usually perceived boundaries such as walls, buildings, and shorelines.

Edges can be barriers, seams, lines along which two regions are related and joined together. These edge elements sometimes are used in organizing features and generalized the areas. Edges also show the outline of a city either by water or a wall.

2.3 Districts Districts are relatively large city areas with common characters which observers can mentally go inside of. The physical characteristics that determine districts are thematic continuities which may consist of an endless variety of components: texture, space, form, detail, symbol and so on.

Districts are relatively large sections of the city distinguished by some identity or character.

Observers are mentally entered to the city and conceive the space as a two-dimensional extent.

Concepts of size may depend in part on how well a structure can be grasped. It seems to depend not only upon the individual but also upon the given city.

2.4 Nodes Nodes are strategic foci which observers can enter, which are not only small points but also 262

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squares, linear shapes and central districts etc. Basically, there are two types of nodes: junctions of path and concentrations of characteristics. A successful node should have unique features inside, and intensifies some surrounding characters as well. Nodes are the first attraction or focal points and intersections of the road. They may be simply concentrations, which gain their importance from being the condensation of some use or physical character, as a street-corner hangout or an enclosed square.

2.5 Landmarks Landmarks are reference external objects conceived by the observers, which can be defined as simple physical elements. Singularity is the key physical characteristic of landmarks, creating spatial predominance through contrast with surrounding elements, making them unique or memorable in urban context. Landmarks normally are points of references, simple physical elements which may vary widely in scale, such as building, sign or mountain. Landmarks usually provide local contrast to the nearby elements. Typically, they become a symbol and may be seen from many angles and distance. Landmarks are frequently used as a clues or identity when the people want to familiar the area.

By using the five basic elements such as those listed above, the appearance of the city can be observed and recorded either visual (mental mapping) or manual sketched and documented. Indirect growth or movement in the city can also be observed for the purposed of recording the data.

3. Background of Case Study Queensbay (Figuare 1) is a new upmarket waterfront development. It is located in the southeastern seaboard of the island. The development consists of shop offices, corporate towers, hotel, bungalows, semi-ds, seafront villas, condominium, service apartment, and Queensbay Mall, the largest and longest shopping mall in Penang. 80 % of the land area has been designated for commercial use while the remaining 20% is residential (Adam Tan,2007).

Figure 1: Queensbay Mall, Bayan Lepas, Penang Queensbay Mall is the heart of Queensbay. It is the biggest retail property development on Penang Island, boasting a gross built-up of 2.6 million sq. ft. Queensbay Mall has been envisioned as a brand-new shopping, entertainment and lifestyle concept that will revolutionized the retail *Corresponding author (M.Y.Norliza). Tel/Fax: +604-5381793 Hp: 6012-4022135 E-mail: norlee.yasin@gmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/261.pdf.

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scene in Penang. The construction of the mall, formerly known as the Bayan World Megamall, stopped in 1998 because of the Asian financial crisis. The project was abandoned for eight years, before fully completed by the end of 2006. The opening of the Mall is the beginning of the growth in this new city (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Queensbay districts from internal view shows a Queensbay Mall on the left, 3 storeys shop lot in the middle and high-rise apartment facing water front Queensbay is midway between the Old Penang Bridge interchange and the Bayan Lepas Industrial Park. It is also situated in the declared area as the Penang Cybercity 1 (PCC1) which forms part of the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC). Accessibility to Queensbay is supported with excellent infrastructure via the dual carriageways of Bayan-Lepas Jelutong expressway whilst benefiting from its close linkage to alternative routes such as Jalan Sultan Azlan Shah, Jalan Tun Dr Awang and Jalan Aziz Ibrahim. Queesbay 's location will further be enhanced with the new second link bridge and the development of Penang Outer Ring Road (PORR) carriageway connecting main land to Gurney Drive in the future (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Key Plan of Penang, Location Plan and Limit of study at Queensbay, located at Bayan Lepas Distric, Penang.

4. Methodology This study will be based on physical qualities which related to the attributes of identity and structure in the mental image as indicated in Figure 3. Three components such as identity, structure and meaning will be analyzed to determine the urban criteria. First, to speed up the process of collecting data and limit of the study, the data will be based on source from internet including the site plan. Second, an urban image will be determined based on five urban elements with reference 264

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by the book, The Image of The City (Lynch,1960). Third, pre-assumption analysis will be conducted according to the pre-data collection. Forth, data collection will be analyzed through observation of the paths, edges, landmarks, districts and nodes. The study lastly will analyze the data and summarize base on the observation during the site visit.

5. Data Analysis Purposed for this study is to analyzed and documented all the required elements base on mental mapping by the observer. According to Lynch, mental mapping as a research instrument uses the mental maps people’s perception gain insight in the collective and significance data for the urban territory for specific groups. This case study was focus only on five elements such as paths, nodes, districts, edges and landmarks in Queensbay District.

5.1 Paths Queensbay district can be accessed by a few roads. The path of the site is design with grid iron origin concept. Lebuhraya Dr Lim Chong Eu become primary access road to the site and connected with Persiaran Bayan Indah (Figure 4).

Primary road Arterial road Collector road Bicycle lane

Lebuhraya Tun Dr. Lim Chong Eu Persiaran Bayan Indah

Figure 4: Internal paths at Queensbay district 5.1.1 Vehicle Paths Photo had taken from early morning to evening to show vehicle movement at main entrance to the site. During peak hour from 5 pm to 7 pm, all routes were congested by the user enter and exit from the site (Figure 5). *Corresponding author (M.Y.Norliza). Tel/Fax: +604-5381793 Hp: 6012-4022135 E-mail: norlee.yasin@gmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/261.pdf.

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Figure 5: Vehicle path at entrance and internal road 5.1.2 Bicycle Paths Queensbay is one of the development who promote the use of bicycles by providing bicycle parking and bike trail (Figure 6). Link Bike is the IoT (Internet of Things) project from MBPP which is designed to best serve the community and the environment. (C.Lilian, 2017). The aim for bike-sharing system is to tackle traffic congestion as well as pollution. According to Lilian, there will be a total of 25 stations strategically scattered throughout the George Town area and other places on Penang island including Queensbay. Bicycle lane is also used by resident to do physical exercise and jogging.

Figure 6: bicycle park located beside Queensbay Mall, bike sharing system in front of the mall and bicycle lane along the edge of the sea 5.1.3 Pedestrian Paths

Figure 7: Pedestrian paths in front of queensbay and zebra crossing Pedestrian paths show in Figure 7 connected people from a few nodes such as Kapitan Restaurant, Bus station and also from open parking besides Queensbay Mall. Both are connected by an efficient zebra crossing.

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5.2 Districts Districts in Queensbay for commercial and residential show in Figuare 8.

Residential Commercial

Tropicana

C Jerejak Jetty Villa Emas A

D

A - Gold Coast

B

E

D – Eastin Hotel

B - Bay Garden

D – Queensbay Mall

C - Putra Palace

Figure 8: District for commercial and residential at Queensbay.

5.2.1 Residential Districts Residential area consists of high rise building i.e. Tropicana Bay Residence, Putra Palace Condominium, Villa Emas Condominium and Bay Star Condominium. Bay Garden is a gated and guarded landed housing consist of semi detach housing and bungalows. In front of all entrance, Putra Palace is the most congested with bus and car stop for fetching and delivering passengers.

5.2.2 Commercial Districts Commercial area including Queensbay mall, Eastin Hotel and Econtel, Gold Coast Resort Condominium & Resort Hong Leong and Shanghai bank, Kuwait Finance House, Kumpulan Wang Simpanan Pekerja, Fomema, Amanah Saham Nasional Berhad was inside the commercial building.

Queensbay Mall is the busiest activity, offer all facility and amenities for all residents and neighboring visitors.

*Corresponding author (M.Y.Norliza). Tel/Fax: +604-5381793 Hp: 6012-4022135 E-mail: norlee.yasin@gmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/261.pdf.

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5.3 Nodes According to Lynch, nodes is a public place or space normally people use to gather. Refer to Figure 9, public bus station is a nodes whereby public buses, taxis, and public cars used to drop off passenger. The location is strategic, near to the south entrance to the mall, bicycle rent system, police center and open parking. Coffee bean area beside the main entrance, also being a node while waiting for friends and family before enter or exit the mall.

A – Public Bus station, Taxi, Entrance to the South Mall

C B

B – Kapitan Restaurant A

C – Aero Line Express Bus station

Figure 9: Nodes at Queensbay district

5.4 Landmarks Landmarks is important to direct people to the designated place. Through the observer’s perception, landmarks for Queensbay district as shown in Figure 10.

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A – Queensbay crown

C

B

B – Eastin Hotel Signage

A

C – Sculpture and Queensbay signage at Rounabout

Figure 10: Landmarks at Queensbay district.

Queensbay crown is a sculpture, built together with the mall to highlight the building. It located at open space parking beside entrance to the south mall. Due to lack of maintenance, the sculpture was hidden and surrounded by trees and bushes. Second landmark that capture observer view is Eastin Signage. It was located at Jalan Persiaran Bayan Indah to attract customer from inner road.

Main entrance to the hotel is from Lebuhraya Tun Dr. Lim Chong Eu. There have 3 roundabouts with difference sculpture or trees to create the differences. It is also become focal points to the sites.

Signage and sculpture inside the roundabout was built to attract peoples’ attention to the site.

5.5 Edges The site was nearby the sea shore. Therefore, the edge of the site can be view clearly. A lot of activity along sea shore and bicycle lane from intermediate roundabout to the south roundabout show in Figure 11.

*Corresponding author (M.Y.Norliza). Tel/Fax: +604-5381793 Hp: 6012-4022135 E-mail: norlee.yasin@gmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/261.pdf.

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A

A – Jogging track and bicycle lane along the edge of the site

B – Family bonding, gathering and fishing area

B

C

C – Hawkers besides bicycle

Figure 11: Edge at Queensbay district Jogging and cycling is the most famous activity along the edge of Queensbay. The track was safe to continued until Persiaran Karpal Singh. Through the observer, the activity starts at 5 pm to 7.30 pm. There was a lot of activity as shown in location B and C. People love to see sea vista towards Pulau Jerejak and Old Bridge. Fishing activities with friends and family bonding’s activities i.e. picnic, gathering scatted along the sea shore. Many hawkers truck selling snacks and roasted corn was park along the road to serve the needs. The activity also creates temporary nodes to the site.

6. Discussion With theory by Lynch, the observer easily can identify and recognized parts of cityscape. The five elements are stated and recorded as below to identify image of the city.

6.1 Paths Looking to the paths activity, Persiaran Bayan Indah is the back bone of the city. Traffic was under control even though it was congested during peak hour. Zebra crossing in front of Maybank towards Eastin Hotel was created to solve the pedestrian crossing problem at the collector road (Figure 12).

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Figure 12: Zebra crossing at the collector road It is indeed plausible that streets with more pedestrian-oriented activities (shops, restaurants, services, etc.) would be more memorable, and streets that have more people on them would be better remembered (M. Mohsenin, A. Sevtsuk, 2013). These shows, pedestrian activity inside the city helps the residents and user to memorized the place.

6.2 Districts Good physical characteristics of districts are determined by continuities and homogeneities of facades materials, textures, spaces, forms, details, symbols, building type, uses, Activities, inhabitants, colors, skyline topography, ‌etc.(Lynch,1960). By looking to the composition of the buildings and land plot placement, Queensbay can be consider as a good layout for district combination between commercial and residential. Bay Garden was built to respect the similarity of the three stores shop lot besides. However, the idea of gated and guarded applied create a social boundary to the neighboring residence. It has been debate and discuss in several researchers regarding gated and guarded scheme and policy especially regarding strata title. Another disadvantage, there are possibility to of developer to exploit the prices due to the security purposed.

Figure 13: Putra Palace, South Entrance and Beer Factory.

6.3 Nodes Nodes may be junctions, then they are related to paths, as being the convergence of these paths such as squares; or thematic concentration such as a concentration of shopping; or both of junctions and concentration. In fact, the city itself can be imaged as a node with respect to a large enough level. Nodes can be recognized even when they are shapeless, but when supported by a strong physical form, then they become memorable (Lynch, 1960). A few more nodes at the site which is quite important to the city was located in front of Putra Palace, where there was shapeless and the space are invisible. For residents, these are the meeting point and gathering or drop off point. South *Corresponding author (M.Y.Norliza). Tel/Fax: +604-5381793 Hp: 6012-4022135 E-mail: norlee.yasin@gmail.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/261.pdf.

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Entrance to Queensbay mall also was one of the nodes where people only mingle in front of the entrance. Lastly, Beer Factory located in front Villa Emas was famous nodes for non-muslim and tourist.

6.4 Edges Gridiron layout clearly marks not only borders of the land plots, but also public transport access. Provision of this transport access gives the authority traffic controls all over the settlement areas. All residents use these streets as a primary access for commercial routes (Hassan, 2001). The idea of primary access for commercial routes develops successfully parallel to the edge of the sea.

Figure 14: Penang World City’s Gallery and Queens Waterfront @ Queensbay The development has an area to expand the edges of the site for land reclamation. Therefore, there are a lot of future development will be built on reclaimed land. One of the developments will be develop by Tropicana Corporation Berhad joint venture with Ivory Properties Group Berhad. It is a future development for Penang World City. Another development will be built by Ideal Property Group namely Queens Waterfront @ Queensbay (Figure 14).

7. Conclusion The development of Queensbay can be considered as new town based on all provided services such as hypermarket, banks, restaurants and other commercial building. There has a clear district between commercial and residential therefor it provides comfort living to the occupants of the residence. Even though there are more details need to consider, to recognize the five elements as a mental mapping but the main objective is investigating the basic elements at the site such as nodes, districts, edges, path and landmarks, considered successful. The modern urban design approach is intelligent city concept with a short distance and has walkable areas from one building to another.

There are few interesting nodes like a few high-end restaurants which become communal space to the user. While waiting for transit bus, taxi or express bus, people can enjoy their breakfast, lunch, tea time or dinner. The site has social interaction during day time and night time. Transit system such as bus stand and taxi stand is normally fully used by the user.

Pedestrian and cycling path become leisure activities by the residents and outsiders. They love to have a gathering time at a few spots near the edge of the site. People love to do fishing activities or just sitting there to see evening vista. These activities create temporary nodes. With references to 272

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positive activities of the residence, end user and people from local and surrounding neighborhoods, it can be considered a successful project in term of mental mapping the site.

8. References Adam Tan. (Jan 13, 2007). Queensbay Development News (Retrieved on Mac 26, 2017, from http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=430448).

Chan Lilian. (August 02, 2017). Buletin Mutiara. (Retrieved on Mei 29, 2017, from http://www.buletinmutiara.com/penang-to-be-first-cycling-state/).

Hassan, A. S. (2005). Konsep rekabentuk bandar di Semenanjung Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur dan bandar-bandar di sekitarnya. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia Press.

Hassan, Ahmad Sanusi. (2017). Amalan Tebus Guna Tanah, Reka Bentuk Bandar dan Seni Bina di Malaysia. Penang: USM Press.

Ideal Property Group. Queens Waterfront @ Queensbay. (Retrieved on Mei 29, 2017, from http://queenswaterfront.com.my/) Ideal Properties Group Berhad. Tropicana Ivory Sdn. Bhd. (Retrieved on Mei 29, 2017, from http://www.penangworldcity.com/developer.html).

Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City. Boston: MIT Press.

M. Mohsenin, A. Sevtsuk. (2013). The impact of street properties on cognitive maps. Journal of Architecture and Urbanism, 37(4): 301–309.

Norliza Mohd Yasin is a master student at School of Housing, Building and Planning, University Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia. She research focuses on Mental Mapping in Urban Design.

Professor Dr. Ahmad Sanusi bin Hassan teaches in Architecture Programme at the School of Housing, Building and Planning, University Sains Malaysia (USM). He obtained Bachelor and Master of Architecture from the University of Houston, Texas, USA. He was awarded a PhD degree from the University of Nottingham, United Kingdom. He was promoted to Associate Professor and later Full Professor. His research focuses on computer simulation on daylighting and thermal comforts, architectural history and theory, and housing in urban design. He is one of the nine regional writers involved in the preparation of Guideline: Agenda 21 for Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries: A Discussion Document, which was launched at The Earth/World Summit, Johannesburg in September 2002. At the university, he lectures in architecture courses related to urban design, studio, history, Computer Aided Design (CAD), and computer movie animation. He has integrated all these specialisations into his research, teaching, consultation and publications. He had designed several architectural projects such as mosque, USM guest house and a proposal for low-cost houses for fishermen community.

Najib Taher Al-Ashwal is a PhD candidate in School of Housing, Building, and Planning at University of Science Malaysia (USM). He earned an MSc in Architectural Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Saudi Arabia in 2008. He holds a B.S of Eng. in Architecture from Sana’a University, Yemen.

Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering, Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th November 2017. *Corresponding author (M.Y.Norliza). Tel/Fax: +604-5381793 Hp: 6012-4022135 E-mail: norlee.yasin@gmail.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/261.pdf.

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The Melanau Cultural Influence in the Melanau Tall Longhouse Space Planning of Sarawak Political Buildings as Symbol of Political Culture Dyg Mustika Syaheeda Awg Musadat a

a*

and Azizi Bahauddin

a

School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 25 August 2017 Accepted 21 November 2017 Available online 01 December 2017

Keywords: Architectural spatial layout; Vernacular architecture; Space planning; Qualitative observation method; Melanau ethnic.

A B S T RA C T

The Melanau tall longhouse in Sarawak is one of Malaysia’s unique vernacular architecture. Unlike other traditional longhouses in Sarawak, Melanau tall longhouse is assembled at 40 feet above the ground and could house up to 50 families. The structure of this unique longhouse is influenced by the community’s traditional culture as it plays a role in their daily life. The house is important to the community as it provides security from the pirates and other tribes, especially from the headhunters, the Iban ethnic. The aim of this paper is to unearth the information about this valuable architecture, focusing on the Melanau cultural influence in the space planning of the house. The research employed qualitative method involving observation, architectural documentation, and interviews with the Melanau experts. The findings point towards the spatial layout of the house based on the cultural influence that created a unique architectural language for the construction. © 2017 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction Sarawak is Malaysia’s largest state, and it is home to more than 20 indigenous groups. Among the main ethnic people are Malays, Iban, Bidayuh, Orang Ulu, and Melanau. The Melanau ethnic group is viewed as the earliest settler in Sarawak and is believed to share common origins with the Orang Ulu. The Melanau people live alongside the lower reaches of the Rajang River, the famous river in Sarawak, and spread alongside the coastal from the mouth of the Rajang to Bintulu.

Culture influences people in their ways of living, including where they decide to stay, what they do, and their behaviour. Also, culture brings an impact on their tradition as well as their architecture. However, lack of exploratory research has been done on understanding the cultural influence in the space planning of the Melanau Tall Longhouse (MTL). This study delves further *Corresponding author (D.M.S. Awg Musadat). E-mail: syiedasyaheeda@gmail.com. ©2017.

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into the Melanau culture to understand the overall spatial layout of the house. The research aim is to unearth the information about this valuable architecture, focusing on the Melanau cultural influence in the space planning of the house.

Even though the Melanau community has played a role in the history of Sarawak for centuries, there has been constrained fieldwork undertaken about their background. There is no current research has been conducted on the Melanau community that can be used as a reference. Moreover, none architectural study has been carried out on their unique traditional house tall longhouse. The height of this house is 40 feet high from the ground level. However, there is no research performed to explain the reason behind the history of the Melanau tall longhouse and why it was built in such way. Therefore, the research will analyse the architectural values and spatial layout associated with the longhouse.

2. Methodology The research utilised qualitative method, relying on ethnography and phenomenology documentation supported by an in-depth examination of Melanau traditional culture in Sarawak. It was supported by architectural detail studies on the longhouse, visual data collection, and nonstructured interviews with the Melanau cultural experts. Finally, the outcomes include the comprehension of the spatial layout and cultural aspects of the MTL. However, the absence of additional current information requires the analyst to rely on primary sources. The longhouses chosen are the houses that have the most original form of MTL. Pilot studies on a few recognised longhouses will be done before further work can take place. However, for this paper, there is only one case study investigated. It will be based on the MTL in Kuching, Sarawak; located in the Sarawak Cultural Village. This research method also involved some nonstructured interview with the Melanau cultural experts. The expected outcomes will unearth the information about this valuable architecture, focusing on the Melanau cultural influence in the space planning of the house. The findings point towards the spatial layout of the house based on the cultural impact that created a unique architectural language for the construction.

3. The Melanau Community 3.1 Origin The Melanau community is the second influential coastal group in Sarawak. They occupy a coastal belt of land extending from the mouth of the Rajang river (figure 1) to the mouth of the Baram river and extending inland (where is the river on the map). There are varied perspectives about the origin of Melanau. According to Dzulfawati (1995), in 1375, Robert Nicholl identify some places recorded in the map of Borneo that was drawn by Abraham Cresques for King Charles the fifth of France. Among the places recorded were Teluk Brunei and Malao, Nicholl refers to the place as "Malao"; a Portuguese term, "Malano"; English pronunciation, and "Melanau" according to today’s term.

Dyg Mustika Syaheeda Awg Musadat and Azizi Bahauddin 276

Figure 1: The Rajang River (Courtesy of Google Map) There is also an assumption that says the Melanau are from the Philippines. According to Pringle (1970), this has something to do with the name "Meranau" (Meranao) or "Mindanao" which sounds very similar to Melanau, but unfortunately, there are no studies that could demonstrate the relationship. According to Asmah (1983), Meranau or Merinaw is the name of the tribe in Mindanau Tengah, the pirates who frequently attacked areas that are occupied by the Melanau.

3.2 Beliefs As a group of people who was never exposed to modernity and the outside world, the traditional Melanau community faces the daily challenges of life-based on beliefs inherited from their ancestors for generations. They believe that every natural form of nature and objects in the universe are considered to have an extraordinary spirit and power. Therefore, worshipping those creatures were considered as their traditional belief. According to Yasir (1987), the Melanau tribe believes that the important questions in life are associated with the supernatural. In any case, they have to show compliance to the being by giving it gifts such as food, prayer recitation, and certain spells.

However, not all Melanau ethnic communities believe about the influence of animism.

Melanau was divided into three groups based on the view of conviction or religion from claiming every last one of kin who takes after Islam, Christianity, and likewise the individuals who still stick to old views. For those who still cling to old thoughts, mostly they have a strong belief in the supernatural. Therefore, a lot of activities, customs, rituals, and taboos can be understood properly when their traditional culture is understood.

3.3 Social Organisation Regarding social organisation, there is a hierarchy that reflects a person's position in Melanau society. Before the reign of the Sultanate of Brunei, each was grouped into several classes, and they are sembilan pikul, tujuh pikul, lima pikul and dipen (slave). According to Jeniri Amir (2015), a person’s position is granted based on the individual strengths. The position shows that a person’s physical strength is important than intelligence. *Corresponding author (D.M.S. Awg Musadat). E-mail: syiedasyaheeda@gmail.com. Š2017.

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After the rule of the Brunei Sultanate, another class was introduced by the Sultanate which is Pangiran. The title Pangiran immediately be the highest rank in the hierarchy of the Melanau social organisation. There was no resistance from the local after the title was introduced because they uphold the loyalty and obedience to the leader. However, only Muslim Melanau is entitled to be granted the title Pangiran, meanwhile, the highest class for the Christian Melanau and Pagan Melanau is the class of sembilan pikul. Position in the social organisation brings big impact towards their tradition, especially relating to betrothal, marriage, and death.

4. Study Finding and Result 4.1 Architectural Model of the Melanau Tall Longhouse

Figure 2: The Melanau Tall Longhouse, Sarawak Cultural Village Pilot studies on a few recognise longhouses were conducted before further work can take place.

However, throughout observing each house, numerous tall longhouses identified are no longer genuine. Few houses experience a lot of changes, and some even are left to rot. The only MTL that still maintains the authenticity is located in Sarawak Cultural Village (figure 2) near the foothills of Mount Santubong. Even though it was built for tourism purposes, through first observation, the overall architectural language of the model will be considered authentic since it features all the components found in the authentic house form.

The Melanau tall longhouse is one of Sarawak’s unique vernacular architecture. Unlike other traditional longhouses in Sarawak, Melanau tall longhouse is assembled at times at 40 feet above the ground and could house up to 50 families. The structure of this unique longhouse is influenced by the community’s traditional culture as it plays a crucial role in their daily life. The house is important to the community as it provides security from the pirates and other tribes, especially from the headhunters, the Iban. The materials used to construct the house are known to be hardy and water resistance. Every material are readily available from the surroundings such as the as belian tree trunks (Borneon ironwood), nibong tree trunks, and sago tree trunks.

4.2 Cultural Influences on the Space Planning In the past, a hamlet of Melanau usually consisted of one to three tall longhouses, located in a strategic position; at the river mouth by taking into consideration the security and economic 278

Dyg Mustika Syaheeda Awg Musadat and Azizi Bahauddin

activities (Tommy, 2017). The Melanau built huge tall longhouses to protect themselves from the reach of pirates and from the enemies, especially from the onslaught of the Iban people. Each tall longhouses consists of 20 to 30 living spaces for each family staying at that tall longhouse (Chen, 1998) and could house up to 50 families.

According to Christopher (2017), the floor of the tall longhouse is built using nibong tree trunks. However, only the serambi (foyer) flooring was assembled using belian tree trunks.

According to the Melanau traditional beliefs, belian tree trunks wood is used specifically for the foyer area as it was believed to bring in prosperity to every household. The flooring of other areas on the main level of the tall longhouse is built using nibong tree trunks that are arranged in a crisscross pattern (Figure 3) with tiny gaps in between. The trunks were arranged in such ways to act as security, making sharp weapons such as arrows to hardly pass through. When the Melanau was attacked from below, the household will pour hot boiling water onto the floor. The enemy below will get skin injuries due to the hot boiling water.

Figure 3: Nibong Flooring arranged in crisscross pattern

Figure 4: Appliances for Bebayoh ritual Located in the foyer is a section for bebayoh. Bebayoh is a ritual when the shaman acts as an intermediary with the supernatural, ipok, a reflection of the spirit, to cure diseases or to send off *Corresponding author (D.M.S. Awg Musadat). E-mail: syiedasyaheeda@gmail.com. Š2017.

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deceased members of the family. The common belief among the Melanau ethnic is, if an illness that was not cured by any form of medication, then it is highly caused by spirits or supernatural powers.

As indicated by their tradition, this ritual is called bebayoh and will be performed when other methods have failed. If this final attempt fails, the chance for recovery is considered impossible.

The bebayoh ritual (Figure 4) is done at the foyer because the foyer is a public area where guests will be seated without having to walk passed the ngayan tudui (bedroom) area, an area specifically for the residents.

4.3 Spatial Layout The tall longhouse usually consists of few levels (Figures 5 and 6). According to Christopher (2017), every tall longhouse was built with few levels. It was believed that every household will lose their fortune if the tall longhouse was constructed with only one level. Every level of the longhouse incorporates multiple bedrooms. Gender and marital status affect the organisation of space in this tall longhouse as there is a separation between unmarried men and women within the sleeping arrangements. Only unmarried men occupy bedrooms located at the first level. Meanwhile, the married couple and unmarried women will occupied the bedroom located on the upper level.

The upper floor also includes an attic where the household keeps their ceremonial artefact and family's assets. Every rung on every staircase in the house is in odd numbers. Similar to belian tree trunks for flooring on the foyer area, they believe that by having odd numbers steps, could bring success, wealth and good health to each resident.

Figure 5: The Melanau Tall Longhouse, Main Level Floor Plan

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Figure 6: The Melanau Tall Longhouse, Upper Level Floor Plan.

Melanau ethnic group has an interesting history although it is hard to discover their true origin.

Nowadays, similar to another ethnic in Sarawak, the Melanau community experience changes in the daily life. Modernization has led to the change of ways of living, and they now live in individual houses instead of the traditional tall longhouses. Further, more methodological work is highly needed on how to capture the information about the Melanau culture and tradition that bring an impact towards their traditional architecture.

5. Conclusion The research looks into the spatial layout of the house based on the cultural influence that created a unique architectural language for the construction and the understanding of their unique longhouse which differs to other longhouses in Sarawak. The objectives geared towards analysing the architectural values and investigating cultural understanding associated with the longhouses.

The research looks into the understanding of their unique traditional customs that play important roles in the Melanau daily life.

It was imperative to consider that culture is a key in influencing the architectural language of the tall longhouse. The architecture of the tall longhouse was designed to provide protection from other tribal attacks and to survive the harsh environment. To respect the nature surround, traditional beliefs will be taken into account. In-depth exploration of layout arrangement is encouraged for future research. Further research might highlight the differences on the arrangement of the MTL in comparison to other longhouses in Sarawak. Regardless of its extinction, the interpretation received from the overall view of its architectural language has demonstrated the overall meaning of this tall longhouse and the importance of having a sheltered for this ethnic family. *Corresponding author (D.M.S. Awg Musadat). E-mail: syiedasyaheeda@gmail.com. Š2017.

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6. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the Universiti Sains Malaysia for funding this research under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS - 203 / PPBGN / 6711554). The credit also goes to the School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia for providing facilities to carry out the work.

7. References Asmah, Haji Omar. (1983). The Malay peoples of Malaysia and their languages. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 272 Chen, V.F. (1998). The Encyclopaedia of Malaysia: Architecture., Singapore: Archipelago Press Dzulfawati Hassan. (1995). Laporan Penyelidikan Etnografi Sejarah Sosiobudaya Melanau: Hubungannya dengan Era Brunei, Brunei Darussalam: Universiti Brunei Darussalam Jeniri A. (2015). Mastarakat Melanau di Sarawak, Institut Terjemahan & Buku Malaysia Berhad Pringle, R. (1970). Rajahs and rebels: the Ibans of Sarawak under Brooke rule, 1841-1941.

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.

Yasir Abdul Rahman. (1989). Organisasi Sosial Melanau. Sarawak Museum Journal.Vol. XL.Special Issue No.4. Part II, Edisi Desember 1989

Dyg Mustika Syaheeda Awg Musadat is a master student at School of Housing, Building and Planning, University Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia. She research focuses on cultural influences on architectures and design.

Professor Dr. Azizi Bahauddin associates with the Interior Design Programme at Universiti Sains Malaysia. His PhD degree is from Sheffield Hallam University, M.A. in Interior Design from De Montfort University and his bachelor in architecture from Texas Tech University, Texas, USA. As an expert specializing in Exhibition Design and Interior Design, Professor Dr. Azizi’s primary area of research has focused on the relationships between culture concentrating on human senses and design. Many of his research topics combine culture and fine art with architectural spaces.

Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering, Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th November 2017.

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©2017 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

A Review on the Impact of Building Geometry Factors of Glass Façade High-rise Buildings Nurul Hidayah Roslan a

a*

and Mohd Rodzi Ismail

b

School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 25 August 2017 Accepted 21 November 2017 Available online 01 December 2017

Keywords: Energy Efficient; Thermal Comfort; Urban heat island; Building orientation; Building shape; Window opening; Aspect ratio; Shading devices.

A B S T RA C T

Rapid urbanisation has led to the increase of population, which has caused limited space in developed cities. Consequently, a drastic demand for the construction of high-rise buildings has transpired. The trend of applying glass façade in high-rise buildings has become an issue and contributed to the increase of urban heat island phenomena and global warming. This paper reviews the impact of building geometry factors such as orientation, building shape, window opening, aspect ratio, and shading devices on building energy performance and thermal performance. The analysis of the previous studies on the influence of the building geometry factors was discussed and the best solution or optimum range of the factor was suggested. This review provides information about the most influential geometry factors on buildings to the designer at the early design stage. © 2017 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction Rapid urbanissation has caused the change in the number of population in rural and urban areas. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision ( 2015) stated that the population in urban areas was 30% in 1950, raised up to 54% in 2014 and predicted to reach 70% population in the year 2050. The tendency of people to live in the urban areas is due to a large number of job opportunities and economic growth. This increment leads to the high demand of high-rise residential and office buildings to accommodate the population.

High-rise buildings become a choice due to the less and compact area in the cities. On the other hand, application of glass façade in the construction of high-rise buildings becomes a norm or a trend in the design, especially in the developing cities. The use of glass façade will have an advantage in term of natural lighting to the occupants. However, it also becomes an issue when it comes to the application of glass facades in hot and humid climate countries. *Corresponding author (N.H. Roslan). Tel: +60172959340. E-mail: nurulhidayahroslan88@yahoo.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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When applying a glass faรงade, the most important thing that needs consideration is its solar or heat reflection properties, as it absorbs, transmits, and reflects heat from solar radiation. Heat that is transmitted into buildings can cause discomfort, whereas the reflected one will contribute to urban heat island phenomena and global warming. To minimise the impact of glass faรงade to the occupants and environment, a proper design needs appropriate prioritisation.

Modernisation in building designs leads to the application of heating, ventilating and airconditioning (HVAC) system, as well as artificial lighting, that contribute the most to the drastic increase in building energy consumption, and affect the thermal comfort of the building occupants.

This factor is much less studied, but it is important, to maintain the building performance. The main parameters in building geometry are building orientation, window opening, window-to-wall ratio, building shape, aspect ratio and types of materials used.

The objective of this review is to analyse the impact of building geometry factors of the glass faรงade high-rise buildings on its energy and thermal comfort performances. The review will provide information to designer on the factors to be considered at early stage design.

2. Methodology This review involved analysing 35 research articles that presented studies in building geometry factors and its impact on energy efficiency and thermal comfort performance for the past ten years, during 2007 to 2017. All reviewed articles are categorised based on different criteria, including the year of study, continent, country, climate, research parameters, and methodology. The first part of the review discusses the general analysis of literature, followed by the discussion on the impact of building geometry factors on building energy consumption and thermal performance.

3. General Analysis of Literature To provide a clear understanding of the impact of building geometry in high-rise glass faรงade buildings, the main idea or findings are compared with the other previous studies. It begins with analysing the general studies on the impact of building geometry such as the types of building functions, orientation, window opening, glazed area, aspect ratio, building shape, shading coefficient, etc., to determine the similarities and contradictions.

Table 1 summarises the analysed articles in this review. The following sub-sections discuss the results of analysis of the studies that have been carried out according to the climate zone in which the studies took place, purposes of the studies, types of buildings involved and its research parameters.

3.1 Climate Zones of the Studies Took Place For the purpose of this particular analysis, the Koppen-Geiger climate classification system is used. It shows that climate zone A (tropical/megathermal climate) has the most studies conducted on the building geometry with 45.7%, comprising countries like Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, 284

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United States and Canada. This is followed by the studies conducted in climate zone C (temperate/mesothermal climate) with 31.4%, involving Australia, Amsterdam, Japan, United States, Norway, China, Portugal, and Slovenia. Next are the studies conducted in climate zone B (semi-arid/arid) (20%), which include Chile, Iran, Libya, Austria, and United Arab Emirates.

Lastly, for climate zone D (continental/microthermal) (8.6%), the studies were conducted in Sweden, Estonia, and Korea.

Table 1: Summary of the analysed articles.

Office

2017

Alghoul et al.

2017

Raji et al.

2017 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2015 2013 2010 2008 Residential 2017 2017 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2015 2015 2015 2014 2014 2014 2013 2011

Others

2011 2009 2015 2014 2012 2011

Africa

Libya

B



Australia Asia Europe Wen et al.

Asia Goia Europe Naamandadin et al. Asia Rubio-Bellido et al. Europe Delgarm et al.

Asia Mangkuto et al.

Asia Lau et al.

Asia

Sydney Singapore Amsterdam Japan Norway Malaysia Chile Iran Indonesia Malaysia

C A C C C A B B A A

  

Ma et al.

America Susorova et al.

America Su and Zhang Asia AlAnz et al.

Asia Shao et al.

Asia Lu et al.

Asia Tettey et al.

Europe Premrov et al.

Europe Jovanovic et al.

Europe Kim et al.

Europe Hemsath America Amaral et al.

Europe Aflaki et al.

Asia Tibi and Mokhtar Asia Hee et al.

Asia Tibi & Mokhtar, Asia Chung et al.

Asia Lim and Lim Asia Thalfeldt et al.

Europe Al-Tamimi and Asia Fadzil Al-Tamimi et al.

Asia Sembiring Asia Loekita and Priatman Asia Asadi et al.

America Choi et al.

Asia Tahmasebi et al.

Asia

US US China Quwait China China Sweden Slovenia Austria Canada US Portugal Malaysia UAE Malaysia UAE Malaysia Malaysia Estonia Malaysia

C   C  C   B   C  C  D  C B  A  A C  A  B   A   B   A  A   D   A

Malaysia Malaysia Indonesia US Korea Malaysia

A A A A D A

 

Methodology

Ventilation Materials Opening Building Shape Orientation Energy Thermal comfort Shading device

Author

Climate

Year

Country

Type of building

Continent

Research Parameter

Simulation/ Case study Simulation

  

Case Study Simulation Case Study Simulation Simulation Simulation Case study/ simulation   Simulation    Simulation   Simulation    Simulation   Simulation    Simulation   Case Study    Case Study  Case Study   Simulation   Case Study    Case Study   Case Study  Case Study  Case Study    Simulation   Case Study  Case Study   Case Study    Simulation

                 



 

 

             

*Corresponding author (N.H. Roslan). Tel: +60172959340. E-mail: nurulhidayahroslan88@yahoo.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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Case Study Case Study Simulation Simulation Case Study Simulation

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3.2 Purpose of Studies A study on building geometry factors can be for several purposes. Figure 1 illustrates the purposes of studies on geometry factors found in this review. 49% of the studies were conducted to investigate the building energy efficiency, while 23% of them show that the authors were interested in the impact of building geometry factors on indoor thermal comfort. Another 22% of the studies focus on the materials performance, whereas 6% show the interest of the researchers on building ventilation performances. Only one study is found to look into the impact of geometry on building cost.

2% 4% Energy

22%

49%

Thermal comfort

23%

Figure 1: Research purposes found in the analysed articles.

3.3 Type of Buildings Studied From the review, 50% of the studies are found to be conducted in residential buildings, while 36% of the studies involve office buildings. On the other hand, 14% of the studies were conducted in other types of buildings, which focused on the mixed-use buildings, its theoretical and methodology development. These are summarised in Figure 2.

14%

Residential 50%

36%

Office Others

Figure 2: Types of buildings involved in the studies.

3.4 Studied Parameters There have been numerous conducted in search of the impact of building geometry on building performance, including energy efficiency, thermal comfort, life cycle cost, ventilation, etc. Figure 3 shows the frequency of the geometry factors studied in the analysed articles. The most studied parameters are the window-to-wall ratio or window opening with 25 numbers of studies, followed by 24 numbers of studies on building orientation. Building shape has seven numbers of studies, while the aspect ratio only has two. Finally, shading devices have four numbers of studies conducted.

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Number of Studies

25

25 20 15 10 5 0

24

7

4

2 Window Opening

Orientation

Building Shape

Aspect Ratio

Shading Devices

Building Geometry Factors

Figure 3: Number of studies on specific building geometry factors.

4. The Impact of Building Geometry on Building Energy Consumption The number of newly constructed buildings has been rapidly increasing in the past halfcentury, in which the greatest increase has been observed in the number of newly constructed highrise buildings in the past decade. Consequently, the energy consumption in the buildings has also been increasing due to the modernisation and enhancement in the building environment.

Susorova et al. (2013) stated that the demands in cooling and heating energy are influenced by the internal and external sources of heat gains and losses through facades. The examples of internal heat sources are artificial lighting, building equipment, machinery and people. Radiation from the sun, air temperature and air velocity are categorised as the external heat sources. The arrangement and the proportion of the windows contribute the most heat gain and loss due to the properties of window materials and direct exposure to solar radiation.

To date, multiple studies have been carried out in determining the performance of building energy by considering the factor of building geometry. The factors studied include window-to-wall ratio, building orientation, building shape, aspect ratio, shading devices, etc. Of all, window-to-wall ratio and building orientation have been the most studied factors.

4.1 Locality and Building Orientation In determining the optimum building orientation performance, it is necessary for the researcher to understand the influence of the solar path on the selected research locations. According to Raji et al. (2017), the heat losses and gains in the building are influenced by solar path, and the latitude of the studied location.

In this review, few studies conducted in different locations were analysed, i.e. Sydney, Amsterdam and Singapore. For buildings in Amsterdam, South orientation becomes critical as the city is located in the upper part of the equator. On the other hand, the solar path makes North orientation becomes crucial for buildings in Sydney as it is located below the equator. Meanwhile, the location of Singapore which is near the equator makes its East-West oriented buildings become more sensitives to solar radiation. *Corresponding author (N.H. Roslan). Tel: +60172959340. E-mail: nurulhidayahroslan88@yahoo.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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This similarity can be found in other studies conducted near the equator region such as Malaysia and Indonesia (Aflaki et al., 2016; Al-Tamimi & Fadzil, 2011; Chung et al., 2014; Lau et al., 2016; Loekita & Priatman, 2015; M. Al-Tamimi et al., 2011; Mangkuto et al., 2016; Naamandadin et al., 2016; Sembiring, 2009; Tahmasebi et al., 2011). These researchers suggested that the East-West orientation for buildings near the equator region should be avoided.

In other words, the energy consumption in buildings can be reduced by optimising its orientation. If this cannot be adopted in the design, another alternative is to optimise the window opening.

4.2 Window-to-wall Ratio and Window Orientation Window-to-wall ratio (WWR) and window orientation (WO) play a significant role in heat losses and gains by buildings due to its direct exposure to solar radiation. In Japan, Wen et al.

(2017) researched on producing maps of recommended WWR. The maps provide the designers with options to select an appropriate WWR according to Japanese climate regions. The WWR is optimised by considering the effect of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emission. This advancement of methodology helps the designer to appropriately design buildings at its early stage.

Alghoul et al. (2017) conducted a study on the influence of WWR and WO on the total energy use for heating and cooling of an office building in Tripoli, Libya. This study adopted simulation and case study approaches in providing a simple correlation for a proper faรงade design regarding energy consumption. The results of the study show that the cooling energy consumption increases with the increase of WWR. Besides, the heating energy consumption is found to be less than the cooling energy consumption due to the nature of climate for winter and summer within that area.

More extreme ambient temperature is experienced in summer as the climate is very hot and humid.

Hence, more cooling energy is required. Orientation wise, the South is more critical for all WWR conditions as additional of windows to this faรงade contributes to passive solar heating that lowers the heating energy consumption but a drastic increase in cooling energy occurs.

On the other hand, the optimum value of WWR is also influenced by the glazing materials used. Goia (2016) found that the optimum range of WWR in all climates falls within 30% to 45% when 0.7 W/m2 K of U-value for the glazing materials is used, except for critical ones that require WWR values out of this range. Meanwhile, Raji et al. (2017) in his research found that the WWR values for temperate, sub-tropic and tropic are between 20% to 30%, 35% to 45% and 30% to 40% respectively when the U-value of glazing materials used is 1.5 W/m2 K. The effect of glazing materials used on WWR was also studied by other researchers (Lu et al., 2017; Mangkuto et al., 2016; Su & Zhang, 2010; Tibi & Mokhtar, 2015). The relationship between these two parameters consequently affects the building energy performance.

In summary, it can be concluded that the WWR is influenced by the building orientation, window opening, as well as the reflection factor of the glazing materials.

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4.3 Building Shape, Aspect Ratio and Shading Devices There is a limited number of studies on the relationship between building shape and the application of glass façade in buildings. Nevertheless, there have been few studies on the effect of building shape on energy consumption such as the ones conducted by Asadi et al. (2014); Loekita & Priatman, (2015); Lu et al. (2017) and Premrov et al. (2016).

Also, Raji et al. (2017) studied the impact of building shape on the energy consumption in three different climates, which its results show that, the largest energy consumption occurs in sub-tropical climate while the least occurs in the tropical climate. Regarding building shape, ellipse is found to be the most optimum shape in all climates. Furthermore, the ellipse shape is found to be the most efficient shape in temperate and sub-tropical climates. As for tropical climate, the octagon is found to be the most efficient building shape. In contrast, the Y-shape is found to be the worst shape for energy efficiency in all climate conditions.

According to AlAnzi et al. (2009), the total building energy use is influenced by the relative compactness of the building. The energy consumption of building decreases when the relative compactness increases. A study on mixed-used high-rise buildings in Korea shows that the tower type buildings consume more energy in terms of electricity consumption by the residents (Choi et al., 2012). Residents feedback on the survey conducted reveals that the tower-type apartment buildings receive excessive light in summer, thus contributes to a higher energy demand for cooling purpose.

The impact of aspect ratio on building energy performance was studied by Raji et al. (2017) and Susorova et al. (2013). The results show that the aspect ratio has the most influence in the temperate climate, followed by the tropical and subtropical climates, with the efficiency of 12.8%, 8.8% and 6% respectively (Raji et al., 2017). The results also show that the optimum range of aspect ratio for Amsterdam and Singapore is between 1:1 to 3:1, while the optimum range of aspect ratio for Sydney is from 3:1 to 4:1. Susorova et al. (2013) on the other hand found that shallow rooms have the best energy performance in hot and temperate climates, while deep rooms perform the best in cold climate.

Lau et al. (2016) conducted a study on the potential of shading devices and glazing configuration in energy saving performance in high-rise buildings. They found that the egg-crate shading devices show the best performance in energy saving in hot and humid climate as compared to another type of shading devices. The application of shading devices on the East-West orientation helps in reducing the energy consumption.

From the above discussion, it can be summarised that the shape of the building, its aspect ratio and shading devices have their roles in determining the energy performance of buildings. *Corresponding author (N.H. Roslan). Tel: +60172959340. E-mail: nurulhidayahroslan88@yahoo.com. Š2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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5. The Impact of Building Geometry on Indoor Thermal Performance The capability of indoor thermal performance is much more similar to the energy performance that has been discussed previously. The indoor thermal performance is influenced by solar transmission through windows, and solar radiation that is absorbed by building faรงades. There is also a limited number of studies on the thermal performance of glass faรงade buildings. The indoor thermal performance of buildings can be determined by assessing the indoor thermal comfort parameters and occupants perception survey. The effect of building orientation on indoor thermal condition was studied by Aflaki et al. (2016); Amaral et al. (2016); Al-Tamimi & Fadzil (2011); Sembiring (2009) and Shao et al. (2017). The criticality of building orientation depends on latitude and the solar path of where the building is located. The solar path contributes the most heat gain if the facade is directly exposed to direct sunlight. Besides building orientation, few studies were also conducted pertaining to the effect of WWR and the U-value of the glazing materials on the indoor thermal condition (Amaral et al., 2016 and Ma et al., 2015).

The indoor thermal condition is also affected by the types of shading devices used. Al-Tamimi & Fadzil (2011) found that the application of the egg-crate type of shading devices decreases the indoor ambient temperature and at the same time reduces the total number of discomfort hours due to its arrangement that prevents solar radiation from different angles.

Ventilation can have its effect on the indoor thermal condition as well. Aflaki et al. (2016) found that the single-sided ventilation in high-rise residential buildings can reduce the absorbed heat through solar radiation effectively, thus reduces heat gain into space. From the study, a better indoor thermal condition is also found to be contributed by the prevailing winds, especially for spaces located on the higher floors of the buildings.

Although the influence of building geometry on the thermal performance has been discovered by few researchers, the issue is still scarce in literature, especially in high-rise and glass faรงade buildings.

6. Conclusion In the last decade, the increase in the number of high-rise buildings and application of glass faรงade had shown some impact on the outdoor and indoor environment. This review highlights some of the important key points with regard to energy consumption in buildings and its indoor thermal conditions. Selection and application of the appropriate building geometry factors at the early stage of the design process will help in improving the performance of buildings.

7. Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) and the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia (MOHE) for financial support which made this work possible.

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8. References Aflaki, A., Mahyuddin, N., & Baharum, M. R. (2016). The influence of single-sided ventilation towards the indoor thermal performance of high-rise residential building: A field study. Energy and Buildings, 126, 146–158.

Al-Tamimi, N. A., & Fadzil, S. F. S. (2011). The potential of shading devices for temperature reduction in high-rise residential buildings in the tropics. Procedia Engineering, 21, 273–282.

AlAnzi, A., Seo, D., & Krarti, M. (2009). Impact of building shape on thermal performance of office buildings in Kuwait. Energy Conversion and Management, 50(3), 822–828.

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Nurul Hidayah Roslan is currently a PhD candidate at the School of Housing, Building & Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia. She received her B.Eng. Civil Engineering from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia with Honors in 2011. She continued her Master degree also at the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and received her M.Eng. (Material) in 2014. She has work experience as an educator in the civil engineering field which focuses on the building structure design and building materials. Her research interests include thermal comfort, indoor air quality, building design and building forensic.

Dr. Mohd Rodzi Ismail is an Associate Professor in the Building Technology programme at the School of Housing, Building & Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia. He graduated with B.Sc. HBP Hons. specialising in Building Engineering, and M.Sc. in Building Technology degrees from the Universiti Sains Malaysia. He obtained his PhD from the University of Liverpool, United Kingdom. His research interests are in the areas of indoor environment, and building energy management.

Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering, Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th November 2017.

*Corresponding author (N.H. Roslan). Tel: +60172959340. E-mail: nurulhidayahroslan88@yahoo.com. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

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Trends Towards Professionalism – Case Study of Architectural Graduates from the Universiti Sains Malaysia Sharifah Fairuz Syed Fadzil a

a*

, and Alisa Azlan

a

School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 11 August 2017 Accepted 21 November 2017 Available online 01 December 2017

Keywords: Program Accreditation; LAM; PAM; Architecture Graduates; Part I Part II; USM.

A B S T RA C T

The path to becoming a professional architect in Malaysia is largely affected by the two systems involved in it; the tertiary education (accredited LAM programs) and the official regulating body (LAM) for the field. In order to ensure that the current systems are providing the right and most efficient route towards producing more professionals in the construction field for the development of the country, it is crucial that the directions or trends of the past architectural graduates be analysed thoroughly to get a grip on their effectiveness. This paper is aimed at establishing the numbers of architectural graduates and identifying their trends of career paths towards professionalism as well as the factors that influence their decisions. Data is retrieved from USM’s student Records and Data Unit for graduates of B.Sc. HBP and B.Arch from 1993 to 2017.

The data is then mapped according to criteria such as race and gender to the listed records of registered Part III architects and graduate architects retrieved from LAM. Findings show that about 50% or half of the graduates chose to pursue a professional career while the other half have deviated due to several reasons such as course difficulty, struggles to sustain interest and personal choices. © 2017 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction The designation “architect” is generally reserved by law or custom to a person who is professionally and academically qualified and generally registered/licensed/certified to practice architecture in the jurisdiction in which he practices and is responsible for advocating the fair and sustainable development, welfare, and the cultural expression of society’s habitat in terms of space, forms, and historical context. As such, the training of architects must encompass those expected skills and knowledge (PAM, 2009). Colleges and universities are given the roles as education providers to start the training of the architects. At this tertiary level, those taking the architecture course learn about design, architectural history, structures, construction, professional practice, and so many other subjects relevant. *Corresponding author (S.F. Syed Fadzil). Tel/Fax: +604-6533209 +604-6576523 E-mail: sfsf@usm.my. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/295.pdf.

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In Malaysia, colleges and universities offering the architecture course are governed by the CAAEM or the Council of Architectural Accreditation and Education Malaysia (Malay acronym MAPSM), formed under the purview of the Board of Architects (or Lembaga Arkitek Malaysia).

CAAEM is being tasked to advise the Board on issues and challenges that relate to architectural education of which matters on accreditation and validation of architecture programmes are placed directly under the scope and duties of the Council (www.lam.gov.my). Those students wanting to pursue an architectural degree are advised to go to accredited schools, for the Part I and the Part II, so your future as architects will not be jeopardised, or delayed.

LAM, or the Board of Architects Malaysia, under the examination council, is also the controlling body of the part III professional examinations. Upon passing, it will allow the candidates to be registered as professional architects with the ‘Ar.’ title, thus ending the uphill climb towards finally becoming a professional. Of course, there are other smaller requirements like the log book, the oral examination, the report etc. but basically, those are the standard procedures to become a professional architect here in Malaysia.

2. Problem Statement How feasible or practical or possible is it to become a professional architect in Malaysia? The answer is, at present, very difficult without the data and statistics. It is no doubt that those students who opt to take architecture as the course of study at the university, want to be an architect.

However, how many made it?

According to Ar. Mohd Zulhemlee An (The Star, 2016), who was the immediate past president of PAM or the Malaysian Institute of Architects, there are some 2,000 professional architects in the country. However, the ratio between one architect against the population is 1:15,000 – far below the range of 1:4,000 to 1:8,000 recommended by UNESCO for developed nations. (The Star, 2016).

Zulhemlee added that “We need to double our numbers. To achieve the UNESCO ratio, we must register 400 new architects annually over the next five years. But we’re only registering between 50 and 100 new professionals yearly.” Where could the problem be?

3. Objectives This paper takes Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) as a case study, the School of Housing, Building and Planning (HBP) as an architectural education provider, and the USM architecture students as samples. This research has the following objectives: 1. To determine the numbers of architectural graduates from USM from the year accreditation was received to present, and see the trends of career paths of architectural students graduating from USM – the number of them becoming professionals, registered graduates and others.

2. To investigate if race and gender of the USM architectural graduates have any effects to becoming the professional architect.

3. To investigate the hurdles faced by architecture graduates hindering them from becoming professional architects and to suggest ways to counter them.

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4. Methodology From the USM data base, the list of names of architectural graduates from the School of Housing, Building and Planning were compiled from 1993 (the year when USM received the accreditation from LAM) to 2017 which was the last batch of B.Arch students as it would be upgraded to M.Arch in the coming 2018 graduation batch. These names and numbers were listed and arranged according to their year of graduation; Part I (B.Sc) and Part II (B.Arch) and also according to their race and gender. Then, a mapping was done based on the lists of registered architects and graduate architects retrieved from the website of Lembaga Arkitek Malaysia to see how many of the USM graduates managed to strive and accomplish the Part III, and how many are registered as graduates with LAM with the hope to achieve the Part III. The race and gender of the samples were also noted and taken into account.

Names collected from the USM data base were matched to the names retrieved from the website of LAM. A simple analysis of total, and percentages were derived in graphs for visualisation.

5. Findings From 1993 till 2017, USM through the School of Housing, Building and Planning has graduated 1028 numbers of B.Sc. HBP (Architecture) students and 580 B.Arch students. This is expected as there usually is a filtering procedure for the selected ones who are found to be more capable of proceeding to the Part II. So there is about a 50% cut there as even though intake to the B.Arch USM could have come from other universities, most come from USM. This is seen in Fig 1.1 when about 4% were found to pursue their Part II elsewhere, and only 44% proceeded with the Part II at USM. A big 52% chose a different path or they may complete their B.Arch or M.Arch but did not bother to be a registered graduate with LAM. This 52% indicates a strong inclination of NOT having the intention of getting the ‘Ar.’ as one needs to be a registered LAM architectural graduate as a prerequisite for that.

Then, from the website of Lembaga Arkitek Malaysia, it was found that only 156 names of the listed registered Part II graduates matched the USM Part II graduates. As for the professional architects (the Ar.’s), the number of names that matched came to be 112 (Fig 1.2). As can be seen in Fig 1.3 it was found that the part III Ar.’s coming from the total USM B.Arch graduates is 19% and the registered Part II graduates is 27%. This means that for the last 14 years for graduating B.Arch students in a LAM accredited Part II program, only 19% have made it to becoming the Part III professional architects, and another 27% are hopefully on the way to make it there. Meanwhile, 54% have chosen different paths or have not the intention to become a professional architect.

For the record, statistics as of September 2017 from the LAM website has the registered architects (the Ar.’s) at 2021 in number and the graduates at 2293. This means around 6% of the professionals were groomed at the Universiti Sains Malaysia. 8% of the registered graduates are *Corresponding author (S.F. Syed Fadzil). Tel/Fax: +604-6533209 +604-6576523 E-mail: sfsf@usm.my. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/295.pdf.

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also from USM. In other words, one can say that 7% of the Malaysian architecture fraternity consisting of registered architects and graduate architects actually come from USM. It was also interesting to note that the last recorded architectural graduate from USM that has their Part III was in 2011, meaning it may take at least 5-6 years of practising in the field to be able to pass the Part III exam.

Figure 1: Chart showing no. of B.Sc. HBP (Arch) and B.Arch graduates from USM.

Figure 2: Percentages of USM B.Sc. HBP (Arch) graduates’ trends.

Figure 3: Graph showing no. of USM B.Arch graduates that are registered Part II graduates or Part III architects with LAM.

Figure 4: Percentages of USM B.Arch graduates’ career paths.

In terms of gender and race, in the case of USM B.Sc. HBP architectural graduates, from the total 1028 it was found that 58% are Malays, 39% Chinese, 1% Indians and 2% others. The male to female ratio is 1.2:1. From these numbers and percentages, we found only 15% of the Malays (a majority of which are male) proceeded to the Part II while the other 85% didn’t. The Chinese 39% did (also the majority of which are male) and 61% didn’t while the Indians 9% did and 91% didn’t.

6. Conclusion For USM B.Sc. HBP architecture graduates, the road to professionalism – going towards the Part II of another 2 years of academics seems relatively low at 50%. With just a Part I the work in 298

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an architect’s office is usually termed as assistant architect not yet capable to handle projects and still in need of a lot of supervision with salaries usually below RM2.5k. What could be the reasons for this is the subject of further investigations. A very random survey came up with answers that they are tired of studying as architecture is indeed found to be very challenging and a tedious course of study. Loss of interest is another favourite answer and this could have been due to a wrong selection of career in the beginning. Family and content with the job offer is next. If the number of professional architects is to be increased, then this first hurdle of getting more of them going on in their studies to the Part II needs to be thought of.

7. Acknowledgement The authors would like to acknowledge the funds for this research from the Research University (RU) grant number 1001/PPBGN/816301.

8. References Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. Report: The Direction of Architectural Education in Malaysia. Penerbit UPM Kuala Lumpur 2014 Pertubuhan Akitek Malaysia. MAP The Case for the formulation of the Malaysian Architectural Policy. PAM Publishings Kuala Lumpur 2009 LAM Policy and Procedures for the Validation of Overseas Program in Architecture. Council of architectural accreditation and Education Malaysia. LAM Kuala Lumpur 2016.

Chin, Christina. Nation Builders Wanted. The Star. Sunday 28th February 2016 Shen. The Endangered Professions of Local Architect and Engineer. Architects Life March 6 2015 The Star. Focus. Sore Lack of Architects. Nov 25th 2010. Accessed May 2016 The Star. Focus. A Monumental Problem Dec 7th 2010. Accessed May 2016 www.pam.org.my Accessed May 2016 www.lam.gov.my Accessed May 2016 Dr. S.F. Syed Fadzil is an Associate Professor at the Architecture Program, School of Housing Building and Planning Universiti Sains Malaysia. She received her B.Sc (Architecture Studies) and M.Arch from University of Nebraska Lincoln, USA. She continued her PhD study at University of Wales College of Cardiff UK. Dr. S.F. Syed Fadzil’s expertise involved environmental building simulations, thermal comfort and daylighting. Her current interests involved architecture education, the business of architecture and effects of liberalization and globalization to architectural practice.

Alisa Azlan is a graduate from the School of Housing, Building, and Planning at Universiti Sains Malaysia where she received her B.Sc HBP (Architecture) and B.Arch. She has previously worked in the field of heritage conservation with organisations that focus on urban regeneration and rejuvenation. Her interests include conservation works, community involvement in urban development as well as the positive progress of today’s architectural environment and atmosphere.

Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering, Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th November 2017. *Corresponding author (S.F. Syed Fadzil). Tel/Fax: +604-6533209 +604-6576523 E-mail: sfsf@usm.my. ©2017. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 8 No.4 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642. Available at http://TUENGR.COM/V08/295.pdf.

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Identifying Feng Shui’s Form School Influence in the Internal Layout of Peranakan Architecture Teh Boon Soon a

a*

and AZIZI BAHAUDDIN

a

Department of Architecture and Urban Planning Faculty of Engineering, Tripoli University, LIBYA

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 31 August 2017 Accepted 30 November 2017 Available online 15 December 2017

Keywords: Chinese traditional architecture; Feng Shui Criteria; Built environment; Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion; Architectural Element.

A B S T RA C T

Peranakan architecture with a confluence of Chinese, Malay, Javanese, Batak, Thai and European influences has not been studied together with principles of Feng Shui which forms part of Chinese traditional architectural theory. Understanding application of Feng Shui in Peranakan architecture is pertinent as Feng Shui’s philosophy is to achieve harmonious living among nature, buildings and people.

Furthermore, Feng Shui’s Form School approach is used for determining the site and building layout. With Form School approach has scientifically proven to be viable for analyzing the built environment, this paper investigates its influences in the internal layout of Peranakan architecture in Penang. Using a case study approach, Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion was selected as its architectural characteristics are synonymous with Peranakan architecture and are renowned for its perfect Feng Shui.

Qualitative analysis was employed to determine if the internal layout of Cheong Fatt Tze mansion corresponds to favourable conditions set forth by the Form School approach. Findings indicate that the mansion's internal layout corresponds favourably. © 2017 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. Introduction Reflecting a long history of Chinese and Malay cultures in its designs, Peranakan architecture or Straits Chinese architecture is known for its unique cultural heritage. According to Ahmad (1994) and Bahauddin, Abdullah and Siaw Ting (2010), besides Chinese and Malay influences, most of its architectural styles were implemented and developed by the Javanese, Batak, Thai and European. With hybrid architectural style and Chinese influences in the design of Peranakan architecture, the adaptation of Feng Shui theory has been noted in a few buildings. Nevertheless, studies on Peranakan architecture have focused mainly on conservation and tourism but not been studied together with the principles of Feng Shui which forms part of Chinese traditional architectural theory. The lack of research shows that Peranakan cultural heritage has not been fully *Corresponding author (T.B. Soon). Tel: +6016-5994728. E-mail: edwint87@yahoo.com. ©2017.

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comprehended. This is because Feng Shui has been used to assist in site selection for dwellings and the layout of the building (Lee, 1986). Moreover, Feng Shui's Form School approach has been acknowledged for having a scientific basis in analyzing the built environment (He, 1990; Wang, 1992; Cheng and Kong, 1993; Mak and Ng, 2008; Mak and So, 2015).

Thus, it is important to understand the adaptation of Feng Shui theory specifically Form School approach as a part of the cultural heritage studies of Peranakan architecture. As Peranakan architecture has not been studied together with the principles of Feng Shui, this paper sets out to investigate Feng Shui’s Form School influences in the internal layout of Peranakan architecture in Penang.

2. Literature Review 2.1 Feng Shui While it is difficult to define Feng Shui as it deals with a long history (Mills, 1992), Feng Shui is generally a traditional Chinese philosophical idea. It has been developed and evolved throughout the Chinese civilization with the first written evidence believed to be found in a manual called Zang Shu (The Book of Burial), written by Guo Pu (276-324) in the Jin Dynasty (276-420). At the early period, Feng Shui was used to determine the locations of houses or graves (Mak and So, 2015).

Nevertheless, Feng Shui as a Chinese traditional architectural theory has continued to be used in site selection for dwellings and layout of buildings (Lee, 1986). Besides, Yeh (1978) opines that Feng Shui philosophy is a Chinese theory for the site and environmental planning, as it involves site selection and spatial organisation which has strong parallels to the Western concept of geometry in architecture (Hwangbo, 1999).

In general, Feng Shui which can be translated literally to “wind” (Feng) and “water” (Shui) is based on the examination of three main sources. These three sources include astronomical phenomena, natural phenomena and human behaviour (Feuchtwang, 1974). By providing equilibrium among nature, buildings and people, the application of Feng Shui philosophy aims to achieve a harmonious relationship between heaven, earth and human being (Lee, 1986). According to Feng Shui scholars, analysis on Feng Shui model revealed that rather mere superstitions, the use of Feng Shui has reasonable scientific value (Anderson and Anderson, 1973; He, 1990). He (1990) further suggested that the Feng Shui model is important not only to the Chinese culture but also in architecture everywhere.

Application of Feng Shui is generally made up of two main schools of thought which is Form School and Compass School. The older of the two is Form School which focuses on the site analysis of landscapes. Compass School, on the other hand, is fundamentally governed by astronomical factors and calculations using the Luopan (Feng Shui compass) and involve elements of time in space (Skinner, 1982). However as time progressed, most contemporary Feng Shui 302

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scholars have established their own criteria and system in employing Feng Shui. Nevertheless, they all follow the principles and practice of the Form School approach (Mak and Ng, 2008; Mak and So, 2015).

2.2 Form School Approach Form School approach has been recognized by contemporary Feng Shui scholars and researchers as the most dominant approach in Feng Shui practice for analyzing built environment (Cheng & Kong, 1993; He, 1990; Lip, 1986; Mak & Ng, 2005, 2008; Xu, 1990). According to Lee (1986), the principles and practices of Form School approach represent "a compendium of Chinese architectural theory". Its principles have been applied in the design and construction of castles, palaces, and towns in China since ancient times (Skinner, 1982; He and Luo, 1995).

With a focus on the analysis of landscapes and shapes, Form School is the older and more basic approach of the two schools of thought. This approach looks into the physical form of a site and its surrounding context in order to identify the flow of Qi. Typically, the Form School approach observes configuration of mountains and hills; the direction of water; and the relationship between hills and water (Xu, 1990). Xu (in ibid) also explained that living things are influenced by the form of land. Understanding the physical form of a site is thus the most important aspect of Form School approach as these elements represent both terrestrial and celestial Qi (Mak and So, 2015). The fundamental concept of Form School is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Fundamental Concept of Form School.

Dragon: -Observe the mountain ridges (Mak and So, 2015).

-Symbolises Qi (Feuchtwang, 1974).

Sand: -Observe the surrounding environment such as hills that protect the “Cave” (Mak and So, 2015).

Water: -Locate the river as Qi travelled by wind and retained by water (ibid).

Cave: -The ideal site where it is protected by mountains and hills with a watercourse (ibid).

Direction: -Determine the orientation of the building (He, 1998).

(after Mak and So, 2015) In terms of design criteria development in Feng Shui, while most contemporary Feng Shui scholars (Lip, 1979, 1986, Rossbach, 1984, 1987; Lee, 1986; Xu, 2003, 1990, Han, 1995, 2001; *Corresponding author (T.B. Soon). Tel: +6016-5994728. E-mail: edwint87@yahoo.com. ©2017.

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Choy, 1999; Lynch, 2003) have established their own criteria as shown in Table 2, they follow the principles and practice of Form School approach (Mak and Ng, 2008; Mak and So, 2015). While there are different design criteria and classification by various scholars built upon these three basic criteria, this paper looks into the Four Design Modules identified and classified by Mak and Ng (2008) and Mak and So (2015). The Feng Shui concept design criteria of the four design module were selected as it adopts the principles and practices of the Form School approach and clearly summarizes 24 key design criteria which are categorized based upon its correspondence with the respective design modules as shown in Table 3. Furthermore, each of these 24 criteria gives rise to clearly specified favourable and unfavourable conditions.

Table 2: Contemporary Feng Shui scholar’s design criteria. (Adopted from: Mak & So, 2015) Contemporary Feng Shui Scholar Lee (1986) Xu (1990) Han (1995) Lip (1979, 1986) Choy (1999) Rossbach (1984, 1987) Lynch (2003) Xu (2003)

Design Criteria Three Basic Criteria Site Selection Procedures Major criteria for the best location Design Rule-of-thumb Design Criteria Checklist Interior Design Diagrams Site Design Tool Site Analysis Framework

Table 3: Feng Shui concept design criteria. (Adopted from: Mak & Ng, 2008; Mak & So, 2015) • • • • • • •

Surrounding Environment Topography Front of site Rear of site Sides of site Street location Water view Wind direction

External Layout

• • • • • •

Shape of site Entrance Shape of building Orientation Trees Pond

Internal Layout

• • • • • •

Layout Doors Windows Shape of rooms Staircase Ceiling

Interior Arrangement

• • • • •

Door openings Bedroom Kitchen Living room Bathroom

2.3 Peranakan Architecture Peranakan architecture, known also as Straits Chinese architecture is famous for its design of shophouses and colonial bungalows (Bahauddin, Abdullah and Siaw Ting, 2010). The architectural style of the hybrid Peranakan culture rest in the long history of the Peranakans or the Baba Nyonya community who settled in British Straits Settlements and were subsequently known as Straits Chinese. The Peranakans' cultural practices are influenced by a fusion of Chinese, Malay, English and local cultures (Teoh, 2015), which is reflected in their everyday life including language, food, daily apparels as well as their architecture. This unique cultural heritage of the Baba Nyonya community can be commonly found throughout Malaysia especially in Penang and Malacca as well as in Singapore.

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According to Ahmad (1994), the architectural style of Peranakan homes in those maritime town localities was fused with a combination of European, Chinese and Malay influences and are known as "Chinese Baroque" architecture as the buildings were predominantly influenced by the design of Chinese and European building styles. Chen (1998) opines that the origin of shophouses can be traced back to the adaptation of Chinese immigrants’ knowledge in construction methods with the local climate. For example, a verandah way or five foot way was designed in front of most shophouses and terrace houses to shield occupants from the sun.

In general, Peranakan houses are designed with symmetrical layout whereby entrances are located in the centre flanked by windows on the both sides. Exterior features include ornately carved entrance door known as the pintu pagar with ji-ho, a Chinese inscribed signboard hung above the main door (Ahmad, 1994) as well as ventilation openings carved in wood with symbolic decorations (Bahauddin, Abdullah and Siaw Ting, 2010). The interior features of Peranakan architecture include layout consisting of a reception hall, an ancestral hall, air well, kitchen and bedrooms. One of the most significant characteristics of Peranakan architecture, however, was the introduction of air well or a courtyard in bigger homes. The use of air well which was centrally located in the house was influenced by the Chinese courtyard house and helps in enhancing ventilation and interior lighting into the deep plan layout of shophouses (Ahmad, 1994).

Figure 1: Site surrounding of Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion.

(Source: Penang Shophouse, 2017)

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Figure 2: Symmetrical layout with the entrance located in the centre flanked by windows on the both sides.

(Source: Penang Shophouse, 2017)

Figure 3: Courtyard enhanced ventilation and interior lighting.

(Source: Penang Shophouse, 2017)

With the flourishing of Peranakan Chinese architecture in the Straits back then, residences of wealthy Chinese immigrants who were not Peranakan began to reveal a devotion to Chinese tradition, incorporating eclectic, opulent, and fashionable elements similar to those found in Peranakan Chinese homes of the time (Knapp, 2013). Two of the noted wealthy Chinese immigrants included Cheong Fatt Tze and Chung Keng Quee in Penang who saw their homes as statements of their cosmopolitan nature and began establishing Peranakan Chinese households (ibid).

Figure 4: Site surrounding of Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion (after Loh-Lim, 2012).

2.4 Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion, more famously known as the Blue Mansion was built by the Chinese immigrant merchant Cheong Fatt Tze at the end of 19th century (Kandell, 2003). The mansion which was built in stages between 1880 and 1889 is famous for its opulent and eclectic 306

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architectural elements as well as Feng Shui application. Its architecture demonstrates Cheong Fatt Tze’s enthrallment with Western artisanship and his rising importance as a Chinese official and reflected both national and regional influences with a distinct mixture of materials, motifs, decorative style as well as language (Loh-Lim, 2012).

2.4.1 Architectural Elements of Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion According to Loh-Lim (2012), the mansion was a reflection of the eclectic mix of styles featuring contrasting elements such as Scottish cast-iron balusters contrasting with Cantonese timber lattices, English Art Nouveau stained glass windows with Hokkien “Chien Nien” (cut and paste shard works). The architectural elements of the Cheong Fatt Tze mansion are summarized as follows in Table 4: Table 4: Architectural Elements of Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion.

Architectural Element Roofworks Timberworks

Ironworks on balustrades, columns and spiral stairs Stained glass windows Decorative paintings Decorative mosaic porcelain works Plaster and paint Tiles

Figure 5: Victorian Scottish cast-iron columns and railings.

Description Terracotta roof tiles.

Timber filigree carvings, teak beams, solid panelled doors with craved architraves and timber louvred windows.

Victorian Scottish cast-iron columns and railings.

48 Art Nouveau stained glass panels.

On gables of the buildings, beams border at the main courtyard, and the internal wall.

Porcelain works form elaborate patterns of men, women, animals and sceneries depicting Chinese mythology.

Lime plaster and lime wash paint.

Coloured tiles imported from Stoke-onTrent in Staffordshire, England.

Figure 6: Coloured tiles & timber filigree carvings.

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Figure 7: Terracotta roof tiles, decorative mosaic porcelain and painting work on gables & lime plaster and lime wash paint.

Figure 8: Stained glass windows.

2.4.2 Feng Shui Application One of the most prominent features of the Blue Mansion is essentially intrinsic in nature. This feature was in the design and symbolic conception of the mansion's design in line with the principles of Feng Shui. It was recorded that the mansion was built under the supervision of some of the best Feng Shui experts of the period (Skinner, 2004). In fact, Cheong Fatt Tze mansion has been commented as a house with perfect Feng Shui by geomancers (Dijk, 2003). Although a few elements of Feng Shui have been identified in Cheong Fatt Tze mansion by Skinner (2004) and Loh-Lim (2012) which tended to relate more to the Compass School approach, the identified elements were not clearly defined and classified into the two different school of thought. As elements of Form School approach have not been identified, this study will look into the Feng Shui concept design criteria of this approach in the internal layout of Cheong Fatt Tze mansion.

2.4.3 Cheong Fatt Tze as Case Study Cheong Fatt Tze was chosen as the case study because the architectural characteristics of the mansion reflect those of Peranakan architecture as shown in Table 5 and simultaneously renowned for its perfect Feng Shui.

3. Methodology A single case study approach was undertaken with Cheong Fatt Tze mansion selected as the case study. Feng Shui criteria derived from the Four Design Modules developed by Mak and Ng (2008) and Mak and So (2015) was used for this study as it reflected principles of the Form School approach. However as it would be overarching to evaluate the 24 design criteria which further gives rise to favourable and unfavourable Feng Shui conditions, this paper concentrates predominantly on the internal layout design module. A summary of favourable and unfavourable conditions are presented in Table 6 and Table 7 respectively. During observation, favourable and unfavourable 308

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criteria for internal layout were noted in a log. Qualitative analysis was then employed to determine if the internal layout were designed in accordance with favourable conditions. Findings were then confirmed by an inter-rater.

Table 5: Characteristic of Peranakan Architecture and Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion.

(Adapted from Mak and So, 2015)

Characteristic

Peranakan Architecture A mixture of Chinese, Malay, Architectural Style Javanese, Batak, Thai and European elements.

Symmetrical organization.

Five footway in front of the building.

Exterior Features Security bars on windows.

Gable and pitch roofs Cast iron for the pillars and balcony balustrade.

Coloured tiles from all periods – Victorian, Edwardian, Art Nouveau, Art Deco, 1950’s and 60’s pop art.

Air well.

Interior Features

Cheong Fatt Tze

A mixture of Chinese, Malay and European elements.

Symmetrical organization.

Five footway in front of the building.

Security bars on windows.

Gable and pitch roofs Victorian Scottish cast-iron columns and railings.

Coloured tiles imported from Stokeon-Trent in Staffordshire, England.

Five air wells.

Plaster ceiling with decorative works Plaster ceiling ornaments. in the form of peonies and gold butterflies in the corners.

Timber partition between the main Ventilation opening or partition was hall and central courtyard was carved carved in wood with decoration. in wood with decoration.

The front hall or sitting area The main hall (sitting area) functioned functioned as reception hall while the as reception hall while the dining dining room, rear verandah and side room, rear verandah and side rooms rooms are the private family area. are the private family area.

Antique furniture.

Antique furniture.

Table 6: Favourable Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria in Internal Layout Module.

(Adapted from Mak and So, 2015) Feng Shui Criteria

Layout

Doors Windows Shape of Room Staircase Ceiling

Condition Living room in central area Family room in central area Kitchen next to dining room Kitchen on the perimeter area Toilet on the perimeter area Master bedroom at upper level Porch provided at the entrance door Facing South Facing East Square Rectangular Staircase at the centre of the house Flat ceiling

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Table 7: Unfavourable Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria in Internal Layout Module.

Feng Shui Criteria

Layout

Doors

Windows Shape of Room Staircase Ceiling

Condition Kitchen next to toilet Bedroom next to kitchen Master bedroom next to living room Toilet near the entrance door Kitchen near the entrance door Three doors and windows in line Backdoor in line with entrance door Facing North Facing West Polygon Segment L-shape Straight flight Straight towards the entrance door Sloping ceiling Exposed Beams

4. Findings Findings reveal that almost all the internal layout of Cheong Fatt Tze corresponds favourably with the Feng Shui criteria derived from the Form School approach except for the window location facing North and West. Table 8 summarizes the findings based on favourable criteria while Table 9 shows the only unfavourable criteria. In both tables, all relevant criteria are highlighted in the plan of Cheong Fatt Tze mansion.

Table 8: Favorable Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria in Cheong Fatt Tze Internal Layout.

Feng Shui Criteria

1

Layout

Cheong Fatt Tze Internal Layout Condition

Plan

Living room in the central area.

Ground Floor Living room in the central area able to reduce the circulation space. Segregate between public and private spaces.

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Feng Shui Criteria

Cheong Fatt Tze Internal Layout Condition

Plan

Family room in the central area.

Ground Floor Family room in the central area able to reduce the circulation space. Segregate between public and private spaces.

Kitchen next to dining room.

Ground Floor Reduce the circulation from kitchen to dining room.

Layout

Kitchen on the perimeter area.

Ground Floor Kitchen on the perimeter area provides well-ventilated space. Reduce pollution from the kitchen to main spaces.

*Corresponding author (T.B. Soon). Tel: +6016-5994728. E-mail: edwint87@yahoo.com. Š2017.

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Feng Shui Criteria

Cheong Fatt Tze Internal Layout Condition

Plan

Master bedroom at the upper level.

Upper Floor Master bedroom at upper level provide privacy.

2

Doors

Porch provided at the entrance door.

Define and welcoming transition space.

3

Windows

Facing South.

Facing East.

Exposed to morning daylight.

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Feng Shui Criteria

4

Shape of Room

Cheong Fatt Tze Internal Layout Condition

Plan

Rectangular.

Ground Floor Rectangular shape able to maximize the total area.

5

Staircase

At the centre of the house.

Ground Floor Staircase at the centre of the house able to reduce the circulation space.

6

Ceiling

Flat ceiling.

Unobstructed ventilation flow.

*Corresponding author (T.B. Soon). Tel: +6016-5994728. E-mail: edwint87@yahoo.com. Š2017.

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Table 9: Unfavorable Conditions for Feng Shui Criteria in Cheong Fatt Tze Internal Layout.

Cheong Fatt Tze Internal Layout Feng Shui Criteria Condition Plan

Facing North.

Facing West.

1

Exposed to evening daylight.

Windows

Solution

Landscaping at the area facing North & West.

5. Conclusion Findings indicate that Chong Fatt Tze mansion's internal layout corresponds favourably to Form School’s internal layout criteria. As this study only considers criteria from the Form School approach in assessing the internal layout of the mansion, further studies are recommended to understand if the criteria for Compass School approach mitigates this sole unfavourable condition.

Nevertheless, the way the internal layout of the mansion is laid out shows that it corresponds to the favourable criteria espoused by the Form School.

This study thus significantly shows the

importance of considering Feng Shui's influence in Peranakan architecture as it provides a glimpse of how Chinese traditional architectural theory plays a role in Peranakan architecture historically.

Through investigation of Feng Shui’s Form School approach in Peranakan Architecture, this study hopes to demonstrate the significance of Feng Shui's purpose in the built environment of dwellings in hopes of creating a harmonious relationship between environment, architecture and its 314

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inhabitants. Findings on the significance of Feng Shui‘s influence in Peranakan Architecture of Penang can be used to inform architects, heritage conservationist and cultural researchers on the need to consider Feng Shui‘s philosophical approach in the built environment to fully grasp the cultural richness of the Peranakan community.

6. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the Universiti Sains Malaysia for the support under the USM Fellowship and funding this research under the USM University Research Grant Individual (RUi) 1001/PPBGN/8016011. The authors would also like to acknowledge the School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia for the research project.

7. References Ahmad, A. G. (1994) The Architectural Style of Peranakan Cina, Minggu Warisan Baba dan Nyonya. Penang.

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Teh Boon Soon is a Master of Science (Architecture) candidate at Universiti Sains Malaysia and has received his Bachelor of Architecture at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. His specific interest is in understanding the relationship between natural phenomena and human behaviour in his endeavour to create a harmonious relationship between built environment and its occupants. Currently, he is working on projects highlighting the adaptation of Feng Shui's Form School approach in Peranakan architecture.

Professor Dr. Azizi BAHAUDDIN was trained as an architect and interior designer before joining Universiti Sains Malaysia as an interior design lecturer. As an expert specializing in Exhibition Design and Interior Design, Professor Dr. Azizi’s primary area of research has focused on the relationships between culture concentrating on human senses and design. Many of his research topics combine culture and fine art with architectural spaces.

Note: The original work of this article was reviewed, accepted, and orally presented at the 3rd International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD 2017), a joint conference with the 3rd International Conference on Engineering, Innovation and Technology (ICEIT 2017), held at Royale Ballroom at the Royale Chulan Penang Hotel, Malaysia, during 13-15th November 2017.

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