ITJEMAST 11(15) 2020

Volume 11 Issue 15 (2020) (Special Issue)

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

http://TuEngr.com An Analysis of Self-Concept between Homeless and Common Women in Pakistan Diagnoses of Leptospirosis in Animals Iris Pattern Recognition: A Quantitative Review on How to Improve Iris-Based Pattern Recognition Security System Development of Information Competencies of Engineering Students Evaluation Lactic Acid Bacteria Autostrains with Anti-Campylobacter Jejuni Activity on Broiler Chickens Productivity Mediating Role of Organisational Strategies in Relationship of the Causes and Outcomes of Occupational Stress Results of Using Tripoli on Zoohygienic Indicators in the Raising a Parent Herd of Meat Breed Chickens

Architectural Prototypes in Support of Urban Farming and the Sustainable City Development of Traffic Management By Public Participatory Process: The Case of Traffic in Front of Mueang Phetchabun Schools Does Firm’s Life Cycle Stages Affect the Cost of Equity Capital in Asia?

HR Policies Appraisal for the Airline Industry of Pakistan Using a Mixed-Method Approach Understanding Millennials Frustration at Work from a Lens of Self-determination Theory Efficient Diagnostic Cardiac System using Machine Learning Approach Unemployment and Education Quality in Russia Impacts of Basic Psychological Needs on Mental Health with Mediating Effect of Psychological Distress in Cardiac Patients Talent Management and the Digital Journey: Case Studies on the Apparel SMEs in Malaysia Determination the Quality of Meat, Manufactured Meat, and Meat Products via the Histological Method Structural Changes in Russian Exports Issues & Challenges Faced by Warehouse Management in the FMCG Sector of Pakistan Meditational Effects of Personal Strategies in Relationship of Causes and Outcomes of Occupational Stress: A Survey of Judiciary in KP Pakistan Parklet Ideas Making Small Street Urban Spaces with Big Impacts

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

International Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, PhD Professor Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

Executive Editor Boonsap Witchayangkoon, PhD Associate Professor Thammasat University, THAILAND

Editorial Board:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Gadi (University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM) Professor Dr.Hitoshi YAMADA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Professor Dr. Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN ) Professor Dr.Mikio SATOMURA (Shizuoka University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN) Emeritus Professor Dr.Mike Jenks (Oxford Brookes University, UNITED KINGDOM ) Professor Dr.I Nyoman Pujawan (Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, INDONESIA) Professor Dr.Toshio YOSHII (EHIME University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Neven Duić (University of Zagreb, CROATIA) Professor Dr.Dewan Muhammad Nuruzzaman (University Malaysia Pahang MALAYSIA) Professor Dr.Masato SAITOH (Saitama University, JAPAN)

Scientific and Technical Committee & Editorial Review Board on Engineering, Technologies and Applied Sciences:

Associate Prof. Dr. Paulo Cesar Lima Segantine (University of São Paulo, BRASIL) Associate Prof. Dr. Kurt B. Wurm (New Mexico State University, USA ) Associate Prof. Dr. Truong V.B.Giang (Vietnam National University, Hanoi, VIETNAM) Associate Prof. Dr. Fatemeh Khozaei (Islamic Azad University Kerman Branch, IRAN) Assistant Prof.Dr. Zoe D. Ziaka (International Hellenic University, GREECE) Associate Prof.Dr. Junji SHIKATA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Assistant Prof.Dr. Akeel Noori Abdul Hameed (University of Sharjah, UAE) Assistant Prof.Dr. Rohit Srivastava (Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, INDIA) Assistant Prof. Dr.Muhammad Yar Khan (COMSATS University, Pakistan) Assistant Prof. Dr. David Kuria (Kimathi University College of Technology, KENYA ) Dr. Mazran bin Ismail (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA ) Dr. Salahaddin Yasin Baper (Salahaddin University - Hawler, IRAQ ) Dr. Foong Swee Yeok (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA) Dr.Azusa FUKUSHIMA (Kobe Gakuin University, JAPAN) Dr.Yasser Arab (Ittihad Private University, SYRIA) Dr.Arslan Khalid (Shandong University, CHINA)

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

Volume 11 Issue 15 (2020) http://TuEngr.com

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES

Architectural Prototypes in Support of Urban Farming and the Sustainable City

11A15A

Development of Traffic Management By Public Participatory Process: The Case of Traffic in Front of Mueang Phetchabun Schools

11A15B

Does Firm’s Life Cycle Stages Affect the Cost of Equity Capital in Asia?

11A15C

HR Policies Appraisal for the Airline Industry of Pakistan Using a Mixed-Method Approach

11A15D

Understanding Millennials Frustration at Work from a Lens of Self-determination Theory

11A15E

Efficient Diagnostic Cardiac System using Machine Learning Approach

11A15F

Unemployment and Education Quality in Russia

11A15G

Impacts of Basic Psychological Needs on Mental Health with Mediating Effect of Psychological Distress in Cardiac Patients

11A15H

Talent Management and the Digital Journey: Case Studies on the Apparel SMEs in Malaysia

11A15I

Determination the Quality of Meat, Manufactured Meat, and Meat Products via the Histological Method

11A15J

Structural Changes in Russian Exports

11A15K

Issues & Challenges Faced by Warehouse Management in the FMCG Sector of Pakistan

11A15L

i

Meditational Effects of Personal Strategies in Relationship of Causes and Outcomes of Occupational Stress: A Survey of Judiciary in KP Pakistan

11A15M

Parklet Ideas Making Small Street Urban Spaces with Big Impacts

11A15N

An Analysis of Self-Concept between Homeless and Common Women in Pakistan

11A15O

Diagnoses of Leptospirosis in Animals

11A15P

Iris Pattern Recognition: A Quantitative Review on How to Improve Iris-Based Pattern Recognition Security System

11A15Q

Development of Information Competencies of Engineering Students

11A15R

Evaluation Lactic Acid Bacteria Autostrains with AntiCampylobacter Jejuni Activity on Broiler Chickens Productivity

11A15S

Mediating Role of Organisational Strategies in Relationship of the Causes and Outcomes of Occupational Stress

11A15T

Results of Using Tripoli on Zoohygienic Indicators in the Raising a Parent Herd of Meat Breed Chickens

11A15U

Contacts: Professor Dr.Ahmad Sanusi Hassan (Editor-in-Chief), School of Housing, Building and Planning, UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA, 11800 Minden, Penang, MALAYSIA. Tel: +60-4-653-2835 Fax: +60-4-657 6523, Sanusi@usm.my, Editor@TuEngr.com Associate Professor Dr.Boonsap Witchayangkoon (Executive Editor), Thammasat School of Engineering, THAMMASAT UNIVERSITY, Klong-Luang, Pathumtani, 12120, THAILAND. Tel: +66-2-5643005 Ext 3101. Fax: +66-25643022 DrBoonsap@gmail.com, Editor@TuEngr.com Managing Office TUENGR Group, 88/244 Moo 3, Moo Baan Saransiri, Klong#2, KlongLuang, Pathumtani, 12120, THAILAND. Tel/WhatsApp: +66-995535450.

Postal Paid in MALAYSIA/THAILAND.

Side images are high-quality Thai broiler chickens.

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15A

ARCHITECTURAL PROTOTYPES IN SUPPORT OF URBAN FARMING AND THE SUSTAINABLE CITY Timothy C. Gray 1

1*

Department of Architecture, Ball State University, Indiana, USA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 14 May 2020 Accepted 10 July 2020 Available online 01 September 2020

Sustainable cities of the future can no longer be just consumers of food and producers of waste (Cockrall-King, 2012). A growing movement toward food production within urban areas, “urban farming”, is sweeping across America, in particular throughout the Midwest and “rust belt” cities suffering from population loss.

Urban farming repurposes vacant properties resulting from economic decline, home, and business foreclosures, to bring food production and distribution full circle to the way the system operated before refrigeration and long-distance trucking (Heikens, 2010). The city of Indianapolis, USA will be used as a case study to look at new architectural typologies designed to support this growing movement. Like many cities throughout the world, Indianapolis has an eroding manufacturing base, marginal public schools, and high crime rates, which have all contributed to significant attrition.

City officials in Indianapolis have supported urban farming as a strategy to address the 21,000 vacant and abandoned properties in this city of just under one million residents. This paper will present and learn from a series of recently completed (architecture) student design-build projects which offer insight into new architectural typologies designed to support urban farming efforts throughout the country and throughout the world.

Keywords: America urban farming; Mobile greenhouse; Design build; Rust belt prototypes; Urban attrition; Urban farmers; Architectural typology; Gridshell dome; Project School; Grassroots urban farming.

Disciplinary: Green Architecture, Urban Agricultures, Agricultural Sustainability, Agriculture Green Economy, Sustainable City. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION As pointed out by Wes Janz and Olon Dotson in their paper “Distress Road Tours”, Indianapolis is a place of extremes. Tremendous investment has led to a resurgence of the downtown, and affluent suburbs thrive and grow. In stark contrast, the historic neighborhoods that ring the city, the fabric of the place, continue to struggle with significant challenges. There are too much crime and too little neighborhood organization. High drop-out rates lead to low incomes. Poor access to health care exists alongside easy access to low nutrition foods (Janz, 2014). Like many cities in the region *Corresponding author (T.Gray). Email: tcgray@bsu.edu ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15A http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.289

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and throughout the world, an eroding manufacturing base, marginal public schools, high crime rates, among other pressures, have all contributed to significant attrition.

While many see only the challenges in the blighted neighborhoods, others see opportunity as a range of interesting energies is emerging. Among these, a growing number of urban farmers are beginning to create a new urban economy putting the vacant property to use and making temporary improvements. Income is derived through farmer’s markets, CSA (community supported agriculture) shares, and sales to restaurants dedicated to a farm-to-table fair.

Community members are empowered to participate, to benefit, to learn from, and often to expand these efforts. In many “rust belt” cities, including Indianapolis, “urban agriculture has emerged as productive reuse of vacant land resultant from economic decline, population loss, and home foreclosures”. (Masi et al., 2014) These energies are moving to the mainstream, increasingly embraced and supported by the establishment. To cite just a few examples; urban farming was identified and encouraged and foregrounded as a food security strategy in the U.S. pavilion at the 2015 world expo in Milan (2015).

Municipalities, such as Cleveland, are incorporating strategies such as “garden zoning”, allowing individual parcels to be zoned for agriculture (Masi et al., 2014). Here in Indianapolis, home to over 20,000 vacant inner-city properties, former mayor Greg Ballard heads a host of community leaders who have come out in support of these initiatives: “The city has provided leadership by encouraging urban gardens and making the city-owned property available to people who want to grow food.” -Mayor Greg Ballard 2015

While different economic models have been tested to support local and regional urban farming efforts, and capital intensive architectural solutions such as vertical farming have been developed for urban conditions, relatively few innovations have been made to create facilities that support grassroots farming operations that make use of vacant or underutilized urban land. These types of grassroots farms are often small in scale, economically challenged, and are often located on marginal sites where conventional structures might not be allowed. The urban interventions required to support the expansion of farming operations on abandoned or vacant land present certain challenges, requiring development to find creative and diverse avenues of approval.

Neither guerilla architecture (operating completed outside the law) nor fully legal, our prototypes navigate within the seams between the temporary and the permanent and populate the voids left through attrition and abandonment.

Over the past five years, working with a broad range of community and professional partners, architecture students at Ball State University have designed, developed, fabricated, and deployed a series of architectural prototypes on four separate farming sites in inner-city Indianapolis, designed to both facilitate and support local farming efforts and to provide a vehicle to research and develop new architectural typologies shaped by these collective energies and constraints. This paper will briefly present and learn from three case studies emerging from these urban conditions. These projects could be discussed through various lenses, but for the purposes of this paper, I will focus on the potential of these built projects to inform new architectural typologies suited to the varied needs of grassroots urban farmers and shaped by contemporary urban conditions such as vacancy, abandonment, and lack of access to healthy foods common to many aging industrial cities.

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2. GrOwING GREEN, Center for Urban Ecology GrOwING GREEN is a prototype for a fully automated mobile greenhouse (Figure 1) designed to address the unique conditions of the urban farm and is the fifth in a series of projects built by BSU architecture students in support of urban farming operations in Indianapolis over the course of the last five years. The project, funded with a grant from the Butler University Innovation Fund and built at a cost of $40,000, is designed to function year-round and can be reconfigured to grow starts for a wide variety of crops. Mobility allows the facility to be shared between farming operations which are often small in scale, and mobility also amplifies the potential for community engagement and outreach by actually taking the farm to the community. The project incorporates automated heating, cooling, and ventilation systems as well as a four-zone irrigation system. All building components were rigorously researched, prototyped, and fabricated to maximize durability, flexibility, and efficiency while minimizing cost.

Figure 1: The mobile greenhouse on-site at the Center for Urban Ecology farm shortly after being transported over sixty miles by a standard pickup truck. Sited in the floodplain mobility allows the structure to be legally installed.

Both the custom shelving system designed to maximize yield and exposure to sunlight, and the custom entry ramp are fully retractable for transport. Active electrical systems, which include thermostat operated exhaust and intake fans, an air conditioner and a heater for year-round operation, and utility lighting, run off of a conventional circuit panel which is powered by an RV style electrical hookup to a power pole. The irrigation system, utility sink, and interior hose bib run off of a conventional hose hookup all run at line pressure with no need for pumps. A pressure regulator is installed on the exterior hose bib to guard against potentially damaging pressure surges in the system.

The greenhouse consists of a demountable steel frame, powder-coated for durability, and a custom-fabricated galvanized steel shelving system fully retractable for transport. The steel frame is wrapped with fiberglass furring strips and clad with a dual wall polycarbonate skin with aluminum channels and trim. Wood framing is kept to a minimum and uses naturally decay-resistant cedar or a *Corresponding author (T.Gray). Email: tcgray@bsu.edu Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15A http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.289

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chemical-free and locally manufactured decay-resistant heat-treated wood where needed. The trailer bed is surfaced with a recycled composite plastic decking incorporating aluminum drainage gutters on each side, and then overlaid with galvanized steel grating, allowing all interior surfaces to be serviced by the mist irrigation system without fear of either a slip hazard or rust and decay, and can be hosed out as needed. An exterior gutter system catches water from the roof and diverts it to two downspouts intended to feed rain barrels on site. With the exception of the trailer itself, which was outsourced and custom fabricated to the specifications of the student team, the entire assembly was sourced, prototyped, and fabricated by the group of the fourth year undergraduate students.

The mobile structure is well suited to the legal constraints of marginal properties, such as flood-prone areas, where farming operations often exist. In this specific installation, the farm exists in a flood plain, where both local and FEMA building codes do not allow the installation of permanent facilities but do allow the legal installation of the (mobile) greenhouse. Mobile structures navigate within the seams of the building codes which distinguish between the temporary and the permanent, allowing structures to be installed legally on properties where conventional facilities might not be allowed. Mobile structures also lend themselves to the temporal nature of the urban farm which can be subject to frequent dislocation through shifting patterns of urban development when the farm moves the facilities move with the farm.

Mobility also helped manage the logistics of building the project with students in Muncie, Indiana, and then transporting it to Indianapolis, a little over an hour's drive apart. Perhaps more significant, if the thought of on a larger scale, centralized manufacture would allow the greenhouse units to be produced and distributed more efficiently and cost-effectively. Ease of transport and potential relocation was an important criterion for all three of these projects with one notable exception which will be discussed in the context of the next project.

GrOwING GREEN is the first fully automated fully mobile greenhouse. This solution represents the evolution of mobility in this stream of projects and is simultaneously specific and universal in its potential application. Since its completion, we have received inquiries from five separate organizations from around the world regarding the development of a second prototype. Although each organization has separate needs, there seems to be a shared interest in the potential for education and outreach, as well as the potential for one greenhouse to service multiple small farms.

3. GRIDfarm, Growing Places Indy The GRIDfarm was designed and constructed working with community partner Growing Places Indy and a wide range of community and professional partners. Consisting of two extensively modified forty-foot shipping containers grouped around a central canopy structure (the Gridshell); The GRIDfarm project offers a groundbreaking collaborative involving educators, students, urban farmers and community groups, business partners, and local professionals working together to create innovative facilities in support of urban farming operations in Indianapolis.

The building design itself is innovative, intended to demonstrate sustainable building practices, and extend the discussion of a healthy lifestyle to the built environment. In addition to providing useful facilities for the farm, the buildings use a range of re-purposed materials, including shipping containers, tables made from recycled blackboards and recycled steel, fly ash content concrete, and

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Timothy C. Gray

re-purposed fabric salvaged from the RCA Dome, a recently demolished stadium (Figure 2).

Rainwater is collected on-site and used to irrigate the produce.

Figure 2: Construction nearing completion on the Gridshell dome at the GRIDfarm, spanning close to 30 feet using only one-inch rebar and clad with a double layer of fabric “sails” made from salvaged material.

Of the three case studies offered for consideration, the Gridshell dome and the wash station components of the GRIDfarm were the only “permanent” structures and as such were subject to a different and more stringent code review. The Gridshell dome, in particular, was engineered, permitted, and reviewed for code compliance throughout the course of construction, making its design and construction a more formidable task particularly considering it was built by the students who were just ramping up the necessary skill sets. The structure, which spans close to thirty feet using just one-inch rebar, demonstrates extreme utility in the use of the material and provides a gathering place for tours of the farm, educational events, and scheduled classes such as a community yoga class held every Sunday.

As mentioned, the dome is clad with a dual-layer system of tensioned “sails” fabricated out of salvaged roofing material from a recently demolished stadium. While we take great pride in the successful completion of this relatively complex small structure, the specificity and rigorous requirements of this component make the thinking less transferable to other farms and underscore the challenges of building permanent facilities. The structure is anchored by four forty-two inch square footings with matts of #6 rebar; all hand dug by the students. The custom-designed joints which connect the sixteen-inch diameter reinforced concrete piers to the rebar dome consist of a two-way system of 3/4 “ thick steel plate, water jet fabricated and welded by the students. The joints are beautiful in their resolution but massive, labor-intensive, and relatively expensive.

Contrast this with the two shipping containers at the GRIDfarm, which were permitted as “temporary” structures and sit on cast concrete blocks serving only to level the structures. Screw jacks and cable ties were installed voluntarily to act as hold-downs in the event of high winds, these were not required by code. The installation of the containers was comparatively quick and simple and they could be similarly relocated if necessary.

*Corresponding author (T.Gray). Email: tcgray@bsu.edu ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15A http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.289

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Figure 3: This modified shipping container serves as a classroom/meeting space and as a farm stand.

One container is fitted out as a public space, with large sliding doors and custom fabricated tables that open to the Gridshell, and a farm stand used as a community pick up point for the fresh produce (see Figure 3). The other container opens to the wash station and is used for equipment storage and has a large walk-in cooler for storage of the produce. The cooler is insulated with rigid foam and cooled by a conventional wall air conditioner controlled by a “cool bot” designed to keep the fresh produce at optimal temperature. As shipping containers are relatively inexpensive, easy to modify, and are readily available and in surplus in our region, lessons learned in the fabrication of these two components of the GRIDfarm are directly transferable to other farming operations and are cost-effective solutions. This project was funded with grants from a local food bank and Eli Lilly, a local corporation, and was designed and built over the course of three semesters at a cost of approximately $32,000.

4. urbaRn, “We are What We Grow”, The Project School The Project School (Figure 4), a K-12 inner-city charter school was our partner for the first of our urban farm projects. I was approached by Tarrey Banks, school principal, who shared with me the following brief at the outset of the project: We have all heard the saying “We are what we eat”. Another idea that is just as true is, “We are what we grow”. With this in mind, the Farm Project brings together business, school, and community around the concept of reclaiming impacted urban space and turning it into a working farm and urban green space. The one-acre organic farm will consist of a half-acre of growing plots and raised beds, a chicken coop, beehives, and meeting and workspace.

The Farm Project will provide space for gathering and enjoying the outdoors, teaching space for a local K-12 school and community groups, and it will have a farm store that will sell organic produce at affordable prices.

The farm will not only provide students and community residents with nutritious meals but will also get them connected to their food and introduce the various user groups to models of sustainable agriculture and healthy and sustainable lifestyles (Banks, 2011).

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Figure 4: urbaRn completed installation at the Project School (left) and then re-deployed at Big City Farms one year later (right).

The first completed component of the Farm Project was our contribution, the “urbaRn”; a classroom/meeting / living lab which was designed and constructed almost completely from waste stream materials, intending to extend the lessons of the Farm to that of the built environment. The urbaRn was designed and fabricated by a group of fourth-year architecture students working with students from the project school throughout the design of the project. The design incorporated two repurposed shipping containers, extensively modified for use at the Farm.

The students were challenged to design the facilities using low / no impact materials, and after some research came to recognize the containers as a potential waste stream resource. In addition to being at the end of their useful life, the containers selected for the project were contributing to a surplus of shipping containers in the region due to a regional trade imbalance. The choice of containers also facilitated the staging of the project, which was fabricated largely off-site and then delivered to the Farm, and allowed for the potential of relocation in the future. Modifications included creating large openings with sliding panels and fitting out the interiors with shelving, rolling farm tables, and windows created from salvaged materials diverted from the local landfill. Educational materials directed to various user groups ranging from community members to grade school students frame these principals and extend the lessons of the farm to the built environment. This first phase of the project was completed over the course of two semesters for a budget of approximately $9,500.

Shortly after the project opened, suddenly and unexpectedly the school closed and the project went dormant before the farm was complete. After the initial shock and disappointment, we came to see the unexpected turn of events as an opportunity to test the idea of mobility. Funds were obtained through an internal University provost grant and two new project partners were identified. A new group of students was charged to coordinate and oversee the relocation of the two shipping containers to two separate sites, the Center for Urban Ecology and Big City Farms. The Project school site was dismantled and prepped for transport, and the containers were fitted out with site-specific features at the new farms. The relocation was relatively smooth, easy, and inexpensive, and supported our premise that mobility lent itself to this new typology where farm sites are often subject to the shifting tides of market-rate development and other outside pressures.

5. CONCLUSION Our urban farm prototypes attempt to infuse potentially utilitarian projects with a critical agenda.

Our projects are pushing against established boundaries, navigating between the seams of the *Corresponding author (T.Gray). Email: tcgray@bsu.edu ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15A http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.289

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building codes to create useful and legal facilities that skirt around the sometimes onerous requirements of the Building Department and other government agencies, requirements which often do not lend themselves to these types of small scale but potentially meaningful urban interventions.

Neither “Guerilla Architecture” (Fontenot, 2007) which suggests a subversive agenda, nor fully legal, our Architectural Prototypes seek clever and transferable solutions for new and emerging building typologies shaped by our contemporary urban condition.

6. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Information can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7. References Banks, Tarrey. (2011). Project brief and grant proposal: urbaRn “We are What We Grow”. The Project School.

Cockrall-King, J. (2012). Food and the city: Urban agriculture and the new food revolution. Prometheus Books, 314p.

Fontenot, Anthony. (2007). Reinventing New Orleans. Domus, 905, 95-99 Heikens, Neil. (2010). Urban Farmer Hopes He is The First of Many. Indiana Business Journal, article 20298, http://www.IBJ.com/articles/20298 Accessed March. 2019.

Janz, Dotson. (2014). Distress Road Tours, Building Empathy One Conversation at a Time. Architecture Otherware Congress, International Union of Architects, 25th World Congress, Durbin, South Africa.

Masi, B., Fiskio, J., & Shammin, M. (2014). Urban agriculture in Rust Belt cities. Solutions, 5(1), 44-53.

World Expo Milan. (2015). Film loop exhibited in “The Great American Foodscape” Exhibit, US Pavilion.

Professor Timothy Gray (AIA, LEED, AP, Professor of Architecture) is an architect, educator, and environmental advocate with extensive expertise in sustainable design. Tim has led multiple undergraduate studios which have resulted in a variety of community-based design-build projects, working with multiple community partners such as Indianapolis Food Bank, Butler University, and the near east side Legacy Center. Tim has also served as co-director of the CAPItalia and CAP Asia Field study programs since 2006, and this past summer led a group of students on a groundbreaking workshop in Russia partnering with the St. Petersburg Institute of Architecture and Civil Engineering. Also, Timothy has an active practice, Gray Architecture, which was established in 1995 and has completed a broad range of critically acclaimed and award-winning projects. Recent recognitions include Indiana AIA Citation Award for Excellence in Architecture, 2017, Ball State University Immersive Learning Award, 2017 and the Indianapolis Chamber Monumental Achievement Award, 2016

Note: The original of this selected paper has been reviewed, accepted, and present at the 2 nd PAM International Architectural Education Conference (PIAEC2019), in conjunction with the 31st Architectural Student Workshop AND Built Environment Infrastructure Exposition (NYALA 2019), with the theme “Sustainable Built Environment for Liveable Cities”. The conference was held at Infrastructure University Kuala Lumpur, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia, on August 1, 2019.

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15B

DEVELOPMENT OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT BY PUBLIC PARTICIPATORY PROCESS: THE CASE OF TRAFFIC IN FRONT OF MUEANG PHETCHABUN SCHOOLS 1

Yotsutha Vichaitanapat , Supornchai Utainarumol

1*

, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

2

1

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, THAILAND. 2 Department of Civil Engineering, Thammasat School of Engineering, Thammasat University, Rangsit, Pathumtani, THAILAND. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 09 April 2020 Received in revised form 29 July 2020 Accepted 20 August 2020 Available online 01 September 2020

This research studies and develops the traffic management on Thai highway No.21 in front of three schools in Phetchabun province, by collecting opinions through the public participation process (PPP). The PPP group comprises thirty-five people of agencies related to traffic and accidents (six responsible traffic police officers, four responsible highway engineers, and twelve community traffic volunteer staff) and thirteen frequent travelers.

A structured survey is conducted to learn concerns about traffic problems/management during rush hours as well as opinions on solving traffic problems. The PPP group has multiple in-depth conversations, with a framework for traffic management and solutions to reduce accidents on Thai highway No.21 in front of schools in Mueang district, Phetchabun province, Thailand. From the opinion survey, the most serious is lacking traffic problem resolution, followed by on-street parking, insufficient public transportation, most drivers lacking knowledge of traffic rules, large trucks to stop and deliver goods, and too many motorcycles. The PPP group wants to have more traffic surface to solve traffic jam. The PPP group has been introduced various possible strategies to road safety management including U-turn management. adding bumps/speed tables, using by-pass roads or ring roads, road diet, using information technology, strong road traffic laws enforcement, charging rush hours toll to trucks, providing parking spaces raise awareness through education. The trade-off of traffic management should be considered.

Keywords: Public participatory process (PPP); Social inclusion; Safety management; U-turn management; Traffic jams; Increase road safety; Traffic accidents; PPP discussion group; Road safety; Road diet.

Disciplinary: Civil Engineering (Traffic and Safety Management), Public Administration and Policy. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

*Corresponding author (S.Utainarumol). Email: supornchai.u@eng.kmutnb.ac.th ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15B http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.290

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1. INTRODUCTION As for the international image of Thailand of having high road traffic accident rates, England, Australia, and the United States issued a warning to tourists to be aware of travels to Thailand. The situation on road safety in Thailand affects national development because traffic accidents are the number one cause of death among teenagers aged 15-29 years and the second leading cause of premature death of children between 5-14 years of age for deadliest road accidents (WRA, 2004). The World Health Organization and the organization under the supervision of the United Nations jointly announced the intention of calling the 'Moscow Declaration', which is the source for the UN to announce that 2011-2020 is the 'Decade of Road Safety' (Phanthunane et al, 2014).

Thai Ministry of Transport and the Thai government have approved the said declaration and taken safety seriously by announcing the safety policy is a national agenda for society. There are road accident reduction networks such as the Road Safety Academic Center, The National Public Health Foundation, Road Safety Network in the Provincial Level of Thailand, Thai Health Promotion Foundation. Normally various government agencies whether under the Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Interior, and Ministry of Public Health will focus on solving accident problems only during the long holiday seasons, even though in reality, losses in life and property occur every day.

The average accident death rate is 60-66 deaths per day during festivals and holidays, while the normal day is around 30 deaths. However, the important festival and holiday durations are no more than 15 days a year, while normal days are more than three hundred days. It is a tremendous number.

During 2006-2012, an average of 10,326 road users died each year and 50,988 injured. Studying the damage value of accidents, the Department of Highways in Thailand had estimated the total financial loss caused by the accident in 2008 up to 232 billion baht (7.5 billion USD), representing 2.8% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from that accident, this causes operators to have to bear the higher transportation costs. The problem has become a concern of the government and agencies involved in the road traffic accident that recognizes the need to solve problems using systematic and serious measures and must cooperate at the strategic level to the plan level to maximize benefits, to reduce the loss and damage caused by road traffic accidents.

Figure 1: Geo-map of the study area on highway No.21 in front of schools in Phetchabun Province, Thailand (Courtesy of Google).

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Yotsutha Vichaitanapat, Supornchai Utainarumol, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

2. LITERATURE REVIEW An after-school road-crossing accident was reported by Witchayangkoon and Sirimontree (2016) that a small truck installed a dashboard camera hit three girl scouts on a three-lane road in Trat Province, east of Thailand, and one girl flew ten meters away from the hitting point. The video footage showed how the accident took place.

A three-vehicle smashup in front of a primary school on Friday morning in Guyana was reported and no school children were seriously hurt (Kaieteur News, 2019). The accident took place almost on the pedestrian crossing in front of the school.

Sarasua et al (2003) used an intelligent transportation system (ITS) technology based on radio frequency identification (RFID) technology to enhance after-school traffic management at an elementary school in South Carolina. Giving advanced notification to school making children readied for pickup at the right time as cars are more efficiently loaded. The system enhanced after-school pick-up capacity by 14 percent. This results in shorter vehicle wait times, shorter queue lengths with better efficient uses of the student pick-up area.

Temrungsie et al. (2015) studied road accident factors for the case of Thailand using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The prioritization results showed that safety management is the most important factor, followed by engineering factors and environmental and social factors. Law enforcement is the highest prioritized sub-factor, followed by road users’ knowledge of road rules sub-factor.

Assi (2013) studied the characteristics of the trip attracted to local boy schools traffic jams on the urban road network of Saudi Arabia. It reported that 60% of students suffered from traffic congestion around schools. Still, 50% of them came to schools by personal cars. Ratrout et al.

(2019) predicting traffic attracted to schools in the early planning of neighborhoods’ average income and lot area, by taking into account the gross floor area, the number of students, and classrooms.

Studies on traffic management and accident in front of the school are limited and each location will have different characteristics. This work studies and assesses the traffic conditions in the rush hours of the Thai Highway No.21 (THW21) in front of the school in Mueang District, Phetchabun province, Thailand. Suggestions are given for possible improvements in traffic management.

3. CHARACTERISTIC OF STUDY AREA OF HIGHWAY #21 IN PHETCHABUN Phetchabun Province is geographically located in the lower Northern part of Thailand, 346km away from Bangkok. In Phetchabun, THW21 is the main route lining in the South-North direction, passing the Mueang district, which is central to Phetchabun Province. Along this highway includes the areas of business centers, government centers, and schools.

3.1 CAUSES OF TRAFFIC JAM: THREE CONSECUTIVE SCHOOLS AND OFFICES Phetphitthayakhom school, a provincial boys school, is responsible for teaching and learning in upper and lower secondary levels. The school has twenty-five hundred students with more than 120 teachers and staff.

Wittayanukulnaree school, a provincial girls school, is responsible for teaching at the lower and upper secondary levels, with more than twenty-seven hundred students with 160 teachers and staff. *Corresponding author (S.Utainarumol). Email: supornchai.u@eng.kmutnb.ac.th ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15B http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.290

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Phetchabun Technical College, the only vocational school in Phetchabun Province, is responsible for vocational teaching and training, with more than four thousand students and 162 teachers and staff.

All these three school sites in consecutive locations, while the City Courthouse is located next to the Phetchabun Technical College. On the opposite are the Phetchabun Provincial Administrative Office, Phetchabun Juvenile and Family Court, Phetchabun Highway District Office, and Phetchabun General Hospital. Having many offices and schools make traffic jam especially during rush hours, see Figure 1.

The THW21 in front of Mueang Phetchabun schools are eight-lane with separates and u-turns.

Mix traffic can be found including personal cars, motorbikes, bicycles, lorries, mini-truck, and others.

Since many schools and offices are built along the THW21, the studied area becomes a busy town.

3.2 RECORD OF ACCIDENTS From the accident statistics in this area, Phetchabun Provincial Health Office and Phetchabun Highway District Office show the number of accidents on THW21 in front of Witthayanukulnaree school. The average accident record occurred in front of Petchittayakhom School is eleven times a day, with fourteen deaths in 2015, twenty-two deaths in 2016, and 219 injuries in 2015 and 251 in 2016, and most are students between the ages of 1-16 years (DLT, 2018).

3.3 VEHICULAR SPEED MONITORING From the survey of traffic volume information on THW21 in front of these schools in Phetchabun province found that important government agencies locate on this road. The average traffic volume is 1,200 cars/hr (in the morning rush hour in both directions). In the evening, the average traffic volume is 1,500 cars/hr (in both directions). For off-peak traffic, the speed of cars in the study area equals 52 km/hr. In rush hours, morning and evening, the average speeds are 30 km/hr and 25 km/hr, respectively, cause of heavy traffic volume especially during rush hours that parents pick up and deliver their children in the morning (07.00-08.00 hrs.) and evening (16.30-18.00 hrs.), because the study area is the location of important government agencies in the province with an important traffic origin which is PhetPhitthayakhom school, WittayaNukunaree school, Phetchabun Kindergarten, Phetchabun Technical College and the origin of traffic in nearby areas is Phetchabun Rajabhat University, the mall, and many other important places.

Not only all accidents result in loss of lives, injuries, and disabilities, but also loss of property economics and societies, especially the important strength of the nation that these youths will grow into the important force of the nation. Thus, it is very important and necessary for all sectors to cooperate in solving problems, prevent, and alleviate future losses from traffic management and accidents, in this case, on the traffic route THW21.

4. METHOD This study is qualitative and quantitative research, explaining phenomena in response to research questions via relevant documents and data collection through the participated process of in-depth conversations. The non-structural conversations and discussions have been conducted to brainstorm for solutions to alleviate traffic jams, address safety issues, and decrease accidents for THW21 in

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Yotsutha Vichaitanapat, Supornchai Utainarumol, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

front of schools in Mueang Phetchabun. The structured perception survey was also carried out to systematically collects opinions for this.

This study developed traffic management based on concepts and theories of traffic management for rush hours, and vehicle crash accidents.

4.1 PARTICIPATORY PROCESSES Public Participatory Process (PPP) is used to take active participation of all members of a group to reach decision-making. With PPP, every member has opportunities to be involved in solving issues and problems. PPP includes participation, conversations, empowerment, linking with community culture.

5. TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT VIA PARTICIPATORY PROCESS Normally, in Thailand, traffic management is performed by traffic polices under normal duties and in some cases under executive orders of chief police officers. Thus, the public has no chance to give opinions on traffic management. On the other hand, the public participatory process (PPP) provides room for all stakeholders to share their perceptions and ideas that may give better ways for traffic management.

A discussion group of involved stakeholders was created to develop a traffic management strategy. The PPP starts with open brainstorm conversations. Total thirty-five people participated in this discussion group, consisting of personnel from agencies related to traffic and accidents (six responsible traffic police officers, four responsible highway engineers, and twelve community traffic volunteer staff) and thirteen people who frequently travel on the THW21 (Figure 2) The participated discussion group provided multiple in-depth conversations during May-July 2018, with a framework for traffic management and solutions to reduce accidents on THW21 in front of schools in Mueang district, Phetchabun province.

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION From the PPP, both non-structural discussions and structural surveys give important outcomes for traffic management and solutions to reduce accidents on THW21 in front of schools in Mueang district, Phetchabun province.

6.1 TRAFFIC JAMS Like other places, traffic jams problems occurred on the THW21 in front of schools in Phetchabun province, in the morning and evening rush hours. The study found that the main causes of traffic jams due to high traffic volume (1,200 and 1,500 cars/hour for morning and afternoon rush hours). In this area, there are thirteen local roads connected to THW21 causing thirteen conflict points due to the entrance-exit of cars on local roads in the study area without control. Also, this is due to many factors such as lack of discipline, do not know traffic rules, unlawful parking in prohibited areas or at prohibited times, unlawful double parking, etc.

6.2 ROAD SAFETY For 2017 accidents in the study area, there were 32 accidents (12 were very injured, 21 were moderate injuries and nine were minor injuries).

These accidents involve 45 motorcycles *Corresponding author (S.Utainarumol). Email: supornchai.u@eng.kmutnb.ac.th Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15B http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.290

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(66.17%), followed by eighteen cars (26.47%) and five pedestrians (7.35%). The PPP discussion group identified many dangerous points in the study area, especially at road junctions. The concerns go to pedestrian safety particularly in front of Petchpittayakhom school, as there is a U-turn.

6.3 TRAFFIC PROBLEMS Figure 2 gives results from the structured perception survey of a four-point scale, during rush hours on THW21 in front of schools in Mueang Phetchabun. From the average of results, the most serious is lacking traffic problem resolution, followed by on-street parking, insufficient public transportation, most drivers lacking knowledge of traffic rules, large trucks to stop and deliver goods, and too many motorcycles.

Unmatched vehicle volume and road capacity

3.06

Too many intersections

4

3.03

Not clear traffic signs

Lacking modernization of city planning

Serious lack of traffic problem solving

3.17

Roadside parking wasting traffic surface area 3.63

3.86

Insufficient public

3.63 transportation

3

Most drivers lacking 3.57 knowledge of traffic regulations

2

3.23

3.54 Large trucks to stop and deliver goods

3.43

Unmatched traffic lights 3.46 and vehicle volume Slow speed cars causing traffic jams

3.54 3.49

Too many motorcycles

Frequent accidents on the road

Figure 2: A structured survey on concerns about traffic problems/management during rush hours.

The PPP discussion group wants to have systematical traffic management including the prohibition of parking along the THW21 road, strong traffic law enforcement, and prohibition of the truck from entering the traffic jam during rush hours. Besides, the school does not have a parking space and other measures to support fast student transfer, causing most parents to vie for the parking space. The schools also have a lot of traffic in and out, especially in rush hours, lack of regulations, causing traffic problems to occur. Another issue is that Mueang Phetchabun lacks efficient public transportation systems.

6.4 SOLVING TRAFFIC PROBLEMS DURING THE RUSH HOURS From the structured survey, Figure 3 shows the results of opinion on how to solve traffic problems during the rush hours on the THW21 segment in front of schools in Mueang Phetchabun.

From the average result, most opinions want to increase the traffic surface and to reduce the number of u-turn points as these seem to cause more traffic jams.

To alleviate traffic during the peak hours, the PPP group wants to have parking spaces for parents sending and picking their kids from school. All involved traffic management agencies should

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Yotsutha Vichaitanapat, Supornchai Utainarumol, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

encourage private areas to arrange parking by requesting a reasonable parking fee creating the safety of public transportation through the schools.

The least agreed issue is to organize one-way traffic. The PPP group also seems to concern about the problem of lack of traffic discipline either private or public cars, obstructed roadside parking, and driving without consideration for pedestrians, being selfish driving by overtaking, disorderly lane-changing. Another problem includes not following the road rules of public vehicles such as buses do not stop at the stop. Moreover, street-shops on the pedestrian area force people to walk on the road, which is very dangerous.

Expansion of traffic surface

4

Arrange one-way traffic pattern Increase traffic police/traffic flow facilitation

Relocate schools and government offices

3.03

3.86

Reduce the number of Uturn locations in traffic jams 3.77

2.89 3

Use modern traffic control system

3.69

2

3.06

Construction bridges for 3.66 cars to cross over traffic jams

3.14 Do not enter the traffic area during rush hours

3.51 3.29

Raise awareness among drivers to keep traffic rules

3.43

Provide parking lots at schools

Set up bus routes

Figure 3: Opinion from a structured survey on solving traffic problems during rush hours.

7. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO SAFETY MANAGEMENT For safety management measures, the PPP group has been introduced with various strategies to enhance traffic safety in the area.

7.1 U-TURN MANAGEMENT From the PPP discussion group to increase road safety, it is important to do u-turn management by decrease the number of U-turn points and add traffic cones to divide the traffic lane. The flow arrangement is mandatory, by controlling traffic flow to be in line that will increase the capacity of the junction making more convenient traffic flow and reduces the likelihood of incidents caused by channel flow arrangements.

After the implementation of a reduction of the number of U-turn points from five to one, it found even though many cars concentrated at the U-turn point, but the amount of road accidents has decreased significantly from 16 in 2017 to three in 2018.

7.2 ADDING BUMPS/SPEED TABLES Bumps, humps, and speed tables are self-control speed equipment that can be installed on the road to reduce vehicular speeds (Witchayangkoon et al., 2011). To reduce speeds on THW21 on the *Corresponding author (S.Utainarumol). Email: supornchai.u@eng.kmutnb.ac.th Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15B http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.290

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study portion, it is possible to install the equipment at the exact point that low speeds are needed.

Speed tables seem to be more suitable for highway roads. Besides, speed tables can be installed every 50 meters. Additional small bumps may be installed such as those made from used pneumatic rubber tires (Witchayangkoon et al., 2019).

7.3 BY-PASS ROADS OR RING ROADS By-pass roads are a good option for vehicles to go around the town to get through without having to go through the crowded traffic, to reduce town traffic congestion (Intapiw et al., 2017).

Improvement of the existing roads to be by-pass roads is a good alternative to keep the budget while vehicles can get through faster.

7.4 ROAD DIET When thinking the opposite, the Road Diet concept (FHWA, 2015) will need to gain public supports. Instead of expanding the road, many US towns enjoy making roads smaller, the number of lanes is reduced which is the concept of Road Diet. Thus, the Road Diet becomes safer for communities, and the numbers of accidents decrease (FHWA, 2015).

Figure 4: Implementation of Road Diet on Ninth Avenue, Manhattan, New York, USA (courtesy of Google and FHWA (2015)).

For example, one-way Ninth Avenue, Manhattan, New York City (NYC), used to have four lanes with parking on both sides. With Road Diet implementation, this Ninth Avenue was redesigned to be three through lanes, with a separated bicycle path on the left located between the parking lane and sidewalk, and pedestrian refuge islands (Figure 4). NYC Department of Transport (DOT) reported a 58 percent decrease in injuries to all road users (FHWA, 2015).

After applying road diet to Division Street (1 mile long) of Grand Rapids, Michigan, the apparent results are slower speeds, thus increased travel times, while improving safety and livability, see Table 3 (FHWA, 2015).

Table 3: Results of the implementation of the road diet in Grand Rapids, Michigan (FHWA, 2015).

Positive Outcomes Increased parking spaces Decreased vehicle speeds (-1.6 to -6.5 km/h) Improved bicycle facilities (bike lanes/shared lanes) Crashes reduction in a right turn, angle, and sideswipe Increased pedestrian/bicycle flow Decreased volumes

Trade-offs Increased delay Longer queues Longer vehicle travel times Rear-end crashes nearly tripled after installation.

Increased emissions Diversion from the corridor

Since the THW21 road portion in this study has a distance of less than 2 km, it is possible to

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Yotsutha Vichaitanapat, Supornchai Utainarumol, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

implement the road diet concept.

7.5 USING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY From the PPP discussion group, it is possible to use technology such as GPS, RFID, or Internet of Things (IoT) to provide advanced information whereabout students. This is of particular importance for picking-up students in the afternoon as parents can pick their students faster with reduced parking waiting time. GPS, RFID, or IoT helps to pinpoint students and telling parents if their students are already waiting for picking-up.

7.6 INSTALLATION OF CCTV From the PPP discussion group, CCTV can be used to effectively monitor traffic conditions and accidents/collisions, and other causes of traffic congestion. To support legal enforcement for traffic management, the installation of warning signs of CCTV will inform road users to aware of illegal actions, thus the traffic may better flow. Footages from the dashboard camera installed in the vehicle are also useful to traffic and accident investigations (Witchayangkoon, and Sirimontree, 2016).

7.7 STRONG ROAD TRAFFIC LAWS ENFORCEMENT From the PPP discussion group, local authorities and traffic police need to use law enforcement to support responsible motorists. Enforcement should focus on illegal parking, waiting, loading/unloading obstructs traffic flow, reduces capacity at junctions, and increases the danger of walking or cycling people (SCT, 2016).

7.8 CHARGING RUSH HOURS TOLL TO TRUCKS From the PPP discussion group, moderate to high charges may be imposed on vehicles with six-wheel and more for entering traffic jam zone during rush hours. This is to discourage big vehicles from entering the area during peak traffic. This strategy has been proven in some countries that can reduce the number of vehicles entering specific areas. Logically, the higher the charging toll, the lower the number of big vehicles entering the traffic jam area.

7.9 PROVIDING PARKING SPACES From the PPP discussion group, arrangements to make parking spaces available to parents for sending and picking up their kids can make the congestion situation better. The parking space should be close to their schools for the sake of safety concerns.

7.10 RAISE AWARENESS THROUGH EDUCATION From the PPP discussion group, not only child but also all drivers should attend a road safety class regularly to rivet the safety standard. Driving is not a right, it is a privilege. With a driver's license indicating a person having driving skills, permitted drivers must follow the road rules and safely operate the vehicle. Traffic education will re-emphasize the road rules and road safety.

8. CONCLUSION From this study on learning the traffic problem on the Highway No.21 in front of the schools in Phetchabun province, Thailand, it found serious traffic problems related to traffic congestion and accidents. The reduction in the number of U-turn locations can help traffic jams as well as decrease possible accidents thus increase road safety. Other factors and possible solutions as obtained from the participatory process are important in giving opinions to local authorities to alleviate the *Corresponding author (S.Utainarumol). Email: supornchai.u@eng.kmutnb.ac.th Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15B http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.290

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problems. The participatory process also improves public awareness on the concerning road safety, as many measures have been discussed. The trade-off of traffic and safety management should be considered.

9. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

10. REFERENCES Assi, K. J. (2013). The effect of local schools traffic on congestion of urban networks. Master’s Thesis, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Saudi Arabia.

DLT. (2018). Road Transport Statistics in Thailand. Land Transport Management Bureau, Statistics Sub Division, Department of Land Transport. (in Thai).

FHWA. (2015). Road Diets. Federal Highway Administration, US Department of Transportation. https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/road_diets/case_studies/roaddiet_cs.pdf Accessed October 2019.

Iamtrakul, I ., et al. (2003). Analysis of Motorcycle Accidents in Developing Countries: A Case Study of KhonKaen, Thailand. Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies, 5, 147-162.

Kaieteur News. (2019). Accident in front of the school.

Kaieteur News Online. http://www.kaieteurnewsonline.com/2019/09/08/accident-in-front-of-school Kasantikul, V. (2001). Motorcycle Accident Causation and Identification of Countermeasures in Thailand. Executive Summary Research Report submitted to AP Honda Co., Ltd.. (in Thai).

KhonKaen Provincial Public Health Office. (2003). Annual Accident Report 2002. KhonKaen, Thailand. (in Thai).

Intapiw, S., Methakullachat, D., Sirimontree, S., & Witchayangkoon, B. (2017). A Study on New Bypass Roadway Selection: Case Study of a Southern Part of Nakornratchsima Ring-Road, Thailand. International Transaction Journal of Engineering Management & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 8(1), 1-12.

Phanthunane, P., Sirisrisakulchai, J., Taekratoke, T., & Pannarunothai, S. (2014). Road Safety Investment: A Step to Achieve the Decade of Action on Road Safety Goal in Thailand. Thai Journal of Safety and Health, 7(24), 12-28.

Ratrout, N. T., Assi, K. J., & Gazder, U. (2019). Predicting Traffic Attracted to Schools in Early Planning Stages: A Comparative Study. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 44(5), 4509-4516.

Sarasua, W. A., Townsend, J., & Trott, S. (2003). Using ITS technology to enhance after-school traffic operations: An elementary school case study. Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) 2003 Technical Conference and Exhibit, Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) (No. CD-020).

SCT. (2016). Urban congestion inquiry. An Executive Summary Report submitted by Smarter Cambridge Transport (SCT) to the House of Commons Transport Committee’s Urban Congestion Inquiry, England. http://www.smartertransport.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Urban-congestion-inquiry_201 6-12-09-1e.pdf Accessed July 2019.

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Temrungsie, W., Raksuntron, W., Namee, N., Chayanan, S., & Witchayangkoon, B. (2015).

AHP-based prioritization on road accidents factors: A case study of Thailand. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, Applied Sciences & Technologies, 6(4), 135-144.

Witchayangkoon, B., Namee, S., Temrungsie, W., and Intaratat, S. (2011). Traffic Calming at Crossroads Using Speed Bumps/Speed Humps A Case Study in Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Thailand, Thammasat Journal of Science and Technology, 19(1), 60-71, (in Thai).

Witchayangkoon, B., and Sirimontree, S. (2016). Visual-based Road Accidents with Dashboard Camera Traffic Monitoring System. International Transaction Journal of Engineering Management & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 7(3), 157-163.

Witchayangkoon, B., Sirimontree, S., Leartpocasombut, K., & Namee, S. (2019). An Experiment On Speed Bumps Built With Used Pneumatic Rubber Tires. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 10(14), 10A14D, 1-7.

DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2019.182 WRA. (2004). Keep Death Off Your Roads. World Road Association and Global Road Safety Partnership Publication.

Yotsutha Vichaitanapat is a PhD candidate at the Department of Civil Engineering at King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand. He received his Bachelor in Civil Engineering from the Suranaree University of Technology in 1999. His research is related to Transportation and Traffic Engineering in Phetchabun Province. He is also President of the Phetchabun Chamber of Commerce.

Dr.Supornchai Utainarumol is an Associate Professor of the Department of Civil Engineering at King Mongkut's University of Technology North Bangkok. He received his B. Eng. from King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Thonburi. He got a Ph.D. in Transportation and Traffic Engineering from Vanderbilt University (VU), USA. His research encompasses Geographic Information System, Traffic Accident, Environmental Impact Assessment, Travel Demand Modeling and Forecasting, Transportation System Analysis, and Traffic Management.

Dr.Boonsap Witchayangkoon is an Associate Professor of the Department of Civil Engineering at Thammasat University. He received his B.Eng. from the King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi with Honors. He continued his Ph.D. study at the University of Maine, USA, where he obtained his Ph.D. in Spatial Information Science & Engineering. His current interests involve Applications of Emerging Technologies to Engineering.

*Corresponding author (S.Utainarumol). Email: supornchai.u@eng.kmutnb.ac.th Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15B http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.290

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15C

DOES FIRM’S LIFE CYCLE STAGES AFFECT THE COST OF EQUITY CAPITAL IN ASIA? Misbah Wadood

1,2*

2

, Hashim Khan , Muhammad Amir Alvi

2

1

Department of Accounting and Finance, Faculty of Management Sciences, International Islamic University Islamabad, PAKISTAN. 2 Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, PAKISTAN. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 09 April 2020 Received in revised form 10 August 2020 Accepted 20 August 2020 Available online 03 September 2020

The research paper focuses on a dynamic resource-based view that highlights a significant change in paths and patterns of the evolution in organizational capability through the life cycle stages. A sample of 830 Asian firms for 2006-2017 is used for analysis. The paper reveals that the cost of equity capital is negatively associated with retained earnings.

In the second stage, the study also highlights that cost of equity capital turns out to be lower in the growth and maturity stages and there is a significant difference in determinants of the cost of equity capital during different stages of the life cycle.

Keywords: Company’s life cycle; Resource-based views; Retained earnings; Organizational capability; Equity cost; Information asymmetry.

Disciplinary: Financial Management. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Is age just a number? This paper digs deep into the dynamics of firm aging. Companies usually do not follow the typical old school aging some tend to remain in the growth stage for decades while others tend to mature at an early stage and others move to the decline stage after few years. Moving from one stage to another, the company demonstrates a different set of characteristics, with a different level of equity capital cost (Ahmad & Ali, 2017). The price of external financing tends to change over the firm life cycle (FLC), firms may capitalize on such opportunities to take advantage by issuing capital that suit them (Ting & Chin, 2017). A company going to primary markets brings another set of challenges, resulting in the devaluation of the issued capital and the creation of negative shareholders' wealth and increasing the equity cost. Though these theories explain different means of capital financing, yet the literature strongly supports the traditional way of financing. The marketing timing theory is based on the idea that the managers used market performance and macroeconomic conditions to gauge their financing. Sometimes, new equity can be a preferred option in case the stock is overvalued and the market is performing quite positive and vice versa. The *Corresponding author (M.Wadood). Tel: +92-334 5591345. Email: misbah.wadood@iiu.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15C http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.291

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researchers have filtered these concepts and provided evidence in one way or the other.

The firm’s equity cost heavily relies on the availability of the resources that varies during the firm’s life cycle stages. Many factors determine equity costs during different life cycle stages based on resource-based views. Thus, this study focuses on major Asian countries, as each stage may have different impacts on equity cost capital; hence, the study also highlights each stage by introducing a stage dummy in regression.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW Some studies show links between equity cost and corporate life cycle empirically through the development of sustain competitive advantages by developing productive resources (Naseem et al., 2017). The challenge is that how firms find out the optimal mix of resources and devise the complementing strategies at a given stage of their life cycle to capitalize upon the inherent opportunities. Further research implies that the stages of the life cycle have suggestions for appraising the financial outcome of the organization (DeAngelo & Stulz, 2006; Dickinson, 2011).

2.1 FIRM LIFE CYCLE (FLC) The FLC starts from its creation to its termination and was developed by using biological considerations in economics and finance. A firm’s performance alters with the stages of the life cycle (Miller & Friesen, 1980). Different studies used life-cycle views to describe different attributes of the firms. Some studies explored the significance of FLC stages with respect to financial performance and competitive advantages based on accumulated resources over a firm’s life (DeAngelo et al., 2006; Dickinson, 2011). Miller and Friesen (1980) thoroughly highlighted the significant of FLC stages for a firm’s performance; they recognized five stages of the life cycle as birth, growth, maturity, revival, and decline. Black (1998) looked at the corporate life cycle theory as a denotation of product life cycle theory mainly used in microeconomics and marketing literature.

This study follows the novel work of Dickinson (2011) who stated five stages of a firm’s life cycle (Table 1).

Table 1: Division of Firms into FLC Stages (after Dickinson (2011)) Cash flow from Operations Investing Financing

Birth stage +

Growth stage + +

Maturity stage + -

Shakeout stage +/+/+/-

Decline stage + +/-

2.2 COST OF EQUITY CAPITAL The equity cost is dependent on a firm’s and industries' economic indicators, dynamics, and the country’s overall economy (Fama & French, 2001; Gebhardt et al., 2001). The firm-specific factors include its size, leverage, overall riskiness, level of disclosure, and financial strength. Bottazzi et al., (2007) opined that many investors pool their money in a firm for promising financial returns but some want to achieve specific strategic objectives complementing financial returns on their investments.

Such strategic investors seek synergies providing their already established businesses competitive advantages in the industry.

2.3 RESOURCE-BASED REVIEW (RBV) The RBV formulated an association with the industrial organization (Porter & Millar, 1985).

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Misbah Wadood, Hashim Khan, Muhammad Amir Alvi

RBV focalizes on the organizational internal structure based performance, while the IO view focuses on the firms’ performance determinants outside the firm, like the structure of its industry and economic conditions. RBV explains the reason behind differences in performances of firms belonging to the same industry. The firms with RBV opportunity exercise a competitive advantage over their counterparts (Helfat & Peteraf, 2003). SCA (sustainable competitive advantage) no longer be the part of the firm in long run but have the strategic opportunity for the firm in the short run; hence, this concept guides the management toward the adoption of a dynamics approach to sustain the dynamic capabilities (Huo et al., 2018). The resource development to enhance productivity according to the future requirement could enable the firm to gain dynamic sources of SCA (Makadok, 2001).

RBV became popular articulating the significance of the relationship between firms’ resources, external environment, and competitive advantages.

2.4 INFORMATION ASYMMETRY THEORY The theory of “Asymmetric information” was developed during the period of 1970-80s with the proposition that the inefficient performance of financial markets is the result of imbalanced information among traders of securities (Stiglitz & Weiss, 1981). The underlying assumption is that there are a few parties to a transaction possessing relevant pertinent information which other parties do not. Equity cost varies with the risk or uncertainty level in the firms, investors require less return on their investment in the larger firm due to information availability about management and transparency of potential earnings (Banz, 1981). Hasan et al. (2015) posited that the firms had a long presence in the market make it well known to investors that could lessen the information asymmetry and eventually could attract the investors. It attracts liquidity and could affect the equity cost capital of the firm (Helfat & Peteraf, 2003).

2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLC AND EQUITY COST Firms differ in abilities to gather funds from the market according to their life cycle stages (Berger & Udell, 1995). Firms during the initial stage tend to be less followed by investors and analyst, hence these firms experience information asymmetry resulting in equity mispricing (Myers & Majluf, 1984), leading to an increase in perceived riskiness and a higher equity cost (Armstrong, et al., 2011). However, the firms belonging to the mature stage are followed well by the market analyst resulting in lower information asymmetry and less equity cost.

The term ‘strategic investors’ is used for investors who are interested in investing in firms operating in the growth stage. In contrast, theoretically, the introduction and decline stages have similar characteristics, which mainly include negative or fewer profits, a negative EPS, and a negative return on the net operating assets (Dickinson, 2011). In addition to this, as the resources change with each stage of firms, the firms differ in financial management, technology, human resources, physical assets, marketing, and HR practices (Barney, 1991), which are crucial to explaining the growth and performance of the firm.

*Corresponding author (M.Wadood). Tel: +92-334 5591345. Email: misbah.wadood@iiu.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15C http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.291

3

3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 DATA DESCRIPTION This study uses panel data of 830 firms from various Asian countries including Thailand, Malaysia, Japan, China, India, Singapore, Indonesia, and Pakistan. Data was collected from Thomson Routers®. Table 2 shows the number of firms used in this study.

Table 2: Description of Sample Size China India Japan Thailand Korea Malaysia Indonesia Pakistan Total

2006 122 102 95 81 68 54 47 108 677

2007 133 111 104 89 74 59 52 118 740

2008 143 119 111 95 79 63 55 127 792

2009 153 127 119 102 85 68 59 136 849

2010 154 128 120 103 86 68 60 137 855

2011 154 129 120 103 86 69 60 137 857

2012 154 129 120 103 86 69 60 137 858

2013 156 130 122 104 87 69 61 139 868

2014 158 131 123 105 88 70 61 140 876

2015 158 132 123 105 88 70 61 140 877

2016 158 132 123 105 88 70 61 140 878

2017 158 132 123 105 88 70 61 140 877

3.2 VARIABLES Many factors related to firm-specific characteristics and risks have been identified to influence the equity cost (Hasan et al., 2015). To calculate the cost of equity, many studies use the price-earnings ratio, and CAPM (capital asset pricing model) (Gray & Ariss, 1985). This study, variables include beta, firm size, and book to market ratio (BM), loss, Z-score, and capital structure (CLC). According to Sharpe (1964) and Botosan (1997), there is a direct relationship between the beta and the equity cost capital; this makes beta a very good proxy for equity cost estimation. Second, size is believed that the bigger or larger the size, the lesser are the chances of default (Berger & Udell, 1995), and a negative correlation of the size and the stock returns (Fama & French, 2001). This paper uses a natural log of the total amount of assets to calculate the firm’s size. Third, the growth of the firm is estimated using the book to market value ratio. A direct relationship exists between the book to market ratio and the cost of equity (Fama & French, 2001). Loss is associated with business risk and a firm with a record of losses over a period will influence the decision of the investors and eventually increase the cost of equity. Risk arises in the form of leverage, a highly levered firm will have greater risk and will be perceived as the one with a higher equity cost capital (Gebhardt et al., 2001). The last variable, the probability of bankruptcy, Altman’s Z-score measures the bankruptcy, an unsystematic factor of the risk.

3.3 ECONOMETRIC MODEL This study scrutinizes the link between equity cost capital and the FLC stage. Sometimes, endogeneity can be an issue while examining the association between a firm’s life cycle and equity cost (Yosinski et al., 2015). endogeneity will cause doubts on the reliability of findings (Reeb et al., 2012). The generalized method of moment (GMM) model reduces the endogeneity (Munisi & Randøy, 2013). In comparison to pool and panel models, the GMM estimator is designed for data where the period is small, the dependent variables depend upon its past realizations, and there exists heteroscedasticity along with autocorrelation.

This study regression model is

4

Misbah Wadood, Hashim Khan, Muhammad Amir Alvi

đ?‘…đ?‘…đ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą = Îą0 + β1 đ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą + β2 đ?‘†đ?‘†đ?‘†đ?‘†đ?‘†đ?‘†đ?‘†đ?‘†đ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą + đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą + β4 đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą + đ?‘Œđ?‘Œđ?‘–đ?‘–đ?‘–đ?‘– = đ?›żđ?›żđ?›żđ?›żđ?‘–đ?‘–.đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ąâˆ’1 +

β5 đ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ąâˆ’1 + β6 đ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą + β7 đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘?đ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą + đ?œ€đ?œ€đ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą

′ ����,��

+ đ?œ‡đ?œ‡đ?‘–đ?‘–đ?‘–đ?‘–

(1), (2).

đ?‘…đ?‘… implied cost of equity average of all, đ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??ś is firm life cycle (FLC), đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľ book to market ratio.

The regression coefficients β1 , β2 , β3 , β4 , β5 , β6 , β7 , regression intercept Îą0 , and regression error đ?œ€đ?œ€ are estimated from the model. For subscripts, đ?‘–đ?‘– represents the firms and đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą is the time-series ′ is the explanatory dimension of the panel data. đ?‘Œđ?‘Œđ?‘–đ?‘–đ?‘–đ?‘– is the dependent variable vector and đ?‘‹đ?‘‹đ?‘–đ?‘–,đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ą variables measuring the parameter vector. đ?œ‡đ?œ‡đ?‘–đ?‘–đ?‘–đ?‘– is the error vector term. đ?›żđ?›żđ?›żđ?›żđ?‘–đ?‘–.đ?‘Ąđ?‘Ąâˆ’1 is constant/intercepts.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This section discusses the sample statistics, correlation analysis, pre-diagnostics of using the generalized method of moment (GMM), and mainly the regression results under the two-step system (GMM) methodology.

4.1 PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Table 3, the growth stage firms are highest in number followed by maturity. However, the study finds almost equal numbers of firms in introductory & shakeout stages and the declining stage represents the lowest number in the data sample. The overall data sample also increases as the numbers of firms increase yearly. The study also finds significant changes in number and ratios yearly. Table 4 is based on each stage of the firm’s life cycle.

Table 3: Sample Division Based on FLC Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Overall

Introductory Growth Maturity Shakeout Declining Number %age Number %age Number %age Number %age Number %age 154 23.720 179 27.560 169 25.960 70 10.740 105 16.190 143 20.100 183 25.820 160 22.590 139 19.510 115 16.140 147 19.320 173 22.750 170 22.340 198 26.040 104 13.710 158 19.450 194 23.800 193 23.680 191 23.420 113 13.820 173 21.060 204 24.860 161 19.670 179 21.820 138 16.750 179 21.770 197 23.920 151 18.350 194 23.540 136 16.580 182 22.090 185 22.480 157 19.060 174 21.080 160 19.450 179 21.480 207 24.850 160 19.240 149 17.860 173 20.730 160 19.070 214 25.400 176 20.940 175 20.810 151 17.960 155 18.440 201 23.880 195 23.140 176 20.910 150 17.810 171 20.260 206 24.470 183 21.750 167 19.770 151 17.920 179 21.280 199 23.630 185 22.020 169 20.040 145 17.200 1980 2342 2060 1981 1641

The study uses four different measures of equity cost and the results of four different models are presented in Table 5. The retained earnings are the negative determinant of equity cost in Asia. As high retained earnings are an outcome of earlier profit, it is a justified proxy for a firm’s life cycle (De Jonghe & Öztekin, 2015). Such firms are not exposed to higher external financing which is in line with earlier findings of Deangelo et al. (2006). The level of significance varies from 1% to 5% for *Corresponding author (M.Wadood). Tel: +92-334 5591345. Email: misbah.wadood@iiu.edu.pk Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15C http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.291

5

models 3 and 4, but still, the coefficient is negative, suggesting the significance of retained earnings in determining equity cost. As far as the other variables are concerned, the results show the bigger firms also have less equity cost because size negatively impacts equity cost in Asia in line with earlier findings of Francis et al. (2005). The bigger firms are less exposed to financial constraint and their market access enables them to have less equity cost.

Table 4: Descriptive Statistics of all FLC Stages.

Variables Retained earnings Firm size

Market to book value Firm risk

Loss(t-1)

Financial leverage Z-score

Statistics Mean Median SD Mean Median SD Mean Median SD Mean Median SD Mean Median SD Mean Median SD Mean Median SD

Introduction .304 .278 .599 20.526 20.469 1.607 .842 .720 1.012 1.254 1.155 1.100 .445 .000 .536 .750 .511 .866 3.779 2.129 6.158

Growth .053 .084 .257 21.775 21.659 1.710 .848 .709 .923 1.063 .965 .833 .106 .000 .322 .691 .565 .632 3.612 2.803 3.582

Maturity .812 .778 .317 21.716 21.603 1.861 .850 .785 .984 .973 .878 .772 .050 .000 .228 .422 .380 .577 4.775 3.512 4.369

Shake-out -.004 -.088 .391 21.669 21.557 1.872 .090 .068 1.076 1.013 .897 .936 .170 .000 .395 .513 .470 .625 4.169 1.888 4.879

Decline .024 .326 .791 20.652 20.729 1.987 1.084 .065 1.346 1.549 1.364 1.091 .442 .000 .539 .608 .550 .942 4.101 .751 7.908

Table 5: Determinants of the Equity Cost.

Variables

Model 1 Easton (2004) R PEG Coeff. p-value .415*** .000 -.058** .042 -.032*** .002 .032** .044 .009* .065 .027 .953 .013*** .000 -.003** .021 Yes Yes

Model 2 Easton (2004) R MPEG Coeff. p-value .364*** .000 -.051** .010 -.011** .021 .041** .015 .010* .076 .011 .076 .017*** .000 -.004** .043 Yes Yes

Model 3 OJ (2005) R OJ Coeff. p-value .377*** .000 -.034*** .000 -.011** .056 .040** .023 .010* .090 .011 .064 .015*** .000 -.003** .056 Yes Yes

Model 4 Average of the first three models Coeff. p-value .392*** .000 -.056*** .002 -.011** .015 .037** .011 .005** .023 .020 .445 .017*** .000 -.004*** .044 Yes Yes

Intercept Retained earnings Firm SIZE Market to book value BETA LOSSt-1 LEV Z-score Year Dummy Country dummy Diagnostic tests J statistic(P- value) .795 .374 .457 .457 Lag (2) Serial correlation(P-value) .286 .317 .253 .253 Durbinâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Hausman test (P value) .451 .229 .278 .278 OJ(2005) refers to Ohlson, & Juettner-Nauroth (2005); R PEG= price earnings growth ratio model; R MPEG= the modified price earnings growth ratio model; R OJ= the economy wide growth model of OJ(2005). ***p < .01, ** p < .05, * p < .10

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Misbah Wadood, Hashim Khan, Muhammad Amir Alvi

The firms with a high level of market value are exposed to high equity cost (Witmer & Zorn 2007). This may be because the market to book value of the firm is highly correlated with a dividend payout of the firm; this may be a cause of a positive association between market to book value and equity cost. These findings are in line with earlier findings of DeAngelo et al., (2006) and Fama and French (2001). Beta is a measure of firm risk which is positively associated with equity cost; however, the level of significance is comparatively 5% and 10%. Higher beta value shows the riskiness of firms operating in the market; thus. Higher equity cost is expected in firms with more risk. This is in line with earlier findings of (Coulton & Ruddock, 2011). This show that firm with higher market risk faces more equity cost (Fama & French, 2001). Also, the study considered last year's loss and it has insignificance association with equity cost. However, the financial leverage positively and significant determinant of equity cost in case of all the four measures of equity cost.

The firm’s leverage ratio also varies across stages and higher levered firms have limited access to finance. This ultimately increases the equity cost capital.

4.2 MAIN FINDINGS This study also highlights the determinants of equity cost based on life cycle stages following Dickinson (2011).

Table 6: Determinants of Equity Cost during FLC Stages Variables

Stage 1 Introduction Coeff. p-value .011** .023 .003 .159 -.008** .022 -.054* .077 .001* .070 .076** .015 .039*** .000 -.013** .022 Yes Yes Yes

Intercept Retained earnings Firm SIZE Market to book value BETA LOSSt-1 LEV Z-score Year Dummy Industry dummy Country dummy Diagnostic tests J statistic(P- value) .846 Lag (2) Serial correlation(P-value) .305 Durbin–Hausman test (P value) .481 ***p < .01, ** p < .05, * p < .10

Stage 2 Growth Coeff. p-value .387** .032 -.054** .000 -.012** .023 -.172*** .001 .016** .081 .011* .081 .048*** .000 -.004** .046 Yes Yes Yes

Stage 3 Maturity Coeff. p-value .401*** .000 -.036*** .000 -.072*** .010 -.043** .024 .011** .016 .011* .068 .046*** .000 -.053** .059 Yes Yes Yes

Stage 4 Declining Coeff. p-value .017** .012 -.060 .423 -.012** .039 -.046 .154 .005*** .002 .022*** .007 .018*** .009 -.004** .013 Yes Yes Yes

.398

.486

.516

.338

.270

.319

.244

.296

.307

4.2.1 IMPACT OF COST OF THE EQUITY DURING DIFFERENT LIFE CYCLE STAGES This study tests the impacts of different stages on equity cost, see results in Table 7. The study uses retained earnings as a proxy of the life cycle and four stages dummies are included. As the major concern is the impacts of different life cycle stages, the study discusses only stages impacts of different life cycle stages on firm equity cost.

*Corresponding author (M.Wadood). Tel: +92-334 5591345. Email: misbah.wadood@iiu.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15C http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.291

7

Table 7: Impacts of FLC on Equity Cost Variables

Model 1 Coeff. p-value .152*** .000 .025*** .000 -.065** .034 -.162*** .000 .065* .077 .076*** .000 .057** .042 .033* .066 .065* .090 .009 .000 -.014 .024 Yes Yes

Intercept Introduction dummy Growth dummy Maturity dummy Declining dummy Firm SIZE Market to book value BETA LOSSt-1 LEV Z-score Year Dummy Country dummy Diagnostic tests J statistic(P- value) .619 Lag (2) Serial correlation (P-value) .255 Durbinâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;Hausman test (P-value) .423 ***p < .01, ** p < .05, * p < .10

Model 2 Coeff. p-value .123** .000 .090*** .000 -.090** .044 -.241*** .000 .018* .662 .009*** .000 .014** .033 .034** .065 .001* .065 .019 .000 -.004 .048 Yes Yes

Model 3 Coeff. p-value .117*** .000 .086*** .000 -.070** .056 -.202*** .000 .088* .062 .052*** .000 .046** .022 .053** .052 .065* .089 .017 .000 -.003 .063 Yes Yes

Model 4 Coeff. p-value .067** .058 .086*** .000 -.029** .024 -.159*** .000 .162* .081 .017*** .000 .028** .016 .045** .054 .028* .067 .019 .010 -.005 -.014 Yes Yes

.333

.407

.432

.283

.226

.267

.204

.248

.257

Using all four models of measure met of equity cost, the results show that introduction and declining stages are positive determinants of equity cost in all four models. The firms in the introduction stage have more financial constraints and limited access to the debt and equity market due to visibility criteria as well, this exposes the firm to high financial risk options which ultimately increase equity cost (Bulan et al., 2007; Coulton & Ruddock, 2011). Similarly, the declining stage makes the firm more vulnerable in the market and investors are less likely to invest in these firms in line with earlier findings (DeAngelo et al., 2006; Fama & French, 2001). Ultimately, this increases the equity cost. However, the results of growth and maturity are in line with our prediction that firms in growth and maturity phases are likely to receive investments in chucks because they are in the portfolio of long and short-term investors. The level of significance is quite higher in the case of the maturity stage that is in line with the life cycle hypothesis. The results of the control factors are in line with earlier hypotheses.

5 CONCLUSION This study tests the explanatory power of the dynamic resource-based view and life cycle theory for equity cost in the Asian context. This study considers four stages of a firmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life cycle and excludes the shakeout stage as it is the mix of other stages. The results posit that the firms in different stages of their life cycle possess diverse levels of resource-based, competitive advantages, information asymmetry, and riskiness. Resultantly, the equity cost of each firm varies across its different life cycle stages. Using a sample of Asian firms for 2007-2017, the results strongly support that equity cost capital varies across different stages significantly. Precisely, the study highlights the equity cost of the firms is higher in the introduction stage, while growth and maturity negatively impacts it. At the same time, the results are not affected by different estimations of the equity cost.

The study also highlights the determinants of equity cost stage-wise and finds a significance difference in determinants of equity cost at each stage. Lastly, this study also regressed the stage

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Misbah Wadood, Hashim Khan, Muhammad Amir Alvi

dummy for all four measures of equity cost and finds the introduction stage as significant positive determinants of equity cost. This is in line with the resource-based view. The other two stages negatively impact equity cost; suggesting that firms in their growth and maturity stages are less exposed to financial constraints and have lower equity costs. The results of the declining stage show insignificant association, however, the coefficient value remains negative. These competitive advantages help firms to lessen the risk and problems related to the information asymmetry, and to have easy access to finance that ultimately reduces the equity cost capital. Finally, the findings have direct implications for the strategic direction of the firm and firms are the firms that are advised to maintain maturity as the prime stage of the FLC, to benefit from resource-based views and the lower equity cost. The results favor the growth and maturity stages of the firm because the firm has less equity cost during these two stages

6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The corresponding author will be liable to provide information regarding this paper.

7 REFERENCES Ahmad, W., & Ali, N.A.M. (2017). Pecking Order Theory: Evidence from Malaysia and Thailand Food and Beverages Industry. Journal Intelek, 12(1), 700-712.

Armstrong, C.S., Core, J.E., Taylor, D.J., & Verrecchia, R.E. (2011). When does information asymmetry affect the cost of capital? Journal of Accounting Research, 49(1), 1-40.

Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120.

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Black, E.L. (1998). Life-cycle impacts on the incremental value relevance of earnings and cash flow measures.

Journal of Financial Statement Analysis, 40-57.

Botosan, C.A. (1997). Disclosure level and the cost of equity capital. Accounting review, 23-349.

Bottazzi, L., Da Rin, M., & Hellmann, T. (2007). Who are the active investors? Evidence from venture capital.

Quaderni-Working Paper DSE. Coulton, J.J., & Ruddock, C. (2011). Corporate payout policy in Australia and a test of the life‐cycle theory.

Accounting & Finance, 51(2), 381-407.

DeAngelo, H., DeAngelo, L., & Stulz, R.M. (2006). Dividend policy and the earned/contributed capital mix: a test of the life-cycle theory. Journal of financial economics, 81(2), 227-254.

De Jonghe, O., & Öztekin, Ö. (2015). Bank capital management: International evidence. Journal of Financial Intermediation, 24(2), 154-177.

Dickinson, V. (2011). Cash flow patterns as a proxy for firm life cycle. Accounting Review, 86(6), 1969-1994.

Easton, P.D. (2004). PE ratios, PEG ratios, and estimating the implied expected rate of return on equity capital.

Accounting Review, 79(1), 73-95.

Fama, E.F., & French, K.R. (2001). Disappearing dividends: changing firm characteristics or lower propensity to pay? Journal of financial economics, 60(1), 3-43.

Gebhardt, W.R., Lee, C.M., & Swaminathan, B. (2001). Toward an implied cost of capital. Journal of Accounting Research, 39(1), 135-176. *Corresponding author (M.Wadood). Tel: +92-334 5591345. Email: misbah.wadood@iiu.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15C http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.291

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Hasan, M.M., Hossain, M., & Habib, A. (2015). Corporate life cycle and cost of equity capital. Journal of Contemporary Accounting & Economics, 11(1), 46-60.

Helfat, C.E., & Peteraf, M.A. (2003). The dynamic resource‐based view: Capability lifecycles. Strategic management journal, 24(10), 997-1010.

Ohlson, J.A., & Juettner-Nauroth, B.E. (2005). Expected EPS and EPS growth as determinants of value.

Review of accounting studies, 10(2-3), 349-365.

Myers, S. C., & Majluf, N. S. (1984). Corporate financing and investment decisions when firms have information that investors do not have. Journal of financial economics, 13(2), 187-221.

Naseem, M.A., Zhang, H., & Malik, F. (2017). Capital structure and corporate governance. Journal of Developing Areas, 51(1), 33-47.

Ting, T.M., & Chin, C.P. (2017). Determinants of Capital Structure among Textile Firms: Dynamic Panel Data Estimation. Journal of Applied Finance and Economic Policy, 1(1), 8-17.

Misbah Wadood is a PhD scholar at Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Pakistan. She is a Lecturer at International Islamic University, Islamabad. Her research interest include Corporate Finance, Corporate Governance and CSR

Dr. Hashim Khan is an Assistant Professor of Finance at COMSATS University Islamabad, Pakistan. He earns a PhD in Management Science from Malaysia. He is interested in Stock Market Integration, Dividend Theories and Corporate Financing Decisions.

Muhammad Amir Alvi is a PhD scholar at Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Pakistan. He got his Master’s degree in Finance, from COMSATS Islamabad Campus. His research interests include Bank Competition, Financial Inclusion, Stability, Stock Market Integration, Behavioral Finance, and Risk.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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Misbah Wadood, Hashim Khan, Muhammad Amir Alvi

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15D

HR POLICIES APPRAISAL FOR THE AIRLINE INDUSTRY OF PAKISTAN USING A MIXED-METHOD APPROACH 1

Kausar Parveen , Waqar Akbar 1 2

2*

, Kanwal Hanif

2

Department of Management Science, Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, PAKISTAN. Department of Management Science, Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science & Technology, PAKISTAN.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 09 April 2020 Received in revised form 10 August 2020 Accepted 20 August 2020 Available online 03 September 2020

The study examines HR policies using an HR Audit approach to improve the employee’s productivity in the airline industry of Pakistan.

HR Audit implies an in-depth analysis of the HR functions to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the current policies and procedures to bring overall improvement in the productivity of the organization’s HR. The study follows a mixed-method (qualitative and quantitative) research approach, including in-depth interviews with three representatives of HR departments and a survey of 255 employees working in the airline industry of Pakistan. The results find inadequate HR policies in the airline industry. nepotism and favoritism in selection procedures is a gray area where leadership consideration is required. The results also provide guidelines for HR policymakers by identifying the avenue for improvement in the HR system, which may reduce the risk at the initial stage before it emerges as a significant threat in the future.

Keywords: HR Audit; HR climate; Training & development; HR department; Airline employee; Job analysis; HR policy.

Disciplinary: Human Resource Management (HRM in the Aviation Industry). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Organizational and business successes depend upon the best possible utilization of all resources, such as (financial, material resources, and the most critical human resources (HR)). If HR Department properly performs its role and tasks as per the policy procedure and under legal compliance, the organization will be able to complete/achieve its objectives/goals. Hence, there is a need for evaluation of the HR system, and HR Audit may help it. HR Audit is used and implemented as a tool to investigate the functioning of the HR Department as per set guidelines. (Gupta & Pathak, 2016).

The Audit aims to improvise the current system and procedures for further enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization (Armstrong, 2006). Similarly, Saleem and Akbar (2015) also state that HR Audit helps the organization attaining the business goals and objectives as well as *Corresponding author (W.Akbar). Tel: +92-333 2162787. Email: waqar.akbar@szabist.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15D http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.292

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measuring organizational effectiveness under legal compliance.

In this fast-moving competitive environment, HR Audit significance cannot be compromised because Human Resource Management (HRM) is considered the backbone of the organization. HR Audit is a process for continuous improvement and very useful when applied to the whole organization. Further, Camilleri (2018) also discusses that the HR Audit helps in achieving organizational goals/objectives. The job of HR Audit is to boost profitability improving the nature of work and creating value of the organization, and improving its effectiveness (Noe et al., 2017). Palar (2014) explained that the satisfaction of employees regarding the HR policies and practices in any organization is considered a primary quantifiable deliverable of HR Audit. It is not only minimizing the regulatory fines and lawsuits but also ensuring an increase in efficiency and effectiveness. It also gives employees a clear understanding of HR functions, procedures, high retention of best employees, and low turnover rate. The HR Audit covers issues of employees staffing, Training and Development (T&D) of employees, compensation in case of an accident or eventuality, communication between all cadres for sound understanding, HR research, leadership; record maintenance, health and safety, industrial relations, and compliance of all the rules and regulations in real sprit.

In the Pakistani Airline industry, there are issues including over employment/staffing, lack of training, low salary proportions, lack of equipment maintenance, high turnover rate, and the pressurized influence by the local trade unions, envisage the need for audit practice to ensure smooth and greater transparency. Also, right people are not at the right place, even well-educated and qualified people are working at a low pay scale, and vis-Ă -vis less educated people are working on a high pay scale (Adams & Jacobsen, 1964). The significant reasons for this study are declining the overall industry performance and the ineffectiveness of organizations in the Airline industry due to traditional and outdated HR practices. There is a need for an HR Audit to improve HR and organizational effectiveness. In this study, the researcher examines whether the role of HR Audit has any significant effect on organizational performance, or it is useless to conduct HR Audit.

Thus, this matter needs to be cross-examined that how an effective and well-projected HR Audit system can prove itself to be beneficial for the effective working of an organization. This study has three main questions, including (i) How does HR Department perceive HR Audit in the Airline sector of Pakistan? (ii) How do employees perceive HR Audit in the Airline sector of Pakistan?

2 LITERATURE REVIEW Chiu et al. (2018) expounded that there are two types of Audit conducted in organizations i.e.

Internal or External. The discussion in the ensuing paragraphs will cover both internal and external Auditors, along with the benefits drawn by using both types of Audits. Internal Auditors have an excellent opportunity to Audit the effectiveness of human resources or to check the internal self-evaluation of the personnel department but may not have enough experience in the performance Audit and/or Audit of human resources. Internal Auditors often have a better comprehension of the organization. They will often be advantageous in comparison with the external Auditors. In contrast, external Auditors provide greater independence and may have had a more significant potential impact on a comprehensive series of business practices. HR Audit should focus on the organization of personnel functions, review corporate strategies, policies, and compliance management procedures

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and their impact on employees, communities, and the environment.

Adams et al. (2017) referred to the HRM Action Framework (2011) that defined HRM systems as policies and practices for recruitment, compensation management, deployment, and Training/Career development. Kargar and Farajpour (2009) identify the variables that directly affect the overall performance and conduct of the workforces due to business organization starts to decline, and indicators start showing a loss to the organization especially in the business of airline industry.

2.1 HR AUDIT VARIABLES 2.1.1 POLICIES AND PROCEDURE Awathappa (2006) illustrates that managerial consistency of techniques, personnel policies, and lawful arrangements can be uncovered through the Audit and Audit also indicate that how well instructions, rules, and regulations are implemented and if not then corrective measures can be initiated to resolve the problems and timely address the weak areas.

2.1.2 RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION Zhou (2006) HR Audit is to assure the management and other significant stakeholders that the processes for recruitment and selection for the period have been soundly and correctly followed.

Assurance for the recruitment and selection processes used were transparent, relevant, and fair and that necessary approvals and authorizations were granted at the appropriate levels, and it demonstrates fairness, openness, and accountability within our legal requirements. According to Noe et al. (2017), recruitment and selection (R&S) is an integral part of the strategic management of organizations’ human resources, which has a series of interconnected elements designed to ensure sustainable long-term success.

2.1.3 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT (T&D) T&D not only is beneficial for the organization but also for the employees. Falola et al. (2014) debated the importance of the T&D of employees. They emphasized that organizations must invest in their employees and this investment must not be taken as a burden or affliction on the overall budget of the organization because a trained and skilled workforce gives excellent performance and output to accomplish ultimate objectives. It is not wrong to say that organization’s success fundamentally relies on excellent employee performance and their outcome.

2.1.4 COMPENSATION MANAGEMENT Falola et al. (2014) debated the importance of the career development of the employees that organizations must invest in their employees, and this investment must not be taken as a burden or affliction on the overall budget of the organization because a trained and skilled workforce gives excellent performance and output to accomplish end goals of the organization. It is not wrong to say that achievement of any organization mainly dependent on the maleficent of the employee’s performance. This excellent performance can only be achieved through a series of training and various level courses, including professional, diploma, and degree courses. On the contrary, It is also observed that those organization who do not invest in their human resource, they always receive a heavy loss and failed to achieve end goals of the organization mainly due to ignorance and bad performance by the employees. *Corresponding author (W.Akbar). Tel: +92-333 2162787. Email: waqar.akbar@szabist.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15D http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.292

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2.1.5 HR PLANNING (HRP) HRP is an essential process that helps in providing accurate and timely information about recruitment (Aslam et al., 2013). It helps and provides the time frame when hiring the employees, and this timely process saves the extra cost of the organization. Human Resource Planning (HRP) helps in achieving future organizational objectives. Speamerfam (2011) opined that the HR Department is solely responsible for employing the best talent for the organization. For each function of the HR Department, planning is equally essential and required.

2.1.6 HUMAN RESOURCE CLIMATE Taye (2016) elaborated that the HRM climate has a direct effect on the motivation of employees, or it is said that it has an impact on employee’s motivation, morale, and job satisfaction. The quality of this climate can be measured by examining employee turnover, absenteeism, safety records, and attitude surveys. Further, more general training on climate management will prepare the manager to allocate the attention (Desgagne, 2019) more equally.

2.1.7 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT Wright et al. (2005) elaborated that the primary aim of HR-performance management is developing the potential capabilities of HR. However, to achieve this, performance management must be by the company’s long haul approaches (Kandula, 2006). As Panda and Reddy (2016) explained Performance Management System (PMS) uncover that PMS is significant for evaluating and building up employees as well as in improving organizations outcome as far as profitability, lowering employee turnover, and in satisfying the desires of various partners.

2.1.8 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT Siddique (2004), the practice of proactive job analysis was firmly identified with the organization’s performance. Job analysis is an orderly investigation of a job to figure out what exercises and obligations are incorporated, their associations with different job roles, the individual capabilities essential for the execution of the job, and the conditions under which work is performed.

Job analysis typically brings about an expected set of responsibilities in the face of the job description, just as hiring plans. Agunis (2009) said that an establishment of requisite data concerning employees and jobs that human resource experts used to develop such significant reports, for example, job description (JD), is accomplished through Job investigation, work determinations, and performance appraisals.

3 METHODOLOGY The best source for gathering HR practices information is from the HR managers and senior executives. Thus, this work collects the data comprise of interviews of three HR managers having 40 open-ended questions to allow the respondent to give detailed answers and a sample size of 255 general employees working in the Airline industry of Pakistan at different positions. The questionnaires comprise of 40 different closed-ended questions for the employees. These questions on a 5-point Likert Scale, for statistical analysis using SPSS®22. Each construct has five questions, based on the Likert Scale, to evaluate and weigh the responses of the Respondents given in the scales.

The reliability test based on Cronbach’s alpha has been considered as a standard data analysis instrument to discover the relation factor between variables. Correlation is utilized to measure the

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existence of a notable relationship between variables. Variables in our research questionnaire are embrace from the study of Saleem & Akbar (2015).

4 DATA ANALYSIS The study follows a mixed-method approach. The qualitative part is comprised of interviews, whereas the quantitative part incorporates statistical analysis. This section also includes the result of the qualitative analysis derived from the interview.

4.1 ANALYSIS OF HR MANAGER INTERVIEWS 4.1.1 POLICIES AND PROCEDURES The improvement of HRM should take the perspective of improving social success, making HR approaches and practices that are essential to different stakeholder’s points of view. From Table 1, HR Audit must be conducted periodically so that weak areas are identified remedial measures are suggested keeping in view the prevailing environment, and accordingly, decisions are taken to amend the policies and procedures. Similarly, policies and procedures are made to follow the business according to rules and regulations, and if they are relaxed to give favor to relatives and friends, then ultimately, the business will suffer a loss. Also, nepotism must be discouraged, may it be in any form for the successful, versatile business of the Airline Industry.

Table 1: Policy & Procedure Interview Questions Implementation of policies and procedures? regular review of HR Policies and Procedures degree of granting relaxation to the existing policies and procedures Level of nepotism and favoritism

Airline No 1 Fairly satisfied

Airline No 2 fairly satisfied

Airline No 3 satisfied

No regular Review

Yes periodically reviewed

Reviewed time to time

Certain exceptions are given

Yes, relaxations are given.

Avoid granting relaxation

Encourage reference

Favoritism and nepotism is usually considered

Avoid nepotism and favoritism.

4.1.2 RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION From Table 2, it can be seent that the procedures of “Recruitment & Selection” are available and somewhat followed in almost all the organizations including the Airline Industry. At the same time, it is also observed when merit is not followed, and the candidate is selected based on nepotism and political influence, etc. then it can only be identified through HR Audit that how much loss in all fields the organization is bearing just because of bypassing the criteria of merit.

4.1.3 HR PLANNING Although in Airline Industry, the turnover is not considered an alarming but natural process in “HR Planning” but it is the HR Audit that can identify the reasons that why the trained human resource moving from one Airline to the other. It may be due to policies or salaries or training or benefits. Table 3, reasons are identified and remedial measures are suggested through HR Audit then it is possible to retain trained human resource, which will be better than new induction or raw human resource and ultimately the organization would be benefitted and will be able to do good business and maintain its repute in the market. *Corresponding author (W.Akbar). Tel: +92-333 2162787. Email: waqar.akbar@szabist.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15D http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.292

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Table 2: Recruitment & Selection Interview Questions procedure of hiring

Airline No 1 Done based on HR planning

Recruitment resources

Own database, print media as well.

Through panel that comprises of HR line manager and third party Authority shared between HR or line Manager Job description

Interview process

Final authority to hire? criteria to choose the right candidate for a company

Airline No 2 After getting approval from the competent authority the position is advertised.

Newspaper

Airline No 3 The process includes no of steps from advertising to selection Web Portal/Print media

Through a panel of an expert of HR, recruitment, and technical Dept. head.

Authority does not lie with particular persons Through different attributes and qualification

By the panel which comprises of HR and concerned department CEO, Managing Director Whoever holds an experience of Airline

Table 3: HR Planning Interview Questions Manpower requirement forecast system of internship to meet the emergent manpower requirement Comments regarding turnover and measures to control? perform Gap Analysis

Do you track your staff turnover?

Airline No 1 we get an HR plan from the line manager at the start of the year Yes we offer internship

Airline No 2 ample arrangements to cater for the manpower

Airline No 3 Forecast the manpower requirement.

We always have a qualified pool available with us.

Yes, we do have for certain departments

Turnover is not that much high

Well, turnovers are there

We do track turnover.

No gap analysis is in practice

Yes, we have an organized system

Through the exit interviews process

No tracking

current performance with desired performance is evaluated No, we do not.

4.1.4 TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Training, development, evaluation, and effectiveness are very vital aspects of any profitable business by any organization in the world. Table 4, airline industry lacks a formal training program to a large extent. Further training development strategy is not found in airline No 1.

Table 4: Training & Development Interview Questions Who is responsible for new employee orientationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;?

Is there a formal training program for employees and managers?

Does the company have clear training in a development strategy?

Airline No 1 HR Dept., recruitment department

Airline No 2 Department Head in consultation with HR

Airline No 3 Department and HR Department

Not formal

To some extent

No strategy.

Yes, they have.

Yes for certain Dept., where we require certain technical skills Yes, they have training and development strategies.

4.1.5 COMPENSATION MANAGEMENT From Table 5, Policies on compensation management are implemented in all three airlines, and these policies are also communicated to all the employees. They are well conversant too, but a periodic review of this policy is not carried out. The only way to identify the weak areas or what better is another Airline is doing in a competitive environment is achieved through HR Audit because

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along with the identification of weak areas the remedial actions are also suggested to the policymakers or decision-makers to remain abreast with other airlines in a competitive environment.

Table 5: Compensation Management.

Interview Questions What is the current compensation system in your organization?

Airline No 1 We set our compensation rates.

Airline No 2 DGM takes care of all compensation matters,

Has the compensation plan been communicated to all employees?

Do you compare the company’s compensation programs with the market rates?

Yes, policies are communicated.

Salaries of other functionaries are known

Yes, the staff is very much communicated.

The compensation plan is the best and highest paid in the market.

Airline No 3 Financial monitories are being rewarded to employees.

Yes, we do Yes we do

4.1.6 JOB ANALYSIS Every employee of the organization needs to know the role and responsibilities. Table 6, through the job description and only by following the implemented policies and procedures, an airline in a competitive environment can achieve the set goals of the organization and make the business more successful and profitable.

Table 6: Job Analysis Interview Questions Do you carry out a periodic review of Job descriptions of the staff desk?

Are the staffs well conversant with their work requirements?

Do you plan and provide training to staff for job output as per Job description?

Does the Job Description relate to the organizational goal?

Airline No 1 There is no system of periodic review.

Airline No 2 OD Section caters to staff development.

Airline No 3 Yes we do

Yes, JD is very helpful

They know their job description very well.

It is conducted on a need basis if the line manager feels the need.

Yes, a proper and comprehensive training program is organizes

They are well aware that’s why they are working Yes we do

JDs are always on line basis of roles and responsibilities.

Yes, one has to be very clear on this aspect.

Yes they are

4.1.7 HR CLIMATE Table 7, Airline engage employees in their organizational goals and provide adequate communication to all employee for the changes in the workplace. In today’s fast transforming environment, especially in the field of IT, It is very vital to identify the latest advancement through HR Audit and implement than for a successful business in a competitive environment.

Table 7: HR Climate Interview Questions Are your staffs well integrated to meet organizational goals?

Airline No 1 Yes, people know where the company is heading to.

Are your offices provided adequate Yes communication facilities?

Are IT Facilities adequate to meet yes we provide updated Software, office working requirements? networking system, and all IT facilities

Airline No 2 Airline No 3 Motivation plays a very vital Yes they are role in cordial relationships among employees. requisite equipment is sufficient Yes, definitely Yes almost

Yes definitely

*Corresponding author (W.Akbar). Tel: +92-333 2162787. Email: waqar.akbar@szabist.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15D http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.292

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4.1.8 PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT To accomplish the organization’s desired objectives, Performance management of the employees is very vital as it directly influences the overall performance. Through HR Audit Table 8, the employees are performing according to the JDs, or the performance is going down. It is also identified that the motivation level of the employees is high, and if not then what are the reasons meaning by demonization is due to personal reason or due to working environment, and then it is addressed timely and accordingly so that overall efficiency and performance of the organization should not suffer.

Table 8: Performance Management Interview Questions What types of Performance management system do you use?

Do you give constructive feedback to increase employee’s performance?

What is the role of supervisor/managers in performance appraisal?

Airline No 1 Graphical rating scale method.

Airline No 2 Through performance appraisals reports.

Airline No 3 Through EPAs

Performance app forms contain employee signature as well.

One to one appraisal of the employee is conducted

Employees are given feedback.

Yes we do

Very important role

How would you motivate an employee whose performance and moral are going down?

How would you resolve any complaint or dissatisfaction of any employee?

What are the methods or possible ways to review the performance of the employee?

Through counseling or training accordingly.

The manager not only carries out the performance appraisal but also trains the employees to cover the noted weakness.

To remain abreast of all employees and timely resolve the issue.

Through counseling.

We use different measures to resolve the problem.

The complaint is always taken care of and resolved

It can be customized according to the job and situation.

Through monitoring on a day to day task or monthly basis

Performance Review should be conducted regularly

we motivate them to upgrade their performance

4.2 ANALYSIS OF QUESTIONNAIRES 4.2.1 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE The ratio of gender is 69% represents males, and 31 % represents female employees who filled the questionnaire of this study. The age group is distributed in 4 brackets where the first bracket 18-25 represents 22.4 %, and the second bracket i.e. 26-35 shows 43.9%, which is the highest among all brackets, whereas, third and fourth bracket demonstrate the percentage of 25.1% and 8.6% respectively. The highest qualification observed in our study was the Masters that represent 50.6% population of the study, whereas intermediate, graduate, and above masters shows 1.6%, 45.1%, and 2.7% percentage, respectively. The data of our study on experience category in the Airline sector indicates that more than 50 % of the employees in the Airline sector possess 5-10 years’ experience, and almost 20% of the sample possesses 15-20 or above 20 years of experience.

4.2.2 RELIABILITY TEST The reliability of the variables have been calculated separately for each variable; the same is in

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Table 9. Values ranging from 0.70-0.89 and 0.55-0.69 show internal consistency as Good and Average, respectively. As we can see, all the variables are acceptable based on a good scale.

Table 9: Reliability Statistics Constructs Policy & Procedure HR Planning Job Analysis Recruitment & Selection Compensation Management HR Climate Training & Development Performance Management

Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Alpha 0.771 .758 .818 .726 .785 .837 .837 0.792

No of Items 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5

4.2.3 ONE SAMPLE T TEST One sample t-test was employed to find how 255 employees perceived HR audits in their organization. The results in Table 10 all values include policy and procedure (PP), HR planning (HRP), job analysis (JA), recruitment and selection (R&S), compensation management (CM), performance management (PM) and training and development (T&D) values are higher than as specified in the thumb rule. We have tested our data on test value 3 at a 95% confidence interval and two-tale is statistically significant.

Table10: One-Sample T-Test Statistics Constructs t Sig. (2-tailed) Policy and procedure (PP) 14.708 <0.001 HR planning (HRP) 9.173 <0.001 Job analysis (JA) 11.825 <0.001 Recruitment and selection (R&S) 10.193 <0.001 Compensation management (CM) 9.706 <0.001 Performance management (PM) 5.233 <0.001 Training and development (T&D) 6.113 <0.001 HR Climate (HRC) 8.887 <0.001 Test value = 3

Mean Difference 0.629 0.365 0.520 0.426 0.463 0.232 0.270 0.402

5 DISCUSSION Dehaghani & Samea (2014) expounded that HR review yields positive results in terms of productivity. The research sample includes a significant number of employees. Employees chosen for the study are working employees in 03 different Airlines. After an in-depth analysis of HR practices, it has been observed that the Airline industry of Pakistan is overstaffed, and the organizations, for the most part, want to complete internal HR review over external. A few organizations likewise lean toward the two structures, the outside, and the inside HR Audit.

The Recruitment and Selection (R&S) Audit is the principal variable of the examination, and it endeavors to find the effect of R&S Audit on organizational productivity. The R&S Audit can be a convincing instrument to take an organization towards progress whenever applied accurately and Saleem & Akbar (2015) suggest variables having a significant impact on HR effectiveness. These outcomes are in consent to the literature review. On the HR planning Audit, Yadav and Dhabade (2014) explained that HR planning Audit includes functions of HR yields successful outcomes. *Corresponding author (W.Akbar). Tel: +92-333 2162787. Email: waqar.akbar@szabist.edu.pk Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15D http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.292

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Further, this research exhibit that the Training and Development (T&D) Audit has a critical connection with the efficiency of the organizations in the Airline business as the Airline industry includes costly gear and apparatus.

Lee and Bruvold (2003) found creating aptitudes of the employees ensures excellent execution, and in this way, there is an expansion in the efficiency. The discovering is in agreement with the writing assessed. The other variable, Performance Appraisal Audit, is used to measure the overall performance of the employees concerning organizational productivity. The findings propose that it is also directly related to organizational productivity. The same has also been explained by many researchers in past researches. Iraldo (2009) defined performance Audit effects in terms of general condition and results. It raises the performance in general as well as join the employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s goals with organizational targets in achieving organizational productivity. Berber et al (2012) stated that the Audit of compensation and benefits helps management in retaining the employees, it lessens the turnover rates, and it directly influences the performance of the employees' productivity leading to organizational effectiveness. The same has also been tested in our research findings HR effectiveness relies on the continuous monitoring revising the policy and procedure. Solaja et al (2016) explained that HR department effectiveness broadly relies on constant reviews of the policy and procedures. Gemar et al. (2019), the absence of an efficient assessment of the human resource management, limit the efforts of better outcomes in the personnel performance, which directly affects the satisfaction of customers and, consequently, the quality of the service.

6 CONCLUSION Based on the outcome of data analysis, this research conforms to the previous research. The organization followed the criteria of HR Audit has a much better business as compared to one where HR Audit procedures are relatively less followed. It is also quite evident by the data collected that HR Audits practically help the airline in recognizing the grey area and recommending the remedial measures to the leaders so that they can amend the procedures and policies to give better business in the future. HR Audit deviates the risk before it occurs as a danger to the organization at a later stage by being a risk-averse element. It is also evident from the collected data where ever and any field the policies are amended through HR Audit the Airlines perform much better and remain competitive with other Airlines. It is evident from the study that the HR Audit contributes as a significant character in the overall productivity of the organization. This research shows that the execution of regular and strategic HR Audits plays a fundamental contributing part in the Airline industry.

7 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The corresponding author will be liable to provide information regarding this paper.

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Zhou, G. (2006). An examination of HR strategic recruitment and selection approaches in China.

Master's Thesis in Management, University of Nottingham, England.

Kausar Perveen completed her Master’s degree in Management Science from MAJU University Pakistan. She is associated with the aviation industry. Her interest includes Recruitment, HR Policy development, workforce planning strategies, talent, performance and Personnel Management.

Dr.Waqar Akbar is an Assistant Professor at SZABIST, PAKISTAN. He got a PhD in Workforce Environment from Universiti Malaya. His research includes Workplace Psychology, Workplace Sustainability, Human Resource Management and Human Behavior.

Kanwal Hanif got a Master of Business Administration, Management Science from SZABIST PAKISTAN. She is associated with the banking industry. She is interested in HRM and Development.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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Kausar Parveen, Waqar Akbar, Kanwal Hanif

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15E

UNDERSTANDING MILLENNIALS FRUSTRATION AT WORK FROM A LENS OF SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY 1

Saba Khan , Waqar Akbar 1

1*

1

1

, Naila Imran , Mehreen Mansoor , Asna Usman

1

Faculty of Management Science, Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science & Technology, PAKISTAN.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 14 March 2020 Received in revised form 20 August 2020 Accepted 01 September 2020 Available online 04 September 2020

The study finds the millennials' perspectives of their workplace from the lens of self-determination theory, in which, the frustration of work leads to stress and somatic symptom burden, which resultantly produce emotional exhaustion and cause absenteeism. The study collects the data from 223 milliners working in the banking sector. Three components of the Self-determination Theory, namely autonomy, relatedness, and competency are measured as independent variables whereas stress and somatic stress are measured as mediating variables. Finally, absenteeism and emotional exhaustion were measured as dependent variables. Using partial least square structural equation modeling, the results reveal that need-frustration has a significant impact on emotional exhaustion but insignificant on absenteeism. Further, sequential mediators including stress and somatic stress have full mediation between need-frustration and absenteeism but insignificant with emotional exhaustion. The study is useful for crafting workplace policies for millennials.

Keywords: Need frustration; Autonomy frustration; Emotional exhaustion; Relatedness frustration; Workplace autonomy; Absenteeism; Somatic stress; Work stress; Job autonomy; Somatic symptom burden; Competency frustration.

Disciplinary: Management Science. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Workplaces are diverse because of different generations and their specific roles of jobs that they perform at their workplaces (Bencsik et al., 2016) and it impacts on the communication, technology usage, workplace expectations, and stress level because there is potential among them to conflict on their tasks due to their different characteristics which lead to the need’s frustrations (Becton et al., 2014). From the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 80 Million populations are born between 1976-2001, known as millennials and they would rule half of the percentage of their workplaces by 2020 through their numbers (Brack & Kelly, 2012). We realized that, due to generational gap, the needs of millennial at their respective workplaces are quite different than the other generations people need because millennial seeks for the challenging workplaces which excite them but baby boomers and generation x are the types of generations that believe in performing the task what is being given *Corresponding author (Waqar Akbar). Email: akbar@ szabist.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15E http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15E.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.293

1

(Cucina et al., 2018). So, at this point, the Self Determination Theory (SDT) helps at the workplace to understand the behaviors and frustration of millennials because millennial needs are different from other generations (Heyns & Kerr, 2018).

There are three factors for SDT, autonomy, relatedness, and competency. Studies found that the fulfillment of the three needs prompted less fatigue (Broeck et al., 2010), motivation is provided by SDT (Broeck et al., 2016). Due to this, the employees who feel relatively more prominent need fulfillment at work likewise reflect the autonomy and exertion consumptions (Cooman et al., 2013). If autonomy, relatedness, and competence of employees are not meet then need-frustration arises which accuses illness. Millennials want autonomy at the workplace, if millennial is not given autonomy then they take stress and ultimatum it affects their health, resultantly turnover, emotional exhaustion and absentminded (Williams, et al., 2014), as it is in their roots (Hurst & Good, 2009). If millennials are not being given such competency then need-frustrations would cause the energy depletion of the employees and if relatedness is not meet the millennials do not get a closed connection with others at their workplace, (Olafsen et al., 2017).

Thus, these three components of SDT if not meet among the employees, do create work-related stress and which causes the need-frustration at their respective workplaces which impacts the somatic symptom burden. need-frustration in the millennials have never been studied before, it was just generalized for all the generation employees. So, realizing the gap, this research fills the gap measuring the need-frustration to the millennials at their workplace using SDT and finding its impact on absenteeism and emotional exhaustion with sequential mediating stress and somatic stress.

(Olafsen et al., 2017).

2 LITERATURE REVIEW According to SDT, motivation is the most important source for the employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s psychological health. SDT which deals with human inspiration, in medicinal services. The key to SDT is autonomy, competence, and relatedness whose fulfillment is required for the workplace. Autonomy (Decharms, 1972) is very important because its dissatisfaction alludes to the experience of not performing up to the mark. Competence alludes to the experience of conduct as successful and its dissatisfaction alludes to unfit to accomplish wanted results. Relatedness indicates the experience of common association with and its disappointment refers to the experience of an absence of fellowship.

Stress is the major cause of need-frustration in the employees. According to SDT, for employees to work properly and effectively, motivation is the greatest source but unfortunately, nowadays 69% of employees are attributing stress (Sholar, 2017).

Due to group works, conflicts do exist among them. Organizations are changing the pattern of success parameters due to the differences in the generations (Stewart et al., 2017). Because there are different mindsets. Millennials have a greater desire for higher careers. Millennial likes independence, innovation-focused, and having a positive attitude. Millennials are highly ambitious generations (Gong et al., 2018). They are anxious to build up their abilities. Millennials show more elevated amounts of independence than cooperation. If we study from literature, we come to the point that needs frustration in the millennials has never been studied before. However, it was just generalized for all the generation employees (Unanue et al., 2017). So, realizing the gap, this research is going to be conducted to study the need-frustration of the millennials at their workplace using the

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Saba Khan, Waqar Akbar, Naila Imran, Mehreen Mansoor, Asna Usman

self-determination theory.

Millennials being as largest generations in the labor force, they are more stressed out because their characteristics which are very different from other generation’s people working in their organization. The millennials are different from their learnings styles, communications ways and working patterns in their workplace So, we study using Self Determination theory, of the three components which are crucial and best for the workplace because they are psychological needs for autonomy, needs for competence, and needs for relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2017).

2.1 HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT There are various reasons which are causing the employee's frustrations. Whereas if the need-frustration arises then basic psychological needs are not meet because they face need-frustration, employees face ill-being and absenteeism. If the employee’s needs of autonomy, needs of relatedness, and needs of competencies are not meet in the workplace then they create the need-frustration (Li et al., 2017), which result in the dis-functioning and ill-being at the workplace and it will be producing work-related stress in the millennial which in return will lead to the higher level of somatic symptom disorder, emotional exhaustion, turnover intention, and absenteeism (Mudaly & Nkosi, 2015)which ultimately reduce the effectiveness of the decision making and less productivity (Shneikat et al., 2016; Trépanier et al., 2016).

H1a: There is a significant positive impact of need-frustration on emotional exhaustion.

H1b: There is a significant positive impact of need-frustration on absenteeism.

Many studies support the fact that need-frustration marks a highly positive impact on the level of stress because when the employee’s basic needs are not been fulfilled then the stress is created. need-frustration would automatically lead to the stress because if an employee is not satisfied with the workplace and due to certain reasons he/she has to continue then it would affect the mental health because these negative workplace conditions are creating a huge level of stress in employee (Li et al., 2019) and multiple generations work in organizations, it would definitely impact on the communication between them, technology usages, the development of professionalism, workplace expectations and stress level because there is a high level of potential among them to conflict on their tasks due to their different characteristics which leads to the need’s frustrations thus creating stress (Adegoke, 2014; Uysal et al., 2019).

H2: There is a significant positive impact of need-frustration on stress.

Need-frustration has highly contributed to the ill-being of the employees resultantly there are various hindrances by the employees in their work, so if the motivation by the supervisors is fully provided then it creates the less somatic symptom burden (Pedersen et al., 2019). When employees are facing serious issues of need-frustration and low level of motivation at their workplace, stress is greatly seen in the employees which results in the ill-being and bad health conditions of the employees which is the negative consequence for the organizations as well as employee (Uysal et al., 2019).

Stress has largely impacted the psychological disorders and ill-being of the employees along with need-frustration (Trépanier et al., 2015). Employee Stress is negatively effecting the workplace *Corresponding author (Waqar Akbar). Email: akbar@ szabist.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15E http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15E.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.293

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creating a negative impact on human health. Stress is the outcome of need-frustration inside the personnel, therefore personnel might also sense boundaries in their place of work rather than a supportive environment due to the fact they sense the workplace is not presenting a secure and mindful environment. According to the self-determination theory, for employees to work properly and effectively, motivation is the greatest source but unfortunately, now a day’s employees are facing stress (Dagenais-Desmarais et al., 2014).

There is a lot of evidence that workplace stress is associated with employees' physical and mental state of wellbeing and employee’s emotional exhaustion. Utilizing Self Determination Theory, this examination guessed that need-frustration in the work environment is related to larger amounts of work-related stress, which thusly is related to different markers of word related sick wellbeing and contributing to the mediating factor (Dunn, 2019). The stressful condition of the work environment (because of the presence of different generations and their specific roles of jobs that they perform at their workplaces (George & Zakkariya, 2015), these generations have different life’s experiences according to their different times of birth, their values, characteristics and attitude towards the ways of working are also distinctive because of unique perspectives is known for the negative impact on the employee health, and the absenteeism.

H3: There is a significant positive impact of need-frustration on Somatic symptom burden.

H4a: There is a mediating effect of Stress between need-frustration and emotional exhaustion.

H4b: There is a mediating effect of Stress between need-frustration and absenteeism.

H5a: There is a mediating effect of stress and somatic symptom burden between need-frustration and emotional exhaustion H5b: There is a mediating effect of stress and somatic symptom burden between need-frustration and absenteeism Autonomy Frustration

Relatedness Frustration

Need Frustration

Stress

Somatic Symptom Burden

Emotional Exhaustion

Absenteeism Competency Frustration

Figure 1: Conceptual framework.

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In this research, participants are the millennials working full time in the Pakistani banks with a sample size of 223 respondents. The questionnaire measurement scale is the Likert Scale. The software is smart PLS 3, integrating analysis of Construct validity and construct reliability, Discriminant validity, correlation of data, and multiple analysis regressions. Most participants are males 53.36%. The respondents' education ratios are bachelor’s 70.85% and master’s 29.14%.

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Saba Khan, Waqar Akbar, Naila Imran, Mehreen Mansoor, Asna Usman

3.1 MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES Basic psychological need-frustration: based on the frustration of the autonomy, frustration of the relatedness, and frustration of the competency, a questionnaire answer from 1 “Totally Disagree” to 5 “Totally Agree”.

Stress: The Tension and Effort Stress Inventory questions were adopted for the survey purpose.

The millennial was asked questions about the stress based on the above-mentioned scale. The millennial related the level of stress to their workplaces. The responses were designed on the 5-point Likert scale from 1 “no stress” to 5 “very much stress”.

Somatic symptom burden: The Patient Health Questionnaire-15 was in terms of psychosomatics which included the responses based on three-point scales 1 “Not Bothered” to 3 “Strongly Bothered”.

The millennial related the level of somatic symptom burden with their workplaces.

Emotional exhaustion: The emotional exhaustion, subscale regarding the Maslach Burnout Inventory was taken to access the emotional exhaustion state of the millennial at their workplace, and 5 point scale was adopted starting from 1 “Never” to 5 “Always”. The millennial related the level of emotional exhaustion with their workplaces and responded accordingly.

Absenteeism: A measuring scale was not taken in absenteeism because participants have to self-report the number of days absent for 3 months at the workplace. So, we developed a scale starting from 1 “5 days” to the 5 “Others”. The Participants were given an option other because if they have been absent for long other than our provided option so that they can mention it accordingly.

4 RESULTS The results generated through PLS-SEM are explained under two categories namely, measurement model and structural model.

4.1 MEASUREMENT MODEL Before assessing the hypotheses, it is crucial to test the validity of the model. For construct validity, it is empirical that constructs behaved in their measurement, the way they were supposed to behave. The convergent validity in research for construct means that when each item used in the study shows a mutual relationship while measuring construct. By finding the reliability of each item of measurement used in the scale, is one of the means to conduct the convergent validity. If we found all the items used in the scale are significantly loaded on the respective constructs, then we can conclude that the convergent validity is for the research is satisfactory. In Table 1, we have shown the outer loading of the items by each construct. All items except SS3 meets the threshold level of 0.6. The loading threshold of the items is 0.5, so, if we follow that our all items are loaded correctly and meaningfully. Here, we are not reporting the absenteeism because it is a single item-based construct.

The second way to appraise the convergent validity is through the composite reliability (CR) of the construct in our research model. All CR values greater than 0.7 indicate acceptable.

The average variance extracted (AVE) processes the amount of the variation that a construct grabs by its item when it is compared with the amount produced from error measured. The recommended value of AVE for every construct must exceed 0.50. Table 1, all constructs AVE is above 0.5, so our Convergent validity is satisfactory. *Corresponding author (Waqar Akbar). Email: akbar@ szabist.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15E http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15E.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.293

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Table 1: Item Loadings, Composite Reliability, Average Variance Extracted, and Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Alpha Construct Autonomy

Items AUTO1 AUTO2 AUTO3 REL 1 REL 2 REL 3 COM1 COM2 COM3 EE1 EE3 EE4 EE5 ST1 ST2 ST3 SS1 SS2 SS3 SS4

Relatedness

Competency

Emotional Exhaustion

Stress

Somatic Symptom Burden

Loading 0.734 0.922 0.87 0.858 0.915 0.893 0.763 0.905 0.886 0.859 0.846 0.863 0.850 0.753 0.924 0.891 0.892 0.901 0.555 0.799

CR 0.882

AVE 0.715

Cronbachâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Alpha 0.903

0.919

0.790

0.904

0.919

0.791

0.897

0.916

0.730

0.902

0.893

0.738

0.910

0.872

0.638

0.905

Discriminant validity is used to assess that items of a construct are not related to any other construct in the model and it is not like convergent validity because the discriminant validity measures the biasness between the items of the constructs. The common measures of assessing discriminant validity are Fornell-Larcker Criterion and cross-loadings.

The Fornell-Larcker Criterion defines that construct in this study is different from other constructs used in this study. Even, the sub-factors of each construct must be dissimilar from supplementary constructs. In Table 2, there is a diagonal line which, so, the discriminant validity is quite significant if the values of each diagonal line are higher than columns and rows as given by the Fornell & Larcker (1981).

Table 2: Fornell-Larcker Criterion.

Variable 1. Autonomy 2. Competence 3. Emotional Exhaustion 4. Relatedness 5. Somatic Stress 6. Stress

1 0.846 0.810 0.326 0.692 0.583 0.527

2

3

4

5

6

0.889 0.368 0.595 0.682 0.524

0.855 0.511 0.336 0.320

0.860 0.698 0.637

0.799 0.637

0.859

4.2 STRUCTURAL MODEL R-Square value in our study for the Stress and Emotional Exhaustion is 0.405 and 0.209 which is moderate. The smart PLS software is basically run to check the significance and the strength of paths in the model and also to test the hypothesis of our research framework. Path coefficients show the significance and the strength of paths, and it demonstrates the contribution of the independent variable on the variance of our dependent variable.

Table 3 is about the path analysis and relationships of need-frustration, stress, somatic symptom burden with absenteeism, and emotional exhaustion along with stress and somatic symptom burden.

We may find the significant impact of need-frustration on emotional exhaustion (H1a). However, we

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Saba Khan, Waqar Akbar, Naila Imran, Mehreen Mansoor, Asna Usman

do not find the need-frustration on absenteeism (H1b). Table 3 shows the significant impact of need-frustration on stress (H1c) and somatic symptom Burdon (H1d). We may also find the significant impact of stress on somatic stress (H2a) and absenteeism (H2b). however, the stress does not impact on absenteeism (H2c). Further, somatic stress does not impact on emotional exhaustion (H3a) but it significantly impacts on absenteeism (H3b).

While testing the mediating effect of stress between need-frustration and emotional exhaustion (H4a) we do not find the statistical support for the result but we find the significant impact of stress between need-frustration and absenteeism (H4b). the similar results we find for somatic stress as a mediator it does not mediate between need-frustration and emotional exhaustion (H4c) but mediate between need-frustration and absenteeism.

Finally, we tested the sequential mediating effect of stress and somatic stress. The result shows that there is no statistically significant effect between need-frustration and emotional exhaustion but significant with absenteeism.

Table 3: Path analysis results Hypothesis H1a need-frustration  Emotional Exhaustion H1b need-frustration  Absenteeism H1c need-frustration  Stress H1d need-frustration  Somatic Stress H2a Stress  Somatic Stress H2b Stress  Absenteeism H2c Stress  Emotional Exhaustion H3a Somatic Stress  Emotional Exhaustion H3b Somatic Stress  Absenteeism H4a need-frustration  Stress  Emotional Exhaustion H4b need-frustration  Stress  Absenteeism H4c need-frustration  Somatic Stress  Emotional Exhaustion H4d need-frustration  Somatic Stress  Absenteeism H5a need-frustration  Stress  Somatic Stress  Emotional Exhaustion H5b need-frustration  Stress  Somatic Stress  Absenteeism

Beta 0.414 0.030 0.637 0.491 0.324 0.689 0.043 0.020 0.164 0.009 0.174 0.004 0.026 0.002 0.011

SD 0.070 0.059 0.050 0.070 0.073 0.050 0.109 0.103 0.045 0.023 0.018 0.021 0.008 0.009 0.005

p-values <0.001 0.611 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 0.693 0.843 <0.001 0.696 <0.001 0.851 0.001 0.849 0.017

Decision Supported Not Supported Supported Supported Supported Supported Not Supported Not Supported Supported Not Supported Supported Not Supported Supported Not Supported Supported

5 DISCUSSION Millennials are the type of generation that will double their number in the workplaces by 2020 (Brack & Kelly, 2012), so this generation is very crucial to be understood of their needs and behaviors and there is a high level of potential among them to conflict with their tasks due to their different characteristics and needs that lead to the need’s frustrations. It creates a high level of frustration and less motivation in millennials because there need and wants are very different from other generations and it creates skirmishes in workplaces. To cater to this problem, the SDT theory deals with employee motivation and morale (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Millennials need more autonomy, competency, and relatedness, if they are not given then it creates absenteeism and emotional exhaustion.

So, the purpose of this study was to examine the dark side of the work from the millennials' perspective because they are going to be the future of the workplace (Brack & Kelly, 2013). So, this research has studied the dark side of the work from the perspective of millennials in the banking sector. We studied frustration level of millennial from the perspective of SDT in three needs levels that are autonomy, relatedness and competency are under focus, and these are related to workplace *Corresponding author (Waqar Akbar). Email: akbar@ szabist.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15E http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15E.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.293

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stress and if they are not meet than somatic symptom burden and high level of stress arises which cause the absenteeism and emotional exhaustion. Our first objective was to know the change in basic Psychological need-frustration is related to the change in the stress in millennials with emotional exhaustion and absenteeism at their workplace. So, regarding results, we found significance as the p-value for all three components of need-frustration i.e. autonomy frustration, relatedness frustration, and competency frustration has a strong relationship with the absenteeism using the mediating effect of stress but we did not found mediating relationship of stress with need-frustration components with the emotional exhaustion.

This study's second objective finds out that, for the millennial at their workplaces, the mediating effect of stress and somatic burden with need-frustration components on emotional exhaustion and absenteeism. The sequential mediating effect of stress and somatic symptom burden of autonomy, competence, and relatedness on absenteeism have a strong relationship but the sequential mediating effect of stress and somatic symptom burden of autonomy, competence, and relatedness on emotional exhaustion have a weak relationship so in this scenario we can use other factors for emotional exhaustion of millennials at their workplace so that the sequential relationships should be shown.

The third objective of this research was to investigate, in the generation of millennials, what are the possible outcomes of the somatic symptomâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s burdens on emotional exhaustion and absenteeism. We found that the mediating effect of somatic symptom burden with autonomy, relatedness, and competency on absenteeism is significant which means they have a strong relationship but with emotional exhaustion, there is not a significant relationship. Our last objective, the relationship of the self-determination theory, three components of the frustration level of millennials at their workplaces with emotional exhaustion and absenteeism. We found that need-frustration has a strong relationship with emotional exhaustion. On the other hand, need-frustration has a weak relationship with absenteeism.

The findings, millennials when not meet with autonomy, relatedness, and competence, it has an impact on absenteeism at the workplace. The sequential effect of stress and somatic symptom burden has a strong mediating effect of autonomy, relatedness and competency with the absenteeism. On the other hand, the frustration of autonomy, the frustration of relatedness and frustration of competency have strong relationships with emotional exhaustion.

6 CONCLUSION This studyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s basic question was to know whether the need-frustration level of the millennials produces emotional exhaustion and absenteeism using the mediating effect of stress and somatic symptom burden. We found significance for all the three components of need-frustration i.e., autonomy frustration, relatedness frustration, and competency frustration have a strong relationship with the absenteeism using the mediating effect of stress but we did not found a mediating relationship of stress with need-frustration components with the emotional exhaustion. When there is a need-frustration of millennials in terms of autonomy, relatedness and competence, it has an impact on absenteeism at the workplace. sequential effect of stress and somatic symptom burden has a strong mediating effect of autonomy, relatedness and competency with the absenteeism this if the millennials at the workplace face the need-frustration, they go through stress and many symptoms of somatic which will ultimately lead to the emotional exhaustion and absenteeism.

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Saba Khan, Waqar Akbar, Naila Imran, Mehreen Mansoor, Asna Usman

7 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The corresponding author will be liable to provide information regarding this paper.

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Williams, G.C., Halvari, H., Niemiec, C.P., Sørebø, Ø., Olafsen, A.H., & Westbye, C. (2014). Managerial support for basic psychological needs, somatic symptom burden and work-related correlates: A self-determination theory perspective. Work & Stress, 28(4), 404-419.

Saba Khan is an Assistant Product Manager at Faysal Islamic Banking. She got her Master’s degree in Management Science from SZABIST PAKISTAN. She is interested in HRM and development.

Dr.Waqar Akbar is an Assistant Professor at SZABIST, PAKISTAN. His research includes Workplace Psychology, Workplace Sustainability, Human Resource Management and Human Behavior. He provides training and consultancy on Workplace Design, Ergonomics and Human Development, manages Workshops on Structural Equation Modeling and Survey Research.

Naila Imran is associated with SZABIST, as a Visiting Faculty for business courses. She is a soft skill trainer and content developer and has trained employees of Oil and Gas Sector, banking, FMCG and service sectors such as Habib Bank Limited, Coca-Cola, Pakistan Petroleum, United Bank.

Mehreen Mansoor is associated with Postgraduate universities in Pakistan as a Visiting faculty for management courses. She is interested in the Organizational Behavior & Psychology, HRM of different corporate sectors such as Banking, HR Consultancy, and Textile Buying House.

Asna Usman is associated with the Faculty of Business Administration, Institute of Business Administration (IBA) and Iqra University Pakistan. She is interested in Management, Business Communication, Marketing Communication and HRM

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A15F

EFFICIENT DIAGNOSTIC CARDIAC SYSTEM USING MACHINE LEARNING APPROACH Mujtaba Ashraf Qureshi 1 2

1*

, Azad Kumar Shrivastava

,2

Department of Information Technology, Mewar University, Chittorgarh (Raj), INDIA. Department of Computer Science, Mewar University, Chittorgarh (Raj), INDIA.

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Article history: Received 19 May 2020 Received in revised form 10 August 2020 Accepted 24 August 2020 Available online 03 September 2020

Heart disease is considered one of the ultimate threats to human life.

To predict cardiac diseases in the early stages has become a challenge to medical science. Machine learning has acted as a rescuer to assist and develop various cardiac diagnostic systems. Data mining techniques mostly used as a synonym to machine learning plays an important role to mine useful knowledge. However, machine learning (ML) emphasis more on the prediction of diverse diseases. In this research work, three models are devised to predict cardiovascular diseases using artificial neural networks. Models are devised based on the application of a different number of hidden layers. The backpropagation algorithm is used to calculate the desired value by the adjustment of weights of the neurons in the network. In the very last stage of the experimental work performance measures of the three devised models are compared to reach the most efficient model.

Keywords: Data mining; neural networks; feature selection; WEKA tool; Cardiovascular disease prediction; Cardiac disease prediction.

Disciplinary: Computer and Information Technology, Cardiology (Cardiovascular Health and Disease). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Data mining techniques are employed to extract valuable information from the distributed and voluminous databases by the application of machine learning, mathematical equations, and statistical methods. The suitable and useful diverse datasets remain unused in the absence of data mining technology and methodologies. In the present era, data mining technology accomplishes the principal role to swing medical science to modern approaches from the older traditional approaches. The field of data mining exists as a comprehensive technical field and consequently adopts some of the absolute techniques to analyze and predict lethal diseases. Supervised and unsupervised techniques are the two existing major branches of data mining technology. Supervised techniques are guided by the application of trained datasets and unsupervised datasets do not necessitate any training from the *Corresponding author (Mujtaba A. Qureshi). Email: Mujtaba170@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15F http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.294

1

outer world. Classification techniques fall in the category of supervised data mining techniques to classify the input data based on the previously supplied trained datasets. Classification techniques are more effective and realistic to diagnose various diseases predominantly cardiac diseases.

Heart disease is considered one of the ultimate and common threats to human life. As per the reports of the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 12 million people die every year because of cardiovascular diseases and will upsurge at an alarming pace if suitable measures are not taken. To diagnose cardiac diseases with high accuracy and at right time is a challenge to medical science. However, the evolution of data mining techniques transformed this problem sphere into the real domain. Very special attention is needed all over the world to devise the algorithms and models to diagnose cardiac diseases with acceptable results.

An artificial neural network (ANN) is a type of classification technique based on the reflection of the brain of humans [12]. This is designed as a layered structure to transform the supplied input data to the required output result. The very first layer is called the input layer and the final/last layer is called the output layer. The layers existing between the input and output layers are called hidden layers. Hidden layers play an important role to weaken network progress or strengthen the power of network results. In this research paper, three models are devised to predict cardiovascular diseases using artificial neural networks. Models are devised based on the application of a different number of hidden layers. In the very last stage of the experimental work performance measures of the three devised models are compared to reach the most efficient model.

An extensive literature survey is conducted related to the prediction of cardiac diseases using various mining techniques given subsequently. The work [1] used neural networks to develop a predictive system for heart diseases. This system gives the probability of heart diseases. In this experimental work, 14 attributes are used and some of the prominent are blood pressure, cholesterol, age, sugar level, smoking, obesity, etc. Neural networks (NN) shows approximately 100% accuracy for the prediction of heart diseases. The work [2] recommended an algorithm for the prediction of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD). The hybridization method is incorporated in this research work by the author and utilized the services of backpropagation and genetic algorithm. Further, they found that the neural network technique is recommended as an acceptable technique, particularly for the non-linear data. Backpropagation is the most used algorithm along with the ANN for training purposes. Backpropagation is used with ANN until the minimum difference is not attained between expected and obtained values. One of the disadvantages observed by the author is that ANN gets trapped in the local minima problem. The work [3] proposes a system by using neural networks and support vector machines to predict CVDs. SVM shows prediction with 80.41% accuracy whereas the multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network shows 97.5% accuracy for the prediction of heart diseases. With data of 935 patients to predict and diagnose heart diseases by the application of neural network data mining techniques, the work applied radial basis function (RBF) and MPL of neural networks for prediction. This experimental work shows that RBF neural networks show 83% accuracy with ECG findings and an accuracy of 78% with clinical features. The work [4] performed an experimental approach to predict CVDs using neural networks, decision trees, and naĂŻve Bayes data mining techniques. This system shows 82.5% accuracy. The work [5] developed a heart disease prediction system based on the neural network data mining technique (Feedforward NN). The developed system shows an accuracy of 90%. [7] developed a CVDs diagnosis system utilizing

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Mujtaba Ashraf Qureshi, Azad Kumar Shrivastava

ANN with a genetic algorithm. Dataset is collected from the online UCI repository for the experimental work. Experimental work is implemented using MATLAB GUI simulation tool for designing the system. The developed system shows an accuracy of 97.83. The work [6] developed a heart disease diagnosis system using SAS software. In this experimental work, the neural network data mining technique is used for the development of the model by conjoining from multiple previous models. An accuracy of 89.01% is achieved by the application of the Cleveland heart disease dataset.

Also, specificity and sensitivity values attained are 95.91% and 80.95% respectively. The role of machine learning is explored in various renowned and distinguished fields such as robotics, medicine, academics, business, etc. The researcher has made effective attempts to apply various machine learning algorithms to improve the accuracy of the prediction of academics [10, 11].

1 FRAMEWORK The design and workflow of the experimental work are depicted in Figure 1.

CVDs Dataset

Pre-processing methods

ANN with h1

Test dataset

Model M#1

Trained dataset

ANN with h2

Model M#2

ANN with h3

Model M#3

Obtain & compare results

Figure 1: Framework for this study.

The framework revealed in Figure 1 is devised to implement the real-world application of the devised models. Three devised models in the framework are represented by model-M#1, model-M#2, and model-M#3. The framework also depicts h1, h2, and h3 as one hidden layer, two hidden layers, and three hidden layers of model-M#1, model-M#2, and model-M#3 respectively.

1 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK The neural network consists of artificial neurons that mimic the neurons of the human brain.

ANN is a mathematical representation or computational model that is stimulated by the organization and/or functional aspects of biological neural networks [8, 9]. ANN consists of an input layer, hidden layer/layers, and an output layer. The input layer receives an input of signals and transfers the same to the hidden layer/layers and finally, the processed signal/output is transferred to the output layer as the *Corresponding author (Mujtaba A. Qureshi). Email: Mujtaba170@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15F http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.294

3

output of the query. Actually, the input layer receives raw data to forward to the hidden layer/layers.

The hidden layer neurons perform their activity based on the input values, weights, and bias value.

Finally, the output processed value is obtained via the output layer. â&#x20AC;˘ The input layer receives values and forwards them to a hidden layer of the network. â&#x20AC;˘

The values of the input layer are multiplied with some specified weight values and a constant bias value is

â&#x20AC;˘

The values from the hidden layer move to the output layer after some modification is performed using specified weight values.

â&#x20AC;˘

Finally, after processing the information, the output layer gives the desired output. During this process, an activation function is used to process the output data.

Typically backpropagation algorithm is used with the artificial neural networks to calculate error values and thus to obtain the desired values. BP allows us to change the weights of the network until the desired output is not obtained. The following diagram defines the basic structure of ANN: The algorithmic flow of the applied technique is shown below in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Neural Networks, with one hidden layer.

The final result of the neural network is achieved from the output layer. Equation (1) is used to calculate the output value of the network. đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;

đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014; = ďż˝

đ?&#x2018;&#x201C;đ?&#x2018;&#x201C;=1

đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;

(1),

where yj is an output value of output neuron, xi is the value of input neuron, wij is connecting weight between xi and yj, â&#x2C6;&#x2018; is the final sigmoidal function.

2 DATASET The efficacious output of the network is very much exaggerated by the nature and lucidity of the employed datasets. The dataset employed to perform the experimental approach is acquired from the online available Cleveland database. The scholar/reader of this paper may access to the database

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Mujtaba Ashraf Qureshi, Azad Kumar Shrivastava

related to heart disease data as also https://archive.ics.uci.edu/ml/datasets/Heart+Disease. Cardiac related datasets are accessible in sufficient expanse. Preprocessing methods and feature selection techniques available in the WEKA simulation tool are assimilated to accomplish the high profile attributes only to train and testify the developed models. The selection of only 13 high profile attributes is prepared which consists of 500 instances only. An assessment of the selected attributes is offered in Table 1.

Table 1: Attributes used to predict Heart Diseases.

S.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Attributes age trestbp Sex Bp chol Fbs restecg Thalach exang Oldpeak slope numvessels thal diagnosis

Description In years Resting blood pressure Male or female Chest pain type Cholesterol level in mg/dl Fasting blood sugar Electrographic results at rest.

Maximum Heart Rate Achieved.

Exercise-Induced Angina ST Depression Induced By Exercise.

The slope of the Peak Exercise ST Segment.

No. of vessels colored by fluoroscopy Type of Defect of Heart.

Absence or presence of disease.

3 EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH To stretch the real-world character to the proposed framework, the Waikato Environment knowledge Analysis simulation tool (WEKA) is used. The processed dataset is divided into training and testing datasets in the ratio of 70:30. ANN is used to devise the three models. Models differ from one another by the number of hidden layers incorporated. Models are labeled as model-M#1, model-M#2, and model-M#3. Model-M#1 has one hidden layer (h1), model-M#2 has two hidden layers (h2) and model-M#3 has three hidden layers (h3) integrated. Thus model-M#1 consists of an input layer, an output layer, and one hidden layer. Model-M#2 consists of an input layer, an output layer, and two hidden layers.Model-M#3 consists of an input layer, an output layer, and three hidden layers.

Trained or labeled datasets are supplied as input to the network of all the three models to make them competent enough for the prediction of diseases. All three developed models based on the ANN can predict heart diseases. So we supplied an unlabeled dataset to each of the three developed models to achieve the performance results shown. A comparative study of the predictive results depicted by the models is performed to reach a more efficient and accurate model for cardiovascular prediction.

Six measures of results are taken into contemplation to relate and investigate the capability of the developed heart disease prediction models. Description of the performance measures taken into consideration for the comparative study includes 1. Accuracy is defined as how well our developed model/classifier is performing to divide tuples into respective classes.

Accuracy = (TP+TN)/ (TP+TN+FP+FN) *Corresponding author (Mujtaba A. Qureshi). Email: Mujtaba170@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15F http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.294

(2).

5

Machine learning considers the true positive (TP, equivalent with hit), true negative (TN, with correct rejection), false positive (FP equivalent with a false alarm, Type I error), false negative (FN equivalent with miss, Type II error).

2. Precision refers to the measurement of accurateness or percentage of tuples labeled as positive or negative are actually as such by the developed classifiers.

Precision = (TP)/ (TP+FP)

(3)

3. Sensitivity refers to positive tuples correctly labeled by the classifier or to identify appropriately those individuals actually involving in diseases. Sensitivity is also referred to as a true positive rate.

Sensitivity (Recall) = (TP)/ (TP+FN)

(4)

4. Specificity is defined as the number of negative tuples correctly labeled/identified.

Specificity= (TN)/ (TN + FP)

(5)

5. Elapsed Time of Training is the time taken by the classifier to predict CVDs.

4 RESULTS The outcome of the developed models is presented. An experimental approach is conducted using the WEKA simulation tool. The training and testing phase is conducted for all the three models using the online processed Cleveland datasets having the selected attributes given in Table 1. The results acquired for the prediction of cardiovascular diseases are recorded. Results of model M#1, M#2, M#3 are revealed and compared in Figures 3.

Figure 3: ANN performance measures of models M#1, M#2, and M#3.

The practical approach presents a very much influence upon the performance measures of the developed models using hidden layer number variation. The six most prominent performance measures cited as accuracy, recall, sensitivity, specificity, precision, and elapsed training time of the developed models are taken into attention for the prediction of cardiovascular diseases. Emphasis is specified to perceive that as the number of the hidden layers is augmented from one hidden layer (h1)

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Mujtaba Ashraf Qureshi, Azad Kumar Shrivastava

to three hidden layers (h3), accuracy, recall, sensitivity, and precision increases for the prediction of heart diseases. Also to attain the decline in the percentage of specificity as the number of hidden layers is enhanced from one layer to three layers is considered the exceptional success of the models.

However, the undesirable influence is observed, as the number of hidden layers increases, the training time to build the model also upsurge.

5 CONCLUSION Three cardiovascular predictive models are developed using artificial neural network techniques.

Models differ based on the number of hidden layers.

Model M#1 is devised using one hidden layer (h1), model M#2 using two hidden layers (h2) and model M#3 is developed using three hidden layers (h3). An empirical and comparative study is conducted to verify the efficiency and productivity of the said models. Performance measures taken into consideration illustrates gradual enhancement as the number of hidden layers is varied from one hidden layer (h1) to three hidden layers (h3). Performance measure outcome presented that the model M#3 is out-performed but specificity, with the highest elapsed time.

This work witnesses that as the number of the hidden layers is augmented from one to two hidden layers and from two to three layers, performance measures revealed by the developed models also increases continuously. One of the fundamental principles of this world is that advantages are always interconnected with disadvantages. Similarly in this research work, time taken by the predictive models also increases as the number of hidden layers is augmented to diagnose heart diseases. In the future, real and live datasets with large sizes can be used to train and testify the predictive models.

Moreover, the size of the hidden layers can be intensified to several hidden layers to verify the effectiveness of the models.

6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The corresponding author will be liable to provide information regarding this paper.

7 REFERENCES [1] C.S. Dangare, S. Apte. A Data Mining Approach for Prediction of Heart Disease Using Neural Networks. International Journal of Computer Engineering and Technology, 2012, 3(3).

[2] A.Dewan, M. Sharma. Prediction of Heart Disease Using a Hybrid Technique in Data Mining Classification. 2nd International Conference on Computing for Sustainable Global Development, 2015, 704-706.

[3] S.A.Pattekari and A.Parveen. Prediction system for heart disease using naive Bayes.

International Journal of Advanced Computer and Mathematical Science, 2012, 3(3), 290-294.

[4] B.S. Rao, K.N. Rao, S.P. SETTY. An Approach for Heart Disease Detection by Enhancing Training Phase of Neural NetworkUsing Hybrid Algorithm. Advance Computing Conference, 2014, 1211-1220.

[5] Vanisree K, J. Singaraju. Decision Support System for Congenital Heart Disease Diagnosis based on Signs and Symptoms using Neural Networks. International Journal of Computer Application, 2011, 19(6). *Corresponding author (Mujtaba A. Qureshi). Email: Mujtaba170@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15F http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.294

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[6] R. Das, I. Turkoglu, A. Sengur. Effective Diagnosis of Heart Disease through Neural Network Ensemble. Expert Systems with Applications, 2009, 36(4), 7675-7680. DOI: 10.1016/j.eswa.2008.09.013.

[7] P.Gupta, B. Kaur. Accuracy Enhancement of Artificial Neural Network using Genetic Algorithm.

International Journal of Computer Applications, 2014, 103(13).

[8] Rani, K. U. Analysis of heart disease dataset using a neural network approach. 2011.

[9] Tu, J.V. Advantages and disadvantages of using artificial neural networks versus logistic regression for predicting medical outcomes”. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 1996, 49(11), 1225-1231.

[10] Ashraf, Mudasir, Majid Zaman, and Muheet Ahmed. "To Ameliorate Classification Accuracy Using Ensemble Vote Approach and Base Classifiers." Emerging Technologies in Data Mining and Information Security, Springer, Singapore, 2019. 321-334.

[11] Ashraf, M., Zaman, M., & Ahmed, M. Performance analysis and different subject combinations: An empirical and analytical discourse of educational data mining. 8th International Conference on Cloud Computing, Data Science & Engineering (Confluence), 2018.

[12]

Nang Y. The Handbook of data mining. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2003.

Mujtaba Ashraf Qureshi is a Ph.D – I.T scholar of Department of Information Technology at Mewar University, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, India. He got his master’s degree in Information Technology from Punjab Technical University (now I.K.Gujral Punjab Technical University), Jalandhar, Punjab, India. He is interested in Data Mining Technology.

Dr.Azad kumar Shrivastava is Professor at the Department of Computer Science, Mewar University, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, India. He got his doctoral degree from ‘Atal Behari Vajpayee-Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management’, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India. His research includes Artificial Intelligence, Neural Networks, Machine Learning, Deep Learning and Big data on CPU & GPU Cluster for DWH & IOT.

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A15G

UNEMPLOYMENT AND EDUCATION QUALITY IN RUSSIA Marina A. Osintseva 1

1*

Department of Business Informatics and Mathematics, Tyumen Industrial University, RUSSIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 19 May 2020 Received in revised form 10 August 2020 Accepted 29 August 2020 Available online 09 September 2020

The problem of career guidance for the youth is one of the most pressing social problems in the field of reproduction of manpower resources and human capital. Attempts of its solving in one way or another involve research of the current situation in the labor market by exploring the unemployment rate and the factors that influence it. This refers to the employment statistics that relate to the youth with various education levels. Our conclusions come from the case of Russia at a national level where against the background of the aging population, there are the developed networks of vocational education and resource-rich economy. The analysis of the situation evidences that unemployment affects the youth more than other age groups. When searching for jobs, young people face the difficulties of adjustment and mismatch (or lack) between the gained knowledge/skills and employers’ requirements/needs. Having completed correlation and factor analyses, we assessed how much the situation in the labor market depends on the education being received and other aspects of social and economic life.

The results obtained suggest that the aggregative factors, such as education, labor supply, and financial well-being have the highest impact on numbers of the unemployed. The influence significance of the education factor (84% versus 6% and 4% of others, respectively) points out the need for harmonization in this field in terms of the manpower training structure and education quality. Different perceptions of education efficiency that students and professors have to confirm this. To some degree, we believe that the solution to this problem might be in a revision of the approach to the provision of educational services, where practice-oriented education should come first.

Keywords: Education quality; Career-related skills; Unemployment; Labor market; Human capital; Employment; Educational system.

Disciplinary: Employment and Career Studies, Education (Curriculum Quality Assessment and Evaluation). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION The current situation in the labor market has such descriptors, as the decrease in numbers of the *Corresponding author (M.A. Osintseva). Tel: +7(3452)283660 Email: Osintsevama@mail.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15G http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.295

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employed, growing unemployment, and longer unemployment periods (Watanabe et al., 2018). The employment problem is especially pressing for young people, who make up a significant part of the working-age population (Punina et al., 2017; Grinevica et al., 2016). One may describe the youth labor market with a wide range of factors. These key factors include the number of young people covered by education and education quality.

Today’s educational system is a kind of buffer that minimizes the risks posed by the problems available in the labor market. Educational programs are the most socially attractive tool in the search for solutions to employment challenges in these circumstances (Vasina & Khoreva, 2011). Also note that occupation-education descriptors of manpower resources are among the main factors on which the economic development vector depends (Gnecasheva, 2011; Šileika & Bekeryte, 2013; Aleksejeva, 2016).

There is a clear trend that the competition between institutions of higher education increases with each passing year. The demand for a college is not only generated by students, but also by employers, who evaluate how efficient the training of future professionals is and which knowledge they will gain.

Unfortunately, stakeholders have recently with the ever-increasing frequency faced the fact that the knowledge and skills that students gain do not meet market requirements. Pilzer (Smolyakova, 2018) mentions that today’s employment market is inefficient in terms of the employer’s requests, who often know how to solve the problems that have appeared but are not ready to invest their own money in personnel training. In this scenario, more and more requirements are applied to knowledge, skills, and abilities of students, while for colleges it is now particularly important to know how efficient the skills are that they develop in their graduate students.

The reciprocal demand for educational services shows the aggregate need of prospective college students that lies on various preferences that are very diverse (Minaev, 2012). The problem of career guidance to students is one of the most pressing social problems in the field of reproduction of manpower resources/human capital. The research in this direction involves the identification of the parameters that describe the resources in the system of vocational education to meet the needs of the economy and the high-quality training of professionals.

Therefore, our goal is to evaluate the position of the youth people in the labor market in relation to the education levels of the youth. To do this, we should consider the impact of certain factors in the education sector on the unemployment rate (particularly among the youth) and explore a certain aspect of the education that students get. Note that the demand for the research findings depends on national demographic settings, the educational system development, and economic potential. The case of Russia is a good example in this regard where against the background of the aging population, there are the developed networks of vocational education and resource-rich economy (Grinin & Shestemirova, 2015; Kheyfets & Chernova, 2019; Chernova et al., 2019). This led to the choice of Russia as an object in our research.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW Vocational training of students and the development of their skills are performed as the provision of educational services. Educational services refer to the totality of activities and products, aimed at

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Marina A. Osintseva

meeting the learning need of an individual (Kuzmina, 2010), the totality of the information, skills, and abilities that the individual uses for his/her personal ends or for his/her job (Schetinin, 2008).

The system applied for students’ knowledge and skill control/tests have become an essential element in the education process. Both at the level of didactics, and methodology, there are papers on training efficiency evaluation (Litau, 2018; Shakhnov et al., 2013; Vlasov et al., 2019; Yudin et al., 2017). In large measure, the efficiency evaluation of the tools used for students’ knowledge acquisition is like the quality evaluation of college operations, because the education success depends on the techniques they have chosen. College accreditation is one of such formal evaluation techniques. In Russia, the system of accreditation by type includes public, career and community, and international accreditations. In general, key indicators for education quality evaluation are included in the Education Act (RF, 2012). We believe that the alumni employment rate is a key parameter in the time of the evaluation. Qualitative (or efficient) employment might refer to alumni employment in line with relevant qualifications and with balanced wages (Butakova & Beliaeva, 2016) that does not result in the brain drain.

In today's’ conditions, there is a wide discrepancy in the structure of graduates' output by degree/field of expertise and needs in the labor market. As a result, alumni are not often employed in the specialty. Young employees are often in positions that do not require high levels of education. In extremis, young employees refuse from working because of excessive requirements (Dembitskaya, 2010). We might explain the latter with a qualifying level of education. Most researchers believe that the proportion of the unemployed alumni is higher than among the people with lower levels of education, for whom it is easier to find a job for the first time and who remains not in demand for the fewer periods (Tangian, 2004). Moreover, recent alumni are much more vulnerable in the labor market compared to more experienced employees because they lack employment experience, have a poor understanding of laws in the labor market, and are likely to be for the dismissal in case of economic crises (Ryan, 2001; Rudakov, 2015).

Researchers point out to the fact that the alumni who have not found positions in specialty get significantly lower wages and are employed on the positions where they do not use their education (Gimpelson et al., 2009; Nordin et al., 2010). For instance, in the United States, positions of 20% of alumni from colleges and vocational schools are not related to the completed education (Robst, 2007). Also, in Sweden, 20% of the employed do not work in a specialty (Nordin et al., 2010). In Russia, according to various data, 60-73% of the economically active population does not work in the specialty, while every fourth college alumnus is on the position that does not require higher education (Timoshenko, 2018). This causes various values of the return on education. In contrast to the primary vocational-technical education, which practically does not provide statistically significant advantages compared to secondary (complete) general education, the secondary vocational-technical education shows positive return values, although significantly less than the return on higher education (Denisova & Kartseva, 2007; Gimpelson & Kapelyushnikov, 2011; Roshchin, 2006; Rudakov, 2015). The desire of the youth to improve and expand their knowledge, including through higher education, is indisputable evidence of the growing value of education (Volchik & Maslyukova, 2017). However, it is always necessary to keep in mind personal capabilities for successful learning *Corresponding author (M.A. Osintseva). Tel: +7(3452)283660 Email: Osintsevama@mail.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15G http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.295

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under educational programs (Garces-Voisenat, 2016), as well as market needs.

Returning to unemployment, note that the increase in total numbers of the unemployed causes the maximum damage to the least educated and low-paid employees (Farrell et al., 2011). As a result, a price of an error gets higher when alumni start working as an initial stage in a career has a significant impact on the development of future wages (Robst, 2007; Zhang, 2008). The solution to this situation is the development of the dual system of education (Ilyazova & Ilyazova, 2016; Alcalde & Nagel, 2016) when theoretical and practical parts of training are closely interconnected and alternately follow each other throughout the entire education process. Lavrentiev et al. (2004) believe that the education process should have a clear focus on the development of logical thinking in making decisions that might be related to future careers. Research-production collaboration also contributes to learning success.

Other effects are directly related to the proactive participation of individuals in the education process. The overlapping of studies and employment in specialty increases chances for the future employment of alumni compared to those who had no employment in a time of studentship. At the same time, in the case of employment not in a specialty, the effect is not significant (Roshchin, 2006).

Vasiliev et al. (2015) found that the overlapping of studies and employment develops various soft skills (time management, responsibility, and other skills), which are in demand in the labor market.

This confirms the idea that the unemployment depends on the sufficiently large number of factors (Salin et al., 2016) that reliably include the demographic situation, socio-economic conditions, and, for sure, education, a role of which is diverse. Therefore, the return on education, depending on various characteristics of the education process itself, needs further research.

3 METHOD Uncertainty in the evaluation of the education quality efficiency is in constant growth. To make it lower, stakeholders thoroughly examine a college rating, students' and alumniâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s feedback of the establishment, equipment level, training fee, etc. But we also need to consider qualitative factors. In the framework of our research, the analysis includes two parts. We might call the first part general as it provides an idea of combined results of activities of establishments of higher education. The second part provides an idea of the studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; training level and the efficiency of educational programs. See the set of indicators in Table 1.

The analysis of indicators was performed with the techniques of descriptive statistics and time series, such as the absolute growth, growth coefficient, growth rate, and accession rate.

To find a degree of relationship between the studied attributes, we used correlation and factor analyses. We built the correlation matrix. The matrix is based on the calculation of the Pearson correlation coefficient. We checked the correlation between numbers of the unemployed and the following parameters: numbers of the unemployed; loading of the registered unemployed; numbers of alumni (mid-level); average consumer spending per capita; numbers of the families that have received housing and utility subsidies; establishments of general education; numbers of alumni (bachelors, specialists, and masters); indebtedness in roubles under the credits provided by credit; organizations to individuals; holdings (deposits) of individuals on rouble accounts; the number of enterprises and organizations; demand for employees as claimed by an employer; numbers of foreign

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Marina A. Osintseva

citizens with valid work permits. According to the null hypothesis (H0), there is no correlation between factors and parameters.

Table 1: Set of indicators to evaluate the education quality Indicator Many establishments of higher education (public and municipal) institutes.

Funding allocation to establishments of higher education

Number of students in establishments of higher education (public and municipal), persons

The students enrolled in establishments of higher education, persons

Specialist level graduates from establishments of higher education (public and municipal), persons

Number of full-time graduates (except for students with a full reimbursement of training fees) who as desired were granted with the free employment right Number of employed graduates from educational establishments by a group of professions (specialties) The proportion of employed alumni from educational establishments in the total number of alumni by the level of vocational education Number of the unemployed by gender and age group

Calculation technique and data source The indicator approved by the order of the Federal State Statistics Service, “Information on the Educational Establishment that Performs Educational Activities under Educational Programs of Higher Education” (Form No. ВПО-1) Source: Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia The indicator approved by the order of the Federal State Statistics Service, “Information on Facilities and Information Base, Financial and Economic Activities of the Educational Establishment of Higher Education” (Form No. ВПО-2) Source: Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia The indicator approved by the order of the Federal State Statistics Service, “Information on the Educational Establishment that Performs Educational Activities under Educational Programs of Higher Education” (Form No. ВПО-1) Source: Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia The indicator approved by the order of the Federal State Statistics Service, “Information on the Educational Establishment that Performs Educational Activities under Educational Programs of Higher Education” (Form No. ВПО-1) Source: Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia The indicator approved by the order of the Federal State Statistics Service, “Information on the Educational Establishment that Performs Educational Activities under Educational Programs of Higher Education” (Form No. ВПО-1) Source: Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia The full-time graduates (trained at the expense of budgets of all levels for the period from October, 1 of the previous year to September 30 of the current year), who have not received an employment placement document as desired.

Source: Rosstat (before 2012) and Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia Source: Rosstat The ratio of numbers of employed alumni to a total number of alumni from educational establishments Source: Rosstat The persons aged 15+, who in the period under consideration simultaneously met the following criteria: they were unemployed (without gainful business), in a search of work in recent four weeks preceding the survey week, ready to start working during the survey week (according to the ILO methodology) Source: Rosstat

To verify the appropriateness of the factor analysis, we involved the criterion of the sampling adequacy by Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett’s sphericity test. The factor analysis lies in the method of principal components that makes it possible to reduce the space dimension with the least loss of information. To identify principal components, we used the Varimax-rotation technique with the minimization of variables with a high factor load. We performed correlation and factor analysis *Corresponding author (M.A. Osintseva). Tel: +7(3452)283660 Email: Osintsevama@mail.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15G http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.295

5

using the SPSS statistical software.

We referred to the data provided by the following principal and official sources of information that show ф status quo in the system of higher education in Russia: Rosstat, Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia, and Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science. Besides, we used the information provided by rating agencies: Expert RA (RAEX) and RIA Novosti (RIA, 2019) that calculate a research-level at colleges, employers’ demand for college alumni, applicants’ training level by the scores gained at the Unified State Exam.

Along with quantitative descriptors, the evaluation of the efficiency of knowledge that students learn is also described with qualitative indicators. To do this, we propose to use the survey technique in a form of the questionnaire. The sample observation is performed with the nonrepetitive selection, while average and marginal sampling errors are calculated.

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION To evaluate the efficiency and education quality, we need to analyze development trends in the system of higher education and employment of college alumni.

5,000,000 4,761,978

4,600,000

Number of Students

-1.89 -2.00

4,405,511

4,400,000

-1.00

-3.00

4,200,000

4,061,402

4,000,000

-4.00 3,873,788

3,855,388

-4.62

3,800,000

3,782,539

-6.00

3,600,000

-7.00

3,400,000

-7.49

3,200,000 3,000,000

-5.00

Growth Rate

4,800,000

0.00

-0.47

-8.00

-7.81 2013

2014

2015

Number of people

2016

2017

2018

-9.00

Growth rate

Figure 1: Numbers of students in establishments of higher education in Russia (public and municipal), people Source: Ministry of Science and Higher Education In 2018, there were 496 public and municipal establishments of higher education in Russia (Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russia; Higher School of Economics). In the period under consideration from 2013, their number decreased by 82 institutes. In 2017, the Federal Service for Supervision in Education and Science (Rosobrnadzor) suspended 35 licenses among establishments of higher education. The admission of applicants was banned in 68 colleges and their branches. 58 colleges lost their governmental licenses for educational activities. Thus, in 2014-2017, the number of colleges and their branches in Russia decreased by 1.097 (from 2.268 to 1.171). The

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Marina A. Osintseva

reduction mostly covered branches of governmental and non-governmental colleges, their number decreased to 428 and 81, respectively. The largest governmental colleges also suffered losses in that period, their number decreased by 83 (from 567 to 484), while non-governmental by 193 (from 371 to 178).

In 2013-2018, the number of students decreased from 4.8 million to 3.8 million persons (Figure 1). In general, in 2018, compared to 2013, the number of students enrolled by public and municipal institutions of higher education decreased by 2.36% (25.176 persons). In 2009-late 2018, the overall reduction in the number of students is 40%.

In 2018, compared to 2005, the number of alumni from full-time studies with the granted free employment right increased by 34,445 people or 77.16% (Figure 2). In contrast to the situation in 1995-2003, described by Roshchin (2006), today the studies-employment transition of system graduates looks more like a ford than a deep end. In late 1990, there was a slight reduction in employment scales of alumni with job placement documents both in absolute values and the specific gravity. Later, there was a clear upward trend, leading to the growing total numbers of employed college alumni.

120,000 110,000

persons

100,000 90,000 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Figure 2: Numbers of alumni (full-time studies) (excluding those with full reimbursement of training fees) in the public and municipal educational establishments that provide programs of higher vocational education with the given right of free employment as desired (Source: Rosstat). The dot line indicate moving average with n = 2.

Unemployment (thousand people)

400

364.9

350

312.3

300

303.1 282.7

250

Females 256.3 240.9

200 150 100

210.3 197.5

173.7 169.9

153.8 171.2 151.4 150.3

Males

161.7 90.3

74.8 66.5

50 0

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

46.7 44.5 60-64

20.2 13.9 65+

Age group (years)

Figure 3: Numbers of the unemployed by gender and age group in Russia as of 2018, (thousands of people) Source: Rosstat *Corresponding author (M.A. Osintseva). Tel: +7(3452)283660 Email: Osintsevama@mail.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15G http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.295

7

To find out how strongly the parameters of the education being obtained influence the current unemployment rate, we performed the factor analysis (Table 2). This made it possible to conclude about the dependence between education and the unemployment rate.

Table 2: Primary parameters in the factor model.

Index Y X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11

Parameter numbers of the unemployed loading of the registered unemployed numbers of alumni (mid-level) average consumer spending per capita numbers of the families that have received housing and utility subsidies establishments of general education numbers of alumni (bachelors, specialists, and masters) indebtedness in roubles under the credits provided by credit organizations to individuals holdings (deposits) of individuals on rouble accounts number of enterprises and organizations demand for employees as claimed by an employer numbers of foreign citizens with valid work permits

To explain the relationship between variables, we calculated the correlation dependence (Table 3). Based on the results obtained, we might conclude that such indicators, as average consumer spending per capita (X3), the load of the registered unemployed (X1 ), deposits of individuals (X8 ), and numbers of foreign citizens with valid work permits (X11 ) have a very small impact on numbers of the unemployed. So, it makes no sense to include them in further analysis. At the same time, education-related indicators have a strong influence on the numbers of the unemployed. There are the number of establishments of general educational (X5), numbers of bachelor, specialist, and master graduates (X6 ), numbers of graduates from vocational-technical schools (X2). This might relate to the fact that due to a large number of educational institutions, and, consequently, high numbers of national graduate students enterprises are not able to provide a required number of jobs as the number of jobs is lower than the number of alumni and it leads to intense competition in the labor market.

Table 3: Correlation matrix of factor modelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s parameters Y X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11

Y 1.00 0.19 0.90 0.05 0.69 0.88 0.80 0.69 0.40 0.80 0.60 0.33

X1

X2

X3

X4

X5

X6

X7

X8

X9

X10

X11

1.00 -0.06 -0.43 -0.11 0.01 -0.11 -0.28 -0.11 -0.25 -0.61 -0.46

1.00 0.26 0.79 0.93 0.91 0.86 0.55 0.92 0.77 0.46

1.00 0.35 0.17 0.34 0.46 0.39 0.45 0.49 0.52

1.00 0.72 0.73 0.82 0.73 0.79 0.72 0.53

1.00 0.85 0.79 0.50 0.84 0.68 0.39

1.00 0.76 0.49 0.90 0.74 0.42

1.00 0.81 0.88 0.85 0.65

1.00 0.57 0.54 0.50

1.00 0.85 0.59

1.00 0.70

1.00

The calculated value of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) criterion is 0.907. Hence, the usage of factor analysis is appropriate. The factor analysis should be considered suitable if KMO is 0.5-1.

We used Bartlettâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s test to test the null hypothesis (H0) for the lack of the correlation between

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parameters. To check the hypothesis, we calculated đ?&#x153;&#x2019;đ?&#x153;&#x2019;2 statistics based on the correlation matrix determinant. If the value is lower than the threshold value 0.05, then we need to reject the null

hypothesis (H0) and the factor analysis is reasonable. In the result obtained đ?&#x153;&#x2019;đ?&#x153;&#x2019;2 = 819.173 (number of degrees of freedom is 21), the null hypothesis (H0) is rejected as the p-value is <0.001.

At the next stage, it is necessary to find out which proportion (%) of the dispersion of each factor is explained by principal components. The first principal component is the most valuable as it explains the highest percentage in the dispersion. The first component was 84.129%, the second was 6.082%, while the third was 4.227%. This makes it possible to explain 94.5% in the dispersion. See the data of the explained cumulative dispersion in Table 4.

Table 4: Explained cumulative dispersion Principal components

Initial eigenvalues Total % dispersion Total, %

1

5.889

84.129

84.129

2 3

0.426 0.296

6.082 4.227

90.211 94.439

4 5 6

0.175 0.104 0.066

2.494 1.488 0.942

96.933 98.420 99.362

7

0.045

0.638

100.000

Then, we have produced the eigenvalue matrix of principal components using the Varimax rotation method (minimizing the number of variables with the high factor loading). See the results in Table 5.

Table 5: Rotated component matrix Parameter X5 X6 X2 X10 X9 X4 X7

Principal components 1 2 3 0.852 0.817 0.792 0.862 0.603 0.835 0.550

Factor Education Labor supply Financial well-being

Having explored the abovementioned signs, we might conclude that the following factors make the highest impact on numbers of the Russian unemployed: education, labor supply, and financial well-being.

The second part of the analysis includes the efficiency evaluation of the knowledge that students learn. For this, we used the sample survey technique based on the survey of college students and professors in Russia (Table 6). The sample included 200 people, students and professors, half and half. The survey was on the Internet via the Google form. The profiles with answers to all the questions in the form were randomly selected from the aggregate. *Corresponding author (M.A. Osintseva). Tel: +7(3452)283660 Email: Osintsevama@mail.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15G http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.295

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Table 6: Results of the survey on the efficiency of knowledge test techniques (tools).

Description The system applied for the evaluation of the efficiency of students' knowledge test techniques (tools) Labor market demand for graduates from a specific college Feedback on educational programs and their provider Level and quality of teaching under a specific educational program

1, satisfactory

Distribution of respondents Students Professors 60 34

0, not satisfactory

40

66

1, in demand 2, most often in demand 3, they sometimes have difficulties 4, not in demand 5. if they were undecided 1, positive feedback 0, negative feedback 1, very important 2, rather important 3, rather not important 4, not important at all

35 25 30 10 55 45 30 45 15 10

43 22 27 8 76 24 62 25 10 3

Factorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s numerical values

Having compared the survey results, we might conclude that there is a difference in the efficiency evaluation of the methods (tools) for knowledge tests. Thus, 40% of students rated them as unsatisfactory, unlike 66% of professors. Regarding the evaluation of the labor market demand for graduates of a college, 60% of students believe that they are more in demand than not. So do 65% of professors. Feedback reviews on educational programs and the educational institution that provides them, differ, i.e., 55% of students believe that feedback is positive, while as for the professors, this percentage is 76%. The level and quality of teaching under the specific educational program was rated as important by 75% of students and 87% of professors. According to the data obtained, we might conclude that students and professors differently perceive efficiency evaluation systems for knowledge test methods.

5 CONCLUSION The specifics of the economic and social development in Russia is the main reason for youth unemployment. Having completed the factor analysis, the factors have the greatest impact on numbers of the unemployed, including 1) education (with the indicators of the number of institutions of general education, bachelor, specialist, and masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree graduates, and graduates from vocational-technical schools), 2) labor supply (with the indicators of the number of the enterprises and organizations, the need in employees declared by employers), and 3) financial well-being (with the indicators of the number of families that received housing and utility subsidies, loan debt). The weight of the education factor influence (84%) points out to the need for harmonization in this field both in terms of personnel training structure and education quality. The major problem lies in the imbalance between the knowledge, skills, and abilities that graduates have obtained and market requirements. The research findings evidence that students and professors differently perceive efficiency evaluation systems for knowledge test methods. In some measures, the solution to this problem will be the revision of the approach to the provision of educational services, where practice-oriented training should come first.

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6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The corresponding author will be liable to provide information regarding this paper.

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Vlasov, A.I., Juravleva L.V., & Shakhnov V.A. (2019). Visual environment of cognitive graphics for end-to-end engineering project-based education. Journal of Applied Engineering Science, 17(1), 99-106. DOI: 10.5937/jaes17-20262 Volchik, V., & Maslyukova, E. (2017). Performance and sustainability of higher education: Key indicators versus academic values. Journal of Security and Sustainability Issue, 6(3), 501-512. DOI: 10.9770/jssi.2017.6.3(14) Yudin, A. et al. (2017). Project oriented approach in educational robotics: from robotic competition to practical appliance. In M. Merdan, W. Lepuschitz, G. Koppensteiner and R. Balogh (Eds.), Robotics in Education. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, 457. Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-42975-5_8 Vasiliev, K. et al. (2015). Skill Development for Innovative Growth in Russia. Alex.

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Zhang, L. (2008). The way to wealth and the way to leisure: the impact of college education on graduates’ earnings and hours of work. Research in Higher Education, 49(3), 199-213. DOI: 10.1007/s11162-007-9080-5 Marina A. Osintseva is an Assistant professor, Department of Business Informatics and Mathematics of the Tyumen Industrial University, Russian Federation. She is a Cand.Sci. (Pedagogical) at the Yaroslavl State Pedagogical University named after K.D. Ushinsky. Her research interests include Teaching Mathematics for Engineers, Mathematical Modeling of Social, Technical and Economic Problems.

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15H

IMPACTS OF BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS ON MENTAL HEALTH WITH MEDIATING EFFECT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTRESS IN CARDIAC PATIENTS 1

2

3

Abdul Sattar Ghaffari , Muhammad Tahir , Muhammad Khalid Javed , 4 5* 6* Sana Ullah , Malik Mureed Hussain , Shagufta Bibi 1

Zhongtai Securities, Institute for Financial Studies, School of Mathematics, Shandong University, Jinan, CHINA. 2 School of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, CHINA. 3 Department of Surgery, Nishter Medical University, Multan, PAKISTAN. 4 College of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, CHINA. 5 Department of Psychology, International Islamic University, Islamabad, PAKISTAN 6 School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, CHINA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 19 May 2020 Received in revised form 19 August 2020 Accepted 01 September 2020 Available online 09 September 2020

This study desired to check a mediation model that measured the relationship between basic psychological needs and mental health by employing psychological distress as a mediating factor in cardiac patients.

Total 313 Hospitalized Cardiac patients were chosen from Nishtar Hospital, Multan Pakistan through a purposive sampling technique and they completed a booklet of instruments targeted to measure study variables. Basic Psychological Needs Scale, an 18-item self-report Mental Health Inventory (MHI-18), and Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) were used to study the target variables included in the model. A significant relationship is found in basic psychological needs, psychological distress, and mental health in cardiac patients. Results of the mediation model revealed that the relationship between basic psychological needs and anxiety, depression, behavioral control, and positive affect was significantly mediated by psychological distress. The results of the comparison of sub-scales of mental health between male and female cardiac patients reveal a significant difference in the subscales except for depression. The results are on the same track as previous research but the novelty of this research lies in its unique model tested with cardiac patients.

Keywords: Psychological Distress; Mental Health, Competence; Relatedness; Autonomy; Cardiovascular disease (CVD); Cardiac patient.

Disciplinary: Psychology and Mental Health, Medicine and Cardiology (Cardiovascular Health and Disease). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

*Corresponding author (M.M.Hussain malikmureedhussain@outlook.com, S.Bibi shaguftamalik409@yahoo.com) ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A15H http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.296

1

1 INTRODUCTION Psychological condition in which need something to fulfill the basic requirements necessary for life is considered as basic psychological needs. Albert Maslow was the first person who reported the concept of psychological needs in the theory of human motivation. Basic psychological needs theory is considered as part of the human motivation macro-theory known as Self-Determination Theory (Ryan, & Deci, 2000). Needs factors for psychological needs? Unpleasant feelings or emotion which disturb functional activity level is known as Psychological distress. Psychological distress (specifically, depression) is known as the major threat and risk factor of disability in the world reported by the World Health Organization (2009).

Numbers of factors are associated with psychological distress like personality traits, family, occupational, economic stress, and health-related stress (Matthews, 2013; Ghaffari, et.al, 2018). Such issues cause a serious disturbance which highly affects the human vascular system (Whooley, & Wong, 2013), resulted in different disorders including acute coronary syndrome (ACS) or stroke.

The significance and relation of accurate mental and physical health are evident and well-documented in previous reports (Keyes, 2005, 2007). Heart and brain functional activity related issues have been reported by different researchers since the 17th century. However, in the 1970s the relationship between cardiovascular diseases and the psychological situation was established through scientific manners. This link began through the investigations of cardiovascular disease and “type A” personality (Dembroski, 1978). Numbers of reports have been documented which depicted the relationship of psychological stress conditions with the cardiac disorder. (Mozaffarian, et.al, 2015).

This theory states that completion of requirements for relatedness and competence is really challenging for the development and satisfaction regarding a health point of view (Milyavskaya, & Koestner, 2011). Broadly speaking, the need for autonomy described as the need to experience one's behavior as volitional and self-endorsed rather than endorsed by others. The said factor is the basic signal that provides a valuable relationship between health and satisfaction status as self-regulation is viewed as a “structural organized system that is highly associated with someone's behavior and are considered as a pillar for autonomy and self-confidence” (Shogren et, al., 2015). Such a need for relatedness clearly states the care and benefits for others not only circulating around their own corner.

The functional applications of these satisfactions not only localized to one factor but also provide fruitful effects for all types of fields including, culture, education, sports, health, and parents' children close relationships (Milyavskaya, & Koestner, 2011).

Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002) has suggested that the basic needs of any individual should be fulfilled which are beneficial to perform various activities in life at a broad level (Ryan & Deci, 2006).

A choice of behavior that describes someone itself condition is referred to as autonomy.

Autonomy is to be fulfilled when some have the opportunity to make his decision based on his behavior (Deci & Ryan, 2000). However, many external factors including, deadlines, guilt, and supervision put a negative impact on the autonomy parameter to fulfill the needs (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The relationship of someone with others at a strong level is referred to as relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2006). Kipp et al (2008) state that relatedness is basically “an individual's desire to have

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A.Sattar Ghaffari, M.Tahir, M.Khalid Javed, S. Ullah, S. Bibi, M.M.Hussain

satisfying and consistent involvement with others” (p. 110).

The stage of life where such needs are fulfilled is considered as needs satisfaction which ultimately influences someone's life regarding mental, physical, and psychological development (Hodge, Danish, & Martin, 2013; Weiss &Amorose, 2008). In other aspects, needs are not fulfilled to create a negative impact on one’s behavior and health status (Bartholomew, et.al, 2011).

Collectively, depression is considered as a major factor for disturbing heart normal function which consequently badly affect someone life (Randall, et, al. 2009), which put extra pressure on hospitalization and different basic care programs (Kronish, et, al. 2006) (Barth, et al. 2004).

Due to the occurrence of cardiovascular disease (CVD), various factors potentiate numbers of negative norms including social and behavioral factors which consequently enhanced psychological distress. Huge numbers of common and physiological factors including, smoking, alcohol consumption, lack of exercise, inflammation, adiposity, and body pain are considered as a mediator to increases the CVD anomaly, which is highly associated with psychological distress (Steptoe, & Kivimaki, 2012).

Massive studies and meta-analyses revealed that high risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) occurred in perceived stress and psychological distress patients (Brumby, et.al, 2012; Ghaffari, et al., 2019; Khalid, et al., 2018). The typical symptoms of Coronary heart disease are high blood pressure, smoking, and low-density lipoproteins that are associated with perceived stress (Richardson, et, al.

2012). Depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress are the 3 main factors of psychological distress among patients with CVD (Cohen, et, al. 2015).

Health problems related to mentality cause disability and are considered a major part of approximately 21% of the overall global burden (Collins, et, al. 2013). Bipolar disorder schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, and dysthymia are accounted in major disability factors Collectively, as the diseases incidence increase, ultimately increasing the level of depression which potentiates the other non-communicable diseases (NCDs). It is to be considered that depression is highly associated with patients suffering from the myocardial infarction related to the general population.

Previously, it was demonstrated that around 15-30% of patients’ suffered in CVD clearly indicated the depression symptoms and prevalence rate is highly noticed in women of young age.

Gehi, et, al. (2005) demonstrated that CHD patients with depressive symptoms take 3 times fewer medications as compared to CHD patients without depressive symptoms. Rieckmann, et al (2006) noticed that patients with acute myocardial infarction showed the symptoms of depression at high.

Patients having mental issues cannot receive properly targeted medication that is highly associated with that disease (Lawrence and Kisely, 2010).

This study rationale was to investigate the role of dissatisfaction with basic psychological needs in enhancing psychological distress and to decrease mental health. This study identifies the association of psychological needs and psychological distress with mental health and the mediating effect of these factors in cardiac patients. The previous literature has this gap to be filled by this study. *Corresponding author (M.M.Hussain malikmureedhussain@outlook.com, S.Bibi shaguftamalik409@yahoo.com) ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A15H http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.296

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2 METHOD 2.1 PARTICIPANTS This research sample included 313 hospitalized cardiac patients of both genders (170, male, and 143 females) who were chosen from Nishtar Hospital, Multan. They were admitted in the Nishtar Cardiac Ward from September-December 2017. This study utilized a non-probability, purposive sampling technique with a specific end goal to get a representative sample. The patient’s age was ranged between 28-73 years.

2.2 INSTRUMENTS In this study, three instruments were primarily used along with the demographic characteristics inquiry. Basic psychological needs were assessed by using basic needs satisfaction in the general scale developed by Deci & Ryan (2000). The scale of Basic Psychological Needs is referred to as is a family of all the scales that further have many scales. These scales include basic psychological needs satisfaction in the general domain, work domain, and relationships domain. The original scale was comprised of 21 items and it was concerned with three basic needs including relatedness, autonomy, and competence. All the 21 items measure above mentioned domains in a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Not at all true) to 7 (Very true). Autonomy is measure through the following items: 1, 4(R), 8, 11(R), 14, 17, 20(R), Competence is measured through the following items: 3(R), 5, 10, 13, 15(R), 19(R) and Relatedness is assessed through the following items: 2, 6, 7(R), 9, 12, 16(R), 18(R), 21.reverse scoring is indicated by “R”, in order to reverse the scoring of an item just subtract the given item response from 8. After completing the reverse scoring, take the average scores of the items on each subscale.

To measure the psychological distress of the patients, The Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) developed by Kessler and his colleagues (2002) was used. The K10 is a simple questionnaire for the assessment of patients and consisted of 10 questions about emotional states each with a five-level response scale while the response format stretches from none of the time to all of the time.

The minimum score is 10 in this scale and the maximum score is 50 which represents the level of psychological distress accordingly. Scores under 20 are counted as well while Low scores above 20 represent the mild level of psychological distress and high scores represent a higher level of psychological distress.

Mental Health Inventory (MHI-18) is the questionnaire established by Veit and Ware (1983) to study a population of various backgrounds. Such inventory is useful to judge the different parameters including depression, anxiety, positive affect, and behavioral control. Different factors involved to judge the mental health were assessed by this performa. This scale has good psychometric properties with Cranach’s alpha of .93 and .82 with short form, along with good convergent and discriminant validity.

2.3 PROCEDURE This research abided by the laws of international research ethical guidelines specially laid by the American psychological association. For this study ethical approval was obtained from the relevant research body. Hospital administration was briefed about the process and purpose of the study and afterward, Patients were approached in their wards. Participants’ consent was taken beforehand and

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patients were requested to give permission that they have the complete knowledge about the study and willing to participate in this work. The informed consent letter, assuring their entitlement to pull back anytime during completing the questionnaire process without being disadvantaged in any way, was signed by the patients. Subjects were also given the assurance that their information will not be disclosed. Participated patients were approached at hospitals to administer the study instruments and help to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire took 15-20 min to complete. All the participants were requested to respond to questions with ratings according to the scales.

3 DATA ANALYSIS After completing the collection of data, the scoring of the scales along with demographic variables was entered into SPSS 21 for analyzing it. To calculate the relationship between all the variables Pearson correlation coefficient was used. Mediation analysis was carried out by using an extension by Preacher and Hayes (2008) in SPSS 21. Comparisons between newly diagnosed patients and others for psychological distress, basic psychological needs, and mantel health inventory were analyzed via an independent samples t-test with corrections made for assumed variance equality.

4 RESULTS Table 1 shows the results of the correlation between anxiety, depression, behavior control, positive affect, psychological distress, autonomy, competence, and relatedness. We can see that anxiety, depression, and psychological distress are positively correlated with each other, while negatively correlated with positive affect, autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Similarly, positive affect, autonomy, competence, and relatedness are positively correlated with each other.

Table 1: Correlation analysis between anxiety, depression, behavior control, positive affect, psychological distress, autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Variables Anxiety Depression Behavior Control Positive Affect Psychological Distress Autonomy Competence Relatedness

Mean ± SD 18.741±2.083 18.786±2.090 15.051±1.590 15.006±1.695 37.435±3.706 26.310±2.713 22.511±2.566 30.019±3.307

1 1 .549** .420** -.464** .618** -.283** -.311** -.361**

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1 .063 -.269** .548** -.345** -.296** -.305**

1 -.589** .335** -.360** -.165** -.319**

1 -.159** .124* -.184** -.185**

1 -.396** -.418** -.535**

1 .446** .616**

1 .630**

1

Table 2: Regression analysis results, with anxiety as an outcome and psychological distress as mediator.

Predictors Autonomy Relatedness Competence

a -0.540*** -0.604*** -0.599***

b 0.337*** 0.332*** 0.335***

Path Coefficients c -0.218*** -0.253*** -0.227***

c’ -0.036 -0.052 -0.027

axb (BCa 95% CI)

R2

-0.182 (-0.260, -0.119) -0.201 (-0.275, -0.131) -0.201 (-0.267, -0.136)

0.384 0.385 0.383

Table 2 presents the results of the mediation effects of psychological distress in the relationship *Corresponding author (M.M.Hussain malikmureedhussain@outlook.com, S.Bibi shaguftamalik409@yahoo.com) ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A15H http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.296

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between anxiety and basic psychological needs satisfaction (Autonomy, Relatedness, and Competence). We can see that psychological distress fully mediate the effect of autonomy, relatedness, and competence on anxiety.

To estimate the effect size of the mediating pathway, we calculated the proportion of the total effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable (c) that was mediated by psychological distress using the formula (a × b)/c. The proportions of psychological distress mediation were 18.2% for autonomy, 20.1% for relatedness, and 20.1% for competence.

Table 3: Regression analysis results, with depression as an outcome and psychological distress as mediator.

Predictors Autonomy Competence Relatedness

a -0.540*** -0.604*** -0.599***

Path Coefficients b c 0.275*** -0.266*** 0.290*** -0.241*** 0.303*** -0.193***

c’ -0.118** -0.067 -0.011

axb (BCa 95% CI)

R2

-0.149 (-0.217, -0.094) -0.175 (-0.238, -0.117) -0.181 (-0.245, -0.119)

0.320 0.305 0.300

Table 3 depicts the results of the mediation effect of psychological distress in the relationship between depression and basic psychological needs satisfaction (Autonomy, Relatedness, and Competence). We can see that psychological distress fully mediate the effect of relatedness and competence on depression while partially mediates the effect of autonomy on depression.

The proportions of psychological distress mediation were 14.9% for autonomy, 17.5% for competence, and 18.1% for relatedness.

Table 4: Regression analysis results, with behavior control as an outcome and psychological distress as the mediator.

Predictors Autonomy Competence Relatedness

a -0.540*** -0.604*** -0.599***

Path Coefficients b c 0.098*** -0.211*** 0.138*** -0.102** 0.099*** -0.153***

c’ -0.158*** -0.019 -0.094**

axb (BCa 95% CI)

R2

-0.053 (-0.091, -0.016) -0.083 (-0.130, -0.046) -0.059 (-0.094, -0.012)

0.174 0.113 0.140

Table 4 shows the results of the mediation effect of psychological distress in the relationship between depression and basic psychological needs satisfaction (Autonomy, Relatedness, and Competence). We can see that psychological distress fully mediate the effect of relatedness on behavior control while partially mediate the effect of autonomy and relatedness on behavior control.

The proportions of psychological distress mediation were 5.3% for autonomy, 8.3% for competence, and 5.9 % for relatedness.

Table 5: Regression analysis results, with positive effect as an outcome and psychological distress as mediator.

Predictors Autonomy Competence Relatedness

a -0.540*** -0.604*** -0.599***

Path Coefficients b c -0.059*** 0.078* -0.131*** -0.121** -0.165*** -0.095**

c’ 0.046 -0.200 -0.194***

axb (BCa 95% CI)

R2

0.032 (0.032, 0.035) 0.079 (0.043, 0.122) 0.099 (0.050, 0.158)

0.030 0.113 0.127

Table 5 depicts the results of the mediation effect of psychological distress in the relationship

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A.Sattar Ghaffari, M.Tahir, M.Khalid Javed, S. Ullah, S. Bibi, M.M.Hussain

between positive affect and basic psychological needs satisfaction (Autonomy, Relatedness, and Competence). We can see that psychological distress fully mediate the effect of autonomy and competence on positive affect while partially mediate the effect of relatedness on positive affect.

The proportions of psychological distress mediation were 3.2% for autonomy, 7.9% for competence, and 9.9% for relatedness.

Table 6 Analysis of differences in the level of anxiety, depression, behavior control, positive affect, psychological distress, autonomy, competence, and relatedness in male and female patients Male Female (n=170) (n=143) t-test Variables M SD M SD Anxiety 18.44 2.06 19.10 2.07 -2.809 Depression 18.83 2.04 18.87 2.15 0.401 Behavior Control 14.89 1.52 15.24 1.65 -1.985 Positive Affect 15.21 1.54 14.76 1.83 2.423 Psychological Distress 37.44 3.91 37.43 3.46 0.004 Autonomy 26.32 2.75 26.30 2.68 0.055 Competence 22.38 2.43 22.66 2.72 -0.968 Relatedness 29.81 3.46 30.27 3.11 -1.211 df = 290, *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001

p-value .005** .689 .001** .012* 0.997 0.956 0.334 0.277

Table 6, shows the results of the comparison of anxiety, depression, behavior control, positive affect, psychological distress, autonomy, competence, and relatedness between male and female cardiac patients. Female patients report a higher level of anxiety and behavior control as compared to male patients with p-values 0.005 and 0.001 respectively. The level of positive affect is higher in male patients as compared to female patients with a p-value of 0.012. no significant differences were seen in depression, psychological distress, autonomy, competence, and relatedness between male and female patients.

Table 7 Analysis of differences in the level of anxiety, depression, behavior control, and positive affect in newly diagnosed patients and chronic patients Newly Diagnose Chronic (n=170) (n=143) t-test Variables M SD M SD Anxiety 19.14 2.31 18.45 1.86 2.945 Depression 18.54 2.43 18.96 1.80 -1.758 Behavior Control 15.29 1.64 14.88 1.53 2.270 Positive Affect 14.63 1.87 15.28 1.50 -3.427 Psychological Distress 37.31 3.91 37.53 3.55 -0.523 Autonomy 26.34 2.95 26.29 2.54 0.143 Competence 22.43 2.88 22.57 2.32 -0.489 Relatedness 30.16 3.31 29.92 3.31 0.640 df = 290, *p< 0.05, **p< 0.01, ***p< 0.001

p-value .005** .080 .024* .001* 0.602 0.886 0.625 0.523

From Table 7 results, we can conclude that the patients who are newly diagnosed in cardiac disease show a higher level of anxiety and behavior control as compared to chronic patients with p-value 0.005 and 0.024 respectively. Similarly, chronic patients show a higher level of positive affect with p-values 0.001. Furthermore, no significant differences were seen in the level of depression, psychological distress, autonomy, competence, and relatedness between newly diagnosed *Corresponding author (M.M.Hussain malikmureedhussain@outlook.com, S.Bibi shaguftamalik409@yahoo.com) Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A15H http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.296

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patients as well as chronic patients.

5 DISCUSSION The main aim of the present study was to estimate the mediating role of psychological distress in the satisfaction of psychological needs and mental health.

Our data suggest that psychological distress is negatively correlated with psychological needs and mental health and also play role in increasing mental health problems as well as dissatisfaction with psychological needs. Psychological distress is found 4 to 5 times more common among cardiac patients as compared to normal individuals (Chauvet-Gelinier, and Bonin. 2017; Mirza, & Jenkins, 2004). Newly diagnosed patients with cardiac diseases found to had mild to moderate psychological distress whereas patients with chronic conditions or having disease more than 1 year were found to have severe psychological distress.

Females cardiac patients tend to experience more anxiety as compared to males, similarly, low education levels and being a housewife are the factors associated with higher anxiety among females (Meneghetti, et.al, 2017; Mirza, & Jenkins, 2004; Ghaffari, et.al, 2019). Another finding of the study indicates that newly diagnosed patients showed more anxiety and behavioral control symptoms whereas chronic patients showed more depressive symptoms and less positive affect on mental health inventory. Psychological distress was associated with a higher prevalence of hypertension that partly mediated the greater risk of cardiac events.

Anxiety, anger, and depression are predictors of hypertension (AlKhathami, 2017; Mushtaq & Najam, 2014; Player & Peterson, 2011; Rutledge, 2002), and acute psychological trauma such as problems in relationships, autonomy, and competence can produce profound and sustained increases in blood pressure (Gerin, et.al, 2005). Because hypertension is a potent risk factor for cardiac diseases, it is therefore plausible that the association between psychological distress and cardiac disease is partly mediated through this risk factor.

It was not possible to assess and address all the pathophysiological and psychological mediators at one time that might be accounted for an unexplained variance. We provide compelling evidence that health care professionals are at great risk and they should keep awareness regarding disease psychosocial factors, overlapping aspects, and disease symptoms for future prospective.

It was determined that field exposure, training during jobs, and workshops in educational institutions are a potential source for awareness to address the physical and mental health issues. The integration of physical and mental health will produce professionals who can play a more prominent role in interdisciplinary teams practicing in the integrative health arenas (Vourlekis, ell, &Padgett, 2001).

The majority of the clinicians dealing with patients suffering in cardiovascular disorders with mental illness are less aware of the mental critical situation of the patients than the psychiatrists that might be able to understand the patientâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s current scenario in a well manner. Knowledge about the disease, disease prevention measurements, and awareness via endocrinologists, and cardiologists to the individuals suffering in mental illness might be essential therapy to reduce the risk of CVD and CVD risk-equivalent conditions like diabetes. There is a need to focus on psychological interventions

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A.Sattar Ghaffari, M.Tahir, M.Khalid Javed, S. Ullah, S. Bibi, M.M.Hussain

for cardiac patients as indicated by Tan & Morgan (2015); Reid et.al (2015); & Linden (2007).

6 CONCLUSION Anxiety, depression, behavior control, positive affect, psychological distress, autonomy, competence, and relatedness are significantly correlated with each other. Our data revealed that psychological distress mediates the relationship between mental health (anxiety, depression, behavior control, and positive affect) and basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness).

Furthermore, significant differences in the levels of anxiety, behavior control, and positive affects between male and female patients were found.

7 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The corresponding author will be liable to provide information regarding this paper.

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Shogren, K. A., Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S. B., Forber-Pratt, A. J., Little, T. J., & Lopez, S. (2015).

Causal agency theory: Reconceptualizing a functional model of self-determination. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 251-263.

Steptoe, A., & Kivimäki, M. (2012).Stress and cardiovascular disease. Nature Reviews Cardiology, 9(6), 360.

Tan, M. P., & Morgan, K. (2015). Psychological interventions in cardiovascular disease: an update.

Current opinion in psychiatry, 28(5), 371-377.

Vourlekis, B. S., Ell, K., & Padgett, D. (2001). Educating social workers for health care’s brave new world. Journal of Social Work Education, 37(1), 177-191.

Weiss, M.R., & Amorose, A.J. (2008). Motivational orientations and sport behavior. In T. S. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology. 3rd Ed., 115-155. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Whooley, M. A., & Wong, J.M. (2013). Depression and cardiovascular disorders. Annual review of clinical psychology, 9, 327-354. *Corresponding author (M.M.Hussain malikmureedhussain@outlook.com, S.Bibi shaguftamalik409@yahoo.com) ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A15H http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.296

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WHO. ( 2009). Global health risks: mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks.

Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO). http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/44203 Abdul Sattar Ghaffari is a Ph.D. Scholar, Zhongtai Securities, Institutes for Financial Studies, Shandong University, Shandong, China. He holds a Master of Philosophy in Statistics. His research interests are Statistics and Educational Psychology.

Muhammad Tahir is a PhD Scholar, School Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China. He holds a Master of Philosophy in Medicine. His Research interest is Clinical Medicine.

Dr.Muhammad Khalid Javed is a general Surgeon in Nishter Medical University, Multan, Pakistan. He holds a FCPS from Pakistan. His research interest is in Sergery and Clinical diagnosis.

Sana Ullah is a Doctoral Scholar of Applied Psychology in Southwest University, Chongqing,P.R China. He holds Master of Science in Applied Psychology from Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. His research interest is statistical data analysis, interpretation, and collection for psychological research.

Dr. Malik Mureed Hussain is Director, Multan Postgraduate College, Multan, Pakistan. He holds PhD degree in Psychology. His research interest is Psychology.

Shagufta Bibi is a PhD Scholar, School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;an, China. She holds a Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Degree in Psychology. Her research interest is Applied Psychology.

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A.Sattar Ghaffari, M.Tahir, M.Khalid Javed, S. Ullah, S. Bibi, M.M.Hussain

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15I

Talent Management and the Digital Journey: Case Studies on the Apparel SMEs in Malaysia Joyce F.Y. Leu 1 2

1*

, Masri Ridzuan

2

Department of Business Studies, HELP University, MALAYSIA. Faculty of Management and Business, Manipal International University, MALAYSIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 23 June 2020 Received in revised form 01 September 2020 Accepted 04 September 2020 Available online 09 September 2020

Due to the disruptive technology in the 4th industrial revolutions, many changes have taken place in the apparel industry. The 4th industrial revolution has been described as the new modes of production, consumption patterns will transform all the major industrial systems. The technologies played important roles in the apparel industry include 3D designs, digital printings, RFID, automated manufacturing. With a massive transformation, many retail stores still use pre-internet business methods, due to a shortage of talent and relevant infrastructure. The objective of this study to understand the processes of how apparel SMEs successfully internationalize their businesses through the integration of talent and technological infrastructure.

The studied firms have been using the omni-channel method in digital businesses including the merchandise team, digital marketing, and other managerial talents to ensure the success of the whole process. These include the design of the product, triangle manufacturing, and retail stores to the delivery of the products to consumers. Malaysian firms put the focus on Singapore due to purchasing power, cultural similarity, and geographical distance.

Nevertheless, with the omni-channel of online business in Singapore, the performance in retail stores is still better than the online sales but the digital businesses are growing and it is necessary to embrace digital business.

Keywords: Omni-channel retailing; Talent management; Malaysia apparel business; Apparel SMEs; Digital business; Dynamic capabilities; Online apparel firm; Digital talent; Business digital infrastructure; Talented employees, Apparel business strategy; ASEAN business.

Disciplinary: Management Science (SME Business Management, Digital Business Management, HRM, Technology in Business Management). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION The apparel industry consists of the produce or selling of clothing, footwear, and accessories.

Businesses involved in this apparel industry can be the manufacturers who produce the apparel product, the whole-sellers, or retailers who sell the products through retail outlets or online store. *Corresponding author (Joyce, F. Y. Leu). Email: leufy@help.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.297

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Traditionally, a designer’s capability is embedded in the internal resources of the fashion apparel groups (Wang, 2016). Apart from that, knowledge development technology, human resources, fashion diffusion, and capital are all key factors in promoting the industry as a whole.

With the 4th industrial revolution, the manufacturing of the apparel products experiences a convergence between the physical and digital environment by using artificial intelligence or robotic automation (Gilchrist, 2016; as cited by Bertola and Teuniseen, 2018). With this transformation, firms can gain unprecedented benefits from these technologies, such as leanness, speed in responding to changes, efficiencies, consistency, transparency, and so on (Bertola and Teuniseen, 2018). Further from that, 3D printing technologies are already established in sportswear products and other accessories, such as bags, shoes, and leather goods (Birtchnell and Urry, 2016).

However, Bertola and Teuniseen (2018) claim that many firms are yet to create an integration of digital infrastructure consists of the objects, machine, and human than can link to a form of communication via the Internet of Things. Many firms are still struggling with digital transformation.

According to McKinsey (2019), they are expecting 3D design, digital printing, RFID, automated manufacturing will come into play in the apparel industry. As for fabric materials, it is forecasted that more innovative materials will be used in the future.

Coming to the downstream of the industry, technologies have also changed the business model of retailers and the way consumers purchase their products. Among choices and platforms for apparel retailers to start their online business include: start an e-commerce store, using social media, etc.

Although there are changes in the consumers’ purchasing pattern and various digital platforms are available for apparel retailers, yet not all retailers engage actively in digital businesses. Hunt (2019) comments that many changes under the internet age and the retail industry is undergoing a massive transformation. Many retail stores still using business methods that were developed “pre-internet” age. The common reasons are due to a shortage of talent and relevant infrastructure. In this context, it is obvious that the shortages of relevant talent and infrastructure are common in the apparel industry. If larger fashion firms are facing a shortage of talent, it is even more pressing among the smaller firms (Willdersdorf, 2014).

2 LITERATURE REVIEW Apparently, the issue of talent management does not get enough attention from the management in the apparel industry. Traci Wilk, the vice president of the HR department in Rag and Bone stresses that HR should not be an afterthought (Pike, 2015). Findings reveal that revenue growth among firms that excel in their recruitment is three and a half times faster, with a profit margin twice higher than their peers (Pike, 2015).

Based on the 2014 report by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) and The Business of Fashion (Pike, 2015), the issue of talent gap continues to be one of the greatest challenges that firms would encounter in the next decade.

Nak (2012) comments that talent management enhances the capabilities of representatives, creating a profitable effect on the organizations in various aspects. Further from that, Koscianska (2013) views talented employees as the wellspring of the workplace who bring in positive outcomes to the organizations.

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In the effort to bridge the talent gap, the Deloitte Swiss Watch Industry Report (2013) indicated that the majority of the firms prefer to fill their talent pools through in-house training (74%) and offer more apprenticeships (54%) to young talent (Finnigan, 2014).

In the context of technological development, Shopify (2019) points out some potential threats that need to be addressed by retailers; these include competitive landscape and the rejection rate of products. In this new age of e-commerce, competition among peers is intensified, retailers normally provide omni-channel to consumers, both online and offline platforms capture the online consumers market. More and more apparel SMEs are moving towards less complexity, streamline multi-channel selling and find ways to use technology to support the business. As this will be the trend for the future, SMEs need to pick up those skills and acquire the talents needed for these purposes in the future.

The conceptual framework used in this study is the dynamic capabilities theory, proposed by Teece et al. (1997). The theory of dynamic capability is to analyse the sources and methods of wealth creation by the private businesses which operate in an environment of rapid changes in technology.

The theory aims to expose implicit assumptions and to identify competitive circumstances where each paradigm displays useful descriptive and normative theory of competitive advantage.

Teece (2018) argues that the design and operation of a business model rely on the capabilities of this firm. Dynamic capabilities are the firm’s ability to integrate, build, configure internal competencies for the changes and improvement to a firm. The strength of the dynamic capabilities of a firm refers to its ability to maintain sustainable profits, design, and adjust its business model (Teece, 2018).

The abilities of a firm to change its future repertoire of capabilities are affected by its current assets. Teece and Pisano (1994) define assets as legacy resources, including knowledge, technical skills, competencies, etc.

The other determinant of the capabilities is the processes. Firms can always reconfigure their assets positions through appropriate investment and other managerial improvements. It is the process and ability to reconfigure a firm’s assets positions which Teece and Pisano (1994) highlight as ‘dynamic capabilities’.

Teece et al. (1997) encourage firms that encounter rapid changes in disruptive technologies to reshape and reconfigure their competencies to address the changing technologies and market.

There are three types of managerial activities which create a dynamic capability, namely: sensing, seizing, and transforming (Kleiner, 2013). Teece (2007) states them as the micro-foundations of dynamic capabilities. Sensing referring to identification and assessment of an opportunity, these include the ability of employees to learn quickly and to build new strategic assets (Teece et al, 1997).

Seizing is to mobilize the resources to address an opportunity and to capture value, this covers the integration of new strategic assets; lastly, transforming is to have continuous renewal. Both sensing and seizing lead to new positions and paths, resulting in the transformation of firms that affect performance (Wang, 2016).

These managerial activities create dynamic capabilities and result in competitiveness (Shane et al, 2009; Teece, 2007) and superior performance (Klenier, 2013). The conceptual framework as showed in Figure 1 *Corresponding author (Joyce, F. Y. Leu). Email: leufy@help.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.297

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Sensing Seizing

Superior Performance

Transforming Figure 1: Dynamic Capabilities Theory Based on the qualitative conceptual framework of this study, having talents or employees who are capable is the first phase of sensing; mobilising and investing in talents and technology (resources) are aligned with the process of seizing. Whereas, the adoption of technology and continuous renewal referring to the transforming process.

The theory is aligned with the purpose of this study to understand the processes on how apparel SMEs go through sensing, seizing, and transforming; capturing opportunities and successfully utilize the integration of talent and technology for internationalization. Therefore, qualitative research only focuses on apparel SMEs that have succeeded in internationalization, with the implementation of talent management.

Firstly, in the phase of sensing, apparel SMEs need to identify and assess new opportunities.

When talents invest and mobilize technologies to capture these new opportunities, they are in the phase of seizing. Lastly, with the adoption of appropriate technology, SMEs transform themselves with continuous renewal for long-term survival competitiveness, firms now enter into the phase of transforming.

When the superior performance is achieved, it allows SMEs to embark on internationalization and venture into the new sales region.

According to Bharadwaj (2000), there needs to be an integration of technological tools and IT experts (both technical and managerial IT skills) to foster competitive advantage. Technological infrastructure alone does not enhance competitiveness, but the synergy of these elements do. Only digital & managerial related skilled-workers enable firms to leverage benefits from technology and hence, able to enhance business growth via internationalization. Tetteh and Burn (2011); Barber and Esteve (2005); Vida (2000) agree that competencies encourage firms to promote internationalization.

Besides that, the adaptation of employees to organizational change is another determinant factor of a firmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ability to respond to changes. Sabherwal and King (1991) comment that SMEsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; ability to respond to changes in the environment is determined by how the firm is implanted with its databases and other decision supporting system. Overall, strong digital expertise, a reusable digital-based; a flourishing partnership between IT and business management are some of the prerequisites for strong digital capability (Ross et al., 1996).

In the past, small firms often lag behind large firms in the aspects of innovation and technologies.

However, Dutta and Evrard (1999) claim that this trend has changed and modern retailers can adopt news technologies quickly, particularly digital-related devices. Thus, the integration of talent with technological tools is essential for SMEs to position themselves in the foreign market effectively.

The objective of this study to understand the processes of how apparel SMEs successfully internationalize their businesses through the integration of talent and technological infrastructure.

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3 RESEARCH METHOD This is qualitative research using the case study method. A qualitative approach is for exploring and understanding the individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. It is also suitable when the study aims to answer the questions of ‘how’ and ‘why’ (Yin, 2004; 2008).

The multiple-case study will be carried out for the qualitative method via interview. By applying a case study method, the study will provide a rich understanding of the effort of apparel SMEs in internationalization through appropriate talent management.

In this interview, an in-depth, semi-structured interview will be applied. An in-depth interview refers to one-to-one interviews, allowing respondents to provide more information to the interviewers. A semi-structured interview is considered suitable in getting rich and deep understanding by integrating different perspectives of respondents (Birnik, 2007).

The sampling method is using judgmental sampling. This judgmental sampling method is a guideline to select SMEs which to fulfil the criteria of operating both online and offline, and they are successful in online businesses, with at least 15% of their sales are from overseas market for at least two years. The sample for this study will be two firms from the SMEs for the multiple case studies.

Patton (2002) argues that there is no rule in determining sample size, depending on what the researcher wants to know, the purpose of the study, what can be useful, what can be done within a certain time and resource. The quality of the analysis, how much time taken to analyse the interviews are much more crucial than the quantity.

In this research, process coding is selected to capture the action. Process coding describes how things change over time. This is very relevant to this study which intends to understand how SMEs can succeed in overseas markets through appropriate talent management.

4 FINDINGS Q1: How does your firm define talent and talent management?

Firm A: Talents are the core workforce that is crucial in the organization. In this firm, those included in talents are the merchandise team, digital marketing, or other crucial management work task.

The merchandise team handles the design of clothing targeting young adults between the age of 18 to 25. Talent in design here covers creativity, knowing the preferences of young adults and the demographic factors that influence their purchasing patterns.

Next is the marketing team, particularly digital marketing, as young adults are receptive to online purchases, apart from that, retail staff in the frontline also plays a role.

Firm B: For talent management in the digital business, the planning team, analytical team, and the marketing team are both essential to kick start the whole process. The planning team handles the whole planning and delivery processes.

Talent management starts from the data analytics team to the marketing team, followed by the design development and the production team. The last part will be the supply chain division to the retail stores, consumer services, etc.

The firm consists of both offline and online businesses. The online business is using the *Corresponding author (Joyce, F. Y. Leu). Email: leufy@help.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.297

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omni-channel retailing, therefore, a data-driven mindset is essential in business.

Q2: How do talent/experts in your firms help in sensing new opportunities/changes in the market?

Firm A: New opportunities in the market are sensed through their merchandise and marketing team by conducting marketing surveys from time to time. Their job is to identify the needs of customers and to collect new ideas for future designs. Their target young adults between the age of 18-25 as these are their main clients.

Firm B: At the initial stage, the data team will extract data from internal and external data to identify consumers’ needs. From there, they analyse the trends, preferences, taste, price range, design, sizes, race, and gender of the consumers. The analysis is then passed to the marketing for brand building and designs. The survey can be conducted online, information available on e-commerce websites, other firms’ websites, etc.

Occasionally, they visit other physical stores to gain more knowledge about how peers run their businesses. This produces a holistic view of the demand in the market.

Q3: How does your firm align talent management and digital businesses to capture the benefits of digital business? Who are the workforces that are categorized as the “digital talent”?

Firm A: The top management conducts business reviews from time to time, particularly the annual review to determine the direction and planning for the year to come. To achieve these goals, appropriate training will be given, including in-house training and outsource training.

Digital talents are those in digital marketing, those well versed with the digital devices; and the merchandise team, those who handle the design of products. The firm embarked on the digital business since 5 years ago. These include promoting the product using online platforms, selling products online, and the new initiative is to combine membership in both online and offline operations.

Firm B: The firm agrees that digital business will be more dominant in years to come. To align talent management with the digital business, it is accomplished through the transform of mind-set, particularly those in the key positions.

Digital talent is not merely those in the IT skills, but also those skills needed in the whole operations, etc. Digital-related skills are needed for the creation of websites, other in-house infrastructure, setting up and maintenance of software, hardware, inventory control using IT devices, etc. As for digital marketing, digital skills are related to managerial or marketing-related digital skills, such as managing the website and social media, software for logistics management, etc.

Q4: How does talent utilises digital technology with a market plan for your business?

Firm A: The firm uses the omni-channel method, digital platforms used by the firm include the company’s website; e-commerce marketplace, mobile app; social media; and e-wallet.

The firm launched its app in September 2019 created by an external consultant. The use of social media and e-wallet are digital platforms with the least issue, which requires less specific skills. The firm normally applies the knowledge the staff gain from the e-commerce marketplace into social media platforms. As for e-wallet, the firm is the user of various e-wallet payments, such as Boost, Grab-pay, Alipay, etc.

Among all these digital devices, its website is most effective in sales, compared to the e-commerce marketplace. Even though there is a huge amount of viewer traffic on e-commerce

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websites, they are not the most effective digital platforms for firm A. Firm B: The talent deploys appropriate technology and matches this technology with employees of certain expertise. For example, instead of creating the company’s website from scratch, the firm purchases a template that allows them to design and amend the materials from time to time. Similarly, they select a mobile app that enables amendments. For a smooth operational process, the firm selects the easy puzzle software that supports them in the digital business. This software connects them for the whole process of the supply chain. It provides collective information about charges of different logistic firms and their availability in different locations. Currently, the firm promises quick delivery of products across Klang Valley areas within 4 hours.

Overall, both firms use omni-channel strategies to capture the attention and awareness of shoppers about their products.

Q5: How do you successfully integrate talent and deploy technology in expanding your business?

Firm A: For successful integration of talent and deploy technology in the business, it covers the internal and external aspects of firms. Internal aspects consist of the effective training of staff, the use of cloud data, and the effective usage of digital platforms and digital devices in their operations.

External aspects are related to the awareness of consumers in using online business so that more clients are comfortable using digital devices in their purchase. These include awareness of clients regarding the use of the online purchase, services given to online shoppers, etc.

In providing the online facilities to shoppers, it only achieves the purpose if there is online purchase. Otherwise, firms may receive poor responses although advanced technology has been deployed in the digital platform. As such, the readiness of online shoppers does matter.

Firm B: To achieve this purpose, the firm commits to providing continuous opportunities for employees to explore and to learn. Upskilling and reskilling will be an on-going thing for the firm.

Any new ideas will be validated using actual data. If these ideas match with the current trend and needs, the firm proceeds with the design and production.

Findings from the data analytic allow the firm to find the ‘sweet spots’ for promotional items. In other words, the optimum prices for products during stock clearance or discount seasons. As such, the firm can make appropriate decisions for their business operations.

Q6: What are the challenges and difficulties in talent management and technology adoption? How do you overcome them?

Firm A: Challenges include retaining the workforce. Another challenge is the rapid changes in technology. In the past, the operations of both offline and online were carried out separately. With the new retail concept which is to combine both online and offline operations, the firm needs to upgrade its system for better operational connectivity. More investments need to be done to realise this new retail concept.

External challenges include the issue of logistics. Currently, the firm has difficulties in speedy delivery as there are very limited logistic firms that are available. It takes a longer period for them to deliver the products as they need to accumulate enough volume from firms to deliver products to different locations. Without more demand for online purchases, the logistics firm and online business cannot have fast progress. *Corresponding author (Joyce, F. Y. Leu). Email: leufy@help.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.297

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Firm B: The most challenging thing will be the change of mindset from the conventional way to the data-driven mindset. Data sources are crucial in the process of decision making, from the designs of the products; branding; marketing tools and experiences; the quantity of the products; arrangement for the retail outlets and online business, logistic issues, etc. Hence, the knowledge and usage of data are crucial. This enables the firm to reduce risks and make effective predictions, and plan proper prescriptions.

As regarding the process of internationalization performance, these are the questions: Q7: How significant is digital technology in capturing the ASEAN market?

In the context of these 2 firms, digital technology is relevant, however, there are other prominent factors, include cultural similarity; geographical distance; the prospect of profitability, and sustainability of the firm in overseas branches; governmental policies such as tariff, exchange rate, etc. All these factors will influence if the firm wants to expand its business overseas.

Q8: The success factors of the firms in internationalizing the business to ASEAN. Firm A: To be successful, it has to meet the basic principle, which is the quality of the products.

The firm offers quality products at affordable prices. The rest will be related to the designs of the products which are acceptable by the consumers. Hence, the preferences of consumers come into play.

Firm B: For the ASEAN market, the firm uses the e-commerce marketplace as the tool to reach out to consumers who do not come to the retail outlets. In fact, the volume of viewersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; traffic on e-commerce websites serve as a way for branding and awareness. Another effective tool is the mobile app, consumers get access to the latest update about products and promotional items.

5 DISCUSSION No one can deny the significance of talent management in achieving organizational performance.

Willdersdorf (2014) emphasizes the importance to cultivate strong a leadership pipeline. It is essential to integrate the business plans into HR applications, at the same time analyse the skills needed in the future.

In the context of these two firms, both use omni-channel retailing, which is encouraged by Bell et al. (2014) and Ye et al. (2018), as it is easier for firms to reach out to the consumers and information is accessible online. Apart from using omni-channel retailing, Shopify (2019) proposes ways for apparel retailers to strengthen their online sales volume, such as with the use of flexible payment gateways; synchronize the product information and inventory; end-to-end integration.

Likewise, the Deloitte Swiss Watch Report (2016) has highlighted some innovative processes which are undergone an evolution, including the growing importance of 3D printing. When this technology reaches the maturity stage, it might end the triangle manufacturing and local apparel retailers can even think of printing their materials. It allows firms to create prototypes in a short period without any need to order internal parts or use manufacturing tools.

Apart from that, retailers can engage influencers, bloggers, content writers to further communicate with their consumers. Besides, for apparel retailers who are reluctant to digitize their

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businesses, they may consider drop-shipping as a way to go online. Drop-shipping is the corporation with pure-play online retailers, online retailers will handle digital marketing.

6 CONCLUSION From this study, both firms use the omni-channel method in digital businesses. In firm A, the merchandise team, digital marketing, and other managerial talents are to ensure the success of the whole process. These include the design of the product, triangle manufacturing, retail stores to the delivery of the products to consumers.

As for firm B, they are one step ahead in data analytics. The data analytics team will validate the information and ideas using internal and external data to assess the marketability of certain ideas or designs. Followed by that, the marketing team will conduct a marketing survey to identify market trends. Also, firm B applies certain logistic software to keep track of the whole supply chain processes.

As for the internationalization of business. Both select Singapore due to purchasing power, cultural similarity, and geographical distance. Nevertheless, the two firms state that although they use the omni-channel of online business in Singapore, the performance in retail stores is still better than the online sales. Having said this, both recognize that digital business is growing and it is necessary to embrace digital business.

Currently, there are several digital marketing agencies available in the market, providing strategies in digital consultancies, digital business mapping, training of digital skills, and so on. The initiative of firms to be ready and embrace the digitization of businesses will be the key to success in moving towards this direction.

7 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The corresponding author will be liable to provide information regarding this paper.

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Shopify. (2019). Opportunities for retailers in the fashion industry. Fashion Industry Report, 3-4. http://cdn.shopify.com/s/files/1/0898/4708/files/Fashion-Industry-Report.pdf Accessed January 2020.

Teece, D. J. (2007). Explicating Dynamic Capabilities: The Nature and Micro-foundations of (Sustainable) Enterprise Performance. Strategic Management Journal, 28(13), 1319-1350.

Teece, D. J. (2018). Business models and dynamic capabilities. Long Range Planning, 51, 40-49.

Teece, D. J., and Pisano, G. P. (1994). The Dynamic Capabilities of Firms: An Introduction.

Industrial and Corporate Change, 3(3), 537-556.

Teece, D. J., Pisano, G., and Shuen, A. (1997). Dynamic capabilities and strategic management. In Foss, N. J. (Ed.), Resources, Firms and Strategies, Oxford University Press, 509-533.

Tetteh, E., and Burn, J. (2001). Global strategies for SME-business: applying the SMALL framework. Logistics Information Management, 14(1/2), 171-180.

Vida, I. (2000). An empirical inquiry into international expansion of US retailers. International Marketing Review, 17(4/5), 454.

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Wang, Y-S. (2016). Dynamic capabilities in fashion apparel industry: emergent conceptual framework. Baltic Journal of Management, 11(3), 286-309.

Willdersdorf, S. (2014). Minding the talent gap: Fashion and Luxuryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s greatest challenge for the next decade. http://www.bcg.com/publications/2014/leadership-talent-human-resources-consumer-produc ts-minding-talent-gap-fashion-luxury.aspx Ye, Y., Lau, K.H., & Teo, L.K.Y. (2018). Drivers and barriers of omni-channel retailing in China.

International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 46(7), 657-689.

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Joyce F.Y. Leu is an Academician at the Faculty of Business, Accounting, and Economics, HELP University. She is completing her PhD in the area of Talent Management. Her research interests include Talent Management, SMEs, and Digitalization of Business.

Dr. Masri Ridzuan is an Academician at the Faculty of Management and Business, Manipal International University (MIU). He completed his PhD in Strategic Management at IIUM. His research interests focus on Contemporary & Islamic Management and Marketing, Advertising, and Information Technology.

*Corresponding author (Joyce, F. Y. Leu). Email: leufy@help.edu.my Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.297

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A15J

DETERMINATION THE QUALITY OF MEAT, MANUFACTURED MEAT, AND MEAT PRODUCTS VIA THE HISTOLOGICAL METHOD 1*

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Manya Mkrtchyan , Danil Safronov , Anton Tokarev , Svetlana Makavchik 2, Diana Orlova 1

Department of Biology, Ecology and Histology, Saint Petersburg State University of Veterinary Medicine, Saint Petersburg, RUSSIA. 2 Department of Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise, Saint Petersburg State University of Veterinary Medicine, Saint Petersburg, RUSSIA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 11 May 2020 Received in revised form 04 September 2020 Accepted 08 September 2020 Available online 12 September 2020

Microstructural analysis methods allow not only assessing the quality but also determining the quantitative ratio of the ingredients of meat products. With the histological examination, it is possible to estimate the state of the starting material. Changes in the native morphology manifest defrosted raw materials or those subjected to autolytic processes.

Improving the methods of histological studies to assess the quality and identify undeclared components (falsifications) in meat products is still relevant today. The material for the study was meat products: ripened and chilled poultry and cattle (hip) meat, semi-finished products (chicken and ground beef), finished meat products (sausage products). Studying the microstructure of beef samples found the good structuredness of muscle fibers. The endomysium has well developed, which is especially clearly seen in the cross-section. On the periphery of the muscle fibers under the sarcolemma found oval-elongated nuclei.

During the histological examination of minced meat and sausages, especially when staining according to the Perls Van Gieson method, fragments of fatty and connective tissues are revealed. The developed method opens up vast opportunities for use in quality control and detection of falsifications of raw meat and meat products.

Keywords: Histology; Microstructural analysis; Meat quality control; Beef microstructural; Meat collagen fibers; Autolytic processes; Meat muscle fibers; Sausage inspection; Histological examination; Chicken meat examination, Minced meat; Detection of falsifications of meat; Beef muscle tissue; Defrosted meat examination.

Disciplinary: Veterinary Science, Biology, Histology, Bioscience. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION The variety of meat products, both domestic and foreign production, on Russian food markets and the whole world continuously increases. It includes animal origin products of low, medium, and high price categories but monitoring the quality of these products mainly aimed at safety for *Corresponding author (Manya Mkrtchyan). Tel: +7-967-879-6556. Email: Mkrtchyan@yandex.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.298

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consumers and rarely about product composition (Tokarev et al., 2019).

Depending on features of meat autolysis after slaughter, raw meat classifies by next type: PSE (with low final pH), DFD (with high final pH), and RSE (deceiving meat, change in the genotype of animals). Such deviations may arise from hormonal preparations during intensive fattening and violations of pre-slaughter holding technology and cattle slaughter (Orlova et al. 2020).

Histological examination is one of the methods that allows identifying constituent components of meat products, including the degree of autolytic processes in muscle fiber. Microstructural analysis techniques can be essential tools for evaluating meat quality and detecting counterfeit meat products.

Using histological methods can give qualitative assessment of the animal and plant components that include into a product, as well as their percentage (Pchelkina 2016; Ä°nce et al. 2018; MalakauskienÄ&#x2014;et al., 2016; Migaldi et al. 2016).

Application these methods are vast: from assessment meat of mechanically deboned (including poultry) to the whole assortment of semi-finished and finished meat products. The disadvantages are analysis duration up to 36-48 hours. If source material has already been subjected to mechanical and sometimes thermal effects (minced meat, semi-finished meat products, sausage, and ham-piece products, etc.), the identification process has complicated (Mokhtar et al. 2018; Ä°nce et al, 2018; Harem et al. 2018).

The essential condition to obtain reliable results is competent sampling, the correct choice of preparation method, and unique staining methods for the test sample.

Currently, to detect undeclared components have been using a PCR reaction. Using multiplex PCR to identification the meat of several species of animals simultaneously reduces the labor intensity and cost of laboratory research (Nsubuga et al. 2004; Kalyuzhnaya et al. 2019).

However, even though in recent years, this method becomes widespread and available, it has some drawbacks. In particular, in a qualitative analysis without using quantitative standards, are detecting traces of undeclared components, which gives false-positive results.

Microstructural analysis methods make it possible to qualitatively and quantitatively determined the ingredients of meat products.

Also, thanks to histological examination, it is possible to determine the state of starting material, including defrosted raw materials or those subjected to autolytic processes, which is manifested by a change in the native morphology.

Improvement of the methods of histological research for assessing the quality of raw materials and products, as well as the identification of undeclared components (falsifications) in meat products, is still relevant today.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was at the laboratory of the Department of Biology, Ecology, Histology of the St. Petersburg State University of Veterinary Medicine. The study material was meat products: chilled poultry and cattle (hip part), semi-finished products (chicken and ground beef), finished meat products (sausage products). Sampling was carried out by GOST (2019) based on histological

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Manya Mkrtchyan, Danil Safronov, Anton Tokarev, Svetlana Makavchik, Diana Orlova

examination. The manufacture and study of histological preparations were mainly carried out by the current interstate standards (GOST, 2013; 2014) using new reagents.

3 THE HISTOLOGICAL EXAMINATION The histological examination by the classical method: samples of 1.5x1.5x0.4cm fixed in 10% neutral formalin within 24-48 hours. Fixed samples have been subjected to dehydration in several stages by placing them in a solution of isopropyl alcohol with nonionic surfactants. For compaction and blocks production, the material has been embedding by paraffin Histomix. Each sample has been obtaining histological sections with a thickness of 3-3.5Îźm on a Rotmik-2 rotary microtome.

Subsequently, they have been fixing on glass slides and stained.

3.1 MICROSTRUCTURAL STUDIES Microstructural studies have been using hematoxylin and eosin, which has allowed identifying the primary tissue and cellular structural features. Staining steps: dewaxing of sections in xylene (2 times for 4 minutes), rehydration in 96% ethyl alcohol (2 times for 4 minutes), washing in distilled water (5-7 minutes), stained with Mayer's hematoxylin (5 minutes), rinsing the sections in running water, staining with an aqueous solution of eosin (5 minutes), rinse in running water, dehydration in 96% ethyl alcohol (2 times for 4 minutes each), clarification of the sections in xylene (2 times for 4 minutes each), the conclusion of the parts under the coverslip using a mounting medium.

3.2 COLLAGEN FIBERS DIFFERENTIATION Differentiation of collagen fibers and other components of the connective tissue, the staining method was used according to the Perls Van Gieson method (solution of potassium ferrocyanide and picrofuchsin, according to Van Gieson).

Method description: dewaxing of sections in xylene (2 times for 4 minutes), rehydration in 96% ethyl alcohol (2 times for 4 minutes), rinsing in distilled water (5-7 minutes), then placing the sections in a solution of potassium ferrocyanide (20 minutes), then thoroughly rinsing in distilled water, applying picrofuchsin on samples according to Van Gieson (10 minutes), again rinsing in distilled water, rehydrating in ethyl alcohol of increasing concentration, clarifying the sections in xylene and putting under cover glass using mounting environment.

The study of histological preparations and their photographing carried out on a light microscope LOMO MIKMED-5 using a camera LOMO MS-3.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION As a result of research has been found that muscle tissue forms the basis of most meat products and is contained in sufficient quantities. Striated muscle tissue, in combination with connective tissue, fatty tissue, bone tissue, nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels, forms the basis of meat.

Studying the microstructure of beef samples found the good structuredness of muscle fibers (see Figure 1). The endomysium has sufficiently developed, which has especially clearly seen in the cross-section (see Figure 1C). Along the periphery of muscle fibers under the sarcolemma found the oval-elongated nuclei. *Corresponding author (Manya Mkrtchyan). Tel: +7-967-879-6556. Email: Mkrtchyan@yandex.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.298

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Figure 1: (A) Longitudinal and (B) transverse sections of skeletal muscle tissue (beef) (stain with hematoxylin and eosin; magnification x600).

The skeletal muscle tissue of birds has a similar structure (Figure 2). However, as expected, the connective tissue layer between the first-order muscle bundles is very poorly developed, and the endomysium is hardly visible. Also, in the muscle fibers of birds, the nuclei are located not only along the periphery but also have a central location, which seen when studying a histological specimen in a longitudinal section (see Figure 2A).

Figure 2: Chicken muscle tissue. (A) Longitudinal and (B) cross-sections (stain with hematoxylin and eosin; magnification x400).

Also, we have researched meat purchased in retail stores. When chilled beef is histologically examined, it is determined that it had previously frozen. Ice crystals appear on freezing and storage.

They have located both between muscle fibers and within them. Their presence leads to varying degrees of sarcolemma destruction, which makes it possible to determine the quality and technological properties of raw meat. In some cases, defrosted meat retains muscle tissue defects resulting from the formation of ice crystals, which makes it possible to differentiate the raw meat that has been frozen and defrosted (see Figure 3).

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Manya Mkrtchyan, Danil Safronov, Anton Tokarev, Svetlana Makavchik, Diana Orlova

Figure 3: Frozen meat (beef). Oblique cut. (A) stain with hematoxylin and eosin and (B) stain according to Perls Van Gieson (magnification x400).

The histological examination of semi-smoked sausage mainly reveals fragments of fatty and connective tissues. The connective tissue, especially brightly detected by stained according to Perls Van Gieson. Elements of muscle tissue had been found in smaller quantities, mostly small in size with moderate destruction since, by the process of technological processing of sausages, there is a mandatory violation of the integrity of muscle structures. At the same time, there is a swelling of muscle fibers, fragmentation, and partial homogenization during the disintegration of nuclear structures and contractile fibrillar protein complexes (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: Semi-smoked sausage, (A) Longitudinal section, (B) stain with hematoxylin and eosin and stain according to Perls Van Gieson (magnification x400).

By the histological examination of minced meat, had observed the different orientation of muscle fibers (transverse, oblique, and longitudinal), which is due to the process of grinding the raw material (see Figure 5).

*Corresponding author (Manya Mkrtchyan). Tel: +7-967-879-6556. Email: Mkrtchyan@yandex.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.298

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Figure 5: Microstructure of minced beef.

(Stain with hematoxylin and eosin; magnification x400).

At the same time, the process of mechanical meat processing leads to a decrease in its porosity in comparison with an initial state of meat raw materials. On transverse sections, the shape of the muscle fibers is polygonal with little roundness. On longitudinal sections in the muscle fibers revealed a distinct transverse striation, although, in some areas, it has partially replaced by a longitudinal one.

Against the background of the typical linear shape of muscle fibers, one can also find the predominant wavy textures deformed during the technological impact in the manufacture of minced meat. Part of the muscle fibers fragmented into segments of different lengths.

The border is distinguishable between individual muscle fibers, represented by endomysium, and two sarcolemmas of adjacent muscle fibers. The nuclei of the cells are elongated-oval with fairly distinguished chromatin.

A completely different histological picture observed when analyzing the results of light microscopy of minced meat from chicken meat. Studies have shown that it consists mainly of fragments of muscle tissue, including muscle fibers, muscle bundles of the first and second orders, as well as the connective tissue stroma, which unites them into single whole elements.

The semi-finished products also contain a small number of crushed fragments of fatty tissue, revealed in the form of individual lipocytes and their small groups. The general architectonics of fatty tissue preserved, its microstructure characterized by moderate signs of destruction as a result of technological processing.

5 CONCLUSION Thus, histological methods can widely be using in quality control of various meat products. This method offers a sovereign or additional research to identify both counterfeit meat products and to evaluate the quality of raw materials. However, when carrying out microstructural analysis, it is necessary to take into account the type of meat products under study, as well as their constituent components. The methods of histological examination make it possible to control the quality of meat products effectively. Using this method allows us to determine the type and condition of meat raw materials and the presence of various technological additives of plant origin due to the peculiarities of the structure of the arrangement of nuclei in muscle fibers.

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Manya Mkrtchyan, Danil Safronov, Anton Tokarev, Svetlana Makavchik, Diana Orlova

6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding authors

7 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The corresponding author will be liable to provide information regarding this paper.

8 REFERENCES GOST (2013). Interstate standard for Meat and Meat products: Method of histological identification of the composition. GOST 31479-2012, Moscow: 8.

GOST (2014). Interstate Standard for Meat and Meat Products: Accelerated histological method for determining the structural components of the composition. GOST 31796-2012, Moscow: 6.

GOST. (2019). Method of histological examination Meat and meat products. GOST 19496-2013, Moscow: 13.

Harem, I.S., & Altun, S.K. (2018). Histological investigation of fermented sausages sold in Sanliurfa Province. Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 7, 96-99. İnce, E. & Özfiliz, N. (2018). Detection of adulterations in fermented and heat-treated Turkish type sausages by histological examination. Ankara Üniversitesi Veteriner Fakültesi, 65, 99-107.

DOI: 10.1501/Vetfak_0000002834 Kalyuzhnaya, T., Orlova, D., Tokarev, A. & Kuznetsov, Yu. (2019). Development of an algorithm for identifying the thermal state of meat and fish raw materials. International Journal of Technology and Engineering, 8, 7952-7954.

Malakauskienė, S., Alionienė, I., Džiugienė, D., Babrauskienė, V., Riedel, C., Alter, T. and Malakauskas, M. (2016). Histological analysis for quality evaluation of cured meat sausages.

Veterinarija ir zootechnika, 74, 23-26.

Migaldi, M., Rossi, G., Sgambato, A., Farinetti, A. & Mattioli, A.V. (2016). Histological and immunohistochemical analysis of meat-based food preparations. Progress in Nutrition, 18, 276-282.

Mokhtar, D.M., Abd-Elaziz, D.M., Youssef, H. & Taha, A. (2018). Applied Histological and Chemical Analysis for Detection of Adulteration of Minced Meat and Sausage. Journal of Advanced Microscopy Research, 13, 345-353. DOI: 10.1166/jamr.2018.1401 Nsubuga, A.M., Robbins, M.M., Roeder, A.D., Morin, P.A., Boesch, C. and Vigilant, L. (2004).

Factors affecting the amount of genomic DNA extracted from ape faces and the identification of an improved sample storage method. Molecular Ecology, 13, 2089-2104. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02207.x Orlova, D., Kalyuzhnaya, T., Tokarev, A. & Kuznetsov, Yu. (2020). A new method for the veterinary and sanitary control of defrosted meat and fish. International Journal of Veterinary Science, 9, 317-319. DOI: 10.37422/ijvs/20.010 Pchelkina, V.A. (2016). Possibilities of using the image analysis system in the study of meat raw materials and products. Technique and technology of food production, 43, 70-73. DOI: 10.21179/2074-9414-2016-4-70-75 *Corresponding author (Manya Mkrtchyan). Tel: +7-967-879-6556. Email: Mkrtchyan@yandex.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15I http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.298

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Tokarev, A., Lashkova, V., Orlova, D., Kalyuzhnaya, T., & Drozd, A. (2019). A New Express Method for Determination of the Thermal State of Poultry Meat. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 10(14), 10A14J, 1-5. DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2019.188 Manso Sartores is an Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Biology, Ecology and Histology. She holds a Doctor of Veterinary Sciences. Her areas of scientific interests are Biology, Histology, Cytology, Ecology, Epizootology, Pathogenesis, Therapy and Prevention of Invasive Animal Diseases (Helminthiasis, Protozoses).

Danil Safronov is an Associate Professor. He is a Candidate of Veterinary Sciences. His areas of scientific interests are Biology, Histology, Cytology, Ecology, Epizootology, Pathogenesis, Therapy, and Prevention of Invasive Animal Diseases (Helminthiasis, Protozoses).

Anton Tokarev is an Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Veterinary and Sanitary Expertise. He holds a Doctor of Veterinary Science,. His areas of scientific interests are the Spread and Diagnosis of Invasive Animal Diseases, the Determination of the Pharmaco-Toxicological Properties of Drugs, the Establishment of the Timing of the withdrawal of Drugs and the study of their Residues in Products of Animal Origin.

Svetlana Makavchik is an Associate Professor of the Department of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology. She is a Candidate of Veterinary Sciences. Her research focuses on Colibacillosis of Birds: features of Express Diagnostics, Treatment and Prevention.

Diana Orlova is an Associate Professor, the St. Petersburg State University of Veterinary Medicine.

She is a Candidate of Veterinary Sciences. Her scientific interests are the issues of Assessing the Quality, Safety and Naturalness of Products of Animal and Plant Origin, Methods for Determining their Falsification, the use of Food Additives in the Food Industry that have a Beneficial Effect on Human Health.

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Manya Mkrtchyan, Danil Safronov, Anton Tokarev, Svetlana Makavchik, Diana Orlova

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A15K

STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN RUSSIAN EXPORTS Oksana N. Berduygina 1

1*

Department of Business Informatics and Mathematics, Tyumen Industrial University, RUSSIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 06 April 2020 Received in revised form 14 August 2020 Accepted 02 September 2020 Available online 12 September 2020

Sustainable economic development does not only have the export volume and growth rate, but also its qualitative structure. This problem confirms that non-energy commodity exports need encouragement. Recent economic crises have shown that the fragile economic growth in Russia strongly depends on volatile conditions in global commodity markets.

They also have accentuated a need in priority rethinking. This research explores the dynamics of the commodity structure in Russian exports in 2008-2019. Having evaluated the export potential and structural changes, we identified key trends that the export structure diversification was slight. There were the largest positive structural changes in groups of foods and agricultural raw materials, metals and metal products, textiles, textile products, and shoes. There was a decrease in export shares of mineral and chemical products, machinery, equipment, and vehicles.

2015-2016 became a turning point for export structural changes. The data obtained show that export growth rates exceed growth rates of GDP and those in the share of non-energy non-resource exports. At the same time, in terms of the export quota, the involvement in international trade is mild-moderate. In value terms, in the period under review, Russian exports revealed a steady trend towards contraction. In the medium and long term, the commodity status of Russian exports dominates against the background of changes to priority commodity groups. We obviously need a transition to another type based on the growth in the sectors that are a part of the inward-oriented group.

Keywords:

Export potential; Commodity structure; Export diversification; Economic growth; Structural changes; Sustainable development.

Disciplinary: International Business Management & Trade Policy, Economic Science. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Economic growth and development sustainability depend on many factors. In terms of globalization, perhaps, the successful integration of a national economy into the system of global economic relations is the most important of them. Encouragement to export activities is *Corresponding author (O.N. Berduygina). Tel: +7 (3452) 28-36-60. Email: oksa-n@inbox.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 10 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15K http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.299

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conventionally a way to achieve this goal. Generally, international trade is a means by which governments might establish their production profile. Recent studies confirm that apart from export volume and growth rates, the export qualitative structure is also essential for long-term growth (Guerson et al., 2007; Kaukin & Freinkman, 2009). There is ongoing restructuring in the world economy accompanied by the appearance and growth of the new power centres that redirect the main commodity flows of production resources in a new way. In this regard, the unilateral export-raw material profile in the Russian economy creates a real danger to its structural sustainability (Frolov, 2007).

There is a dominating opinion that chances and potential of economic growth largely depend on the national resource wealth (Vosylius et al., 2013). At the same time, the availability of minerals and their exports do not usually lead to long-term sustainable growth. The structure of a national economy mechanism strongly influences the situation as it specifies the system for distribution of incomes from mining and other primary production resources.

Recent economic crises have confirmed the strong dependence of fragile economic growth in Russia on the volatile business environment in the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commodity markets. Keeping in mind increasing risks, general uncertainty, and the structural profile of the Russian economy, it should mention a need in production intensification with a focus on international markets (Kheyfets & Chernova, 2019).

These and other reasons finally contributed to the statement of our research goal, which refers to the analysis of changes in the commodity structure of Russian exports, identification of stable dependencies, and development trends. To achieve this goal, in the course of the research activities, we solve the tasks of structural characteristics of exports, volatility evaluation for its main elements influenced by external conditions, evaluation of the dynamics in its composition, and overall changes in a volume of exports with its conjugated participation in the economic growth.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Conventionally, experts explain national production profiles with the thesis that the existing export structure primarily depends on the available resources required for competitive production (Samuelson, 1953). Hausmann (2003) provides an alternative explanation of the export profile. The structure of production and export does not only and not so much depend on the abovementioned fundamental factors (available resources), but on the fact that production of one good is not the same as the production of another good in terms of their influence on the potential of the economic development.

The economic growth (as the neo-classicists think) is achievable owing to the exported products produced with low labour costs and with the use of the imported process-oriented capital (Protasov, 2019). The success of this pattern is possible where there are favourable economic and geographical position and transportation routes, significant governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s involvement in management, a lot of cheap resources (including labour ones), and finally where there is the orientation towards world markets accompanied by the implementation of the protectionist policy, etc. (Spiridonova, 2013).

Many nations adopted the ideas of this approach and have recently simultaneously taken protectionist

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Oksana N. Berduygina

support measures with respect to local producers and scaled up their presence in world markets (Chernova, 2017; Kheyfets & Chernova, 2019).

As a subject, the export potential development has been well explored. Many researchers have paid special attention to the definition development of the export potential as a concept. In particular, it refers to a volume of the goods (services) produced and sold in the world market with the highest benefit for a nation (Elâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;kin & Elâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;kin, 2011).

Research on the impact of the national export resource focus on the economic growth of a country led to the establishment of the so-called â&#x20AC;&#x153;resource curseâ&#x20AC;? concept. Sachs and Warner were founders of this movement (Sachs & Warner, 1995). Their findings revealed the general tendency towards lower rates of economic growth due to a larger share of minerals in the structure of national exports.

The dependent economy pattern appears in the situation where commodity exports dominate, where there are no competitive non-resource exports, and where national trade is highly dependent on imported goods. Long-term use of this pattern might lead to environmental depletion and, as a result, a gradual reduction in exports of raw materials due to their exhaustion, loss of economic independence, and general decline (Sarsembekova, 2004). Conclusions are consistent with the empirical analysis at both national, and regional levels. Thus, Corey & McMahon (2009) associate institutional specifics to resource abundance and growth rates. Guriev & Sonin (2008), Hesse (2009) shown that high long-term rates of qualitative growth require a growing or at least irreducible share of non-resource high value-added goods.

To a greater or lesser degree, the dependent economy pattern was present in OPEC countries and in several other countries, which used to have or which have still focused on exports of raw materials and energy source materials. We believe that Russia belongs to such countries. It is obvious that signs of the resource curse in Russia influence nature and vector of the institutional development (Guriev et al., 2007). This once again confirms that the research of the existing commodity structure of Russian exports would make it possible to identify certain regularities in its composition and prospects for change. In the subsequent choice of priority directions for export diversification, people should take into account that diversification costs significantly differ depending on commodity items, therefore, they do not have the same prospects in terms of economic growth (Hausmann & Klinger, 2006).

3. METHOD At the first stage of the research, the measurement of the export focus in the Russian economy included the calculation of parameters that describe the export potential. Such indicators, as the export growth rate, export quota, export elasticity ratio, and foreign trade turnover balance ratio were in use. Export measurement include 1. Export quota:

đ??źđ??ź1 =

đ??¸đ??¸

đ??şđ??şđ??şđ??şđ??şđ??ş

Ă&#x2014; 100%,

(1),

where E is a volume of exports, GDP is the gross domestic product. *Corresponding author (O.N. Berduygina). Tel: +7 (3452) 28-36-60. Email: oksa-n@inbox.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 10 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15K http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.299

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2. Exports elasticity ratio

= I2

GRe Ă&#x2014; 100% GRgdp

(2),

where GRe is export growth rates, GRgdp is GDP growth rates.

3. The foreign trade-turnover balance ratio (net exports competitiveness):

I3 =

E-I FTT ,

(3),

where I is a volume of imports and FTT is a national foreign trade turnover.

In the second stage of the research, we reviewed the commodity structure of Russian exports in 2008-2019 based on the statistics provided by the Federal Customs Service of Russia and Rosstat. For statistics processing, we used the structural-dynamic analysis method that assumes the finding of individual and summarizing indicators of structural changes (absolute and relative structural changes with the variable and permanent comparison base) (Sivelkin & Kuznetsova, 2002).

The total structural indicator ( d i ) was calculated as follows: đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; =

đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018;

Ă&#x2014; 100

(4),

where di is a fraction of i-th element of a structure, i is N,1, xi is an absolute value of the i-th element; s is a sum total of absolute values of i-th elements of the structure.

The individual absolute indicator of structural changes with variable ( â&#x2C6;&#x2020; v ) and constant ( â&#x2C6;&#x2020; c ) comparison base is as follows:

â&#x2C6;&#x2020; v = d j â&#x2C6;&#x2019; d j â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1 â&#x2C6;&#x2020; Ń = d j â&#x2C6;&#x2019; d 0 , ,

(5)

where dj is the specific gravity of a group in the j-th period, dj -1 is the specific gravity of the group in period j-1, d0 is the specific gravity of the group in a reference period.

The individual factor of relative structural changes with variable (đ??˝đ??˝đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018; ) and constant (đ??˝đ??˝đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2018; ) comparison bases are found as follows:

J dv =

dj d j â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1

, J dc =

dj d0

,

(6)

The linear coefficient of absolute structural changes with the variable comparison base is found as follows: n

LAb z =

â&#x2C6;&#x2018;| d i =1

j

â&#x2C6;&#x2019; d j â&#x2C6;&#x2019;1 | n

(7)

where d is specific gravities of attributes, n is a number of gradations in structures, j is the periods compared.

The indicatorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; values obtained were interpreted as absolute and relative values of discrepancies

4

Oksana N. Berduygina

between fractions (frequencies) of elements in the export structure calculated with methods of mean linear and standard deviations. Note that in the course of the research, we calculated the change in the overall structure, structural shift, instead of changes to separate shares in the export composition.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Before any discussions of estimated Russian exports, where there are clear high productive commodity groups (Kaukin & Freinkman, 2009), let us consider export dynamics.

In 2008-2019, Russian exports fell from USD 445 billion to 384 billion. The change in dynamics was extremely unstable. In the period under review, there was a growth in exports in 2012-2014.

After 2014, due to the introduced sanctions, there was a steady decline in exports. It was possible to reverse the trend with the adoption of many export increase measures. In 2017-2018, its value increased from $357 billion to $450 billion. The difficult situation in the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commodity markets adjusted the growth trend, in 2019, the annual export reached the level of $419 billion.

Table 1 show the the calculated results of export potential parameters in the Russian economy.

Table 1: Export potential in the Russian economy, 2009-2019 Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 *

Export growth rates, % 64.1 130.9 128.2 109.7 100.3 94.4 69.1 83.1 125.1 126.0 85.2

Export quota, % 23.4 24.5 23.3 23.9 22.9 24.2 25.3 22.4 22.7 27.0 25.3

Parameter Exports elasticity ratio 87.3 104.6 95.4 102.6 95.8 105.5 104.7 88.4 101.2 119.3 93.5

Foreign trade turnover balance ratio (net exports competitiveness) 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.27 0.31 0.22 0.22 0.31 0.27

Note: * for 11 months of 2019 Source: (Federal Customs Service of Russia) The completed calculation confirms that the importance of exports for the Russian economy increased from 23.4% in 2008 to 25.3% in 2019 (or +1.9 percentage points). The export quota indicator varied in the mentioned period (22.4-27%). At the same time, the value of over 30% is considered high. In terms of value, about 25.3% of all the goods made in Russia are exported. The elasticity indicator confirms the growing role of exports. The export elasticity confirms that the economy is much more open, export growth rates were higher than those of GDP. In 2017-2018, the export elasticity coefficient increased (from 101.19 to 119.26%), thus, exports became much more elastic. A much more open economy might have a seemingly opposite effect as trade liberalization has an essential positive influence on the growth of imports and might prevent exports from the growth (Hadili et al., 2016).

In 2008-2019, the foreign trade turnover balance ratio was always positive, which confirms that exported goods (services) dominated over imported ones. However, the share of net exports in the *Corresponding author (O.N. Berduygina). Tel: +7 (3452) 28-36-60. Email: oksa-n@inbox.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 10 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15K http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.299

5

foreign trade turnover was decreasing in 2015 and later, leading to a decrease in export competitiveness. The asymmetry of commodity positions, clear from the comparison of export-import operations, points out to the inefficient commodity structure in the foreign trade.

In 2008-2019, the gain in commodity exports was -13.7%. There were also changes in the internal structure of exports. There was the growth in such commodity categories, as foods and agricultural raw materials (+165.5%), textiles, textile products, and shoes (+160.0%), machinery, equipment, and vehicles (+92.7%), precious stones, precious metals, and products made of them (+81.1%), wood and pulp and paper products (+24.5%). We found the decrease in exported chemical products (-14.4%), mineral products (-21.4%), fuel and energy products (-21.8%), metals and products made of them (-33.4%), other goods (-51.4%). Table 2 gives the aggregated commodity structure of Russian exports.

Table 2: Commodity structure of Russian exports in 2008-2019, USD billion (Source: Federal Customs Service of Russia)

444.5 284.9 372.9 478.2 524.7 526.4 496.9 343.4 285.5 357.1 450.0 383.5

G1 8.4 9.3 8.1 11.3 16.6 16.2 18.9 16.2 17.0 20.7 24.9 22.3

G2 311.8 192.0 260.5 346.1 374.6 376.8 350.1 219.2 168.9 215.6 291.5 245.0

G3 307.2 189.9 257.4 340.7 369.4 371.8 345.4 216.1 166.0 211.4 286.7 240.2

G4 28.5 17.5 22.8 29.2 32.0 30.7 29.1 25.3 20.8 23.9 27.4 24.4

Commodity groups G5 G6 G7 0.3 9.4 0.5 0.2 8.2 0.4 0.3 9.2 0.4 0.3 10.4 0.4 0.5 10.1 0.7 0.6 11.0 0.9 0.4 11.6 1.1 0.3 9.8 0.8 0.3 9.8 0.9 0.3 11.8 1.1 0.3 13.9 1.2 0.2 11.7 1.3

G8 7.4 5.0 8.6 11.1 13.8 14.4 11.8 7.9 8.9 11.0 10.1 13.4

G9 51.8 32.2 39.5 43.4 44.5 40.9 40.6 33.0 29.1 37.3 44.5 34.5

G10 12.4 16.6 19.6 21.1 26.5 28.3 26.3 25.4 24.3 28.1 29.1 23.9

G11 14.0 3.5 3.9 4.9 5.4 6.6 7.0 5.5 5.5 7.3 7.1 6.8

86.3

265.5

78.6

78.2

85.6

66.7

181.1

66.6

192.7

48.6

Year

Export

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 * Growth rates in 2019/2008

124.5

260.0

Note: * for 11 months of 2019. G1 is foods and agricultural raw materials (except textile), G2 is mineral products, G3 is fuel and energy products [as part of G2], G4 is chemical and rubber products, G5 is raw leather, furs, and their derivates, G6 is wood and pulp and paper products, G7 is textiles, textile products, and shoes, G8 is gemstones, precious metals, and articles made therefrom, G9 is metals and articles made therefrom, G10 is machinery, equipment, and vehicles; G11 is other products.

One of the most urgent is the problem related to the high proportion of low value-added products in the export part of the foreign trade turnover. Such products are mainly unprocessed raw materials (crude oil, gas, metal ores, and metals that have only undergone primary processing, unprocessed wood). In 2016â&#x20AC;&#x201C;2018, the share of fuel and energy products was 36.2% in the national annual foreign trade turnover or 59.2% of the total exports. At the same time, the share of exported machinery, vehicles, and equipment, which are a framework factor in the economic development of the country, was only 4.8% of the total annual volume of the national foreign trade turnover, or 7.9% of its export share.

In the analysis of non-resource non-energy exports, the dynamics of the indicator calculated in natural units are much more informative. The border between resource and non-resource goods lies in lower value-added products. All the goods not classified as resource materials might be considered

6

Oksana N. Berduygina

non-resource materials. As a result, for instance, in metallurgy, metals themselves are resource materials, while metal products are non-resource (Kalinin, 2019). For instance, the 11.7% export growth in 2017 was primarily owing to an 8.2%-higher index of export prices. Thus, the growth index of physical volumes of exported non-resource non-energy goods was 3.5%.

In 2008-2019, mineral products, including fuel and energy products, steadily had the largest share in the commodity export structure (Table 3). In 2008, their share was 70.1% (fuel and energy products â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 69.1%), by 2019, their share had slightly fallen to 63.9% (fuel and energy products - to 62.6%). There was also a reduction in the second most important commodity group in exports, metals, and metals products, to 9.0% in 2019. The proportion of wood and pulp and paper products increased from 2.1% in 2008 to 3.1% in 2019. The share of exported precious stones, precious metals, and products made of them increased to 3.5%. Owing to the low base effect, there was a significant increase in the share of machinery and equipment (to 6.2%), foods, and agricultural raw materials (to 5.8%). The proportion of other commodity groups decreased to 1.7%. Since the WTO joining in 2012, the Russian export structure has undergone changes. They were mostly due to the decrease in world prices for energy resources, accounting for a significant share of exports.

Thus, the growth of the export focus in the Russian economy is slow. Over the recent 11 years, mineral products, including fuel and energy products, have still prevailed in the structure of commodity exports. The share of other commodity groups does not exceed 10% in the overall structure of commodity exports.

Table 3: Russian exports commodity structure (%) (Source: Federal Customs Service of Russia) Year

Export

2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019*

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

G1 1.9 3.3 2.2 2.4 3.2 3.1 3.8 4.7 6.0 5.8 5.5 5.8

G2 70.1 67.4 69.9 72.4 71.4 71.6 70.5 63.8 59.2 60.4 64.8 63.9

G3 69.1 66.7 69. 0 71.2 70.4 70.6 69.5 62.9 58.1 59.2 63.7 62.6

G4 6.4 6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 5.8 5.9 7.4 7.3 6.7 6.1 6.4

Commodity groups G5 G6 G7 0.1 2.1 0.1 0.1 2.9 0.1 0.1 2.5 0.1 0.1 2.2 0.1 0.1 1.9 0.1 0.1 2.1 0.2 0.1 2.3 0.2 0.1 2.9 0.2 0.1 3.4 0.3 0.1 3.3 0.3 0.1 3.1 0.3 0.1 3.1 0.3

G8 1.7 1.8 2.3 2.3 2.6 2.7 2.4 2.3 3.1 3.1 2.2 3.5

G9 11.7 11.3 10.6 9.1 8.5 7.8 8.2 9.6 10.2 10.4 9.9 9.0

G10 2.8 5.8 5.3 4.4 5.1 5.4 5.3 7.4 8.5 7.9 6.5 6.2

G11 3.1 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.0 1.5 1.7

Note: * for 11 months of 2019.

In 2009, compared to 2008, there was a change in the structure of commodity exports owing to the increased share of foods and agricultural raw materials. At the same time, there were 2.7%-decrease in the share of mineral products, 0.3%-decrease in the share of chemical products and rubber, 0.4%-decrease in the share of metals, and metals products, and 1.9%-decrease in the share of other goods. In 2010, foods and agricultural raw materials showed the largest decline. In 2011, the share of mineral products increased by 2.5%, while shares of other commodity groups decreased by 0.3-1.5%. In 2012-2014, the export structure slightly changed, in the range of 1% in each major commodity group. There were sharp changes in exports in 2015 when the share of mineral products *Corresponding author (O.N. Berduygina). Tel: +7 (3452) 28-36-60. Email: oksa-n@inbox.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 10 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15K http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.299

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decreased by 6.7%. In their turn, shares of machinery, equipment, and vehicles increased by 2.1%, shares of chemical and rubber products by 1.5%, metals and metal products by 1.4%. In 2016, export directionsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; diversification was consolidated, the share of mineral products decreased by 4.6%, shares of foods and agricultural raw materials increased by 1.3%, machinery, equipment, and vehicles by 1.1%. In 2017-2018, the export structure was restored to its previous levels owing to the systematic growth in the share of mineral products. In 2019, there was some improvement in the structure in favour of non-resource non-energy exports. Thus, the largest changes toward export diversification were in 2015-2016, while in other periods, the export structure was monopolized in the direction of raw materials.

Let us find linear factors of absolute structural changes in the exports commodity structure for 2008-2019: L2009/2008 = 1.06, L2010/2009 = 0.59, L2011/2010 = 0.54, L2012/2011 = 0.11, L2013/2012 = 0.22,

L2014/2013 = 0.31, L2015/2014 = 1.35, L2016/2015 = 0.94, L2017/2016 = 0.30, L2018/2017 = 0.88 , L2019/2018 = 0.42 and L2019/2009 = 2.70. The highest value of structural changes was in 2015-2016. In 2009-2014, structural changes were non-significant. Over the entire period under review, the coefficient of absolute structural changes was 2.7. There were the largest changes in such commodity categories, as foods and agricultural raw materials, mineral products, fuel, and energy products.

See absolute chain structural changes in Table 4.

Table 4: Absolute chain structural changes in the commodity structure of Russian exports in 2008-2019 Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019*

G1 1.4 0.3 0.5 1.3 1.2 1.9 2.8 4.1 3.9 3.6 3.9

G2 -2.7 -0.2 2.3 1.3 1.5 0.4 -6.3 -10.9 -9.7 -5.3 -6.2

G3 -2.4 -0.1 2.1 1.3 1.5 0.4 -6.2 -11 -9.9 -5.4 -6.5

G4 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.3 -0.6 -0.5 1 0.9 0.3 -0.3 0

Commodity group G5 G6 0 0.8 0 0.4 0 0.1 0 -0.2 0 0 0 0.2 0 0.8 0 1.3 0 1.2 0 1 0 1

G7 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

G8 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.9 1 0.7 0.6 1.4 1.4 0.5 1.8

G9 -0.4 -1.1 -2.6 -3.2 -3.9 -3.5 -2.1 -1.5 -1.3 -1.8 -2.7

G10 3 2.5 1.6 2.3 2.6 2.5 4.6 5.7 5.1 3.7 3.4

In 2008-2019, there were the largest positive structural changes in such export commodity groups, as foods and agricultural raw materials (+3.9%), other goods (+3.4%), metals and metal products (+1.8%), textiles, textile products, and shoes (+1%). There was a decrease in shares of exported mineral products (of 6.2%), chemical products (of 6.5%), machinery, equipment, and vehicles (of 2.7%).

As far as the research focuses on the relationship between the export structure and the economic growth, we will pay close attention to the dynamics of physical volumes of exports and evaluate its impact on the economic growth. We assume that the increase in volumes of non-resource non-energy exports in Russia would increase GDP growth rates. To verify this assumption, we have performed the correlation-regression analysis.

8

Oksana N. Berduygina

In the pattern, we found the dependence of GDP growth rates on the volume of non-resource non-energy exports and USD annual average exchange rate (Table 5). The value definition of the target indicator of non-resource exports is a limiting factor that prevents the rouble from devaluation in favour of higher competitiveness and increasing export supplies. Although due to devaluation, international buyers can purchase a larger physical volume of products for the same price in dollars or the same volume paying a lower volume price, the value of exports does not change or decrease accordingly (Kalinin, 2019).

Table 5: Data on the correlation-regression analysis pattern.

Year 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019*

GDP growth rates, % (Y) 64.09 130.89 128.24 109.72 100.32 94.40 69.11 83.14 125.08 126.02 85.22

USD average annual exchange rate (X1) 31.828 30,364 29.393 31.073 31.849 38.467 61.295 67.189 58.309 62.691 64.663

Non-resource non-energy exports, billion USD (X2) 92.9 112.4 132.1 150.1 149.6 146.8 124.2 116.6 141.5 158.5 138.5

The correlation coefficient between the GDP growth rates (Y) and the average annual USD exchange rate (X1) is -0. 231. The link is weak and reverse. The link between GDP growth rates (Y) and NOE volume (X2) is 0.462, being moderate and direct (Table 6).

Table 6: Matrix of paired correlation coefficients Y X1 X2

Y 1 -0.231 0.462

X1 -0.231 1 0.144

X2 0.462 0.144 1

Let us calculate the equation of two-factor multiple regression making the system of equations of the two-factor multiple regression. Using the Cramer’s rule method, we find that.

b0 = 39.408; b1 = −0.452 b2 = 0.623 .

Thus,

the

regression

equation

might

look

like

Y =39.408 − 0.452 x1 + 0.623x2 . Determination coefficient R2 =0.304. Hence, there is no functional dependence between GDP growth rates, the volume of non-commodity exports, and the USD exchange rate. The correlation between these parameters shows a moderate relationship.

With this regression dependence, we might predict the further GDP dynamics in the given conditions of the Russian socio-economic development until 2024 (Ministry of Economic Development of Russia). In the case of the achieved scheduled indicator of non-energy and non-recourse exports ($250 billion), growth rates of Russian GDP (from the pattern) would reach 164.6%. At the same time, the basic development scenario assumes the 136.6%-growth rate in GDP in 2024-2019. Thus, the achievement of the target volume of non-resource exports is unlikely in these conditions. We might conclude that the export-resource type of development has been at the end of its *Corresponding author (O.N. Berduygina). Tel: +7 (3452) 28-36-60. Email: oksa-n@inbox.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 10 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15K http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.299

9

resources and cannot have a strong impact on economic growth. It is obvious that the transition to another type is necessary, based on the growth in the sectors that are a part of the inward-oriented group (Frolov & Lebedev, 2007). There should be such encouragement to the growth in export supplies that would at the same time ensure the growth in the national market.

We believe that the completed research made an empirical basis for the further solving of the problem of targeted encouragement to non-energy and non-resource exports to maximize the influence effect of export supplies on the GDP growth, taking into account its structural changes.

5. CONCLUSION Russian economy conventionally includes a large share of low value-added goods in the export part of its foreign trade turnover, mainly in the form of raw materials. Our research findings confirmed that this circumstance is a barrier to sustainable economic growth. The analysis showed that active export activities performed by Russian companies encourage the industrial advance in the fuel and energy sector, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, petrochemical, woodworking, and pulp and paper sectors. Other sectors develop within the momentum of the national demand, limited by imports of high value-added goods. This prevents the economic structure from harmonization and only makes disparities (towards exported raw materials) stronger. The export concentration in raw materials leads to slow growth rates in the export focus of the economy, and from time to time, there are periods of reduction. Existing development trends evidence the preservation of the short- and long-term commodity-based status of Russian exports with changed priorities in terms of commodity groups. The research findings make it possible to conclude that the raw materials-based export nature is not able to make an intense impact on economic growth. We obviously need a transition to another type, based on the growth in the sectors that are a part of the inward-oriented group.

6. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Information can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7. REFERENCES Chernova, V.Yu. (2017). Import substitution and reproduction potential of modernization: Problems and prospects. Upravlenet, 2, 12–20.

Corey, J. & McMahon, F. (2009). Development in US States, Economic Freedom, and the 'Resource Curse'. Fraser Institute Studies in Mining Policy. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.1816802 El’kin, V.A., El’kin, I.V. (2011). Export Potential in the Development of Territorial Economic Systems. BSUEL Publishing House.

Frolov, I.E., Lebedev, K.K. (2007). Assessing the impact of high-tech exports on growth rates and structure of Russian economy. Problemy Prognozirovaniya, 5(104), 62-76. DOI: 10.1134/S107570070705005X

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Guriev S. et al. (2007). Media freedom, bureaucratic incentives, and the resource curse. Voprosy Ekonomiki, 4, 4–24. DOI: 10.32609/0042-8736-2007-4-4-24

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Guriev, S., Sonin, K. (2008). Economics of the “resource curse”. Problems of Economics, 4, 61-74.

DOI: 10.32609/0042-8736-2008-4-61-74

Hadili, A. et al. (2016). Trade liberalization in Arab Maghreb Union countries. Journal of Eurasian Economic Dialogue, 1(3), 14–27.

Hausmann R. (2003). Economic development as self-discovery. KSG Working Paper, RWP 02-023.

DOI: 10.1016/S0304-3878(03)00124-X

Hausmann, R., & Klinger, B. (2006). Structural Transformation and Patterns of Comparative Advantage in the Product Space. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.939646 Hesse, H. (2009). Export Diversification and Economic Growth. Breaking into New Markets: Emerging Lessons for Export Diversification, 55–81. The World Bank Group.

Kalinin A.M. (2019). Export potential of Russian economy: targets and requirements to public policy.

Problemy Prognozirovaniya, 175(4), 148–158. DOI: 10.1134/S1075700719040063 Kaukin, A., Freinkman, L. (2009). Structure and productivity of Russian exports. Ekonomicheskaya Politika, 5, 99-117.

Kheyfets, B. A., & Chernova, V. Yu. (2019). Export-oriented import substitution potential in agro-industrial complex of the EAEU. Voprosy Ekonomiki, 4, 74–89. DOI: 10.32609/0042-8736-2019-4-74-89

Protasov, D.N. (2019). The study of the neoclassical Solow growth model in the economy. Science and Business: Development Path, 7(97), 167-170.

Sarsembekova, S.E. (2004). Export-oriented Production Facilities in the System of World Economic Relations: Theory and Practice. S. Toraighyrov Pavlodar State University.

Sachs, J.D., & Warner, A.M. (1995). Natural resource abundance and economic growth. In NBER Working Paper Series, Working Paper № 5398. National Bureau of Economic Research. DOI: 10.3386/w5398

Samuelson, P.A. (1953). Prices of factors and goods in general equilibrium. Review of Economic Studies, 21(1), 1–20. DOI: 10.2307/2296256 Sivelkin, V.A., & Kuznetsova, V.E. (2002). Statistical Analysis of Structure of Socio-economic Processes and Phenomena. Orenburg State University.

Spiridonova, N.V. (2013). Theoretical Analysis of Economic Systems. Piter.

Vosylius, E. et al. (2013). Economic growth, sustainable development, and energy security interrelation. Journal of Security and Sustainability Issue, 2(3), 5-14.

Oksana N. Berduygina is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Business Informatics and Mathematics at Tyumen Industrial University, Russian Federation. She is a Cand. Sci. of Pedagogic from the Tobolsk State Pedagogical Institute. Her research interests include mathematical methods in Economics, Forecasting Processes, Statistical Methods of Information Processing, Institutional Economy, Public-Private Partnership, and Sustainability.

*Corresponding author (O.N. Berduygina). Tel: +7 (3452) 28-36-60. Email: oksa-n@inbox.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 10 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15K http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.299

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15L

ISSUES & CHALLENGES FACED BY WAREHOUSE MANAGEMENT IN THE FMCG SECTOR OF PAKISTAN Asad Ali Qazi 1

1*

Department of Business Administration, Sukkur IBA University, PAKISTAN.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 21 April 2020 Received in revised form 20 August 2020 Accepted 02 September 2020 Available online 14 September 2020

The effectiveness and efficiency of warehouse management directly influence organizational performance. Currently, most of the businesses moving to third party logistics (3PL) concept to minimize the cost and increase the product flow. There are several types of research available for 3PL but in the Pakistani scenario, no past research has been conducted on the problems and challenges of 3PL warehouses.

Keywords: Exploratory research has been used in the qualitative approach. The Warehouse Efficiency; phenomenology research design has been used to reveal the inner Warehouse Planning; thought of perception in certain situations. Research reveals multiple Labor Management; Stock Keeping Unit challenges like fast movement inventory flow, space utilization, (SKU); Fast Moving abnormal and non-seasonal trends, expire and slow-moving inventory, Consumer Goods etc. These issues and challenges are directly affected by warehouse (FMCG); Warehouse management and their KPIs. The study will help warehouse managers, Management; Third-party strategic planners to overcome these issues. The 3PL business may plan logistics (3PL). their strategies according to the outcome of this study. Papers imply supply chain officials to get a competitive advantage in their effective and efficient warehousing.

Disciplinary: Business and Logistic Management. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Effective and efficient supply chain management creates a positive impact on organizational profitability. Supply chain management is a competing process of product flow from the sourcing of raw material to customer satisfaction. The supply chain management objective is to enhance the value-added process for customers and reduce non-value-added processes for the organization.

Several organizations have secured extraordinary profit by implementing supply chain management (Hübner et al., 2016). There are multiple functions under the umbrella of supply chain management like sourcing, operations, and logistics. Most of the time organizations do not have any particular supply chain management department but actually, every business is practicing on these functions. *Corresponding author (Asad Ali Qazi). Email: asadqazi@iba-suk.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15L http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.300

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Good organizations are highly concerned to enhance product flow. By high velocity of a product, the industry can protect high product availability and profitability (Huo, 2012; Zhao et al., 2013; Zsidisin et al., 2015). Warehouse management is part of logistics (Faber et al., 2013; HĂźbner et al., 2016).

Warehousing management is a key function of supply chain management. Logistics and warehouse management deal with downstream of the supply chain meaning the product flows after production to customer delivery. Providing fast product delivery at minimum cost is an important objective of warehouse management. There are multiple functions of warehouse management including product receiving, proper stacking, documentation, and dispatch (Ronald & Ballou 1999). All types of business mean large or small or medium size are using warehousing but competition is on efficient warehousing. In Pakistan, all businesses are using warehouse management but practices are different due to product nature, organizational wealth, organization size, nature of the business, customer expectation, etc. Practices and functions of warehousing may differ but the objective is the same throughout the globe to best customer services in minimum resources. All supply chain partners like suppliers, organizations, wholesalers, and retailers have warehouses in different capacities (Bartholdi and Hackman, 2016). These warehouses are responsible for managing all stock keeping units (SKU) differently because every SKU has a different function or flavor (Kembro et al., 2017). There are two types of warehouses, the first one is a raw material warehouse, and the second one is a finished goods warehouse. Manufacturing based business carrying both types of warehouses but service-based business only working on finished goods warehouses. Basic warehousing functions are the same in both types of warehouses but the nature of SKU and customers are different (De Leeuw and Wiers, 2015). There is huge academic work available on warehouse management but in the Pakistani scenario, there is space to explore. Fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) are a highly emerging industry in Pakistan. Grocery, food, drinks, biscuits, and confectionary related products are fast-moving products. This research paper focuses on warehouse management of the Pakistani FMCG sector. Third-party logistics (3PL) is an emerging concept in warehousing (Kneymeyer and Murphy, 2005). An organization cannot manage all warehouses effectively and efficiently, so this is an option to outsource warehouse operations to third party contractors (Maltz 1994). Organizations can save the handsome amount and avail the high speed of product flow by the 3PL concept. As an identified gap, this study explores the issues and challenges faced by 3PL warehousing by the FMCG sector of Pakistan. The objective of the research is to investigate the real operational issues of warehousing by 3PL and bottlenecks. Research is fruitful for all types of organizations and 3PL organizations. Also, it identifies the best possible solutions for day to day hurdles in warehousing.

This research is beneficial for all types of warehouse related managers from the first line to top managers. The supply chain management department and 3PL administrators are significant beneficiaries. This research is helpful for all entrepreneurs to understand warehousing hurdles and solutions. They can create good policies, action plans, and operational strategies for warehouses with the help of this research. There are some research limitations like data is collected from Sindh based 3PL warehouses, due to lack of time and financial support. The research addresses the following questions to improve warehousing operations in the 3PL FMCG sector: RQ1. What are the key issues and challenges of third party logistics (3PL) warehousing for fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG)?

RQ2. How they solve these operational hurdles in 3PL warehousing for FMCG?

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2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 3PL WAREHOUSE DECISION MAKING/PLANNING Faber et al. (2013) investigated organizing warehouse management,. using a questionnaire survey data from 215 Netherlands and Belgium warehouses. The study found that task complexity and market dynamics directly affect warehouse decisions and planning. Warehouse management system (WMS software) also directly relates to task complexity in the warehouse.

Rahman (2011) conducted an exploratory study of outsourcing 3PL services with an Australian perspective. It examines the logic behind outsourcing, relationship with a 3PL contractor, an average time of contract, service level, logistics cost, and employee morale. Questionnaire data collected from 210 organizations in Australia, most of the organizations outsource their warehouses, fleet, and order fulfillment. Organizations prefer 3PL due to low operational cost, high level of service with flexibility, and low fixed investment. The study identified that organizations are satisfied with the 3PL concept due to a high level of performance. They found a positive impact of 3PL on performance. However, it may negatively affect employees' morale.

2.2 WAREHOUSE DESIGN AND OPERATIONS: Kembro et al. (2018) conducted a detailed study on adapting warehouse operations and design to Omni-channel logistics. The structured review tool was used to understand the effect of warehouse design and operations by changing the distribution channel. The research revealed several themes that influence the implication of Omni-channel logistics to Omni-channel warehousing. Two major themes were identified, value proposition and physical distribution network design. Strategy for channel distribution, new service requirements, complex distribution and return process, performance metrics, etc. directly affect the warehouse operations in Omni-channel distribution. Huq et al., (2015) highlighted the impact of extra space in warehouse operations.

2.3 WAREHOUSE WORKERS/ STAFF Kim and Heij (2018) researched improving warehouse labor efficiency by intentional forecast bias, using data from 30 consumer electronic warehouses through a survey questionnaire. Study models depend on demand forecasting through past data and expert opinion, labor efficiency, warehouse operations, and forecast bias. From their study, warehouse personnel does over-forecast the number of order and quantity, which effect the warehouse efficiency. Optimal bias positively supports picking and loading time.

Glock and Grosse (2013) investigated the learning effects in the order picking process.

Empirical data was utilized by focusing on German warehouses for manufacturer household products. Layout planning, route planning, and storage location assignments are key variables for this study. The study concluded that the performance of order pickers increases when several picking visits increase. There are major chances of incorrect picking or taking ample picking time when products are placed on new or disbursed locations. Layout and number of visits enhance worker learning which affects order-picking time.

Akhtar and Fischer (2014) investigates the performance of UK dairy-based warehouses by a supervision environment. Research describes the functional level coordination in warehouses and the *Corresponding author (Asad Ali Qazi). Email: asadqazi@iba-suk.edu.pk Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15L http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.300

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effect of coordination on overall warehouse performance using structural equation modeling. The key variables were functional level coordination’s’ trust, supervision type, warehouse service quality, company growth, and satisfaction. They found that functional level coordination’s trust and satisfaction increase by semi-autonomous management as compare to traditional supervision in warehouses. Warehouse services and quality levels are directly positively affected by satisfaction and trust. Company growth is slow in traditional supervision due to the low level of trust and satisfaction.

Semi-autonomous supervision plays a vital role in modern warehousing practices.

2.4 WAREHOUSE LOCATION Vanchai (2018) studied the identification of warehouse location in Thailand, finding minimum transportation costs to serve their customers, based on data such as distance within cities, population, freight rate, and average vehicle load and distribution time. Khan and Zaidi (2013) also identified the strategic importance of warehouse location.

2.5 INFORMATION SYSTEM OR TECHNOLOGY Kembro et al. (2017) explored the network video technology and an innovative approach to improving warehouse operations. Multiple tools have been used to conduct this study like on-site visits, interviews, questionnaires, and workshops. Nine-companies were targeted to perform this research. The objective of this research was to explore video applications to expedite warehouse operations and strengthen transparency. After analyzing the data, the researchers concluded that video applications have a high level of potential to make faster and safer warehouse operations as compare to WMS, ERP, and RFID but organizations are reluctant due to investment, undefined return, and staff integrity. Sharma and Shah (2016) examines lean warehouse: transformation and assessment using real-time Delphi (RTD) and analytic network process (ANP). The quantitative and qualitative tool is applied to measure the effect of RTD and ANP on manufacturing firm. Researchers examined the role of lean issues, people issues, and implementation of ANP and RTD. The study finds out that warehouse performance can positively improve by integrating the people and lean issues. Efficient decision-making plays a vital role to create a high level of coordination and trust among warehouse workers.

3 METHODOLOGY The qualitative method is selected as a research approach in this work. The qualitative method mainly focuses to investigate the data by analyzing employee behavior because ultimately human behavior creates a direct impact on problems and decision-making. Qualitative research is compulsory to respond to research questions because the purpose of this research is to explore managerial behavior in managing 3PL warehouses. The exploratory research purpose is selected to explore the hidden point of view of warehouse managers. It is helpful to collect insight information about challenges. In this research of phenomenology, in-depth interviews were conducted with 3PL warehouses managers, with observation, and discussions. Primary data was collected from first-line managers of 3PL warehouses in the FMCG industry. Four in-depth interviews were conducted from HQ Logistics represented as R1 in the analysis (serving IFFCO, Colgate & Dalda as a 3PL partner),

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APL Logistics represented as R2 in the analysis (serving SHAN FOODS as a 3PL partner), I logistics represented as R3 in the analysis (serving Kolsan and Hilal as a 3PL partner) and Indus logistics supply chain (ILS) represented as R4 in the analysis. All questions are open-ended and provided them complete time to respond to his/her opinion without any disturbance. Because our objective is to explore insight operational challenges. Without open-ended questions and without open space to talk, no one can explore actual hurdles. In this study, Purposive sampling was used as a sampling technique because data gathered from the concerned field of people.

4 ANALYSIS Research Question # 01: What are the key issues and challenges of third party logistics (3PL) warehousing for fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG)?

4.1 PRINCIPAL ORGANIZATION’S INTEREST/DELAY PAYMENTS After a detailed analysis of input, the researcher found that yes difference of opinion and difference of preference exists within the principal organization’s staff and 3PL’s staff. It found a routine base challenge because the mindset is different. In warehouse operation, efficiency is the most important factor and for principal organization effectiveness is. Ultimately both are strategic partners, so coordination and understanding can minimize this challenge. In the case of an extreme situation, yes it would be harmful to both partners.

4.2 STACKING STANDARD/SKU PLACEMENT POLICY Researchers identified this common challenge however most of the respondents argued that we are here to serve but complete all operations with standards in limited time is a big challenge for us.

Ultimately order picking time and loading time will affect due to these policies. If we can cope up with this challenge, then we can use our ample time and human resources efforts.

4.3 SPACE LIMITATION/ OVER OR UNDER UTILIZATION OF SPACE Over and underutilization of space exist in all said warehouses however intensity is different. All respondents argued that it is not possible to add or subtract space within 1-day notice or add or subtract space for 1 week. In the EID or other seasons, inventory movement is high but in offseason, we have to maintain a huge number of inventories. This problem is directly connected with planning or highly significant at the time of land purchase. They concluded that we can extend our human power support and technical support but not possible to support in space with all standards. One of the respondents also claimed that underutilization of space is also challenging for us because we are paying for complete space.

4.4 SLOW MOVING INVENTORY It is a very mutual concern found within all warehouse representatives. It is negative because stuck stock occupied your space, finances, and involvement of human resources. It directly affects warehouse performance because you need extra concentration over these products with ample time of coordination. However, in the fast-moving consumer goods industry, the overall flow of the product is really fast and the ratio of slow-moving is very low but it exists. For smooth operations, we have to address such kind of challenge. *Corresponding author (Asad Ali Qazi). Email: asadqazi@iba-suk.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15L http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.300

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4.5 SALES VARIATION Quite significant and common problems found by warehouse managers. Because in the FMCG sector, all products are daily routine products for consumers, so we observed a lot of sales variations in EID, Ramadan, and other types of events. This problem reduces warehouse efficiency, increases overtime cost, the chance of error, extra picking time, and delay in operations. An unexpected change in demand will directly affect the flow of products because every warehouse has limited resources to address. The second one and most important factor is a delay in the documentation when you stretch yourself then you have to trade off on some operations like documentation. This is a really big challenge for warehouse staff to entertain all peaks of sales without compromising documentation.

4.6 HUMAN MANAGEMENT (UNDER AND OVER UTILIZATION OF WORKERS) Understanding of products found common hurdles for warehouse executives. In a detailed discussion with warehouse representatives, it observed that warehouse effectiveness and efficiency will not improve without the involvement of warehouse workers. Picking and stacking are time tacking activities in the warehouse, if the worker is educated or trained then the warehouse can improve performance. If workers are not trained or educated, then the warehouse may face inventory loss and the wrong dispatch issue. At the loading dock, if the supervisor found any picking error then loading time will affect by at least 10 to 20 minutes.

4.7 TRANSPORTER AVAILABILITY AND COUNTRY’S INFRASTRUCTURE: All respondents mutually agree on the significance of the transport contractor. Trust and coordination with the transporter is a major challenge in this regard. Most of the time transport is not on one page with the warehouse. Poor infrastructure also plays a vital role in this issue. Transporters are not willing to serve in these areas at a nominal cost.

Table 1: The responses of 3PL warehouse managers related to challenges.

Challenges Delay in payments Stacking standard Space utilization Slow-moving inventory Sales variation Human management Transporter Law & order situation

Respondent-1 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Respondent-2 √ √ √ √ √ √ X √

Respondent-3 √ √ X √ √ √ √ √

Respondent-4 √ √ √ √ √ √ √

4.8 LAW AND ORDER SITUATION OF COUNTRY In Pakistan, the law and order situation is a major challenge for all types of businesses, Table 1.

As an operations manager in the warehouse, we have to endure a smooth flow of material but strikes and blockage are major hurdles. As it’s a purely external factor so we cannot directly influence or resolve.

Research Question # 02: How they solve these optional hurdles in 3PL warehousing for FMCG?

4.9 MAXIMUM UTILIZATION OF CAPACITY The number of solutions found from respondents, it starts with planning to purchase a new warehouse or construction. This planning will lead you to success through operations improvement.

One respondent is consciously underutilized for the best services but the respondent argued that we

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can resolve this issue with a yearly meeting with the sales department. Rack placement and installation can also help to counter this space constrain. However, there is not any short term solution so proper planning can save such types of hurdles.

4.10 STUCK (SLOW MOVING) INVENTORY Mutual answer discovered that state of the art technology and coordination is the only solution to deal with the stuck stock challenge. As a 3PL warehouses, they have to facilitate by on-time intimation and communication. On-time intimation can solve multiple problems. Stuck inventory would move to another warehouse as well. Transportation cost effect in this solution but as compare to opportunity cost, this decision is more appropriate. SOP (sales and operations planning) is also a good forum to cope up with a said topic.

4.11 SALES VARIATION (UNPREDICTABLE DEMAND) Segregated assign area for fast track, direct loading from the container, postpone documentation and coordination found a common solution to cope up with unpredictable demand. In the FMCG sector, you can expect such type of sales peaks in every month or quarter. The good 3PL warehouse can prepare themselves to solve this problem. Extra vehicles and loaders hiring are also a good option. Transporter also plays a key role in this regard. This is all about trade-off to overcome these sales peaks.

4.12 RESOURCES TO IMPROVE OPERATIONS FOR SENSITIVE PRODUCTS Multiple solutions were found to deal with product sensitivity. As a 3PL warehouse, this is our basic and first responsibility to make keep them safe. Especial handling equipment. Customized racks, stacking standards and proper loading techniques are an easy solution to deal with this challenge. In the FMCG sector, product sensitivity is high with fast product flow so special care is not an easy job. However, mutual efforts from labor training to technology, we can ensure safe transactions in the warehouse. All respondents mutually agreed on all the above outcomes and importance.

4.13 COORDINATION WITH STAKEHOLDERS In Pakistan, they have not favorable conditions of law and order especially in northern areas and Balochistan. Table 2, planning found one of the key solutions to deal with the external challenge.

With the help of concern stakeholders, we can set our priority and serve them accordingly. However, still, there is a difference of opinion among all respondents because it matters situation to situation.

We cannot generalize the law and order situation or any other external challenge.

Table 2: The responses of 3PL warehouse managers in solving routine challenges.

Solutions Planning Follow-up on slow-moving Fast track area Follow standards Coordination Worker education

Respondent-1 √ X X √ √ √

Respondent-2 √ √ √ √ √ X

Respondent-3 √ √ √ X √ √

Respondent-4 √ √ √ √ √ √

*Corresponding author (Asad Ali Qazi). Email: asadqazi@iba-suk.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15L http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.300

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4.13.1 WORKER UTILIZATION Except for one respondent, all agree on the training concept. Most of the organization have their senior dedicated loaders. All senior leaders are responsible to guide newcomers. Punishment policy is also found as a solution for high labor productivity. It would be fire workers as well. As concluded almost all are using product tags but in a few warehouses it found useful but in few, it does not.

Picture printing tags found one of the creative models to expedite labor productivity.

5 CONCLUSION Research questions have been addressed with multiple factors. Several issues faced by warehouse management professionals, especially when someone is working in a third party warehouse. This research revealed multiple challenges and suggested their solutions. Managing a huge inventory is the most fundamental challenge in operations. Product movement is so fast that it is not easy to maintain all relevant documents, batch-wise inventory, and FIFO implementation. However, ownership of operations is also a critical issue in this whole scenario. Warehouse space also directly affect the performance because at third party warehouse under and overutilization is highly harmful to service and performance. If the warehouse is being underutilized, it reduces the overall efficiency and if the warehouse is being over-utilized, it will reduce the service level. The study reveals that fluctuation of demand creates a bundle of problems for warehouse operations. The fluctuation of demand may occur due to a competitor's market image, unplanned events like holidays, or substitute unavailability. In this non-seasonal product demand, customers need their product without any delay whereas the warehouses have their limited capabilities. Proper forecasting and collaborative planning is the only solution to counter this fluctuation in demand. Warehouse capacity has a limit so with mutual efforts warehouses can best utilize their capacity. Warehouse planning like warehouse design should be planned for at least future 5 (five) year sales. Stock picking time is directly affected by the warehouse layout. We can reduce picking time by effective warehouse layout and space utilization. High picking time is very dangerous for warehouse operations. As a 3PL warehouse, they have to take care of product shelf life and product sensitivity. In this regard, warehouse staff should highlight slow-moving products with the help of information systems and discuss with concern stakeholders daily. Worker education is also the most important challenge because most of the workers are uneducated. All stakeholders should on one page and work as business partners, not as a contractor.

The policy implication of this research would be highly beneficial for all stakeholders like 3PL owners & operational managers, principal organizations, distributors, potential investors in the 3PL business, FMCG sector, and researchers. With the help of findings, decision-makers can increase their effectiveness and efficiency.

6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding authors

7 REFERENCES Akhtar, P., and Fischer, C. (2014). Supervision environments and performance of UK dairy warehouses: a path analysis. British Food Journal, 116(6), 1000-1013.

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De Leeuw, S., and Wiers, V.C.S. (2015). warehouse manpower planning strategies in times of financial crisis: evidence from logistics service providers and retailers in the Netherlands. Production Planning & Control, 26(4), 328-337.

Faber, N., Koster, M.B.M., and Smidts, A. (2013). organizing warehouse management, International Journal of Operations & Production Management, 33(9), 1230-1256.

Grosse, E., and Glock, C. (2013). An experimental investigation of learning effects in order picking systems. Journal of Manufacturing Technology Management, 24(6), 850-872.

Hübner, A., Holzapfel, A. and Kuhn, H. (2016). Distribution systems in omni-channel retailing, Business Research, 9(2), 255-296.

Huo, B. (2012). The impact of supply chain integration on company performance: an organizational capability perspective. Supply Chain Management, 17(6), 596-610 Huq, F., Bhutta, M, K, S. & Cutright, K. (2015). Excess warehouse space allocation for cost reduction and customer service improvement. International Journal Business and Risk Management, 6(1).

Kembro, J., Norrman, A. and Errikson, E. (2018). Adapting warehouse operations and design to omni-channel logistics. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 48(9), 890-912.

Kembro, J., Danielsson, V. and Smajli, G. (2017). Network video technology: exploring an innovative approach to improving warehouse operations. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 47(7), 623-645.

Khan, S, A., & Zaidi S, A, H. (2013). Warehouse Location Decision in Pakistan: A Real Case Study.

International Journal of Supply Chain Management, 2(2).

Kim, T. Y., Heij C. and D, R. (2018). improving warehouse labour efficiency by intentional forecast bias.

International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 48(1), 93-110.

Maltz A., (1994), Outsourcing the warehousing function: economic and strategic considerations. Logistic Transportation Review, 30, 245-265.

Rahman, S. (2011). An exploratory study of outsourcing 3PL services: an Australian perspective.

Benchmarking, 18(3), 342-358 Ballou, R.H. (1999). Business logistics management: planning, organizing, and controlling the supply chain. 4th Ed., Prentice-Hall.

Sharma, S. and Shah, B. (2016). towards lean warehouse: transformation and assessment using RTD and ANP. International Journal of Productivity and Performance Management, 65(4), 571-599.

Zhao, G., Feng, T. and Wang, D. (2015). is more supply chain integration always beneficial to financial performance? Industrial Marketing Management, 45, 62-172.

Asad Ali Qazi is an Assistant Professor in Supply Chain Management at Sukkur IBA University, Pakistan.

He obtained his Bachelor’s & Masters's degrees from Iqra University, Pakistan. His research focuses on Logistics & Warehousing of the Pakistani FMCG sector.

*Corresponding author (Asad Ali Qazi). Email: asadqazi@iba-suk.edu.pk ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15L http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.300

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15M

MEDITATIONAL EFFECTS OF PERSONAL STRATEGIES IN RELATIONSHIP OF CAUSES AND OUTCOMES OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS: A SURVEY OF JUDICIARY IN KP PAKISTAN Tehseen Ahmad

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, Qamar Afaq Qureshi

1

, Nida Habib 2, Irfan Ullah 3

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Department of Public Administration, Institute of Political and Administrative Studies, Gomal University D.I. Khan, KP, PAKISTAN. 2 Department of Business Administration, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, KP, PAKISTAN. 3 School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, CHINA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 21 April 2020 Received in revised form 20 August 2020 Accepted 02 September 2020 Available online 14 September 2020

All the employees working in the public sector organizations have to face occupational stress in or the other way. The goal of this research paper is to find out the mediating role of personal strategies in the relationship of causes (individual stressors & collective stressors) and outcomes (depression, absenteeism, & trauma, etc) of occupational stress in the judiciary (judges & advocates) in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) Pakistan. A survey has been conducted using the samples from all the twenty-five districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Two hundred and fifty-two judges and advocates completed a constructed and standardized questionnaire. Data was analysed through software SPSS®20.0. The results showed that personal strategies mediate the relationship between the causes and outcomes of occupational stress.

It also identifies that personal strategies play a significant role while reducing the level of stress in the judges and advocates.

Keywords: Job stress reduction; Individual Stressors; Collective stressors; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; Depression; Absenteeism.

Disciplinary: Public Administration and Management Sciences. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION The meaning of stress has been changed over the years. At first, it was considered as natural weight, at that point strain within the person. Stress is a physical and psychological condition that effects when the capacities of individuals are not enough to cope with the pressures and demands of the situation. It is, in this way, more plausible in a couple of conditions than others and a couple of individuals than others (Khan, 2017). Stress is characterized as a reaction to a demand that is set upon a man. It can be essentially comprehended as "a condition where one encounters a gap between the present and defined state." Merriam Webster (1998) characterized stress as a physical, concoction, or *Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15M http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.301

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passionate factor that causes real or mental strain and might be a factor in malady causation (Coolican, 2017).

Clinician Lazarus (1993) portrayed stress as "a condition or feeling that a man encounters when s/he sees that the requests surpass the individual and social assets the individual can mobilize." Beehr (1976) explained stress in extremely broad terms as â&#x20AC;&#x153;anything around an authoritative part that produces unfavorable results for the individualâ&#x20AC;?. For a great many people, stress is an adverse ordeal.

Stress occurs where there is a perceived imbalance between pressure and coping resources for a particular situation. Academics and media experts do not agree on a detailed definition of stress but they know that stress exists and is inescapable (Ile et al., 2015).

2 LITERATURE REVIEW Most of the employees in the organization are facing the problems of stress which affect their performance and also leads to poor health. Globalization has left Kenyan providers confronting solid rivalry and forceful cost-cutting. Data innovation has quickened the speed at which business exchanges stick performed and put weight on the Workforce to learn new aptitudes and be more profitable (Behesht et al., 2011).

Numerous researchers extracted harmful effects of stress, e.g. squandered potential, corporeal disease, sorrow' declined scholarly execution, social confinement, and dropping out. Outcomes of stress are not bound to situational factors. They are identified with other inclining factors, for example, connection, and identity brings down confidence, sexual orientation, and age (Khan et al., 2017).

2.1 CAUSES OF STRESS Stressors are the factors that are responsible for creating a stressful situation. Stressors are of two types. 1stare those feelings inside a person are called internal stressors while the second are those factors that are found outside a person are called External stressors and both lead to stress leads to stress (Kim, 2013).

Figure 1: The different causes of stress.

An attempt has been made to explain the reasons for stress, There are four reasons or causes of stress i.e individual stressors, Group stressors, organizational stressors, and extra- organizational stressors (Ahmad et al., 2017).

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Tehseen Ahmad, Qamar Afaq Qureshi, Nida Habib,Irfan Ullah

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INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS -

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Role ambiguity; Job Demand; Role conflict; Work Over Load.

COLLECTIVE STRESSORS

Group Stressors - Lack of Social Support, Group Cohesiveness, Organisational Environment (Kannan & Suma, 2015).

Organizational Stressors - The Design of Tasks, Management Style, Technological Factors.

Extra-Organizational Stressors - Economic Factors &Political Factors (Khan & Khan 2017).

2.2 OUTCOMES OF STRESS Researchers indicated that blood pressure, coronary heart diseases, depression, absenteeism, trauma, cancer risk factors; musculoskeletal disorders, and psychosomatic symptoms are ill-effects of occupational stress (Jayashree, 2010).

Figure 2: Outcomes of stress.

Figure 2 depicts the outcomes of occupational stress. Depression, anxiety, and trauma are the most commonly diagnosed psychological problems/outcomes of occupational stress (Liu, 2010).

2.3 COPING STRATEGIES 2.3.1 PERSONAL STRATEGIES 2.3.1.1 Self-efficacy It is considered a positive factor that reduces stress. Family, friends, and colleagues mostly give social support. An Individual must have the self-confidence to overcome adverse life situations. It is one of the best sources that lie in the positive interaction between the individual and society (Iqbal, 2013).

2.3.1.2 Get time away You should take a break when you feel stress at the job. Leave the office for a few minutes and have a walk around the block. Find a quiet place to sit and listen to your favorite chill mix which reduces the stress. *Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15M http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.301

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2.3.1.3 Talk it out Stress can be reduced by simply talking it to your loved one. Therefore it is often found an excellent way of reducing stress The act of talking it out-and getting support and empathy from someone else is the best way of blowing off steam. Have a support system of trusted people.

2.3.1.4 Find humour in the situation When the employees find a stressful situation and they or people around them start taking things too seriously then share a jock or funny story and simply find a way to break through with laughter (Jackson & Rothmann, 2006).

2.3.1.5 Maintain a positive attitude Avoid negative attitude because negativism sucks the motivation and energy out of any situation so always maintained a positive attitude and learn to reward yourself for little accomplishments (even if no else does).

2.3.1.6 Self-esteem Another thing that has a positive effect on reducing the level of stress is self-esteem. It is also used to cope with stress (Kishori et al., 2016).

Research Hypothesis H1 Personnel Strategies mediates the relation between Causes (Individual Stressor) & Outcomes of stress.

H2 Personnel Strategies mediates the relation between collective Stressor & Outcomes of stress.

2.4 PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL RESEARCH MODEL The research empirically developed the proposed model and variables are given in Figure 3.

The proposed conceptual research model showing the mediating role of personal strategies in the relationship between the causes and outcomes of occupational stress.

Figure 3: Theoretical framework mediation model for this study.

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Data is collected through a standardized questionnaire. it is most feasible to collect data from big populations in less time and cost. Data collected from all the 25 districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

Judges and advocates are the target population. Simple random sampling is used to collect the data.

Initially, a pilot study was conducted to ensure the reliability and validity of the scales. A pilot study was carried by utilizing a specimen of 75 respondents. The scholar himself went and regulated the questionnaire among these respondents. A total of 285 questionnaires were floated and 252 were received back with a response rate of 88%. The inquiries were in two sections â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Sections "A" and "B".

Area "A" managed individual information (Demographics) and segment "B" managed questions for

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the project. Utilizing these surveys the scholar examined reasons for causes of stress, Outcomes of stress, and coping strategies to overcome these stressful situations. The instrument included questions of three research variables and seven demographic variables covering all the related characteristics of the respondents, which are expected to influence their reactions.

3.1 BARRON & KENNY (1986) MODEL FOR THE RESEARCH VARIABLES For analysis Barron & Kenny's (1986) Model for the Research Variables is used. According to this model, a variable can be taken as a mediator to the level to which it carries the influence of a given independent variable (IV) to a given dependent variable (DV). Mediation occurs when the IV considerably influences the mediator; the IV considerably influences the DV in the absence of the mediator; the mediator has a significant distinctive effect on the DV; and finally, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable contracts with the addition of mediator in the regression-model.

4 FINDINGS In Figure 4 Individual Stressor was hypothesized as the major determinant of Outcomes while Personnel Strategies was tested as Mediator. The question was ‘Whether Individual Stressor or Personnel Strategies are playing a bigger and significant role in bringing variation in the Outcomes of stress? The mediation Model-1 is the cases of [IS→PS→OC] and [CS→PS→OC].

IS = individual stressors CS = collective stressors PS = personal Strategies OC = outcomes of stress MV = mediating variable

Figure 4: Mediation Model 1 (Mediator = PS)

H1: Personnel Strategies mediates the Relation between Causes (Individual Stressor) & Outcomes of stress.

Table 1: Model Summary for H1.

1 2 3 4

Conditions a must be significant. [IV-MV] b must be significant. [MV-DV] c must be significant. [IV-DV] ć may or may not be significant [IV-MV-DV]

Y/N Y Y Y Y

‘a’ B= 0.110 ‘b’ B=0.366 ‘c’ B = -1.306 ‘ć’ B = 1.177

p = .003 p= <0.001 p= <0.001 p= <0.001

Table 1 is used to check the mediating role of personal strategies. In Stepwise Multiple Regressions (IV-DV & IV & MV-DV), R2 rises from 40% to 52% i.e. (0.405 to 0.516) due to *Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15M http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.301

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Mediator. Similarly, Beta-weight of ‘c’ goes a bit up from .-1.306 to -1.177 (with p-value = <0.001).

The beta-weight of Mediator ‘b’, .366 and is ‘significant’ with a p-value of <0.001 therefore Partial Meditation is happening. Hypothesis H1 is therefore Accepted.

The mediation Model-2 for the case of [IS→PS→OC].

Figure 5: Mediation Model 2 (Mediator = PS) In Figure 5 Collective Stressors were hypothesized as the major determinant of Outcomes while Personnel Strategies was tested as Mediator. The question was ‘Whether collective Stressor or Personnel Strategies are playing a significant role in bringing changes in the Outcomes of stress?

H2: Personnel Strategies mediates the Relationship between collective Stressor & Outcomes of stress.

Table 2: Model Summary for H2.

1 2 3 4

Conditions a must be significant. [IV-MV] b must be significant. [MV-DV] c must be significant. [IV-DV] ć may or may not be significant [IV-MV-DV]

Y/N Y Y Y N

Beta and p-value ‘a’ B=1.033, p=0.000 ‘b’ B=0.437, p=0.000 ‘c’ B=0.598, p= 0.000 ‘ć’ B=0.147, p=0.279

Table 2 explains the mediation process followed the 1986 Barron & Kenny model. In stepwise multiple regressions (IV-DV & IV & MV- DV), R2 increases from 9% to 20% (0.092 to 0.202) due to mediator. Similarly, Beta-weight of c drops from .598 to .147 (p-value = .279). The Beta-weight of Mediator b is .437. According to Barron Kenny, if path ć’ is insignificant then the mediator fully mediates the relationship, and Table 2 shows that ‘ć’ is ‘insignificant’ therefore Full mediation is occurring in the model with supporting statistics. Hypothesis H2 is therefore accepted as true.

5 CONCLUSION It is evident from the practices that conclusions are the findings and decisions about different significant and insignificant factors built on the findings. Statistical results can be misguiding if all related data analysis is not undertaken. For example, in the current study is misguiding if averages of the variables are taken as the final figures to inform about the opinion of all respondents collectively.

The step-wise multiple regressions provide further knowhow about the real nature of the issues and thus solution models will be developed accordingly. Given the established role of personal strategies as per existing research, this study statistically computed the mediating role of personal strategies on the opinion of respondents (Judges and Advocates) regarding causes and outcomes of occupational stress. The results verify the documented studies claiming the possible role of personal strategies in

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reducing the level of stress among the employees. The Personal strategies were tested on both the individual stressors and collective stressors and both were found significant. The personal strategies significantly mediate the relationship between the individual stressors, outcomes of occupational stress, and collectives stressors outcomes of occupational stress.

To reduce the level of stress successfully particularly in the background of developing countries like Pakistan the government must take proper measures to increase the salariesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; of the judges, reduce work overload, Computers and Information technology need to be properly installed and all the judges should properly train to use these latest technologies so that it may not become the cause of stress rather it will be used to solve the problems. The personal strategies mediate the relationship between the causes and outcomes and outcomes of occupational stress. So an employee himself plays a very vital role while reducing the level of stress. So he should take all preventives measures and steps and reduces his stress.

6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 REFERENCE Ahmad, T., Qureshi, QA., & Ahmad, I. (2017). Occupational stress among workers in developing countries. Gomal Journal of Medical Science, 15(4), 87-190.

Beheshtifar, M., Hoseinifar, H., & Moghadam, M. (2011). Effect procrastination on work-related stress.

European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, 38, 59-64.

Coolican, H. (2017). Research methods and statistics in psychology. Psychology Press.

Ile, C. M., & Ementa, C. N. (2015). Appraisal of Information and Communication Technology Courses in Business Education Programme of Universities in Southeast Nigeria. International Journal of Higher Education, 5(1), 200.

Iqbal, M. (2013). Mediational effect of stress coping strategies between workplace stress and organizational performance: A case study of air traffic controllers of Pakistan. Cent Eur J Immunol, 1, 42-56.

Jackson, L., & Rothmann, S. (2006). Occupational stress, organisational commitment, and ill-health of educators in the North West Province. South African Journal of Education, 26(1), 75-95.

Jayashree, R. (2010). Stress management with special reference to public sector bank employees in Chennai. International Journal of Enterprise and Innovation Management Studies, 1(3), 34-35.

Kannan, P., & Suma, U. (2015). Managing Stress among Co-Operative Bank Employees in Palakkad district. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Applied Science, 1(7), 22-24.

Khan, F., & Ali, U. (2013). A cross-cultural study: Work stress as a mediator between job satisfaction and intention to quit. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(9).

Khan, S., & Khan, R. A. (2017). Chronic stress leads to anxiety and depression. Ann Psychiatry Ment Health, 5(1), 1091.

Kim, H.-Y. (2013). Statistical notes for clinical researchers: assessing normal distribution (2) using skewness and kurtosis. Restorative dentistry & endodontics, 38(1), 52-54. *Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15M http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.301

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Kishori, B., & Vinothini, B. (2016). A Study on Work Stress Among Bank Employees in State Bank of India with Reference to Tiruchirappalli. International Journal for Innovative Researches, 2, 12.

Tehseen Ahmad is a Ph.D. scholar at Dept. of Public Administration, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, KPK, Pakistan.

He completed his M Phil from Qurtaba University. His research is in areas of Stress Management, Islamic Banking.

Dr. Qamar Afaq Qureshi is an Assistant Professor at Dept. of Public Administration, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. He got his MPA & MPhil Degrees from DPA, GU, and Ph.D. from the Department of Management Sciences, Hazara University, Hazara. His research focuses on E-Health and HRM.

Nida Habib is a Ph.D. scholar at Dept. of Business Administration, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, KPK, Pakistan. She completed her M Phil in HRM. Her research interest Micro Financing.

Irfan Ullah is a PhD Scholar, School of Management and Economics, Beijing Institute of Technology, China. He holds a Masterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Degree in Public Administration. His research interest is HRM and Digital Management.

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A15N

PARKLET IDEAS MAKING SMALL STREET URBAN SPACES WITH BIG IMPACTS Hanaa Mahmoud Shokry 1

1*

Department of Interior Design, Faculty of Architecture and Design, Jazan University, KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 21 December 2019 Received in revised form 20 August 2020 Accepted 24 August 2020 Available online 15 September 2020

This paper discusses parklets, an idea of simple solutions that can solve some social issues and respond to environmental conditions, at the same time. The study approaches both theoretical and case study to represents an innovative approach to street design that redistributes street spaces more safe and comfortable for all users and, covers elements that can help to create friendly places to enhance community life. We can define parklets as, small removable, physical intervention platforms made available to the public for recreational use that takes the place of two or more on-street parking spaces, widening the sidewalk. Parklets symbolize the desire to create a more enjoyable, communal, healthy, and vibrant public realm. Transforming excess street space into a cost-effective, small park that can have an enormous impact. Designing a successful parklet requires a variety of considerations. The study shows that small spaces can make a massive difference on the street by creating new public spaces and pedestrian areas that improve the quality of life.

After reviewing and analyzing many models of parklets in the world, the paper reaches some standards of parklets design, which can correspond to the streets of downtown Jazan City as a case study that can be applied in all cities of the Saudi Kingdom and the world.

Keywords: Urban street design; Design considerations; Community life; Jazan City; Metered parking; Parklet design; Cityscape; Streetscape.

Disciplinary: Urban and City Design, Landscape Ecology and Environmental Aesthetic Management. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Streets and sidewalks occupied about twenty-five percent of the city's land area, and are an integral part of our daily experience. The close connection between the quality of urban city spaces, people's use of these spaces, and the degree of concern for the human dimension is a prevalent rule that can show at all levels. Transit-friendly streets provide high-quality pedestrian communication services about high-capacity public transport. Low noise and high activity of pedestrians are the key *Corresponding author (Hanaa M. Shokry). Tel:+966-534439193 Email: Hanaashokry@hotmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15N http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.302

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dominants (Prelovskaya & Levashev, 2016).

The parklet serves as the front porch of the community and provides the amenities to stop, eat, sit, talk, play, read, and enjoy their street life (City of Richmond, 2016). Because public parklets are built on the public road, they are open to the public regardless of who built them, this dynamic is not new, nor is it unique in the West. The study comprises three parts, the first section has been prepared to summarize the background information of Parklets and to guide the development of the streetscape, and urban design guidelines through vision and guiding principles. In the second section of the paper, concerned on the streets of downtown Jazan City, as a case study, in the final segment, we evaluate inherent interventions for urban Parklets, such as adaptive reuse of infrastructure, mindful of lessons from the American experience.

2 PARKLET BACKGROUND The first parklet built-in 2005 by converting a single metered parking space into a temporary public park in downtown San Francisco. Rebar, a San Francisco art and design studio created parklets to provide buffer areas between traffic lanes and the sidewalk, to enhance the pedestrian environment which can help make the people feel more safe and comfortable (San Francisco Parklet Program, 2020). This parklet contains some turf, potted trees, and one bench that occupied a single parking space for two hours. That urban intervention spread to cities around the world.

San Francisco is a pioneer in making parklets into a constant part of the cityscape catching on as a way to improve the human experience with a small cost to the city. This urban intervention has since spread to cities around the world. By making the commercial areas in existing places more livable and attractive, streetscape urban projects can initiate regeneration to dramatically change the opportunities for the infrastructure that supports the eco-gentrification (The City of Charlotte, 2017).

Parklets create the diversity and creativity of the people and organizations that sponsor and design them. They reflect the people's commitment to be a part of a change to strengthen our communities.

3 CASE STUDY: THE SUNSET TRIANGLE PLAZA, LOS ANGELES The Streets for People pilot initiative resulted in arguably the first large-scale and longer-term parklet in Los Angeles. This parklet called the Sunset Triangle Plaza, opened in March 2012, its origins occurred years earlier when community activists within the group Living Streets in Los Angeles met to discuss pilot project interventions that would improve the streets. The inspiration came from the conversion of New York City's Times Square into a pedestrian plaza. First alternative: "Garden Space Parklet": Convert redundant travel lane, a closing street with planters, as used at the Sunset Triangle Plaza, installed with raised beds for community gardening. The second alternative is "Active Recreation Parklet": Convert unnecessary travel lane, a closing street with planters, as used at the Sunset Triangle Plaza, and allow pedestrians and cyclists to travel safely through the area without vehicular traffic.

4 METHODOLOGY The main question of the paper is how street urban spaces can invite city life? And how the renovation of a small single space can draw people to a new pattern of use? To answer these questions, a field study was conducted in January 2019, and the research shows that the design meets

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Hanaa Mahmoud Shokry

the standards of parklet design, which improves placemaking to the streets of downtown Jazan City of the Saudi Kingdom, located in the south region as a case study.

5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION Parklets symbolize the desire to create a healthy, enjoyable, and vibrant public realm.

Transforming excess street space into a cost-effective, small park can have a significant impact.

Identifying the ideal location and community partner must first be selected according to location criteria (San Francisco Parklet Program, 2015; National Endowment for the Arts, 2008). Designing a successful Parklet requires a variety of considerations, especially for wheelchair users: o Parklets must be located on streets with parking lanes, and cannot be located in a travel lane. o Parklets should take two or three on-street parking spots. o The parking lane must be more extensive than the parklet zone o The parklet zone should not be longer than the frontage of the applicant's property line. o The sidewalk-facing side of the parklet should have access to pedestrians. o Parklets may have wheel stops installed near the curb. o Parklets must be safe, accessible to disabled users. o Parklets should have visible elements to pass vehicles without obstructing views. o Parklets must be visible with reflective elements in their design at night and must include soft hit edges. o Regardless of who sponsors the parklet, it must be public spaces

Figure 1: A site plan of the selected area (left), the existing buildings, street, and sidewalk (right).

6 PARKLET DESIGN IN JAZAN CITY CENTRE This study summarizes the information for the study area and guide the development of the streetscape through vision and guiding principles. The study is to build on the city center's improvements and strengths upon its weaknesses by further celebrating culture, promote a connected design, and to ensure stimulate an active streetscape, and high quality, aesthetically pleasing *Corresponding author (Hanaa M. Shokry). Tel:+966-534439193 Email: Hanaashokry@hotmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15N http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.302

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environment. Jazan is one of the thirteen administrative regions of Saudi Arabia, located in the farthest southwest of Saudi Arabia. Jazan region situated on the furthermost southwest on Saudi Arabia, denominated by longitudes 42°43′ E and latitudes 16°17′ N. The weather of Jazan region is hot in the summer and wet in the winter. The average temperature is 25-23 Celsius throughout the year. Jazan City is currently witnessing tremendous economic, cultural, educational, and healthcare development. The concentration of commercial activities, shopping malls, vehicles, and pedestrian movements can pose a threat to the possibility of a healthy environment and streetscape.

How can we develop Jazan City Centre to be a place for people, a place to walk, shop, spend time as an individual or as a family? By inviting pedestrian area that is comfortable for people of all ages, economic classes, circumstances, and physical abilities. Its atmosphere encourages extended visits and returns visits, with a streetscape that sends the message that "people's comfort and positive experiences are a top priority. The study area (Figures 1 & 2) focused upon a portion of Prince Mohamed bin Nasser Street to the south/east being comprised of the commercial zone and bounded

by Street No. 6 to the north-east. The character area plan identifies a distinct commercial area that is recognizable and different from neighboring places. The character area results in differences in the type and style of building, density, and land-use patterns.

Figure 2: The study area in Jazan City Centre.

Designing parklets to bring awareness to nature and healthy living while making it comfortable and relaxing to sit (Welldorado, 2018). To ensure that design directions and guidelines align with the vision statement a series of over aching principles were created and are as follows: • Promote the Economic vitality of the area, • Embrace culture and heritage, • Foster a dynamic and livable city center, • Inspire high- quality design, and • Encourage environmental sustainability.

Figure 3: The selected parklet site in Jazan City.

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Figure 4: A proposal of a small parklet design on the pavement to extend the sidewalk space.

These principles evolved through inventory and analysis of the site engagement and review of previous studies, and current trends in streetscape design. The vision and guiding principles will guide all future design decisions, strategies, and recommendations. Parklets are typically created by building a platform on the pavement to extend the sidewalk space and retrofitting it with benches, planters, tables and chairs, umbrellas, and bike racks. Planting in the street furniture articulates and strengthens the landscape, providing a visual the transition from objects to objects and place to place (Adedokun & Mniterp, 2013). These small spaces (Figure 3 & 4) can make an extent difference with pedestrian areas and open spaces that provide the quality of life in the central part of Jazan City and commercial corridors. This parklet expresses the character of the area, celebrating the sense of place.

7 CONCLUSION Parklets symbolize the desire to create a more enjoyable, healthy, communal, and vibrant public realm. Transforming streetscape into a cost-effective, small park can have a significant impact.

Parklets are a low-cost, easily implementable approach to achieving a better balance for all users of the street. Parklet sponsors seeking to install a parklet are responsible for designing, funding, and constructing them. They also have liability for the parklet and ensure the parklet is well-maintained.

The parklet must be designed for safety, comfort, and to provide an enjoyable public space to socialize, rest, or exercise and should be selected based on cost, aesthetic appearance, and durability considerations. By making the commercial areas in existing cities more attractive and livable, urban humanization projects can initiate regeneration to dramatically change the opportunities for the infrastructure that supports the quality of life. Parklets reflect the creativity and diversity of the people and organizations. They also reflect the residents' commitment to encouraging quality of life which strengthens all communities. There is no right solution that would produce a suitable streetscape every time, each proposal must be contextually responsive and specific. Finally, the sustainable, suitable streetscape is not just about creating green areas but are about implementing a design that can benefit both humans and ecosystems. Parklets could base on the following characteristics (Loukaitou-Sideris et al., 2012): site: Parklets could occupy former parking spaces, street medians, *Corresponding author (Hanaa M. Shokry). Tel:+966-534439193 Email: Hanaashokry@hotmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15N http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.302

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traffic triangles, redesign travel lanes, and parking spaces or excess asphalt zone at angled intersections, land uses: commercial or residential, space: from a two to three of parking of spaces, to spaces along the block length, to entire parts of a block, shape: regular or irregular, time: from a few hours to a part of the year, activity: commercial or recreation.

8 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

9 REFERENCES Adedokun, Ade Mania & Mniterp, A. Carb. (2013). The Dynamics of Street Furniture In Urban Centers: The Lagos Example, International Journal of Advancement in Research & Technology, 2(3), 1-10.

Loukaitou-Sideris, Anastasia, Brozen, Madeline & Callahan, Colleen. (2012). Reclaiming the Right of Way: A Toolkit for Creating and Implementing Parklets. Los Angeles: UCLA Complete Streets Initiative Luskin School of Public Affairs.

National Endowment for the Arts. (2008). Streets as Places. New York: Project for Public Spaces, Inc. Prelovskaya, Evgeniya & Levashev, Alexey. (2016). Modern Approach of Street Space Design, Proceedings of 12th International Conference on Organization and Traffic Safety Management in Large Cities, St. Petersburg, Russia.

San Francisco Parklet Program. (2020). San Francisco Parklet Manual. https://groundplaysf.org/publication/san-francisco-parklet-manual

Retrieved June 2020.

The City of Charlotte. (2017). The City of Charlotte-Parklet Program. https://charlottenc.gov/Transportation/Programs/Pages/Parklets.aspx Retrieved October 2018.

The City of Richmond. (2016). Parklet Design Guidelines. A Placemaking Initiative of the City of Richmond, Virginia, City of Richmondâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Departments of Planning & Development. http://www.richmondgov.com/PlanningAndDevelopmentReview/documents/Parklet_Design_Guidel ines.pdf Retrieved November 2019.

Welldorado. (2018). Healthy Living Parklet Designs. http://www.welldorado.org/content/sites/eldorado/parklet/HealthyLivingParkletDesigns_16-17.pdf Retrieved October 2018.

Professor Dr.Hanaa Mahmoud Shokry teaches at the Faculty of Architecture & Design at Jazan University, Jazan City, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. She obtained a Bachelor and a Master of Architecture degrees from Cairo University of Egypt, and a PhD degree from the Ain Shames University of Egypt. Her research includes Urban Design, Studio Architecture, History and Theory of Architecture, and Rehabilitation of Old City Centers.

Note: The original of this article was reviewed, accepted, and presented at the 4th International Conference-Workshop on Sustainable Architecture and Urban Design (ICWSAUD2019), a joint conference with the 4th International Conference on Engineering, Innovation, & Technology (ICEIT 2019) held in Penang, Malaysia during 24-26 June 2019.

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A15O

AN ANALYSIS OF SELF-CONCEPT BETWEEN HOMELESS AND COMMON WOMEN IN PAKISTAN 1

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Samra Maqbool , Zhao Wei , Uzma Sarwar , 1 1* Samina Zamir , Hafiz Muhammad Ihsan Zafeer 1

School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an CHINA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 08 May 2020 Received in revised form 31 August 2020 Accepted 11 September 2020 Available online 15 September 2020

This study aims to discover the association between the self-concept of homeless women and common women. The samples of participants were 60. The self-concept scale was in Urdu and consisted of 52 items to measure self-concept. This study was hypothesized that the self-concept of homeless women should be lower than common women. Result designated that homeless women have higher self-concept than common women. Regarding Education, results specified that all groups, those women whose education level is matriculation have lower self-concept than those whose education level is above matriculation. According to marital status, there are no differences in results on self-concept among the groups of unmarried and married women. Age was one more demographic on the self-concept scale adults have a high self-concept than adolescents in the overall group.

Keywords: Self-concept; Beliefs, Homeless shelter; Sentiments; Homelessness; Social stigma; Shelter homes; Family violence.

Disciplinary: Woman Studies, Humanities, Homeless study. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Self-concept is the nature and association of trust regarding individual self. It is assessed to be multi-dimensional. For example, people have a different faith in emotional, social, physical, and many various portions of themselves. On the other hand, Self-concept is conceptual, cerebral, and intellectual understanding. It is constant under that conscious being holds to our presence. It is also the aggregate of being comprehension and knowledge of his and her. It is different from selfperception. Self-perception is preoccupation or awareness with the individual self, though, and self-concept is the vehicle of our emblematic conduct about what we think, get, reason, and judge up to which incredible degree, for instance, it is constrained by our ideas (Mishra, 2016).

Our self-concept, our information, presumptions, and sentiments about ourselves, is key to the vast majority of the psychological procedures. We realize that every individual's self-concept is *Corresponding author (Hafiz M.I.Zafeer). Email: hafizihsan28@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15O http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.303

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unique to all others. But shockingly, there is no broad understanding of the general structure or substance of the self-concept. A few parts of our self-concept are steady for quite a long time; different angles change nearly minute to minute. For example, the more significant part of our promptly feels dumb after bombing a test or making an absurd remark. We may feel alluring at once and ugly somewhat later. Every one of us additionally has open selves (a few might be utilized to deal with one's picture as displayed to other people) and private selves. One may cherish him/herself here and there and despise him/herself in others (Grubb & Stern, 1971).

Instead, we have a special relationship regarding ourselves. At the same time, we are both objective and subjective. We are also self-aware or self-conscious. The same self, the same person is object and subject, thinker and thought, knower and known about seen and seer. Different definitions are diversified and represented our thinking or thoughts procedure. To Murphy, â&#x20AC;&#x153;the self is the individual as known to the individual" and "the set of approaches a person grips towards himself" Several psychologists favor to say of "multiple selves." "The self-concept includes hundreds, perhaps thousands of self-perceptions in varying degrees of clarity and intensity that we have acquired in growing up" (Katzir & Eyal, 2013).

Dimensionally, self-concept has divided into four categories that help us to create purposes behind purchasing items (Hawkins, 1991). The actual self-concept is the view of who I am present. It is a good impression of one's self. For instance, I am a student. It is a genuine impression of myself and is the thing that I depict to other people (Lynch et al., 2009). Private self-concept can be how you accept that you go about as an individual like creative, adventurous, or friendly (Fenigstein, 1987).

Social self-concept means one's view of their social capability regarding social collaboration with others and gets from the appraisal of one's conduct inside a given social setting (Byrne & Gavin, 1996). Ideal self-concept cannot be constant. It can be changed with actually what happens in life as well as with experiences. That's why the ideal self-concept in adolescence does not remain the same as in our youngsters or twenties (Landon Jr, 1974).

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 HOMELESSNESS IN PAKISTAN Homelessness is a physical, social, and mental state in which an individual gets him/her disconnected from the ordinary connections of social, financial, and enthusiastic help. The homeless have no home with no assets, and any individual to care for them. In Pakistan's social viewpoint, desperation should be an issue of females. Females are acclimated with physical, social, monetary, and enthusiastic reliance. When this reliance is not stretched out to a female, she feels vulnerable and lost and gets the name of down and out. It looks as though it is an individual issue of females who have lost help in the general public. In any case, a particular problem turns into a network issue or social issue on the off chance that it influences an appreciable number of individuals or its causes are established in the person and the social arrangements (Marshall, 1996). It is fascinating to take note of that Pakistani society has certain financial conditions that give an exceptionally ready ground to the rise of this wonder. The conventional status of females in our general public anticipates that a girl/woman should remain financially and sincerely reliant. The help which she gets in the patriarchal society gives her a peaceful and simple life.

However, the 'series' of this help is exclusively in the hands of man. He can pull back it whenever

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Samra Maqbool, Zhao Wei, Uzma Sarwar, Samina Zamir, Hafiz Muhammad Ihsan Zafeer

he wants, and the woman is left with no capacity to drive an autonomous life. She is not acclimated with gain her very own living and to settle on the choices for herself. At the point when she is denied of these offices, she feels hopeless. Scholar argued that homeless happens as a procedure of dis-contribution while a process of expanding separation from conventional establishments and societal roles. Women have become the quickest developing section of the homelessness populace (Borchard, 2000). Homelessness is an issue for the woman; it is likewise a system for getting away savagery. There is developing writing that presents vagrants as exploited people or wiped out, which has added to the politicization of dejection as a social problem (Shinn et al., 1991).

The occurrences of little youngsters' temporary displacement from home are expanding step by step. Little youngsters make outrageous stride of forsaking their family. The explanation behind their revolt is disregarded and underestimated by the general public. It is uncovered that most such women who escape from their homes are brought to the Edhi Welfare Center or shelter homes by the police or the individuals they approach for help (Robertson, 1991).

2.2 PROMINENT REASONS OF HOMELESSNESS Home is where one feels to be shielded from every single outside danger. It is a position of fulfillment for the individuals living. Home leaving, guardians, or family is an extraordinary advance taken by an individual in our general public. What makes them do so is a new inquiry, yet a portion of the explanation referenced is as per the following (Dasgupta, 1995).

Sensitive nature does matter because some guardians lean toward the male youngster over the female since childhood and overlook the requirements of their girls. The unfair and one-sided mentality of guardians towards their kids based on sexual orientation can trigger her to venture out from home. A few youngsters are touchy, and they request a parent's special consideration. The normal chiding from guardians may summon the possibility that their folks do not need them, so it is better to leave them (Baptista, 2010).

The violence of family, one of the significant purposes behind spurning home is family savagery.

An investigation of the Woman's Division recommends that violent behavior at home ensues roughly 80 % of the family unit in the nation. Occurrences of stove consuming are, in effect, progressively announced in the press. During 1998, 282 devour instances of the lady were accounted for in Punjab.

Of these, 65 % kicked the vessel of their cuts. Information collected from two medical clinics of Islamabad and Rawalpindi over a long time since 1994 uncovers 739 examples of consumes exploited people. The official figure for the homicide of lady during 1998 was 1,974; dominant parts were casualties of their own family members' spouses, siblings, fathers, and in-laws (Zia & Bari, 1999).

Low family environment and suppressed numerous parents in our general public have an absolutist style of managing their kids. Sadly the young lady is given differential treatment in welfare, instruction, love, and care compared to the young men. This kind of family condition incites a defiant frame of mind in little youngsters, and at whatever point they found an open door, they leave their homes (Koenen et al., 2003). As indicated, a poor home condition is a focal purpose behind venturing out from home (Johnson & Carter, 1980).

A stepparent is one of the most prominent reasons behind it because those youngsters whose *Corresponding author (Hafiz M.I.Zafeer). Email: hafizihsan28@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15O http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.303

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guardians remarry feel awkward with the new relationship because of the absence of the right mind and love. When the circumstance turns out to be excessively undermining and painful for them, they run away from the possibility of getting away from the torment. In contrast, unmatched marriages in our general public, primarily in rural zones, may run off out of resistance. A large portion of the young ladies acknowledge it regardless of whether they do not care for the match; some of them do not. If they converse with their folks about it, which are uncommon, guardians either does not pay any notice to it or respond even sharply (Gangoli et al., 2006).

2.3 HOMELESS FEMALE Women in Pakistan, in comparison to men, are generally in a disadvantaged position. However, due to a particular mode of social life, large and extended families' women tend to receive more protection and patronage. The support and shelter provided by the family to a woman is a very characteristic feature of our society. Women are accustomed to physical, economic, and emotional dependency. When this dependency is not extended to women, she feels helpless and lost and gets the homeless (Snow & Anderson, 1991). A woman's job is acceptable only under exceptional circumstances. A woman is not supposed to be economically independent. She does not work on her right. When a woman does not conform to social norms, rejects parental support and provisions rebels against family, and at least leaves home, she may be right or wrong. She will not be able to consider the possible negative outcome of such a step. But despite all this, her actions represent a kind of discrimination kept in society and home life. It represents a feeling of dissatisfaction and rejection the girl feels when she attempts such adverse means to get away from the environment to which she is exposed (Pervez, 1982).

Occasionally it is believed that women's act of leaving home is impulsive or preplanned. But, because of external stimulator cannot be denied. Some literate girls have in mind all the legal considerations of leaving homes. They decided to go directly to shelter families at their own will, though such cases are few. Most girls or women who come to destitute homes are brought there by law enforcement authorities or through a social worker, non-governmental organizations, or by ordinary citizens. Personality assessment of these women gives a clear-cut indication that their self-concept is different from common women. It could be viewed in terms of needs of authority, aggression, abasement, weekend needs (bonds) of affiliation, achievement. According to Woman Division's Report, in Punjab and Sindh, homelessness is more common among unmarried young girls, thereby depicting a conflict of girls with their parents (Shamim et al., 2014).

The same is almost the fate of those unmarried girls, who perhaps tired of their adverse circumstances at home, quit their parents, and eloped by their so-called lovers. Some studies also reveal that most female criminals receive poor support and affection in their lives. Either they belong to physically broken or psychologically disrupted homes. The report of the president's commission for Eradication of Social Evils in Pakistan reveals that double standards are kept within families regarding control and support to sons and daughters. Education, better food, and better clothes are usually only for the sons because they are the potential source of earning and support for the parents in old age. Girls are insignificant; they are considered to be a burden because, firstly, they cannot provide any assistance to the family; secondly, they have to go to another home after getting married and must get reasonable dowry. Otherwise, they will not get married, in which case it will be ashamed for the family because of social pressures (Bhattacharya, 2014).

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Samra Maqbool, Zhao Wei, Uzma Sarwar, Samina Zamir, Hafiz Muhammad Ihsan Zafeer

2.4 SHELTER HOMES Shelter homes are that kind of living place where the homeless women live without their families because of some reasons like; women who have not any support of family, death of her husband, divorced and leaving by the husband. If they do not stay at shelter homes, then they are compelled to begging or spent unethical life. (Critelli & Willett, 2010). There is another kind of woman kidnapped by someone from their homes or compelled to spend unethical life. A shelter home helps the homeless woman and gives the place to live, the way to live a normal and regular life. All the shelter homes are government institutions and working according to law and regulations (Jibeen, 2014).

A homeless woman is a very delicate edge of either losing her self-concept. She might be get fortified. Notably, it is hard to live without a home, assets, and cash or family members. Society does not acknowledge the person who has moved from venturing out from home or powerless or denied. It was intrigued to look out the distinction of how nature impacts a homeless woman and an ordinary woman. The vast majority of homeless ladies are the individuals who have left their homes purposely; it was also intrigued to perceive how she practices her privileges. How different individuals feel, think, and carry on a woman with deprivation, particularly in Shelter home, how individuals treat them.

The objectives of this study are to elaborate on the impacts of self-concept on homeless women, to analyze the affiliation of demographic variables with the homelessness, and to compare the self-concept between homeless and common women, for the case of Pakistan.

3 METHODOLOGY The quantitative survey method was used in this study. For initiating the data collection Self-Concept Scale was developed and translated in the Urdu language (Ansari et al., 1982). The scale consisted of 52 items, both positive and negative.

3.1 SAMPLE The sample has consisted of 60 women; 30 women had been taken from the homeless side, whereas 30 women were from the common women. The homeless women were taken from Rawalpindi and Sialkot Shelter homes, and common women were randomly selected from college and university women through convenient and purposive sampling.

3.2 PROCEDURE After getting permission from Shelter Homes, the homeless women were approached. They had been confirmed that the given material would be kept confidential. The illiterate sample was eased by converting the questions into the Punjabi language that easily comprehend them.

3.3 HYPOTHESIS H1: Self-concept of homeless women shall be lower than common women.

H2: Less-Educated women shall have less self-concept than High-Educated women.

H3: Married women shall have less self-concept than unmarried women.

H4: Adults shall have less self-concept than adolescents.

4 RESULTS Table 1 shows that the difference between the scores of homeless and common women on *Corresponding author (Hafiz M.I.Zafeer). Email: hafizihsan28@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15O http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.303

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self-concept is not significant (t = .909, p = .367). These findings imply that Homeless women have higher Self-Concept than common women do, thus H1 is not accepted.

Table 1: Self-concept between homeless and common women (n=60).

Groups Homeless Women Common Women

N 30 30

M 177.2 170.0

SD 15.4 12.0

T .909

P .367

df 58

Table 2: Education-Based Differences among groups of Women, Educated up to Matric and Greater than Matric for Self-Concept Education Homeless Group Up to Matric > Matric Common Group Up to Matric > Matric Total Up to Matric > Matric

N

M

SD

T

P

df

20 10

172.2 175.3

15.5 15.7

-.523

.605

28

9 21

170.4 169.8

7.9 13.5

.141

.889

28

29 31

171.6 171.6

13.5 14.3

.020

.984

58

Table 2 depicts the difference within homeless and common women groups of educated up to matriculation and greater than matriculation on self-concept are non-significant (t = -.523, p = .605), (t = .141, p = .889). These results show that within the group of homeless women who have educated up to matriculation have lower self-concept than the women who have educated greater than matriculation. Within common women who have educated up to matriculation have slightly high self-concept compared to the women educated greater than matriculation. In total there is a non-significant difference in the self-concept of women educated up to matriculation and greater than matriculation (t = .020, p = .984), thus H 2 is not accepted. These results imply no difference found on self-concept between the women educated up to matriculation and the women educated greater than matriculation in the overall group.

Table 3: Marital-based differences among groups of women, married and un-married for self-concept.

Marital Status Homeless Group Married Un-Married Common Group Married Un-Married Total Married Un-Married

N

M

SD

T

P

df

23 7

171.8 178.0

15.9 13.5

-.943

.354

28

17 13

169.4 170.8

12.5 11.7

-.316

.755

28

40 20

170.7 173.3

14.4 12.5

-.681

.499

58

Table 3 confirms the differences between married and unmarried homeless and common women on the self-concept is non-significant (t = -.943, p = .354), (t = -.316, p = .755). it indicates that within the homeless group, married women have a lower self-concept than unmarried women. Within the common group, married women have a slightly lower self-concept than unmarried women do. In total, the differences between married and unmarried women based on their scores on self-concept are

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Samra Maqbool, Zhao Wei, Uzma Sarwar, Samina Zamir, Hafiz Muhammad Ihsan Zafeer

non-significant (t = -681, p = .499). These results specify that there are no big differences between married and unmarried women concerning self-concept. It is implied that married women have a lower self-concept than unmarried women do, in the overall sample, H3 is accepted.

Table 4: Age-based difference among groups of women, up to 21 years, and greater than 21 years for self-concept.

Age Homeless Group Up to 21 years > 21 years Common Group Up to 21 years > 21 years Total Up to 21 years > 21 years

N

M

SD

T

P

df

13 17

172.7 173.6

14.7 16.3

-.156

.877

28

5 25

172.4 169.5

11.8 12.2

.491

.996

28

18 42

172.6 171.1

13.6 14.0

.376

.708

58

Table 4 shows the difference between women up to 21 years and greater than 21 years in homeless and common groups on their self-concept scores is non-significant (t = -.156, p = .877). (t = .491, p = .996). These results show that there are no many differences within the homeless group in the self-concept term. These results show that within the homeless women group whose age is up to 21 years have a lower self-concept than women with more than 21 years. Whereas the results also indicate that, there are no big differences within the common women group in self-concept terms. It shows that within the common women group whose age is up to 21 years have higher self-concept than women with more than 21 years. In total the differences between women up to 21 years and greater than 21 years on their self-concept scores are non-significant (t = .376, p = .708). These results show that there are no much differences in the scores of both groups on their scores of self-concept (H4 is not accepted). It also indicates that women up to 21 years have slightly higher self-concept than women greater than 21 years of age, in the overall sample.

5 CONCLUSION Homelessness is a social issue that exists in numerous social communities and nations around the globe. This wonder has become one of the most prominent social problems confronting the world in the twenty-first century. The current study was tried to elaborate on the term self-concept as well as the relationship of self-concept between homeless women and common women. The hypothesis of this study was slightly accepted and also rejected. However, this study results reveal that homeless women left their homes deliberately. While it is admitted that the house is the only safest place, especially for women, how can they wish to leave their homes unless they are compelled through specific reasons? Homeless women claim that society treats them as they have committed a crime.

And they have obliged by the relatives and community to come to shelter homes and crisis centers.

They were defensive, sometimes touchy, and hostile. They talk about her, her rights as women. The results show that homeless women have higher Self-Concept. For their higher self-concept, there is a possibility that self-concept may be strengthened for those who have implemented their power, rights, confidence, and have decided to leave home. Whereas common women did not react defensively, they remain cool and calm because they usually live with their families. They are already taking their *Corresponding author (Hafiz M.I.Zafeer). Email: hafizihsan28@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15O http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.303

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rights and the most preferable to their values, family, and society.

The results specify that non-educated and less educated women shall have less self-concept than high educated women. It was accepted because there might be a possibility that women who have matric education level must have less thinking, less exposure, less rationality, their thinking, and observation might not be developed like educated women. It was also accepted that married women have lower Self-Concept as compare to unmarried women. The factor behind it that women who are married bring changes herself after marriage and try to adjust her in a new environment. In comparison, there is no such kind of factors in the life of unmarried women. Adults shall have less self-concept than adolescents. Results indicate minor differences in the overall sample regarding age on self-concept. According to which adolescents have a high self-concept than adults. Perhaps the perceived self-concept of adolescents might be higher than the adult's attributes, thoughts, actions, and potentials. But they may not have evaluated themselves practically as compared to adults.

6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL The relevant materials of this study are accessible by contacting the corresponding author.

7 REFERENCES Ansari, Z., Farooqi, G., Yasmin, M., Khan, S., & Farooqi, S. (1982). Development of an Urdu Adjective Checklist. Islamabad: National Institute of Psychology.

Baptista, I. (2010). Women and homelessness. Homelessness research in Europe, 163-186.

Bhattacharya, S. (2014). Status of women in Pakistan. Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan, 51(1).

Borchard, K. (2000). Fear of and sympathy toward homeless men in Las Vegas. Humanity & Society, 24(1), 3-18.

Byrne, B. M., & Gavin, D. A. (1996). The Shavelson Model revisited: Testing for the structure of academic self-concept across pre-, early, and late adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(2), 215.

Critelli, F. M., & Willett, J. (2010). Creating a safe haven in Pakistan. International Social Work, 53(3), 407-422.

Dasgupta, P. (1995). An inquiry into well-being and destitution. Oxford University Press on Demand.

Fenigstein, A. (1987). On the nature of public and private selfâ&#x20AC;?consciousness. Journal of personality, 55(3), 543-554.

Gangoli, G., McCarry, M. J., & Razak, A. (2006). Forced marriage and domestic violence among South Asian communities in North East England: School for Policy Studies, University of Bristol and Northern Rock.

Grubb, E. L., & Stern, B. L. (1971). Self-concept and significant others. Journal of Marketing Research, 8(3), 382-385.

Hawkins, P. (1991). The spiritual dimension of the learning organisation. Management Education and Development, 22(3), 172-187.

Jibeen, T. (2014). From home to shelter home: Victimization of young women in Pakistan. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 46(4), 475.

Johnson, R., & Carter, M. (1980). Flight of the young: Why children run away from their homes. Adolescence, 15(58), 483.

Katzir, M., & Eyal, T. (2013). When stepping outside the self is not enough: A self-distanced perspective reduces the experience of basic but not of self-conscious emotions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(6), 1089-1092.

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Samra Maqbool, Zhao Wei, Uzma Sarwar, Samina Zamir, Hafiz Muhammad Ihsan Zafeer

Koenen, K. C., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Purcell, S. (2003). Domestic violence is associated with environmental suppression of IQ in young children. Development and Psychopathology, 15(2), 297-311.

Landon Jr, E. L. (1974). Self-concept, ideal self-concept, and consumer purchase intentions. Journal of consumer research, 1(2), 44-51.

Lynch, M. F., La Guardia, J. G., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). On being yourself in different cultures: Ideal and actual self-concept, autonomy support, and well-being in China, Russia, and the United States. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4(4), 290-304.

Marshall, E. J. (1996). Homeless women. Homelessness and mental health. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 59-77.

Mishra, S. (2016). Self Concept-A Person’s Concept of Self–Influence. International Journal of Recent Research Aspects, 1, 8-13.

Pervez, S. (1982). Analysis of mass media appealing to women. Womenʼs Division, Government of Pakistan.

Robertson, M. J. (1991). Homeless youth: An overview of recent literature. Homeless children and youth: A new American dilemma, 33-68.

Shamim, A., Azeem, P., & Naqvi, S. M. M. A. (2014). Impact of foreign direct investment on poverty reduction in Pakistan. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 4(10), 465.

Shinn, M., Knickman, J. R., & Weitzman, B. C. (1991). Social relationships and vulnerability to becoming homeless among poor families. American psychologist, 46(11), 1180.

Snow, D. A., & Anderson, L. (1991). Researching the homeless. A case for the case study, 148-173.

Zia, S., & Bari, F. (1999). Baseline Report on Women's Participation in Political and Public Life in Pakistan.

Aurat Publication and Information Service Foundation.

Samra Maqbool is a Ph.D. Scholar in School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian China. She holds a Master's degree in Applied Psychology. Her research interests include Applied Psychology, Social Psychology, Educational Psychology, and English Foreign Language Learning.

Professor Dr. Wei Zhao was a former Associate Dean of the School of Education at Shaanxi Normal University. She is an AERA member, CAERDA (Chinese American Educational Research and Development Association) member, and OMPE member. Her research encompasses Educational Psychology, Learning Disabilities.

Uzma Sarwar is a Ph.D. scholar at the School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian China. She holds a Master's degree in Education. Her research interest includes Comparative Education, Teaching strategies, Leadership, and Management in Education.

Samina Zamir is a Ph.D. Scholar at School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian China. She holds a Master’s degree in Education. Her research interest includes Curriculum & Teaching strategies, Principal of Educational, and ruler Education.

Hafiz Muhammad Ihsan Zafeer is a Ph.D. Scholar, School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University Xian China. He holds a Master's degree in Law (LL.M). His research interests include Criminal Psychology, Social Psychology, and Educational Policies.

*Corresponding author (Hafiz M.I.Zafeer). Email: hafizihsan28@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15O http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.303

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15P

DIAGNOSES OF LEPTOSPIROSIS IN ANIMALS 1*

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1

Gulnara Nurlygayanova , Vasily Belousov , Alisa Varentsova , 2 3 Nadezhda Ozheredova , Oleg Chernykh 1

Department of Short Research Papers, Federal State Budgetary Institution «Central Scientific and Methodical Veterinary Laboratory», RUSSIA. 2 Department of Epizootology and Microbiology, Stavropol State Agrarian University, RUSSIA. 3 Department of Microbiology, Epizootology and Virology, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I. T. Trubilina, RUSSIA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 01 June 2020 Received in revised form 04 September 2020 Accepted 14 September 2020 Available online 15 September 2020

There have been presenting a comparative analysis of the results of leptospirosis diagnosis by methods used in the Russian Federation’s veterinary laboratories. Using the microagglutination reaction, specific antibodies to leptospira were detecting in 136862 animals. A total of 64686 urine samples was examined with dark-field microscopy.

Applying PCR, the leptospira genome is detected in pathological Keywords: material in 57 cases. The PCR method in the water of open reservoirs Dark-Field Microscopy; In the study of cannot detect the pathogenic leptospira genome.

Microagglutination biological material, the leptospira genome was found in 248 cases.

Reaction; PCR; Bacteriological studies; To increase the efficiency of diagnosis and reduce the time of Microagglutination diagnosis for leptospirosis, it is advisable to conduct parallel Reaction; Infectious bacteriological studies of the material in combination with PCR analysis. jaundice; Microscopic Micro-agglutination reaction and molecular genetic analysis (PCR) are agglutination test (MAT). the most inforeaction micro-agglutinative and technologically advanced laboratory diagnostic methods.

Disciplinary: Biology, Epizootology, and Microbiology, Bioscience, Veterinary Sciences. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION The work devoted to the laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis (see Figure 1). This infectious disease common to animals and humans, causing damage to livestock and human health (Bolotsky et al., 2009; Soboleva et al., 2017). In the Russian Federation (RF), animal leptospirosis is widespread almost everywhere, due to the presence on its territory of natural, anthropurgic, and mixed foci of the causative agent of the disease. This disease is not only in rural areas but also in cities, due to natural-geographical and climatic features. Currently, more than 130 animal species can be sources of *Corresponding author (G.Nurlygayanova). Tel: +7-926996523 Email: Nurlygayanova@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15P http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.304

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this infection (Ananyina 2010).

Figure 1: Leptospirosis or infectious jaundice: a natural focal disease.

For the period from 2016-2018, according to the Rospotrebnadzor and the Inforeaction of the microagglutination-analytical center of the Veterinary Control Department of the Federal Center for Animal Health, 469 people became ill with leptospirosis, and 470 dysfunctional cases were registered, in which 5,653 were detecting sick productive animals.

Domestic and foreign scientists note that the infection process in most animals proceeds in a latent form, which complicates timely diagnosis and contributes to latent leptospirosis.

Leptospironiferous animals secrete the pathogen with urine into the environment and contaminate, infecting healthy people and animals. The excretion of leptospira with urine can last up to 1.5 years and for life in rodents (Losâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;-Yatsenko et al., 2011; Bal, et al., 1994). To effectively combat the spread of this infection, timely and complete identification of animals with a hidden form of the disease is necessary, which is a significant and urgent problem both in Russian Federation and in the world (Belousov et al., 2018; Budihal and Perwez 2014).

There is a need to improve laboratory diagnostic methods for animal leptospirosis used in testing laboratories of the Russian Federation. Our work aims to analyze the results of leptospirosis laboratory diagnosis in animals for the 2016-2018 period. Determine the effectiveness of various methods using in practice.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS Laboratory diagnosis of animal leptospirosis in the Russian Federation based on a complex of bacteriological, serological, and molecular genetic studies. This diagnosis was carried out throughout the Russian Federation by GOST 25386-91.

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G.Nurlygayanova, V.Belousov, A.Varentsova, N.Ozheredova, O.Chernykh

An analysis of the annual reporting data in the 4-vet form showed that the veterinary laboratories of the Russian Federation examined material selected from horses, cattle and small cattle, pigs, other animal species (dogs, cats, rabbits, deer, fur animals, rats, wild boars, buffaloes, seals, zoo animals, different species).

For intravital examination for leptospirosis, studies have been conducting of blood samples and blood serum, urine, and sperm. Samples of pathological material were taken from aborted fetuses, from animal corpses, and during diagnostic slaughter (parenchymal organs, transudate from the chest and abdominal cavities, pericardial fluid, bladder with contents, cerebrospinal fluid).

Bacteriological studies include post-mortem autopsy, injection of material on nutrient media, dark-field and luminescent microscopy, the staging of a biological sample.

One of the primary methods for the intravital diagnosis of leptospirosis is the microagglutination reaction. For staging the microagglutination reaction as an antigen in the Russian Federation, live cultures of the leptospira standard set of 7-15 typical diagnostic strains used (the number of tensions in the collection depends on the status of the testing laboratory). The vital activity of the strains is maintained by regular reseeding every 12-15 days. Every quarter, laboratories monitor in the cross-reaction of microagglutination using group agglutinating sera. In Russian veterinary practice, the reaction was recorded according to a conditional system for assessing four crosses. A microagglutination reaction estimated to be two crosses or more is considered positive if there are specific antibodies in the blood serum titer of 1:50 and higher in unvaccinated and 1:100 and higher in vaccinated animals.

In laboratories equipped with modern and high-tech equipment, for the early diagnosis of leptospirosis, molecular genetic studies (PCR) are used. The tests carried out using commercial test systems by the requirements of the manufacturer of the test system for the determination of Leptospira interrogans DNA. In the Russian Federation, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits for the detection of antibodies to leptospira are presented on the diagnostic market. However, in routine laboratory practice, they did not find the full application.

3 RESULTS Serological diagnosis: For the intravital diagnosis of leptospirosis in animals, the microagglutination reaction proposed by Martin and Pettit in 1916 remains a mass test. Using the microagglutination reaction, animals of various species vaccinated and unvaccinated against leptospirosis examined. The practical significance of the microagglutination reaction: the response is specific in any dilution of serum, a positive microagglutination reaction indicates the contact of a living organism with the pathogen in the past. The microagglutination reaction allows you to determine the level of antibodies to the pathogen at the level of the serogroup. With the help of the microagglutination reaction, the etiological structure of leptospira circulating in a specific territory studied. You can examine native samples of blood serum and dried on filter paper, which makes it possible to deliver to the laboratory samples taken in the field in remote farms.

However, there are certain disadvantages to the microagglutination reaction: the subjectivity of *Corresponding author (G.Nurlygayanova). Tel: +7-926996523 Email: Nurlygayanova@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15P http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.304

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evaluating the results of the reaction; the possibility of cross-reactions; the work of laboratory specialists using a large number of live antigens; the need for regular reseeding of strains; the cost of working time for setting and accounting, especially when examining a large number of materials; the complexity and monotony of labor.

Table 1 presents the results of intravital studies of animals for leptospirosis in the microagglutination reaction and dark-field microscopy (See Figure 2) performed in veterinary laboratories of the Russian Federation.

Figure 2: Leptospira under dark field microscope (x400).

Table 1: The results of animal studies on leptospirosis by the method of microagglutination reaction and dark-field microscopy Animal species Horses Cattle Small cattle Pigs Other types Total

Diagnostic Method / Material Name Microagglutination reaction (blood serum) Darkfield microscopy (urine) total part of part of total positive total samples total positive samples positive (%) positive (%) 191725 15420 8.0 2051 5 0.2 1627894 92465 5.7 37256 93 0.2 425262 6748 1.6 623 2 0.3 1216911 19424 1.6 23168 49621 2805 5.6 1588 128 8.1 3511413 136862 3.9 64686 228 0.3

The data in Table 1 indicate that in total 3511,413 blood serum samples were received in the veterinary laboratories of the Russian Federation for testing leptospirosis in the microagglutination reaction, 136 862 (3.9%) identified as responding positively. The most significant number of seropositive animals found among horses 8.0%, cattle 5.7%, and other species 5.6%.

To identify leptospiratory animals, a total of 64 686 urine samples were studied by dark field microscopy in the Russian Federation, and 228 (0.3%) were obtained positive. The percentage of

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G.Nurlygayanova, V.Belousov, A.Varentsova, N.Ozheredova, O.Chernykh

identified leptospiratory animals was: horses and cattle, 0.2% each; small cattle 0.3%; other species 8.1% (dogs, cats, fur-bearing animals, zoo animals, different species). At the same time, not a single case of leptospiogenesis among the swineherd was revealed, which indicates the correct regimes and patterns of use of antileptospirosis vaccines in growing swine herds.

Note that out of the total number of leptospiratory animals (102 cases) detected by all Russian Federation veterinary laboratories during 2018, 73.5% of positive cases were diagnosed in the testing laboratories of the Central Scientific and Methodological Veterinary Laboratory (FSBN TsNMVL).

In 2018, 1,231 urine samples were received at the Federal State Budgetary Institution of the Central Scientific Medical Laboratory for Microscopy; leptospiratory animals were detected in cattle and dogs.

Bacteriological diagnostics: The importance of the bacteriological method in the operational diagnosis is not great, because the method is time-consuming and time-consuming. However, the isolation of cultures of leptospira is evidence of the leptospirosis etiology of the disease during diagnosis, an intravital examination of animals to clarify the diagnosis, control the quality of treatment, puts forward a bacterioscopic study.

At the same time, there are certain disadvantages of the method: long cultivation of leptospira; the need to identify and differentiate selected cultures, special requirements for special nutrient media, and the quality of the dishes used. Against the background of the use of antibiotics, the sensitivity of the method decreases. An essential condition for successful diagnosis by this method is the temperature and time of delivery of the material to the diagnostic laboratory.

Table 2: The results of studies of pathological material and aborted fetuses for leptospirosis Number of materials, samples

histological

histological material abortion fetus

249

-

5

-

histological material abortion fetus

1198

-

1283

-

histological material abortion fetus

116

2

23

-

histological material abortion fetus

1706

1

1878

-

histological material abortion fetus

495

2

6953

5

Material

Diagnostic Method / Number of Studies fluorescence bacteriological biological microscopy Horses Cattle 21

PCR

Total positive

249

1

-

-

5

-

12

10

1177

7

770 Small cattle 18

662

642

451

1

18

18

98

-

Pigs 4

-

-

23

-

4

-

1609

14

-

-

1876

21

3

-

484

35

699

670

5972

79

Other species 11 824

Currently, in veterinary laboratories of the Russian Federation, bacteriological studies of pathological material and aborted fetuses for leptospirosis are carried out in insignificant amounts due *Corresponding author (G.Nurlygayanova). Tel: +7-926996523 Email: Nurlygayanova@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15P http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.304

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to changes in management forms, violation by owners of a personal subsidiary, and peasant farms of the requirements of veterinary rules. It is impossible to exclude the problematic climatic conditions of Russia, the remoteness of animal welfare from veterinary laboratories. Table 2 presents the results of studies on leptospirosis of pathological material (pathological material) and aborted fetuses (abortion) by bacteriological methods and the molecular genetic method (PCR).

The data presented in Table 2 indicate that 6,953 samples of material received in the veterinary laboratories of the Russian Federation for research on leptospirosis, according to which 8,170 studies were carried out. In contrast, bacteriological studies, in any case, did not establish leptospirosis.

Seventy-nine positive results obtained using PCR, including in the study of pathological material, the leptospira genome was detected in 57 cases (1.5%), and in the study of aborted fetuses, 22 cases (0.7%). The leptospira DNA detection rate for animal species was: horses 0.4%, cattle 0.3%, pigs 1.0%, other species 7.1%.

Thus, the parallel use of traditional diagnostic methods with modern methods (PCR) reduces the time of diagnosis and significantly increases its effectiveness.

We conducted comparative experimental studies on the effectiveness of the detection of leptospira in the test material in animals infected with leptospirosis at the scientific and production base of the Central Scientific and Methodological Veterinary Laboratory. A total of 127 golden hamsters weighing up to 25 g, highly sensitive to this serogroup, were infected with leptospira serogroup Grippotyphosa. The leptospira culture is administered to animals intraperitoneally and subcutaneously. After six days, the animals were killed according to the requirements of bioethics.

The liver and kidneys examined using various methods: microscopic, luminescent microscopic, bacteriological (plating on albumin nutrient medium), biological (reinfection of hamsters with suspension from hamsters and kidneys of hamsters, followed by isolation of leptospira on culture media), and molecular genetic method (PCR).

Using microscopy in a dark field of the drug â&#x20AC;&#x153;crushed dropâ&#x20AC;? it was possible to detect leptospira in only 63% of cases, by sowing on albumin medium in 56.7% of cases, by placing a bioassay on golden hamsters 94.5%, luminescent microscopy 96.8%, by PCR method 98.0% of cases.

Thus, in working conditions for the detection of leptospira, one can successfully apply a biological test on golden hamsters, followed by isolation of leptospira in culture media, luminescence microscopy, and PCR. The highest efficiency observed when used in the diagnosis of biological samples. To increase the efficiency of leptospira isolation, we recommend that laboratories use albumin media.

Table 3: The results of studies of biological material using PCR for leptospirosis Material Blood serum Blood Urine Microaggluti nation Surgery Total

6

2016 2868 4802 339

Number of studies, samples Years 2017 2018 1886 1277 1155 1387 1940 64

Total, 2016-2018 6031 7344 2343

Total positive 5 232 11

The share of positive in% 0.08 3.2 0.5

64

77

-

141

-

-

8 073

5058

2728

15859

248

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G.Nurlygayanova, V.Belousov, A.Varentsova, N.Ozheredova, O.Chernykh

Molecular genetic studies using PCR are used to identify the genome of the causative agent of leptospirosis. The method is characterized by high specificity and sensitivity (from 10 to 1000 cells in the sample) and high diagnostic efficiency in the first week of the disease (starting from the first day), even against the background of antibiotic therapy, which allows you to quickly confirm or deny the clinical diagnosis by the laboratory method (Stoyanova et al, 2010).

The main disadvantages of the method are the receipt of false-positive results in the case of contamination of samples; also, DNA polymerase inhibitors may appear in the reaction mixture, which can lead to a false-negative effect, Table 3 presents the results of studies of samples of biological material from animals by the PCR method to detect leptospira DNA, performed in veterinary laboratories of the Russian Federation.

The results of the analysis of Table 3 show that a total of 15859 samples of biological material were studied, of which 1965 samples were from horses, cattle 7739, small cattle 487, pigs 5066, other animal species 602. Results give a total of 248 positive (1.6%). The leptospira genome was detected: in horses in 82 cases (4.2%), cattle 47 cases (0.6%), small cattle 2 cases (0.4%), pigs 10 cases (0.2 %), other animal species 107 cases (17.8%).

Leptospira DNA found in blood serum 0.08% of cases, in the blood 3.2%, in urine 0.5%, in semen samples the result is negative.

Murgia et al. (1997) proposed to use PCR to identify pathogenic and saprophytic leptospira species in water. Table 4 presents the results of studies of water samples of open reservoirs for the presence of pathogenic leptospira, performed in veterinary laboratories of Russia.

Table 4: The results of the study of water samples by PCR Material Water

2016 7

Number of studies, samples Years 2017 2018 6

Total (2016-2018) 13

Total positive -

Table 4, in the veterinary laboratories of the Russian Federation, open water research not carried out regularly. In small quantities, the DNA of pathogenic leptospira for this period is not detected. It has been known that the negative results of the study samples are not grounds for excluding water as a transmission factor of the causative agent of infection since the concentration of leptospira in water samples is low. The biological method can also be used to study water (Malakhov et al., 2000).

4 DISCUSSION Studies have shown that in the Russian Federation, leptospirosis of animals according to the results of serological reactions recorded in 3.9% of cases, including among horses 8.0%, cattle 5.7%, small cattle, and pigs 6% each, among other animal species 5.6%.

Carrier leptospiration in animals was detected by darkfield microscopy in 0.3% of cases, including 0.2% among horses and cattle, 0.3% in small cattle, and 8.1% in other animal species (dogs, cats), fur-bearing animals, zoo animals, and other species). Dogs can be a source of human infection.

In the analyzed period, leptospirosis was not established by the bacteriological method *Corresponding author (G.Nurlygayanova). Tel: +7-926996523 Email: Nurlygayanova@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15P http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.304

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(microscopy, culture on culture media, biological sample, pathological autopsy).

In the PCR study of pathological material and aborted fetuses, leptospirosis detected in 1.5% and 0.7% of cases, respectively; in the study of biological material (microagglutination operation, blood, blood serum, urine) in 1.6% of cases.

Pathogenic leptospira in the water of open reservoirs by the PCR method is not detected.

5 CONCLUSION Analysis of the research results showed that laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis in animals in the Russian Federation carried out comprehensively, using traditional methods with molecular genetic. However, the success of the laboratory diagnosis of leptospirosis largely depends on the quality of sampling of material and the time of delivery to the laboratory for research.

To increase the effectiveness of diagnostic, preventive, and health-improving measures in case of animal leptospirosis, it is necessary: 1. For all animals that respond positively to the microagglutination reaction, additionally conduct urinalysis by dark field microscopy and molecular genetic method (PCR).

2. For the timely detection of patients with leptospirosis, animals use luminescent microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

3. To increase the efficiency of isolating leptospira cultures, testing laboratories must use albumin nutrient media, as well as staging a biological sample on golden hamsters aged 20-30 days or rabbits aged 10-20 days.

6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 REFERENCES Ananyina, Yu.V. (2010). Leptospirosis of humans and animals: distribution trends and prevention problems. Epidemiology and Vaccine Prevention, 2(51), 13-16.

Bal, A.E., Gravekamp, C., Hartskeerl, T.R.A., De Meza-Brewster, J., Korver, H., Terpstra, W.J. (1994). Detection of Leptospires in Urine by PCR for Early Diagnosis of Leptospirosis.

Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 1894-1898.

Belousov, V.I., Nurlygayanova, G.A., Varentsova, A.A., Bazarbayev, S.B. (2018). Laboratory diagnosis and improvement of the prevention of leptospirosis in animals in the Russian Federation. Proceedings of the All-Russian Research Institute of Experimental Veterinary Medicine named after Ya.R. Kovalenko, 80(2), 46-52.

Bolotsky I.A., Sementsov, V.I., Prutsakov, S.V., Vasiliev, A.K., Pakhomov, A.V. (2009). The epizootic role of wild animals in leptospirosis in the North Caucasus. Journal of Veterinary Medicine of the Kuban, 3, 15-16.

Budihal, S.V., Perwez, K. (2014). Leptospirosis Diagnosis: Competency of Various Laboratory Tests. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research, 8(1), 199-202.

Losâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;-Yatsenko N.G., Karimov, I.Z., Pavlenko, A.L., Kozlovsky, O.A. (2011). Leptospirosis in the Crimea - a problem not only of infectious diseases. Krimsky therapeutic journal, 1, 83-88.

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G.Nurlygayanova, V.Belousov, A.Varentsova, N.Ozheredova, O.Chernykh

Malakhov, Yu.A., Panin, A.N., Soboleva, G.L. (2000). Leptospirosis of animals. Yaroslavl.

DIA-press, 584.

Soboleva, G.L., Ananyina, Yu.V., Nepoklonova, I.V. (2017). Actual issues of leptospirosis in humans and animals. Russian Veterinary Journal, 8, 13-17.

Stoyanova, N.A., Tokarevich, N.K., Vaganova, A.N., Gracheva, L.I., Mayorova, S.O. (2010).

Leptospirosis: a manual for doctors. Edited by Yu.V. Ananyina, SPb. NIIEM them. Pasteur, 116.

World Health Organization. (2003). Human leptospirosis: guidance for diagnosis, surveillance, and control. 109p.

Gulnara Nurlygayanova is a Veterinarian and Researcher of the Department of Leading Research Works. She is a Candidate of Veterinary Sciences. Her researches are Diagnostics of Infectious and Non-Infectious Diseases of Animals, Fish, and other Aquatic Organisms.

Professor Dr.Vasily Belousov is a Chief Researcher of the Central Scientific and Methodical Veterinary Laboratory.

He holds a Doctor of Veterinary Sciences. His researches are Quality Control and Safety of Products of Animal and Plant Origin, Organization and Conduct of Laboratory Research.

Alisa Varentsova is Head of the Department for Coordination of Research Works, Candidate of Biological Sciences.

She researches on an organization of laboratory works in Veterinary Medicine.

Professor Dr.Nadezhda Ozheredova is a Head of the Department of Epizootology and Microbiology. Her research includes Features of the Manifestation of Citrobacteriosis, candidiasis in Fish, and the Sanitary Assessment of Fish Products.

Professor Dr.Oleg Chernykh is Director of the Krasnodar Regional State Budgetary Institution "Kropotkin Regional Veterinary Laboratory". He holds a Doctor of Veterinary Sciences. He studies Infectious Diseases of Animals and Develops Therapeutic, Preventive Measures, and Veterinary and Sanitary Measures to Eliminate Infectious Animal Diseases.

*Corresponding author (G.Nurlygayanova). Tel: +7-926996523 Email: Nurlygayanova@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15P http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.304

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15Q

IRIS PATTERN RECOGNITION: A QUANTITATIVE REVIEW ON HOW TO IMPROVE IRIS-BASED PATTERN RECOGNITION SECURITY SYSTEM G Malathi

1*

2

2

, Dinesh Mavaluru , Karthik Srinivasan , and Jayabrabu Ramakrishnan

3

1

School of Computing Science and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai. INDIA. College of Computing and Informatics, Saudi Electronic University, SAUDI ARABIA. 3 College of Computer Science and Information Technology, Jazan University, SAUDI ARABIA. 2

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 20 February 2020 Received in revised form 14 August 2020 Accepted 11 September 2020 Available online 19 September 2020

The biometrics is a reliable authentication process for identifying individuals. Iris pattern recognition is a booming sector in biometric which has high accuracy in identification/authentication. The iris-based security system required an infra-red camera or video camera for the authentication process. This paper reviews several well-known Iris pattern recognition techniques that are used for authentication by biometric identities of iris. This work also discusses facts and downsides in the existing iris pattern recognition techniques.

Keywords: Iris pattern recognition; Unimodal Biometrics; Multi-model Biometrics; Score-level fusion; Orientation recognition; Iris centre.

Disciplinary: Ophthalmology, Computer Science and Informatics Engineering. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Biometrics is one of the booming sectors in the authentication of a person which is becoming most widespread. The word ‘Biometric’ is defined from the Greek word ‘Bio’ meant for life and ‘Metric’ meant for measure [1]. For authentication or identification of a person by automatic recognition technology depends upon the physiological and behavioural characteristics of a person.

Biometrics are even deployed in nationwide identity cards and even in payment methods using mobile [25]. The most prominent body characteristics of a human are used to recognize each other by face, voice, and gait for hundreds of years. In Paris, identification of criminal’s department head in the law enforcement, Alphonse Bertillon has embellished and accomplished the methodology of employing the numbers of human body measurement for identifying the criminals and discovered the distinctiveness in the human characteristics [2]. In the body characteristics, the law enforcement collects the fingerprints of the offenders are stores in their respective database as an image file, and *Corresponding author (G Malathi). E-mail: malathi.g@vit.ac.in ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering,

Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.305

1

matches are made with obtained fingerprints with the collected database to find the identity of the criminal. The behavioural and physiological attributes are a biometric identity of a human when it satisfies Universality, Collectability, Distinctiveness, and Permanence [2]. Universality means every person should have the Attribute. Distinctiveness means every person should have different attributes of both physiological/ behavioural. Permanence means over a period the physiological/behavioural characteristic should be invariant for the matching criterion. Collectability means the character can be measured quantitatively.

1.1 HUMAN EYE The eye is an inner organ of a human body that reacts to the light which has various purposes with distinct features [3] and allows vision. In the eye, the retina permit conscious light perception which has Rods and Cones cells, and the perception of depth and the Colour differentiation are included in the vision. Approximately ten million colors can be distinguished by the Human eye [10] [32]. The retina in the eye has non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells which observe the light signal will adjust the size of the pupil by regulating the suppression and compression through hormone melatonin of the body clock [33].

1.1.1 STRUCTURE OF HUMAN EYE The shape of the eye is not a well-formed sphere shape but a fused two-piece hemisphere unit.

The curved and transparent part in the smaller frontal unit is known as the cornea which is linked to the larger white unit which is known as the sclera. The corneal segment is about 0.3 inch which is almost 16 mm in diameter. The five-sixths construct the other sclerotic chamber which is having a diameter of 25mm. The sclera, cornea which is well structured with a ring is said to be limbus. The iris is present in the centre of the eye which is of colored circular structure which is concentrically surrounded by the pupil, it appears to be black. The percentage of light which passes to the eye is controlled with a pupil which regulates the light by adjusting the pupil dilator and sphincter muscles.

The device which is used to view the inside of the eye is known as the ophthalmoscope. Figure 1 shows the anatomy of the human eye [3].

Figure 1: Anatomy of the human eye.

(Source: http://www.exetereye.co.uk/the-eye/eye-anatomy Š2020 Exeter Eye).

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G Malathi, Dinesh Mavaluru, Karthik Srinivasan, Jayabrabu Ramakrishnan

The light-sensitive cells in the retina will convert the light falling on it to the electrical signals in which have been passed to the brain via nerves [3].

1.1.2 SIZE OF HUMAN EYE The dimensions of the human eye differ by one or two millimeters for the adults and the remaining with consistent across various ethnicities. The vertical measures will be usually lesser when compared to the horizontal measure of 24 mm in range. The crosswise size of an adult eye is approximately 24.5 mm and the size of sagittal is approximately 23.8 mm with no difference with the gender and the age groups. In the centre of the transverse radius and the orbit width of 0.89 (r) which has a strong correlation has been found [34]. Typically, the eye of the adult has the anterior to posterior with a radius of 12.5 millimetres, and a cubic volume of 6.2 cubic cm which is of 0.41 cu.inches [35] and with a weight of 7.7 grams. The growth of the eye which rapidly increases in a range of 15.2-18.5 millimetres of about 0.68 inches at the birth with 23.6-24.1 mm which is approximately 0.9 inch in 3 years of age. At the age of 13, the human eye will obtain its full size.

1.1.3 DYNAMIC RANGE OF HUMAN EYE In the human eye, the ratio of the retina is of 100000:1. The pupil in the eye is automatically re-altering the pupil size depends on exposure when the eye movement is made by the human (saccades) [36] [37] by both physically and chemically. With the uninterrupted darkness, the normal human eye takes approximately 4 seconds for adapting to the darkness. Where the full adaptation of darkness happens only after thirty minutes in the retinal chemically is known as the Purkinje Effect.

Therefore, when the light is interrupted in the darkness adaptation the process of adaptation must starts from the beginning again. The darkness adaptation will take place depending upon the good blood flow in the eye. Due to poor blood flow or circulation in the human the darkness adaptation may be hampered. The lens in the eye is just like the lenses which are found in the optical instruments such as the camera and the principal for the lens in the eye as in the cameras. The aperture which performs the operations in the camera is the same functionality that the pupil does in the human eye.

The iris act as a diaphragm which acts as an aperture stop. The typical size of the pupil is 2mm in radius which normally ranges from 1.2mm/f/8.4 in a bright place to 4.3mm/f/2.2 in the dark. With age the letter value will vary, for the old people the eye will dilate with the range of 5-6 mm [38] [39].

1.2 PUPIL CONSTRICTION In the edges of the lenses, the light cannot be refracted. Any type of lens which produces the image across the edges of the circular aberration would be faint.

1.3 IRIS ANATOMY Iris in the Human eye is a circular thin layer for adjusting the size of the pupil by controlling the iris diameter to allow the percentage of light which passes through the pupil which reaches the retina.

The eye colour is differentiated as per the iris [4]. And the remaining will be known as the ciliary zone. The thickest region in the iris is the collarette which separates the pupillary potion from the ciliary portion [41]. The most peripheral and thinnest part of the iris is the root [42].

1.4 EYE COLOUR Usually, the iris is a strong pigment in the eye where the colour of the iris ranges between blue, *Corresponding author (G Malathi). E-mail: malathi.g@vit.ac.in Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering,

Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.305

3

brown, hazel, and grey. Occasionally, due to the absence of pigmentation in the eye, the colour of the iris will change due to the oculo-cutaneous albinism [41] into the pinkish-white. When combining the effect of pigmentation, blood vessels, texture, and fibrous tissue which are occurred in the iris stroma where the iris colour is the highly complex phenomenon which makes the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s epigenetic constitution [42]. In the iris, there is a two very distinct colour which having the melanin in the hazel eyes which had the blotches of mixed hues [43].

1.5 IRIS RECOGNITION Iris recognition is the process of automatic identification of a person using mathematical pattern recognition techniques using the data obtained from the images of one iris or both irises from a person whom patterns are unique in nature [5]. The performance of the iris recognition system in the context of video-based distant acquisition [24] can be improved from the effects of degradation using pixel-level quality criteria fusion techniques. Few factors determine the quality of iris biometric data [27] which includes focus, the angle, level of occlusions, the area of focus, pupillary dilations, and also the level of pigmentation in the iris.

1.6 ADVANTAGE In the eye, the iris is said to be the best part of the human body which will be versatile from the biometric identification. Iris can be taken as the photograph in a range of distance of 10 cm to less than a meter away [46]. The most commonly established iris algorithm was Daugmanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Iris code which has the unpredictable false rate which is better than the Hamming threshold distance of 0.26 with imaging noises, reflection, and so on still declared the to be matched [47].

1.7 DEPLOYED APPLICATIONS The biometrics finds its way in many applications such as International Border control. The iris pattern as a live passport identity [48], Password for systems, Ticket-less travel, Cell phones and other authentication using wireless-device, Safer access to accounts in the bank, Rights to services authentication, Access control for premises that is House, Office, and Lab, Vehicle Driving Licence and control of access to privileged information.

1.8 MULTI-MODEL BIOMETRIC SYSTEM The biometric security model is the only one that will provide a correct, secure, and reliable scheme for personal verification. Biometric security is broadly categorized into Uni-modal and Multi-modal. When the information is acquired from a single biometric attribute may be corrupted by unwanted data but the multi-biometric systems are insensitive to the unwanted data on the sensed data. These systems also help in extending the tracking or monitoring of the person in a situation where the single biometric attribute is not enough [49]. There are four different modules in biometric systems as given in Figure 2 which are: Sensor Module: attribute is captured in the form of raw biometric datasets. In the feature extraction module: It processes the captured data to extract an important feature set. Matching module: It compares the extracted feature set with the template stored in the database to generate matching scores with the help of some classifiers. Decision module: It uses the results obtained from the matching score module to either determine an identity is genuine or fake or validate a declared identity [43].

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G Malathi, Dinesh Mavaluru, Karthik Srinivasan, Jayabrabu Ramakrishnan

2. RESULTS OF REVIEWS AND FINDINGS 2.1 ROTATION INDEPENDENT RECOGNITION

AND

LIGHTING

VARIATIONS

OF

IRIS

Under various lighting conditions, the accuracy of the detection of the iris is done by brightness normalization that helps to extract the iris region. Various investigations for the orientation of iris and shape recognition have been done for sophisticated and unsophisticated irises. The FRS (False Acceptance Rate) was 0% when the decision threshold criteria were at or below 0.25 even through the false rejection rate was about 13%. By this method using the lesser distance as the shape recognition criteria, the output shows where the unregistered iris is rejected exactly. The combination of lesser distance with R-SAN can recognize both the unlearned irises and the learned irises patterns by arbitrary orientation [7].

2.1.1 PERFORMANCE OF ORIENTATION RECOGNITION The attributes of orientation recognition of unsophisticated and sophisticated irises are examined by using the datasets that are captured in the indoor lighting variation having emittance of 300lx. In Figure 3 the performance is shown below with the horizontal axis as the input rotational angle of the iris, and the vertical axis represents the recognition orientation. Figures 3(a), 1(b), and 1(c) have the exact values of large emplacement recognition error with 1.39°, 2.31°, and 4.38°, respectively. Thus, the result suggests that the emplacement recognition of unsophisticated irises is deliberately scattered, Figures 2(a), 2(b), and 2(c) [7]. Figure 3, the attributes of the orientation recognition execution for Sophisticated irises in Three sessions, (a), (b), and (c). with 4 subjects, 6 subjects, and 12 subjects, respectively.

Orientation Recognition

360 300 240 180

Orientation

120 60 0

0

60

120

180

240

300

360

Iris Orientation

Figure 2(a): Orientation Recognition for four subjects.

2.1.2 PERFORMANCE OF SHAPE RECOGNITION In Figure 4, the performance of shape recognition for an unlearned iris in which the horizontal axis shows the decision theory of shape neuron result and the vertical axis shows the FRS. In which this result shows that for an unlearned iris the false acceptance rate was 39% even though the decision threshold of the shape recognition neuron result was 1 [7]. *Corresponding author (G Malathi). E-mail: malathi.g@vit.ac.in ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering,

Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.305

5

Orientation Recognition

360 300 240 180

Orientation

120 60 0

0

60

120

180

240

300

360

Iris Orientation

Figure 2(b): Orientation Recognition for six subjects.

Orientation Recognition

360 300 240 180

Orientation

120 60 0

0

60

120

180

240

300

360

False Acceptance Rate [%]

1

0.95

0.9

0.85

0.8

0.75

Shape Recognition Figure 3: False Acceptance rate of Un-learned Iris.

0.7

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

False Acceptance Rate [%]

Iris Orientation Figure 2(c): Orientation Recognition for 12 subjects.

2.1.3 EXPERIMENT ON IRIS LOCALIZATION THROUGH VARIOUS LIGHTING CONDITIONS The output under various lighting conditions which are in Bright Condition without brightness normalization as 69.7% and with brightness normalization as 91.3%. Similarly, in Dark Condition with brightness normalization as 88.3% and without brightness normalization as 0%. In this technic, FRS is 0 % and the False Rejection Rate (FRR) is 13%.

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G Malathi, Dinesh Mavaluru, Karthik Srinivasan, Jayabrabu Ramakrishnan

2.2 PERFORMANCE OF LONG TERM AND SHORT-TERM IRIS RECOGNITION EVALUATION So far the influence on aging in segmentation vs feature extraction has not been considered. To shed light on the impact of quality in segmentation when assessing aging effort on the observed temporal effect on lighting, the results have been recorded for the long-time span of about 4-years’ time-lapse of the database with 36,240 images which comprise of 104-classes with a variety of recording constrain of datasets highlighting the crucial role of a transparent capturing setup [8]. The threshold value in the biometric security system for its FRS, FAR, and when these values are equal, with these common values have been referred to as the equal error rate.

2.3 AGING EFFECT For a human, the age between 20 and 60 the existed pupil size in the eye will reduce by 14% only.

The repeated exposure of the eye to the low-level light and loud sound which inductees the Fatigue will reduce the existing pupil size to 60% for the old age group and 70% for the young age group which resulted as the fatigued existing pupil of both categories will be about 4mm. With age, the relaxed size of the existing pupil will change. The dark-adapted pupil and the size of the relaxed eye are 7mm in the frequency which is quoted by the astronomer. The relationship between the dark-adapted pupil and the age has been expressed by the following equation given below [57][9].

Pupil Size = 6.9mm e(0.5 * [Age/100]^2 )

(1)

Table 1 shows the equation of Schaefer’s pupil with respect to age and adapted pupil size [9].

Table 1: Schaefer's age with eye-pupil size equation - dark-adapted pupil size and age.

Age (Years) 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Pupil in mm 7.1 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.8 6.7 6.6 6.4 6.3

Table 2: Pupil-Eye Statistics (Kadlecova's) Age (years) 8 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Pupil size (mm) Pupil Size (Average) Upper SD 7.5 8.1 7.1 7.8 7.1 7.7 6.8 7.4 6.3 7.1 5.9 6.9 5.9 6.3 5.3 6.3

Lower SD 7.1 6.9 6.6 6.1 5.4 4.8 4.7 4.1

The variation in pupil size for Normal dark-adapted pupil has been given in Table 2. In which the size of the pupil is reduced for the age group between 8-60, which is 1mm diameter approximately. *Corresponding author (G Malathi). E-mail: malathi.g@vit.ac.in ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering,

Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.305

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Table 3: Pupil-Eye statistics (Kumnick's) Group No Age Number in group

I 7.4-15 21

II 18.2-28.3 25

III 30.4-52.6 24

IV 70.3-90.7 24

Table 3 shows the age group 8-91 years was estimated by the naked eye for limiting the magnitude in a starfield. The Groups/Clusters have been formed by age intervals of 7.5-15 in Group I, 18.1-28.2, in Group II 30.5-52.7 in Group III, and 70.4-90.8 in Group IV with numbers of 21, 25, 24, 24 persons in groups. Table 4. Shows the average pupil size in Initial/Normal light condition for the group. Table 5. Shows the average pupil size after 10 minutes of Dark Adaptation for the group.

Table 4: Initial size in light Group Average Size under Light Constructed

I 4.2

II 4.2

III 3.7

IV 3.2

Table 5: Initial size at dark adaptation (After Ten Minutes) Group Average Size in Dark

I 7.0

II 6.9

III 5.8

IV 4.8

Table 6: Pupil Fatigue after repeated exposure in the faint light Group Average Size light constructed in fatigue

I 4

II 3.9

III 3.6

IV 2.9

Table 7: Minimum Magnification of the Pupil size Age 10 15 20 25 30 60 65 70

Pupil mm 7.1 7.0 7.0 6.9 6.8 5.7 5.6 5.4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6

12 12 12 12 12 14 14 15

Magnification Applied 14 16 18 23 30 14 16 18 23 30 14 16 19 23 31 14 16 19 23 31 14 16 19 24 31 16 18 22 27 36 17 19 22 28 37 17 20 23 29 38

37 38 38 38 39 44 46 47

45 45 45 46 47 53 55 57

Table 6 shows the average pupil size after repeated exposure in faint light with respect to the group. The fatigued eye range 31-51-year people are suffering from this fatigue which is approximately 42% reduction of exit pupil size [9]. Table 7 and Table 8shows the minimum magnification in which the pupil-eye size will be a constraint because of normal aperture and existing relaxed pupil-eye size aperture and metrics.

Table 8: Metrics Inches Mm

1 25.4

3 76.2

3.5 88.9

4 101.6

4.75 120.7

6 152.4

8 203.2

2.4 LOCALIZATION OF IRIS CENTRE AND EYE CORNERS For localization of eye corner and iris center, face detection is the first step. By using FARET Database the face detector is designed. In this, the experiment is done by using the face database

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G Malathi, Dinesh Mavaluru, Karthik Srinivasan, Jayabrabu Ramakrishnan

which includes more than 4000 datasets of facial images from the FARET database and the Internet.

The first-row images show the face localization of various poses, face tilted poses, and occlusion of hand. As the eye model shows most of the top and bottom region of the iris region was sheltered by the noises like an eyelid. So the iris is not an intact circle. The integral interval should be limited as the effect of the lid is reduced when the lid shelters the iris partly. For the illusion of the fact that the iris is a circle in shape [43] has used the integral polar coordinate for detecting the centre of the iris in which he provided the integral histogram formula. The [0, 2 Ď&#x20AC;] is the integral interval in this method.

So the iris is not an intact circle. And in which the shelter area may enlarge as the eye blink, frown, gaze at outer and inner eye corner. The integral interval should be limited as the effect of the lid is reduced when the lid shelters the iris partly.

2.5 LIVENESS DETECTION USING PUPIL DYNAMICS The aliveness of the human eye is checked by observing whether the human eye reacts to the light changes or any suspicious presentation like an odd reaction or no reaction. The detection and classification of natural reaction and spontaneous oscillations are done by using linear and non-linear support vector machines which also reject the bad modeling by simultaneous investigation of the goodness of the fit [23]. The process starts with Pupil detection, Segmentation of pupil, and Calculation of the size of the pupil. The change of pupil size is expressed as the pupil dynamics. The pupil could not be detected if the gradient value is not found. Moreover, Complex eye movement patterns [21] are evaluated to determine the acceptable conditions under which to collect viable eye movement data for biometric purposes. The pupil construction and dilations are generated by varying the light intensity. Depending upon the light flash is positive from which the light is negative or darkness to brightness which the pupil responding to the asymmetry [43].

2.6 LIVENESS DETECTION USING EYE MOVEMENTS In eye movement, the liveness detection technique is investigated when a pretender creates a duplicate replica of an eye. The difference between the results of the live or artificial recording was measure with their corresponding classification rate, False Live Rejection (FLR), and False Spoof Acceptance Rate (FSAR) [12]. In the current eye-tracking technology, the system with the resembles of the state-of-the-art system is used for the high-resolution eye-tracking system while the video-oculography technique is used for the low-resolution eye localizing method and the database of EMBD are used in the current iris recognition device with the resembles of hardware found in it [68][69]. For maximizing the classification rate the idea threshold was selected. The principal component analysis is passed by the SVM for obtaining the eigenvector and the utilizing of a multi-dimensional feature vector for both the CEM-B and OPC techniques [12].

2.7 TEXTURED CONTACT LENSES IN IRIS RECOGNITION There are several ways of detecting the textured lens which degrades [22] the accuracy of iris recognition. Segmentation is considered whether the iris is accurately segmented or not for identifying whether the patterned contact lens is present or not. Under various experimental scenarios, the well-constructed database of 8900 images from UBIRIS Version-3 has been constructed for evaluating the contact lens. For the model training, the main database consists of 7000 images, and for the evaluation model, the database consists of 1300 images. The images in the *Corresponding author (G Malathi). E-mail: malathi.g@vit.ac.in Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering,

Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.305

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database were acquired from the Iris-Guard AD100 sensor and Iris Access LG4000 sensor in which both the sensors are equally represented. The no lens is the subject without wearing any type of contact lens and finally the textured lens with printing design with an opaque, these lenses are acquired as the image which is altered to the visual appearance to the iris texture area of the eye [13].

80 different textured lens varieties from the 6000 fake iris images were constructed. When the training is on the heterogeneous data the report says that the correct classification rate is over 98% but when other than these sensors are used for the testing and training set it drops to 87%.

2.8 IRIS SEGMENTATION USING ORIENTATION MATCHING TRANSFORM In iris segmentation, the first step is finding the inner and rough outer iris boundaries by using the algorithm of orientation matching transform which is based on the Edge maps[15] to show the difference among the position characteristics of the iris and the intensity of the iris with eyelashes, eyelid for detecting the noises. For finding the inner and rough outer boundary of the iris the Orientation Matching Transform (OMT) algorithm is used. For the iris segmentation, the Circular Hough Transform (CHT) and edge detection algorithm are used. The process has the modules of colour transform of the iris image then the pupil is detected with the edge detection and the orientation matching algorithm is applied and finally with the Delogne-Kasa Circle fitting.

2.9 TRACKING OF EYE USING SMART CAMERA The tracking and the eye detection algorithm are tested under various conditions which include the head movement speed, different angle of the face, and eye occlusion. In this, the eye-tracking algorithm is used for increasing the accuracy of eye-tracking and after that, the face detection algorithm is performed [18]. The implementation of the function work of the system has been analyzed under changing conditions that analyze the robust algorithm in varying conditions in future work.

2.10 SCORE LEVEL FUSION BASED MULTIMODAL BIOMETRICS In the pattern classification problem, multi-model fusion can be considered as one of them. For the verification task, the input pattern must be labeled as the reject or accept which is considered by the individual expert modalities under the point of view of the given score. In the identification system, the error rate is approximate 50% in the speaker detection module and 42% in the equal error rate of the fingerprint detection module. For the multi-modal identification system, the error rate is 30% which shows the error rate will be reduced to 0% when the score fusion-based multi-model system is in the second rank of the test [19].

3. CONCLUSION This paper has analysed the various modules and techniques of Iris Pattern Recognition with a brief introduction of the anatomy of the human eye, followed by biometrics and Iris recognition. The modules of the review are constrained with how the eye corner and iris centre are detected then the iris strip is made by the extraction of iris even in the eye motions with the removing of unwanted data, in various lighting conditions. The paper also discussed the liveness detection, detection of patterned contact lens, and Methodology for Orientation matching of Iris.

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4. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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J. S. Doyle, JR., and K.W. Bowyer, “Robust Detection of Textured Contact Lenses in Iris Recognition Using BSIF”, IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research, 3, 1672-1683, 2015.

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*Corresponding author (G Malathi). E-mail: malathi.g@vit.ac.in ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering,

Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.305

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A. Czajka, “Pupil Dynamics for Iris Liveness Detection” IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, 10(4), 2015.

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Fischer, B.; Boch, R. (1983). "Saccadic eye movements after extremely short reaction times in the monkey". Brain Research, 260(1): 21-6. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(83)90760-6. PMID 6402272.

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Fischer, B.; Ramsperger, E. (1984). "Human express saccades: Extremely short reaction times of goal directed eye movements". Experimental Brain Research, 57. doi:10.1007/BF00231145.

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McGee, S.R., “Evidence-based Physical Diagnosis”. Elsevier Health Sciences, 2012, 161.

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Martin, Z. "Biometric Trends: Will emerging modalities and mobile applications bring mass adoption?". SecureIDNews, 2011-03-23.

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"Probing the uniqueness and randomness of IrisCodes: Results from 200 billion iris pair comparisons." Proceedings of the IEEE, 94(11), 2006, 1927-1935.

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Dr.G.Malathi is an Associate Professor in the School of Computing Science and Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India. She received Best Outstanding Faculty Award in Computer Science‘by VENUS Foundation in 2018. Her research is Image Processing and Data Analytics. She has filed a patent in Novel Biometrics.

Dr. Dinesh Mavaluru works in the Department of Information Technology at Saudi Electronic University, Saudi Arabia. His research interests span both data Science and Network Science. Much of his work has been on improving the understanding, design, and performance of parallel and Networked Computer Systems, mainly through the Application of Data Mining, Statistics, and Performance Evaluation.

Dr.Karthik Srinivasan is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Information Technology, Saudi Electronic University, Saudi Arabia. He received a Ph.D. degree in Information and Communication Engineering from Anna University, Chennai, India. His research interests include the area of Machine Learning, Network Security and the Internet of Things.

Dr. Jayabrabu Ramakrishnan obtained a Ph.D in Computer Science from Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. His area of research includes Data Mining, Intelligent Agents and Information Systems.

*Corresponding author (G Malathi). E-mail: malathi.g@vit.ac.in ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering,

Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.305

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15R

DEVELOPMENT OF INFORMATION COMPETENCIES OF ENGINEERING STUDENTS Elena N. Fokina 1

1*

Department of Business Informatics and Mathematics, Tyumen Industrial University, RUSSIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 01 June 2020 Received in revised form 04 September 2020 Accepted 14 September 2020 Available online 15 September 2020

Intensive digitalization of the engineering profession imposes new requirements for the methods and approaches to the effective formation of information literacy. In Russia, this process is complicated by the strict state educational standards, which is not enough to train competitive specialists in the job market. The gaps that emerged while preparing the Bachelor of Engineering (BEng) are proposed to be filled with Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate (CDIO)-based tools. In the paper, the CDIO Syllabus project for BEng students is discussed as the methodological solution. The project includes a list of training results that are in line with Russia’s Federal State Educational Standard (FSES 3++) and the DigComp 2.0 model. The practical application of the CDIO Syllabus project is demonstrated using the case of individual and/or group educational products based on a university’s information-educational environment and resources. The study examines its structure, content, and implementation technology. To justify the applicability of the proposed solutions, we analyze the advantages of the CDIO initiative when building information competences for students of BEng programs. The research findings can be adapted to the orientation or educational profile of a university’s engineering training.

Keywords: Engineering education, information competences; CDIO, digitalization; educational environment; learning model; DigComp.

Disciplinary: Engineering Development).

Education

(Curriculum

and

Learning

©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION The current system of higher education is undergoing changes caused by the emergence of new demands of digital society. The objective of universities is to train students capable and ready to perform their professional duties amid lifelong learning in the information environment using a creative approach (Mikhalkina et al., 2020; Makarova et al., 2019). This objective has become critically important in the context of delivering engineering education. *Corresponding author (Elena N. Fokina). Tel:+73-452283660 Email: Fokina.elen@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15R http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.306

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The conventional understanding of engineering education is associated with the issues of high technology that are resolved in accordance with a specific algorithm considering the specificity of a particular production process. The special features of the engineering activity predetermine the stringent requirements for student competencies (Vainshtein et al., 2016). These requirements are becoming increasingly relevant due to the rapid development of Industry 4.0.

The global trend towards integration of universities, scientific and industrial institutions contributes to the formation of practice-oriented project education and highlights the problem of finding novel methodological approaches and organizational tools that encourage the development of effective competences among students. For Russia, joining global trends is complicated by strict state educational standards, which is clearly not enough to train competitive specialists in the job market.

According to the Boston Consulting Group (BCG, 2017), about 80% of the working-age population in Russia does not possess the appropriate professional competences. The issue of engineering education modernization is, therefore, among the acutest in the country (Chuchalin, 2014).

In contrast to the rigid model, a softer approach to education involves the use of the CDIO initiative (Conceive – Design – Implement – Operate) (http://www.cdio.org). It sets the targets for the quality of engineering education and its results. The CDIO initiative suggests organizing teaching in such a way that students could demonstrate in-depth theoretical and practical knowledge of the technical foundations of the engineering profession (Kutuzov & Shaposhnikov, 2012).

Thus, the purpose of the given study is to justify the implementation of the CDIO approach aimed at building information competences of BEng students in Russia. It is noteworthy that the stated goal requires Russian educational standards to harmonize with international educational practices (in particular, the DigComp 2.0 model). This condition imposes certain research limitations that need to be overcome.

2 LITERATURE REVIEW Industry 4.0 determines the promising opportunities for the development of human capital based on open digital education technologies (Dellis et al., 2016). In this context, it is important to analyze the process of building competences.

Researchers emphasize that the concepts of proficiency and competence are interconnected. As Khutorsky and Khutorskaya (2008) put it, individual proficiency is not only knowledge of the actual material (information) and skills in a particular field, but also the experience that the student has gained. Among the components of individual proficiency are objectives and values, communication, experience, knowledge, and skills. Khutorsky and Khutorskaya stress that competence is an alienated and predetermined requirement (norm) for students’ education, and proficiency in their personal quality (a set of qualities) and minimal experience in a given industry. This view is supported by Zimnyaya (2009), who regards competence as a structural unit of the process of proficiency formation. Litau (2018) views proficiency as an integral socio-personal-behavioral result of education in the aggregate of motivational-value and cognitive components.

Information competence, among other things, is distinguished by multifunctionality and universality (Smolyaninova, 2002). According to Smolyaninova, information competence is a set of universal ways of searching, receiving, processing, presenting, and transmitting information, as well

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Elena N. Fokina

as generalizing, systematizing, and turning information into knowledge. When investigating modern approaches to teaching under digitalization, Bates (2015) formulated a list of competencies that students need to acquire.

Currently, a common way to assess information competences is the DigComp 2.0 model (DigComp 2.0, 2018). According to the model, information competence is a necessary element of digital competence and is defined as the confident, critical, and creative use of digital tools to achieve the goals associated with work, employability, learning, as well as personal and professional development. The key components of digital competence are categorized into 5 areas: information and data literacy; communication and collaboration; digital content creation; safety; and problem-solving. According to the Joint Information Systems Committee (JISC, 2014), digital competence is a set of academic and professional situational practices supported by all sorts of changing technologies.

One of the possible ways of developing digital competence in Russian universities is Kondakov’s model (BCG, 2017), which incorporates three groups of competencies – socio-behavioral, cognitive and digital skills. The model is outstripping in nature and is based not on the traditional approach – requirements for the education level of graduates, – but on the labor market requirements for key professional and personal competences.

According to Davydova (2005), the central idea of the current development stage of the theory and practice of engineering vocational education quality management is to abandon the traditional approach, where the educational process is regulated according to the estimates of the final result. The focus of the new approach is on the creation of a universal quality management system that regulates the process through assessing its state and factors affecting the end result. The new vision of vocational education takes into account its scope since the latest studies highlight that a high rate of overeducated graduates is estimated to have a negative impact on economic growth at both short and medium terms (Sam, 2018).

Nowadays, engineering education is developing in several directions. The most important of them are oriented towards practice (Volchik & Maslyukova, 2017). They are most fully implemented in the CDIO concept. Maurya and Ammoun (2018) discuss the experience of implementing the CDIO approach in the integrated digital environment. They claim that internships at industrial enterprises help future engineers to put their knowledge into practice.

Bermus (2014) argues that the development and implementation of CDIO are roughly similar in meaning to that stipulated in Russian state educational standards: the key aspect here is not a specific set of competencies, but a holistic image of the future professional activity. It is also noteworthy that as early as at the ideological level CDIO implies gaining experience in individual and collective innovation activity, implementing the project in the open information-educational space, acquiring skills in interdisciplinary and interpersonal communication, and interaction, as well as examining and criticizing the ongoing projects.

At the moment, the CDIO approach is not sufficiently represented in Russian educational practice, which hampers the development of information literacy among Bachelors of Engineering.

Educational standards in Russia are mostly focused on building the obligatory and universal *Corresponding author (Elena N. Fokina). Tel:+73-452283660 Email: Fokina.elen@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15R http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.306

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professional competences. Against this backdrop, information competences lose in their significance.

The cautious attempts to apply the CDIO concept in Russia were made by Arnautov (2014).

The literature review shows that the modern learning concept should be based on the methodology that involves an open and consistent cluster of pedagogical approaches (Shershneva, 2014). Its substance is the optimal use of methods with different didactic potential. One of them is the CDIO approach that has proved to be effective when resolving the problem of improving the quality of engineering programs. In the next section, we examine the methods for introducing the CDIO approach aimed at building information competencies of BEng students at Russian universities.

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS In the current study, building information competences of BEng students is founded on the CDIO approach. Its methodology is premised on the core principles of the innovative educational environment â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Conceive, Design, Implement, and Operate. When implementing the CDIO approach, it is also possible to utilize other metrics that detail the stages of preparation (Maurya & Ammoun, 2018) using: Inspire, Learn, Innovate, Create, and Evaluate (Table 1).

Table 1: Guidelines for implementing the CDIO approach in the training of engineers Tool Inspire Learn Innovate Create Evaluate

Description Get inspired by the real world: contextual, semantic, in real life and the Internet Focus on discipline, subject matter, design practice, and peer learning Learn through the interaction of different ways and forms of learning Apply a multidisciplinary approach and project management Concentrate on continuous monitoring of the effectiveness of interaction, mentoring, peer management

The analysis of the given list of metrics demonstrates that the majority (over 60%) of the projected competences of BEng students is related to the preparation for integrated engineering activities at the stages of production and application of technical objects, processes, and systems (Implement & Operate); 25% of training results are focused on innovative activities (Design); and just over 10% of competences provide students with the opportunity to participate in research (Conceive). Such a structure of competences determines the priority area of professional activity (Chuchalin, 2016). It should be taken into account that the innovative component weakly correlates with higher labor productivity and living standards or may have negative relationships.

When introducing CDIO, the curriculum is subject to adjustments. In the curriculum of the principal engineering training program, there are both traditional modules and those that follow the CDIO method. As a rule, these modules are linked with project activities, focus on teamwork skills, the theory of the development of inventive tasks, design thinking, and the inclusion of economic, social, and environmental contexts (Crawley, 2011).

One of the important methodological components in the CDIO application for building studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; information competences is the design of an adequate CDIO Syllabus. Many researchers are convinced of the need to adapt the structure and content of the CDIO Syllabus according to the state educational standards (Chuchalin & Daneykina, 2017).

Establish a correlation between the competences of the Russian educational standard and CDIO Syllabus within the same discipline of the course, and also discuss the possibilities of implementing

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Elena N. Fokina

an active practical approach. The course of Mathematics for engineering is used as the case study.

The competences of the educational standard are identified according to the relevant work program of the discipline. The correspondence of the competences is illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2: Correspondence between the competences of the state educational standard and CDIO Syllabus.

Competences of the state educational standard CDIO Syllabus General cultural competences: 1. Disciplinary knowledge and basics ОК-1 (ability to form a modern picture of the world based on a – Basic knowledge of mathematics and natural holistic system of natural-scientific and mathematical knowledge science; and to navigate the values of being, life, and culture); – Mathematics (including statistics) ОК-7 (knowledge of the culture of thinking, the ability to generalize, analyze, critique, systematize, forecast, set goals and establish ways to achieve them, be able to analyze the logic of reasoning and statements) Professional competencies: 2. Professional competencies and personal PK-2 (ability to independently gain new knowledge and skills using qualities IT and put them into practice, including in new areas of knowledge – Data search (print and electronic and not directly related to the field of activity) publications); – Persistence in achieving goals, ingenuity, and flexibility Professional competencies: 2. Professional competencies and personal PK-4 (ability to organize their work based on scientific grounds, be qualities independent in assessing their performance, mastery of independent – Lifelong learning; work skills, including in the research domain) – Time and resource management Professional competencies: 3. Interpersonal skills: teamwork and PK-3 (ability to work in a multinational team on interdisciplinary communication and innovative projects. As a department head or team leader, s/he – Building an effective team; can set the team’s goals, take decisions under risk bearing in mind – Team management; the consequences of a mistake, provide training and assist their – Team growth and development; subordinates) – Team leadership General cultural competences: 3. Interpersonal skills: teamwork and ОК-5 (fluency in written and oral business reporting in Russian, communication public and scientific speaking skills, ability to produce and edit – Communication strategy; professional texts, fluency in one of the foreign languages as a means – Written communication; of business communication) – Electronic/multimedia communications; – Graphic communications; – Oral presentation; – Interviewing, listening, dialogue Professional competencies: 4. Planning, design, production, and PSK-1.5 (ability to use application software to compute units, application of products (systems) within an assemblies, and systems of cars and tractors) enterprise, society, and the environment – Using knowledge in design; – Disciplinary project; – Interdisciplinary project

As shown in Table 2, the relationships between the competences comprehensively describe the acquired personal, interpersonal, and professional competencies established according to the program’s goal, which meets the requirements of CDIO Standard 2. The CDIO method allows using the main technical and engineering contexts in the learning process at various stages of the life cycle: development, design, introduction, and operation of real systems and products. Currently, 12 CDIO standards are approved. Each standard corresponds to a certain stage of the approach, from regarding CDIO as a general context for development to an integrated evaluation system for the entire program for various participants in the educational process to ensure its continuous improvement.

Within the framework of the present study, for the effective CDIO adaptation, we look at the *Corresponding author (Elena N. Fokina). Tel:+73-452283660 Email: Fokina.elen@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15R http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.306

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specificity of preparing BEng students for innovative and research engineering activities using information competences. Moreover, when developing CDIO Syllabus for Bachelors of Engineering, level-sensitive characteristics and practice-oriented directions for building information competences according to the DigComp 2.0 model were used.

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION In this section of the research, we present the results of the CDIO Syllabus development aimed at building information competences of BEng students taking into account international educational practices in the field of digitalization.

The advantage of the CDIO Syllabus is that, in contrast to the requirements of the accreditation criteria, the requirements of the CDIO Syllabus for graduatesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; competencies are decomposed at several levels (Crawley et al., 2014), see Figure 1.

1. Interdisciplinary scientific and technical knowledge

2. Professional competences and personal qualities

3. Universal competences: teamwork and communication

4. Forecasting, planning, design and manufacturing of products (systems) in the context of enterprise, society and environment

5. Pedagogical activities

Figure 1: CDIO Syllabus for training students of BEng programs.

This allows educational program designers to effectively implement a competency-based approach, i.e. to determine in detail the initial data for program design, to set tasks for university teachers, and to carry out deep modernization of educational programs based on CDIO Standards.

Table 3 presents the CDIO Syllabus which includes the list of training results that take into account the requirements of the Russian state educational standard (FSES 3++) and the DigComp 2.0 model.

CDIO Syllabus design provides a system-related description of the innovative activity results of Bachelors of Science in Engineering. Evaluation of student competencies can vary according to the educational profile of engineering training. In this case, it is acceptable to manipulate the ratio of CDIO Syllabus components. When designing level-sensitive engineering training programs, CDIO Syllabus requirements should be differentiated with regard to the peculiarities of engineering activity.

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The research limitation of the study is the lack of an integrated educational platform for using the CDIO method in Russia. Universities practice this approach in different ways, which hampers the exchange and replication of experience while implementing educational programs, modules, or specific disciplines. Strict state educational standards do not allow one to fully implement the CDIO approach. It should be realized that only cooperation between universities, companies, and research institutions can make it possible to project graduates’ competences and realize the full CDIO-based training cycle in an effective manner (Toomsalu et al., 2019).

Table 3: CDIO Syllabus for training students of BEng programs Bachelor’s degree program of CDIO Syllabus 1. Interdisciplinary scientific and technical knowledge 1.1. Knowledge of mathematics and natural science.

1.2. Knowledge of innovative engineering.

1.3. Information and operational literacy 2. Professional competences and personal qualities 2.1. Analysis and solution of innovative problems.

2.2. Experimentation, research.

2.3. Systems innovative mindset.

2.4. Critical analysis and creativity.

2.5. Ethics, justice.

2.6. Network etiquette.

2.7. Digital cooperation and interaction 3. Universal competencies: teamwork and communication 3.1. Leadership.

3.2. Digital communications.

3.3. International communications.

3.4. Copyrights and licenses 4. Forecasting, planning, design, and manufacturing of products (systems) in the context of enterprise, society, and environment 4.1. Eco-friendly professional activity.

4.2. Technical-economic and social context.

4.3. Forecasting and innovation management.

4.4. Planning and design.

4.5. Production.

4.6. Innovative technical entrepreneurship.

4.7. Protection of health and well-being.

4.8. Protection of personal data and confidentiality 5. Pedagogical activities 5.1. Development and implementation of electronic educational resources and products.

5.2. Identification of needs and technological responses.

5.3. Creative use of digital technology.

5.4. Determination of deficits in the maturity of information competences

In this respect, the stage of creating individual and/or group educational products using the university’s electronic information-educational environment and its resources is gaining in importance. When considering the significance of engineering education, students can be asked to undertake a group project on the topic “Open Engineering Space”. It should be noted that projects can be of various directions: social, industrial, and general engineering. It is possible to adjust the implementation mechanism according to the type of the project. For instance, implementing engineering projects requires additional calculations. Students are given a form to fill in the project passport, which includes the main elements: the list of participants, the project’s name and abstract, *Corresponding author (Elena N. Fokina). Tel:+73-452283660 Email: Fokina.elen@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15R http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.306

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stages of project implementation, problem statement, deadlines, goals and objectives, target audience, implementation schedule, team, partners, results and methods for their evaluation, as well as further steps in project implementation (Table A1).

Students are provided with evaluation criteria for the project. They should be informed that the developed educational product will be comprehensively evaluated, including self-assessment and expert reports. Once the project is defended, a group discussion is planned to analyze its results, which will help to reveal the difficulties in understanding the educational material and putting the acquired knowledge into practice. Table A2 presents an example of a group educational project description.

In the course of the study, we have found that the application of the CDIO approach in the training of engineers contributes to the practical implementation of design and experimental competences both in classrooms and modern educational laboratories using the electronic information-educational environment and its resources. In our view, this makes building information competences more effective.

The prospects for future research are to lay down the criteria for assessing the stage of information competencies development of BEng students and to adapt the designed CDIO Syllabus according to the peculiarities of the senior levels training â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Mastersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree and postgraduate school.

Also, to organize the interaction of all participants in the educational process, it is expedient to create an electronic educational platform that consolidates the resources in this field.

The obtained results can be used in the development and implementation of curricula of the major engineering training programs. It is possible to apply CDIO Syllabus design in the implementation of advanced training programs in several related disciplines and educational modules. These can be such disciplines as Information Literacy, Design Thinking, Information, and Digital Technologies in Professional Activity, Digital Competence in Professional Activity, Method of Innovative Projects, Computer Modeling, etc. Thus, the use of the CDIO approach is one of the possible solutions for the effective building of information competences among students.

5 CONCLUSION Current trends in the sphere of vocational education set specific requirements for the practice-oriented knowledge of university graduates. In the context of digitalization, it is of primary importance to train specialists with sufficient information competences. We have found that in the process of BEng training it was necessary to use the CDIO approach. A formative stage in the development of an educational program is the design of the CDIO Syllabus, which includes a list of training outcomes considering the standards and requirements of the DigComp 2.0 model. For that purpose, we have developed the CDIO Syllabus project that can be applied when training Bachelors of Science in Engineering in Russian universities. The widespread adoption of the CDIO approach can be more effective if provided with the relevant organizational-methodological support and interactive cooperation between the members of the educational process with the help of resources of the information-educational environment.

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6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 REFERENCES Arnautov, A. D. (2014). Building information competence of future Bachelors in Metallurgy in the process of mastering the discipline “Information Services” using a complex of information-technological tasks. Candidate Dissertation, Siberian Federal University.

Bates, T. (2015). Teaching in a digital age: Guidelines for designing teaching and learning. Burnaby, BC: SFU Document Solutions, Simon Fraser University.

BCG.

(2017).

From employees to talents.

Boston Consulting Group http://image-src.bcg.com/Images/BCG_Review_November-2017_tcm27-178366.pdf.

Review

Bermus, A. G. (2014). The pedagogical component of a multilevel professionally oriented university education. Lifelong Education: The 21st Century, 1(5), 60-77. DOI: 10.15393/j5.art.2014.2281 Chuchalin, A. I. (2014). Modernization of engineering education based on international CDIO standards.

Engineering Education, 16, 14-29.

Chuchalin, A. I. (2016). Application of the CDIO approach to three-level engineering program design. Higher Education in Russia, 4, 17-32.

Chuchalin, A. I., Daneykina, N. V. (2017). Application of the CDIO approach to MSc and PhD engineering programs. Higher Education in Russia, 4(211), 17-25.

Crawley, E. F. (2011). The CDIO Syllabus v2.0 an updated statement of goals for engineering education. http://www.cdio.org/files/project/file/cdio_syllabus_v2.pdf. Accessed September 2019.

Crawley, E. F., Malmqvist, J., Östlund, S., & Brodeur, D. R. (2014). Rethinking engineering education, the CDIO approach. New York. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-05561-9 Davydova, L. N. (2005). Education quality criteria at the local sublevel of subject-subject relationships.

Integration of Education, 1-2, 17-20.

Dellis, K., Karkalakos, S., & Kottaridi, C. (2016). Entrepreneurship targeting policies, technological growth, and unemployment. Journal of Eurasian Economic Dialogue, 1(6), 19-39.

DigComp 2.0. (2018). DigComp 2.0: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens. http://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp/project-background.

JISC. (2014). Developing digital literacies. http://www.jisc.ac.uk/guides/developing-digital-literacies.

Khutorskoy, A.V., & Khutorskaya, L.N. (2008). Competence as a didactic concept: Content, structure, and design models. In A. A. Orlova (Ed.). Designing and organizing individual work of students in the context of a competency-based approach, 1, 117-137. Tula State Lev Tolstoy Pedagogical University.

Kutuzov, V. M., & Shaposhnikov, S. O. (Eds.). (2012). Prospects for Engineering Education Development: CDIO Initiative. Saint Petersburg: Leti.

Litau, E. Y. (2018). Cognitive science as a pivot of teaching financial disciplines. In Proceedings of the 31st International Business Information Management Association Conference (IBIMA2018): Innovation Management and Education Excellence through Vision 2020, 72-80).

Makarova, I., Shubenkova, K., Antov, D., & Pashkevich, A. (2019). Digitalization of engineering education: From e-learning to smart education. In M. Auer, R. Langmann (Eds.). Smart Industry & Smart Education, REV 2018, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 47, Springer, Cham.

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-95678-7_4 Maurya, S., Ammoun, О. (2018). Implementing the CDIO approach in integrated digital environments.

Proceedings of the 14th International CDIO Conference, Kanazawa Institute of Technology, Kanazawa, Japan, http://ds.libol.fpt.edu.vn/handle/123456789/2529 Accessed September 2019. *Corresponding author (Elena N. Fokina). Tel:+73-452283660 Email: Fokina.elen@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15R http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.306

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Mikhalkina, E. V., Chernova, O. A., & Gozalova, A. V. (2020). Digitalization and the principal-agent problem in higher education. In T. Kolmykova & E. Kharchenko (Eds.). Digital future economic growth, social adaptation, and technological perspectives, Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, 111. Springer, Cham. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-39797-5_64 Shershneva, V. A. (2014). Building the mathematical competence of students of an engineering university. Pedagogy, 5, 62-67.

Smolyaninova, O. G. (2002). Developing a methodological system for the formation of information and communication competence of a future teacher based on multimedia technologies. Doctoral dissertation. Saint Petersburg: Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia.

Toomsalu, L., Tolmacheva, S., Vlasov, A., & Chernova, V. (2019). Determinants of innovations in small and medium enterprises: A European and international experience. Terra Economicus, 17(2), 112-123. DOI: 10.23683/2073-6606-2019-17-2-112-123 Vainshtein, Yu. V., Shershneva, V. A., & Safonov, K. V. (2016). CDIO ideology in math training. Higher Education in Russia, 2, 75-82.

Volchik, V., & Maslyukova, E. (2017). Performance and sustainability of higher education: Key indicators versus academic values. Journal of Security and Sustainability Issue, 6(3), 501-512.

Zimnyaya, I. A. (2009). Key competencies as a new paradigm of education outcome. Experiment and Innovation in School, 2, 7-14.

8 APPENDIX Table A1: The CDIO project passport form.

Project information

Project code Name, Surname of the person in charge Project name Project abstract Project stage

Provide the project’s abstract Preparatory stage Implementation stage Problem Describe the problem that the project concentrates on and relate it to the development of engineering education Describe the applied problem(s) the project is designed to resolve/reduce the severity of it Describe the problem while focusing on the main CDIO principles Execution period Provide the deadlines for the project implementation The goal of the project Formulate one goal of the project. It should be specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, timely (SMART) Objectives of the project Formulate no more than three objectives that, if accomplished, will help to attain the project’s goal List the resources used, including ICT resources and those of the electronic Resources information-educational environment Target audience Groups at which your project is aimed at. Indicate social groups and participants’ age Project implementation schedule: Name and description of Start and end Expected results the event dates …

Team Partners Results

…

…

Specify the people involved, their positions and responsibilities; how many volunteers, if any, you are going to recruit Specify the current partners and those who you plan to engage in the implementation of the project, including public agencies and industrial enterprises Describe what changes are expected as a result of the project. Indicate the qualitative and quantitative results and indicators Specify the indicators that, if achieved, point to the successful realization of the project

Results assessment methods Further implementation Describe the perspectives of continuing work after the project is completed

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Elena N. Fokina

Table A2: Example of a group CDIO-based educational project description Project’s section Name of the project Developers Activity description Goal Objectives Project implementation tools

Self-assessment / expert evaluation / group discussion

Section’s content Project on open engineering space development Name of group members BEng students develop a project and present it to the expert panel To create a project according to the CDIO ideology Fulfill the Conceive, Design, Implement, Operate requirements Prepare a group project’s presentation Resources: – e-learning courses; – websites; – forums; – webinars; – online conferences; – interactive online services (creating mental maps, Google Docs, Google Slides); – etc.

Completing an individual self-assessment form, expert evaluation, group dialogue based on the results of a completed project

Elena N. Fokina is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Business Informatics and Mathematics at Tyumen Industrial University, Russian Federation. Her areas of scientific interest are Mathematical Methods of Research in the Economy, Information Technology, Social Aspects of Vocational Training, Social Networks.

*Corresponding author (Elena N. Fokina). Tel:+73-452283660 Email: Fokina.elen@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15R http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.306

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15S

EVALUATION LACTIC ACID BACTERIA AUTOSTRAINS WITH ANTI-CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI ACTIVITY ON BROILER CHICKENS PRODUCTIVITY 1*

2

3

Yuri Kuznetsov , Ilya Nikonov , Elena Kapitonova , 1 4 Nadezhda Kuznetsova , Ruslan Omarov 1

Department of Parasitology, St. Petersburg State University of Veterinary Medicine, RUSSIA. Research Department, Perm State Agro-Technological University named after Academician D.N. Pryanishnikov, RUSSIA. 3 Department of Private Livestock, Vitebsk State Awarded the «Badge of Honour» Order Veterinary Medicine Academy, BELARUS. 4 Department of Technology of Production and Processing of Agricultural Products, Stavropol State Agrarian University, RUSSIA. 2

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 04 June 2020 Received in revised form 04 September 2020 Accepted 14 September 2020 Available online 21 September 2020

Modern poultry farming is based on preventing zooanthroponotic infections by targeted regulation of the intestinal microbiota using a wide range of probiotic preparations. This article reflects the results of a study on feeding broiler chickens with a feed additive containing autostrains of lactobacilli with anti-Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) activity in comparison with intact chickens. As a result of the studies, autostrains of heterologous lactobacilli with activity against Campylobacter on the zootechnical parameters of growing broiler chickens "Cobb-500" was shown. Thus, the introduction of a feed additive based on lactobacilli, in general, had a positive effect on the productivity of broiler chickens.

Keywords: Cross Cobb-500; C. jejuni; Campylobacteriosis; Growing chickens; Intestinal microbiota; Zooanthroponotic infections.

Disciplinary: Bioscience.

Agricultural

and

Animal

Sciences,

Microbiology;

©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Modern poultry farming is based on preventing zooanthroponotic infections by targeted regulation of the intestinal microbiota using a wide range of probiotic preparations. The choice of the optimal probiotics for the prevention of campylobacteriosis in broiler chickens is relevant.

There are researches focused on the use of probiotics for the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal tract infections caused by Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) and S. enteritidis. In the works (Fooks and Gibson 2003; Fernández, et al., 2003), shown that symbiotic strains isolated from humans, L. Plantarum 0407 and Bifidobacterium bifidum Bb12, in the presence of oligofructose and *Corresponding author (Yuri Kuznetsov). Tel:+7-9657775500 Email: Kuznetsov@yandex.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15S http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.307

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xylooligosaccharides inhibited the growth of C. jejuni, in vitro and in vivo. Similar results used lactobacilli and bifidobacteria isolated from chickens (Chaveerach et al., 2004). In Tsai et al. (2005), lactobacilli strains isolated from pigs and chickens exhibited antagonistic activity against Salmonella spp in vitro and vivo. Intact mobile flagella refer to the factors providing adhesion and survival of C. jejuni (Woodall et al., 2005). The flagellin locus contains two adjacent genes fla A and fla B (Hendrixson et al., 2001; Nuijten et al., 1990; Woodall et al., 20059). The intestinal environment, pH, viscosity, and various metabolites affect these genes (Sherman et al., 2009). Mucin stimulates the adhesion and internalization of C. jejuni into intestinal cells (Byrne et al., 2007; Szymanski, et al., 1995). The intestinal microaerophilic environment promotes the growth and reproduction of C. jejuni. The presence of probiotics inhibits the growth and reproduction of C. jejuni and prevents the penetration of the pathogen into the submucosal layer (Aguiar et al., 2013; Alemka et al., 2010).

Exposure of C. jejuni cells to the probiotic impairs the pathogen's mobility and its ability to colonize the intestinal epithelium in vitro and in vivo experiments (Alemka, et al., 2010).

A comparative assessment of B. subtilis and C. jejuni under the conditions of the chicken gastrointestinal tract showed that B. subtilis, upon contact with C. jejuni, increases its mobility, reaches the crypts of the cecum more quickly, and occupies all binding sites. B. subtilis prevents the interaction of C. jejuni with the host organisms epithelial cells, limiting the mobility and survival of the pathogen (Aguiar et al., 2013). The addition of the probiotic feed additive Cellobacterin-T based on B. subtilis to broiler chickens' feed reduced the level of C. jejuni in the microbiota of the blind spines of the bird's gastrointestinal tract. A significant drawback of B. subtilis strains used as probiotics and probiotic feed additives is their feeble ability to adhere to the gastrointestinal tract's epithelial cells, in contrast to lactobacilli and bifidobacteria.

The study aimed to feed broiler chickens with a feed additive containing autostrains of lactobacilli with anti-C. jejuni activity in comparison with intact chickens.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS Broiler chickens of the Cobb 500 cross were rising within 35 days. The scheme of the experimental groups is in Table 1.

Table 1: Experiment scheme on broiler chickens Group Control 2 3 4

Features of incubation and feeding of poultry Broilers chickens obtained after incubation of intact eggs. Feeding: basic diet Broilers chickens obtained after incubation of eggs with introduced heterologous bacteria. Feeding: basic diet Broilers chicks obtained after incubation of eggs with an injected sample without bacteria (violation of the egg).

Feeding: basic diet Broilers chickens obtained after incubation of intact eggs. Feeding: essential diet with the introduction of a feed additive containing heterologous lactic acid bacteria

For obtaining broiler chickens containing in the intestine strains of lactobacilli with activity against Campylobacter, into the incubation egg were introducing probiotic lactobacilli.

Chickens obtained after incubating intact eggs (without introducing bacteria) were used as a control group. Experiments on broiler chickens were in the vivarium of the International Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Poultry Genomics (Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology - MBA named after K.I. Skryabin"). The ration of the breeder chickens was according to the recommendations of VNITIP (Fisinin et al, 2000; Egorov et al., 2019).

2

Yuri Kuznetsov, Ilya Nikonov, Elena Kapitonova, Nadezhda Kuznetsova, Ruslan Omarov

The chickens were in individual cages, observing the same technological parameters for growing (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Chickens in individual cages, the same technological parameters of growing.

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Poultry feeding was in two phases (6-21 days and 22 days until the end of rearing). Complete feed was as the main diet for the experimental bird. Compound feed recipes are in Table 2.

Table 2: Recipes of compound feed for broiler chickens.

Ingredients Yellow-grained corn Wheat Triticale Soybean meal Sunflower meal Fish flour Meat and bone meal Rapeseed oil Monocalcium Phosphate a piece of chalk Premix

1-10 50.5 6.00 30.00 3.50 4.00 1.70 1.30 1.15 2.00

Age, days 11-24 25-35 49.35 46.45 6.00 9.00 31.00 27.00 4.00 5.00 2.00 4.00 3.30 4.30 1.20 1.25 1.15 1.00 2.00 2.00

Age, days 1-10 11-24 25-35 In 100 g of compound feed Exchange energy, kJ 1268 1295 1307 Crude protein,% 22.21 22.21 21.12 Crude fiber,% 3.39 3.39 3.67 Crude fat,% 6.20 6.20 7.98 Calcium,% 1.08 1.08 1.04 Phosphorus,% 0.76 0.76 0.78 Sodium,% 0.17 0.17 0.18 Lysine,% 1.460 1.369 1.261 Methionine + cystine,% 1.072 1.030 0.988 Tryptophan,% 0.284 0.278 0.265 Ingredients

For the first five days, all groups' chickens received the same pre-starter compound feed by Ponomarenko et al., 2012. A feed additive containing lactobacilli for chickens of the 4th experimental group was starting from the 6th day of rearing. Chick weight results are in Table 3. *Corresponding author (Yuri Kuznetsov). Tel:+7-9657775500 Email: Kuznetsov@yandex.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15S http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.307

3

Table 3: Results of broiler chickens control weighing Growing period 1 (1-7 days) 2 (8-14 days) 3 (15-21 days) 4 (22-28 days) 5 (29-35 days)

1st (control) group, g/head 2nd group, g/head 3rd group, g/head 212.6±4.32 258.3±3.24*** 261.7±3.53*** 408.5±6.54 575.8±5.73*** 593.5±5.32*** 751.4±8.63 970.8±7.31*** 1005.3±7.75*** 1264.8±10.87 1481.2±9.54 *** 1498.4±9.53 *** 1835.3±13.96 2091.0±11.46 *** 2100.1±11.54 *** Note: * Р > 0.95; ** Р > 0.99; *** Р > 0.099.

4th group, g/head 269.3±3.54*** 610.2±5.64*** 1030.6±7.64*** 1515.8±9.62 *** 2150.5±11.31 ***

The safety of broiler chickens in all groups was 100%. Indicators in Table 2 reflect that in all periods of growing broiler chickens of the 4th group, significantly exceeded the analogs of the control group in live weight and the analogs of the 2nd and 3rd experimental groups.

The results of the consumption of feed by control and experimental groups are in Table 4.

Table 4: Feed consumption per 1 kg of live weight gain of broiler chickens Indicators Feed consumption per 1 kg of growth for the entire growing period, kg By % to control Feed conversion, kg By % to control

1 1.98 100 -

Group 2 3 1.88 1.86 94.9 93.9 0.10 0.12 5.1 6.1

4 1.81 91.4 0.17 8.6

Feed consumption per 1 kg of live weight gain of "Cobb-500" cross broiler chickens in all experimental groups decreased in comparison with the 1st control group, in the 2nd group by 5.1%, in the 3rd group by 6.1%, and in the 4th group by 8.6%.

4 CONCLUSION The introduction of lactobacilli into eggs generally had a positive effect on reared broilers' performance. The introduction of under-shell strains of lactobacilli with anti-C. jejuni activity and incubation of eggs for 21 days to obtain broiler chickens containing lactobacilli autostrains in the intestinal caecum with anti-C. jejuni activity is promising for the prevention of campylobacteriosis.

5 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding authors

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The study was performed at the FGBOU VO "St. Petersburg State Academy of Veterinary Medicine» with the aid of the Russian Science Foundation Grant, Project No. 18-76-10017.

7 REFERENCES Aguiar, V.F., Donoghue, A.M., Arsi, K., Reyes-Herrera, I., Metcalf, J.H., de los Santos, F.S., Blore, P.J., Donoghue, D.J. (2013). Targeting motility properties of bacteria in the development of probiotic cultures against Campylobacter jejuni in broiler chickens. Foodborne Pathog Dis., 10(5), 435- 441.

Alemka, A., Clyne, M., Shanahan, F., Tompkins, T., Corcionivoschi, N., Bourke, B. (2010). Probiotic colonization of the adherent mucus layer of HT29MTXE12 cells attenuates Campylobacter jejuni virulence properties. Infect Immun., 78(6): 2812-2822.

Byrne, C.M., Clyne, M., Bourke, B. (2007). Campylobacter jejuni adhere to and invade chicken intestinal epithelial cells in vitro. Microbiology, 153, 561-569.

Chaveerach, P., Lipman, L.J.A., van Knapen, F. (2004). Antagonistic activities of several bacteria on in vitro growth of 10 strains of Campylobacter jejuni/coli. Int J Food Microbiol., 90(1), 43-50.

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Yuri Kuznetsov, Ilya Nikonov, Elena Kapitonova, Nadezhda Kuznetsova, Ruslan Omarov

Egorov, I.A., Manukyan, V.A., Okolelova, T.M., et al. (2019). Poultry feeding guide. Sergiev Posad: VNITIP. 226.

Fernández, M.F., Boris, S., Barbés, C. (2003). Probiotic properties of human lactobacilli strains to be used in the gastrointestinal tract. J Appl Microbiol., 94(3), 449-455.

Fisinin, V.I. (2000). Feeding poultry. Sergiev Posad. 375.

Fooks, L.J., Gibson, G.R. (2003). Mixed culture fermentation studies on the effects of synbiotics on the human intestinal pathogens Campylobacter jejuni and Escherichia coli. Anaerobe, 9(5), 231-242.

Hendrixson, D.R., Akerley, B.J., DiRita, V.J. (2001). Transposon mutagenesis of Campylobacter jejuni identifies a bipartite energy taxis system required for motility. Mol Microbiol., 40, 214-224.

Nuijten, P.J., van Asten, F.J., Gaastra, W., van der Zeijst, B.A. (1990). Structural and functional analysis of two Campylobacter jejuni flagellin genes. J Biol Chem., 265, 17798-17804.

Ponomarenko, Yu.A., Fisinin, V.I., Egorov, I.A. (2012). Safety of Feed, Feed Additives, and Food. Minsk.

Ecological perspective, 864.

Sherman, P.M., Ossa, J.C., Johnson-Henry, K. (2009). Unraveling mechanisms of action of probiotics. Nutr Clin Pract., 24(1), 10-14.

Szymanski, C.M., King, M., Haardt, M., Armstrong, G.D. (1995). Campylobacter jejuni motility and invasion of Caco-2 cells. Infect Immun., 63(11), 4295-4300.

Tsai, C.-C., Hsih, H.-Y., Chiu, H.-H., Lai, Y.-Y., Liu, J.-H., Yu, B., Tsen, H.-Y. (2005). Antagonistic activity against Salmonella infection in vitro and in vivo for two Lactobacillus strains from swine and poultry.

Int. J. Food Microbiol., 102, 185-194.

Woodall, C.A., Jones, M.A., Barrow, P.A., Hinds, J., Marsden, G.L., Kelly, D.J., Dorrell, N., Wren, B.W., Maskell, D.J. (2005). Campylobacter jejuni gene expression in the chick cecum: evidence for adaptation to a low oxygen environment. Infect Immun., 73, 5278-5285.

Yuri Kuznetsov is an Associate Professor. He is a Candidate of Veterinary Sciences. His research includes Veterinary Immunology and Stress Pharmacology, Increasing the Effectiveness of Drugs, and studying the Side Effects of Drugs and Reducing their Negative Impact on the Body.

Ilya Nikonov is Deputy Director for Science and Development, BIOTROF LLC. Senior Researcher of the Scientific and Technical Information Department of the All-Russian Scientific Research Veterinary Institute of Poultry (VNIVIP), St. Petersburg. His research deals with the study of the intestinal microflora of poultry, Feed, Habitat. He is a developer of the composition and methods for assessing the Effect of Antimicrobial Feed Additives (Probiotics, Prebiotics, Phytobiotics, etc.) and Mycotoxin Sorbents.

Elena Kapitonova is an Associate Professor at the Department of Private Livestock, Vitebsk Order of the Badge of Honor State Academy of Veterinary Medicine. She is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences Her research interests are the Development of Feed Additives, the Technology of Raising Animals (Birds), Feeding Farm Birds.

Nadezhda Kuznetsova is an Associate Professor. She is a Candidate of Veterinary Sciences. Her scientific interests are Pharmacological Corrections of Animal Productivity, an Alternative to Feed Antibiotics.

Ruslan Omarov is an Assistant of Profesor at the Department of Technology of Production and Processing of agricultural products, Stavropol State Agrarian University, Russia. He is a Candidate of Technical Sciences. His researches are Meat, Meat Products, Farm Animal Blood.

*Corresponding author (Yuri Kuznetsov). Tel:+7-9657775500 Email: Kuznetsov@yandex.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15S http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.307

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15T

MEDIATING ROLE OF ORGANISATIONAL STRATEGIES IN RELATIONSHIP OF THE CAUSES AND OUTCOMES OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS 1*

Tehseen Ahmad , Qamar Afaq Qureshi

1

, Nida Habib 2, L.S. Abdullah 3, P.A. Krovopuskov 4

1

Department of Public Administration, Institute of Political and Administrative Studies, Gomal University D.I. Khan, KP, PAKISTAN. 2 Department of Business Administration, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, KP, PAKISTAN. 3 General Mechanics Department, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Lipetsk State Technical University, RUSSIA. 4 Department of Design and Artistic Processing Materials, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Lipetsk State Technical University, Lipetsk, RUSSIA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 21 April 2020 Received in revised form 03 August 2020 Accepted 11 September 2020 Available online 22 September 2020

Everyone has the right to spend his life happily but the question arises, how. The goal of this research is to identify the Mediating role of Organizational strategies in the relationship of causes (Individual stressors, Group stressors, organizational stressors, & Extra-organizational stressors) and outcomes (Depression, Absenteeism, & Trauma, etc.) of occupational stress. This work has applied the Keywords: qualitative tools of thematic analysis like “argumentation” to analyzed Job stress reduction; results. For the field study, a questionnaire was used to gather the Individual Stressors; first-hand view on the topic, using a seven-point interval scale to agree Collective stressors; Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; or disagree with the statements to analyze the empirical relationships.

Group stressors; Two hundred and fifty-two judges and advocates represented by 18 Organisational Stressors; females and 234 males completed a constructed and standardized Extra-Organisational; questionnaire. The empirical results from the currents study tell that the Judges; Advocates; Stress mediating variable, i.e. organizational strategies plays a very significant awareness of judges. role while reducing the level of stress among the employees.

Disciplinary: Public Administration and Management Sciences. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION Stress is a negative aftereffect of current living. The efficiency of the individual is affected by the variety of stressors in all fields of life, which ultimately affects the performance of the job. Various researchers in their research presented that most of the employees having no knowledge and lack of diversified skills cannot perform efficiently and effectively, however, the energetic employees are *Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15T http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15T.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.308

1

more efficient (Khan and Khan, 2017). Stress at the job is seen and felt at an individual level and activated by occasions or circumstances that continuous and are excessively extreme to exceed an individual's resources to manage them effectively and coping capabilities. It is a universal phenomenon in almost all organizations. Occupational stress shows job mobility, high burnout, poor work performance, ineffective relationship in the office, and dissatisfaction. Most of the scholars are of the view that stress is very dangerous not only for business but also for individuals (Bashir and Ramay, 2010).

Stressors include lack of safety, job insecurity, overtime such as working late or work for the longer period, lack of security, lack of autonomy in the job, repetitiveness, lack of resources and equipment, organizational climate and work schedules, etc. (Manshor et al. 2013). Therefore, if stress is not managed properly, then it affects the performance as well as the health of the individuals. The chance was that the workers are not exempted from this threat, and there is the possibility of being burdened with long working hours and work overloads (Colligan and Higgins, 2006). Moreover, if someone managed it properly through coping strategies such as personal strategies (like self-esteem, locus of control along with recreational activities) and organizational strategies, the stress level can be reduced (Parveen and Inayat, 2017).

Numerous researchers established the relationship between causes of stress, outcomes of stress, and coping strategies, i.e. organizational strategies, e.g. (Iqbal, 2013), concluded in his study that level of stress can be minimized by utilizing the different organizational strategies. The occupational stress put the extremely negative effects like depression absenteeism, poor health, trauma, and many others on employees.

Therefore, the basic goal of this research study is to explore the mediating variable organisational strategies that play the role between the causes and outcomes of occupational stress (Rahman et al., 2015). This is a continued work of Ahmad et al. (2020) on the meditational effects of personal strategies in the relationship of causes and outcomes of occupational stress: a survey of the judiciary in KP Pakistan. The study hypotheses are H#1: Organisational strategies mediate the relationship of Individual stressors and Outcomes H#2: Organisational strategies mediate the relationship of Collective stressors and their outcomes

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF OCCUPATIONAL STRESS When stress occurs in the work environment, it is called occupational stress. The issue of occupational stress has been of extraordinary worry to numerous industrial/ organizational psychologists because researchers found that undue stress is imposed on workers, it will influence the activity execution and their psycho-substantial, that is, physical and mental, health as well. Stress is a physical and psychological condition that affects the employees when they are unable to meet the job requirements and unable to handle the pressure of the situation (Hobfoll and Freedy, 1993).

Stress is very common in employees and is an unavoidable consequence of the current living. It is mostly found at employees of lower levels, where they have no control over the working environment. Recently numerous studies have targeted the stress at work among employees in different organizations, e.g., doctors, polices, nurses, academics, and teachers (Manjunatha and

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Tehseen Ahmad, Qamar Afaq Qureshi, Nida Habib,Irfan Ullah

Renukamurthy, 2017). In this modern world, the Occupational stress has become the most serious issue regarding health, and it became the most popular topic in recent years, for applied research in psychology, and in the broader areas of social sciences (Colligan and Higgins, 2006).

2.1 TYPES OF STRESS Basic classification of stress can best be explained by Hans Selye (1956), according to him stress can be of overstress or hyper stress: in hyper stress, the demands and workload of the job are greater than the individual officer is likely to manage, Undesired (distress): it makes one feels irritable, frustrated and exhausted, Under stress or hypo stress Where there is too little work to do, and this leads to boredom, under-stimulation, depression and possibly lack of motivation, The next type of stress is called Desired or eustress: When something is challenging and motivating to do (Cosio et al., 2010).

Figure 1: Models of stress on Hans Selye (1956).

Figure 1 explains the different types of stress given by Hans Selye (1956). There are kinds of stress i.e Over/Hyper stress, Under/Hypo stress, undesired/Distress, and Desired/Eustress (Ahmad et al., 2017).

2.2 CAUSES OF STRESS Stressors are the factors that are responsible for creating a stressful situation. Stressors are of two types viz; Individual Stressors (Role ambiguity; Job demand; Role conflict; Work overload) Group Stressors (Group Cohesiveness, Lack of Social Support, Organisational Environment). 1st are those feelings inside a person are called internal stressors while the second are those factors that are found outside a person are called External stressors and both lead to stress (Mark and Smith, 2012).

2.3 OUTCOMES OF STRESS Researchers indicated that blood pressure, coronary heart diseases, depression, absenteeism, trauma, cancer risk factors, musculoskeletal disorders, and psychosomatic symptoms are ill-effects of occupational stress. Depression, anxiety, and trauma are the most commonly diagnosed psychological problems (Warraich et al., 2014).

*Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15T http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15T.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.308

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2.4 COPING STRATEGIES 2.4.1 ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES Various organizational strategies like improved communication process, consultation with employees at all the levels of management, examining the reward system, providing them with training opportunities, establishing a proper counseling mechanism, all can reduce stress level among the employees and thus enhance the output of the employees (Awan et al., 2014).

2.4.2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The research empirically developed the proposed model and variables are given in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Theoretical Framework for this study.

The proposed conceptual research model Figure 2 shows the relationship between the independent variable i.e causes of occupational stress and the dependent variable i.e outcomes of stress. Mediating variable coping strategies are also used to mediate the relationship between the causes and outcomes of occupational stress.

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The target population consisted of 458 judges and 8556 advocates of KPK (Divided into twenty-five districts and six divisions) Pakistan. Author 1st conducted the pilot study and then used its results in â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;sample-sizeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; determination. Using the formula for the finite population of 9014 advocates and judges, a sample of 285 is selected. According to Fraeklin and Wallen (2002), in choosing a sample size for a study, the researcher needs to choose a number that he/she can have access to within the time frame in which the study is being conducted. Simple random sampling, the part of probability sampling, is used because it has significant advantages over non-probability sampling. The only technique that offers an estimate of accuracy is probability sampling. The precision of the estimate is an essential criterion for a good sample design. The data was collected from the standardized questionnaire distributed among Judges and advocates (High court and lower courts). Two hundred and eighty-five questionnaires were floated while 252 were returned with a response rate of 88%. For primary data, SPSS 20 was used for data analysis and interpretation.

3.1 MEDIATION MODEL For analysis, Barron and Kenny's (1986) Model is used. According to this model, a variable can be taken as a mediator of a given independent variable to a given dependent variable. Mediation occurs when the independent variable considerably influences the mediator; the independent variable considerably influences the dependent variable in the absence of the mediator; the mediator has a

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Tehseen Ahmad, Qamar Afaq Qureshi, Nida Habib,Irfan Ullah

significant distinctive effect on the dependent variable; and finally, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable contracts with the addition of mediator in the regression-model.

3.2 DATA ANALYSIS TOOLS Descriptive, as well as in inferential tools, are used to analyze the data. Descriptive highlighted the position and nature of the research variables, and inferential tools are utilized to test hypotheses.

Regression and Correlation are used for testing of hypothesis.

This study involves individual stressors (IS), collective stressors (CS), personal strategies (PS), outcomes of stress (OC), mediating variable (MV), and organizational strategies (OST).

4 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY 4.1 MEDIATION MODEL-1 [CAUSES (IS) → OST→ OUTCOMES (OC)] Figure 3 mediation Model-1 (Mediator = OST) Individual stressors were hypothesized as the main factor of Outcomes while using Organizational strategies in the workplace are tested as Mediator. The question was, ‘Whether Individual stressors or Organizational strategies are playing a bigger and significant role in bringing variation in the outcomes of stress?’

Figure 3: Mediation Model-1 (Mediator = OST) Table 1: Model 1 Summary [H#1] Model 1

R 0.50a

R2 0.25

Adjusted R2 Std. Error of the Estimate 0.25 0.607 a. Predictors: (Constant), Individual stressors.

F 87.02

Sig. 0.00b

Table 1a: Coefficients of Regression [H1] (Dependent variable: organizational strategies) Model 1

(Constant) Individual stressors

Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 0.74 0.45 0.78 0.085

Standardized Coefficients Beta 0.50

T

Sig.

1.64 9.32

0.10 <0.01

Table 1b: Model-1 - computing regression model summary [H#1].

Model 1 2 a. b.

R

R Square

Adjusted R Square

Std. Error of the Estimate 0.71 0.64

0.63a 0.40 0.40 0.72b 0.53 0.52 Predictors: (Constant), Individual stressors Predictors: (Constant), Individual stressors, Organisational Strategies

R Square Change 0.40 0.12

F

Sig.

170.49 140.58

<0.01 <0.01

*Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15T http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15T.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.308

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Table 1c: Coefficients of Regression [H#1] Model

1

Unstandardized Coefficients

(Constant) Individual stressors (Constant) Individual stressors Organisational Strategies

2

B Std. Error 11.11 0.53 -1.30 0.10 11.52 0.47 -0.87 0.10 -0.54 0.06 a. Dependent Variable: outcomes

Standardized Coefficients Beta -0.63 -0.42 -0.41

T

Sig.

20.80 -13.05 24.07 -8.49 -8.13

<0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01

Table 1d: Summarized analysis result for Model-1 1 2 3 4

Conditions ‘a’ IV is Significantly connected with MV. [IV→MV] ‘b’ MV is Significantly linked with DV. [MV→DV] ‘c’ IV Significantly explains DV. [IV→DV] ‘ć’ may or may not be significant [IV&MV→DV]

Y/N Y N Y Y

Beta and p-value B = 0.78 p= <0.01 B = -0.54 p= <0.01 B = -1.30 p=<0.01 B = -0.87 p = <0.01

Tables 1a, 1b, 1c, in stepwise multiple regressions, R2 increases from 40% to 53%, i.e. (0.40 to 0.53) because of Mediator. Similarly, in Table 1d, the Beta-weight of ‘c’ goes a bit up from.-1.30 to -0.87 (with p-value = <0.01). Beta-weight of Mediator ‘b’, -0.542 and is ‘significant’ with a p-value of <0.01 partial mediation happens; therefore, Hypothesis H#1 is accepted.

4.2 MEDIATION MODEL-2 [CS-OST-OC] Figure 4 mediation Model-2 (Mediator = OST) shows that Collective stressors were hypothesized as the main factor of Outcomes while using Organizational strategies in the workplace are tested as Mediator. The question was, ‘Whether Collective stressors or Organizational strategies are playing a bigger and significant role in bringing variation in the outcomes of stress?’

Figure 4: Mediation Model 2 (Mediator = OST) For checking H#2, organizational strategies mediate the relationship between Collective stressors & Outcomes of stress using Model-2. In Tables 2, 2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d, based on stepwise multiple regressions (IV-DV & IV & MV-DV), Path ‘a’ is insignificant, and as per Barron & Kenny (1986) if path ‘a’ is insignificant, then there is no Mediation; therefore H#2 is rejected and null hypothesis stands true.

Table 2: Model Summary [H2] Model

R

R2

1

0.09a

0.00

6

Std. Error of the Estimate 0.00 0.702 a. Predictors: (Constant), collective Stressors Adjusted R2

Tehseen Ahmad, Qamar Afaq Qureshi, Nida Habib,Irfan Ullah

F

Sig.

2.18

0.14b

Table 2a: Coefficients of Regression [H#2] Model 1

(Constant) Collective Stressors

Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 4.33 0.41 0.13 0.09

Standardized Coefficients Beta 0.09

t

Sig.

10.53 1.47

<0.01 0.14

a. Dependent Variable: ORGANISATIONAL STRATIGIES Table 2b: Model-2 computing regression model summary [H2].

Model 1 2

R 0.30a .72b

R Square 0.09 .52

Adjusted R Square 0.08 0.52

Std. Error of the Estimate 0.888 0.643

R Square Change 0.092 0.434

F 25.18 138.014

Sig. <0.01 <0.01

Table 2c: Coefficients of Regression [H2] Model

1

(Constant) Collective Stressors (Constant) Collective Stressors Organizational strategies

2

Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 1.56 0.521 0.59 0.11 5.35 0.45 0.72 0.08 -0.87 0.05

Standardized Coefficients Beta 0.30 0.36 -0.66

T

Sig.

3.00 5.01 11.83 8.30 -15.09

<0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01

a. Dependent Variable: outcomes Table 2d: Summarized analysis result for Model-2 1 2 3 4

Conditions ‘a’ IV is Significantly connected with MV. [IV→MV] ‘b’ MV is Significantly linked with DV. [MV→DV] ‘c’ IV Significantly explains DV. [IV→DV] ‘ć’ may or may not be significant [IV&MV→DV]

Y/N Y Y Y N

Beta and p-value B = 0.13 p =0.140 B = -0.87 p = <0.01 B = 0.59 p = <0.01 B = 0.72 p = <0.01

5 CONCLUSION From this study, it is concluded that the strategies used by the organizations such as reward policy, job consistency, consult with employees, employees training opportunities, bringing improvement in communication, establishing counseling system by saying that “Everything is possible” are significant and are helpful to reduce stress level among the employees of the judicial system. Stress and its effects not only have impacts on an individual’s life but also affect employee’s family relations, relations with friends, and professional relations. Most of the people are unable to handle the stressful situation; therefore, they lose their relations. Due to stress employees undergo severe issues of absenteeism, trauma, and depression, Therefore, it is essential to reduce stress and cope with different strategies at the organization level because it ultimately affects the performance of the employees. Instead of taking tension and stress in life, it is good to manage the things properly, and thus, in this way, one can prevent himself from the major diseases. So to reduce the stress level of the judiciary, one should adopt various techniques that reduce the level of stress among the employees of the judiciary. Significant & Insignificant Factors.

This study results describe the significance or relative function of the variables, along with the strength of the impact, as described in the literature. It is therefore concluded that collective stressors are not important for organizational strategies. This situation is very surprising because collective *Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15T http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15T.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.308

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stressors are very widely reported as a critical factor in defining the outcomes of stress. Furthermore, the organizational strategies mediate the relation of individual stress and outcome, while organizational strategies do not mediate the collective stressors and outcomes.

Coping with organizational strategies is very tough because the strategies discussed in this study can only be implemented in the judiciary therefore its findings cannot be applied in all governmental institutions. Although the literature emphasizes that the views of other workers should be included due to limited resources, the employees from the other organizations could not be included. The research sample was limited because those persons are attached to bars and judiciary. The employees who are retired from their current position, other advocates having no practice, or working outside of the province are not included. All questionnaires were distributed during working hours; therefore, stressâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; levels could be higher during duty. Therefore, before generalizing the results into other departments, cities, or countries, these limits should be considered.

A qualitative type of research could be employed by interviewing the respondents, i.e., judges and advocates. A longitudinal study is recommended to determine the effect of different causes of stress, their outcomes, and strategies used to overcome the stressful situation in the organization.

Stressors comprise of jobs demand, role conflict, work overload, group cohesiveness, role ambiguity, lack of social support, organizational climate, conflicts, task design, interpersonal relationships, management style, career concerns, political factors, environmental conditions, technological factors, and economic factors and are also found in the present research, but still, many factors play the role of catalyst in stress. The actual or real cost is still not clear and is a matter of perceptions which needs further study for its clarification.

6 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7 REFERENCES Ahmad, T., Qureshi, Q. A., Habib, N., & Ullah, I. (2020). Meditational Effects of Personal Strategies in Relationship of Causes and Outcomes of Occupational Stress: A Survey of Judiciary in KP Pakistan. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 11(15), 11A15M, 1-8. DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.301 Awan, K. Z., Qureshi, W., Akram, M., & Shahzad, K. (2014). Mediation role of organizational commitment in the relationships of organizational politics and job involvement and employee performance. Int. J. Acad. Res. Economics and Management Sci, 3(6), 1-21.

Barron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of personality and social psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182.

Bashir, U., & Ramay, M.I. (2010). Impact of stress on employees' job performance: A study on the banking sector of Pakistan. International Journal of Marketing Studies, 2(1), 122-126.

Colligan, T. W., & Higgins, E. M. (2006). Workplace stress: Etiology and consequences. Journal of workplace behavioral health, 21(2), 89-97.

Cosio, S. E., Olson, L., & Francis, J. P. (2010). Social support and occupational stress among university employees. Regent University.

Hobfoll, S. E., & Freedy, J. (1993). Conservation of resources: A general stress theory applied to

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Tehseen Ahmad, Qamar Afaq Qureshi, Nida Habib,Irfan Ullah

burnout. In W. B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Series in applied psychology: Social issues and questions. Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (115â&#x20AC;&#x201C;133). Taylor & Francis.

Iqbal, M. (2013). Mediational effect of stress coping strategies between workplace stress and organizational performance: A case study of air traffic controllers of Pakistan. Cent Eur J Immunol, 1, 42-56.

Khan, S., & Khan, R. A. (2017). Chronic stress leads to anxiety and depression. Ann Psychiatry Ment Health, 5(1), 1091.

Manjunatha, M., & Renukamurthy, T. (2017). Stress among Banking Employee-A Literature Review. Int. J. Res. Granthaalayah, 5, 207-213.

Mark, G., & Smith, A. P. (2012). Occupational stress, job characteristics, coping, and the mental health of nurses. British journal of health psychology, 17(3), 505-521.

Parveen, A., & Inayat, S. (2017). Evaluation of factors of stress among Nursing Students. Advanced Practices in Nursing, 2(2), 1000136.

Rahman, M. H., Kamruzzaman, M., Haque, M. E., Al Mamun, M. A., & Molla, M. I. (2015).

Perceived Intensity of Stress Stressors: A Study on Commercial Bank in Bangladesh. Asian Business Review, 3(3), 40-43.

Warraich, U., Ahmed, R., Ahmad, N., & Khoso, I. (2014). Impact of stress on job performance: An empirical study of the employees of private sector universities of Karachi, Pakistan. Research Journal of Management Science, 3(7), 14-17.

Tehseen Ahmad is a Ph.D. scholar at Dept. of Public Administration, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, KPK, Pakistan.

He completed his M Phil from Qurtaba University. His research is in areas of Stress Management, Islamic Banking.

Dr. Qamar Afaq Qureshi is an Assistant Professor at Dept. of Public Administration, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. He got his MPA & MPhil Degrees from DPA, GU, and Ph.D. from the Department of Management Sciences, Hazara University, Hazara. His research focuses on E-Health and HRM.

Nida Habib is a Ph.D. scholar at Dept. of Business Administration, Gomal University, D.I. Khan, KPK, Pakistan. She completed her M Phil in HRM. Her research interest Micro Financing.

Lutfi Saleh Abdullah is an Assistant of the General Mechanics Department, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Lipetsk State Technical University, Russia. He is a Candidate of Technical Sciences. Lipetsk, Russia. He can be contacted at lutfi5555 @ yahoo.com

Pavel Anatolyevich Krovopuskov is a Senior Lecturer, Department of Design and Artistic Processing Materials, Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Lipetsk State Technical University, Lipetsk, Russia. He can be contacted at pavel_anatolevich84 @ mail.ru

*Corresponding author (Tehseen Ahmad). Email: tehseenahmed430@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15T http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15T.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.308

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A15U

RESULTS OF USING TRIPOLI ON ZOOHYGIENIC INDICATORS IN THE RAISING A PARENT HERD OF MEAT BREED CHICKENS 1*

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Ivan Kochish , Elena Kapitonova , Ilya Nikonov , Sergey Shlykov , Ruslan Omarov

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Department of Zoohygiene and Poultry named after A.K.Danilova, Moscow state Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology - MVA by K.I. Skryabin, RUSSIA. 2 Department of Private Livestock, Vitebsk State Awarded the «Badge of Honour» Order Veterinary Medicine Academy, BELARUS. 3 Department of Technology of Production and Processing of Agricultural Products, Stavropol State Agrarian University, RUSSIA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 16 June 2020 Received in revised form 31 August 2020 Accepted 14 September 2020 Available online 23 September 2020

This paper presented the results of tripoli influence on the zootechnical parameters of the chickens' parent flock. There was established that the mineral additive Khotimskiy based on tripoli in an acidic medium had pronounced adsorption towards aflatoxin, T-2 toxin, ochratoxin sorbing these toxins by 87-100%. Concerning zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisin, an adequate sorption capacity was established at the level of 61-70%. When the medium's pH changes from an acidic reaction to a neutral one, its sorption activity decreases. The addition of a mineral additive to the litter in an amount of 100 g/m2 helps eliminate unpleasant odors and leads to a decrease in the number of bacteria and viruses, suppresses fungi and mold, and repels flies. Its use contributes to an increase in the litter material's dryness by 12.5%, a decrease in the acid number of the obtained products (eggs) by 2.3%, and does not harm the gross productivity of laying hens.

Keywords: Breeding chicken; Aflatoxin; Adsorption; Deep litter; Decrease bacteria and viruses; Egg acidity; Tripoli rock; Farm bedding material.

Disciplinary: Agricultural and Animal Sciences, Bioscience. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1 INTRODUCTION In the technological process of poultry products' production, it is necessary to know and comply with the requirements of sanitary and mycological control of feed and bedding material. Feed containing mycotoxins is neutralized by one of the methods described by Kapitonova et al., 2012.

Simultaneously, for a prolonged effect, the bedding material must be treated with preparations with sorption properties.

Using zeolites shows positive results in various farms in the USA, Japan, Germany, and other *Corresponding author (Ivan Kochish). Tel:+7-9051730605 Email: ilnikonov@yandex.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15U http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.309

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countries. It was found that the inclusion of zeolites in the diet of animals increases the assimilation of nutrients in compound feed and prevents the appearance of dyspepsia (Abraskova, 2012). Promotes eliminating toxic metabolic products prevents diseases associated with micronutrient deficiencies, reducing mortality, especially at an early age (Beregovaya, 2017.).

Having studied the zeolites of all known deposits on the Republic of Belarus' territory, it was recognized that the trefoil of the Khartum district of the Mogilev region has the highest efficiency and the best properties.

Tripoli is an environmentally friendly, loose, finely porous opal rock. Tripoli is a natural mineral of volcanic sedimentary origin, penetrated by the thinnest cavities and channels filled with cations of alkali and alkaline earth metals and water molecules, which give it the properties of a molecular sieve.

Tripoli has a high ion-exchange capacity, properties of an adsorbent and a donor, the ability to absorb and give up moisture, prolong the effect of nutrients with which it is mixed, and give the soil and living organisms the elements they need. Tripoli does not cause side effects, gene mutations, and is well tolerated when consumed with food. It enriches the bird's body with macro and microelements and eliminates the problem of intestinal decay and fermentation. In our scientific research, we described the mineral additive "Khotimskiy" tests based on tripoli on the body of a parent flock of meat production of the cross "Ross-308". Zeolite-containing tripoli is capable of absorbing and removing radioisotopes from the body of animals and birds. They are not toxic and do not accumulate in the body. It is used for feed detoxification (with increased mycotoxins, nitrates, nitrites, heavy metals) and into the deep litter. It is a sanitary agent for the sorption and drying of bedding material.

The mineral additive Khotimskiy includes tripoli from steel mining, clinoptilolite, and montmorillonite.

2 MATERIALS AND METHODS Research work included: 1 - Study of the adsorption capacity of the mineral additive "Khotimskiy," depending on the pH of the medium (GOST, 2017).

2 - Study of the effectiveness of the mineral additive "Khotimskiy" as a sanitary means for drying bedding material when growing poultry; 3 - Determination of the thickness of the eggshell (by Orka Egg Shell Thickness Gauge) and the acid number of the product (egg) of the parent flock of the Ross-308 cross, 256 days old (OST, 2003).

Production tests were carried out at OJSC "Vitebsk Broiler Poultry Factory" in the Vitebsk Region, Republic of Belarus. The use of a mineral additive in the bedding material is because when using the unbalanced feed, birds begin to dig the bedding material and snatch out the components that the body needs. If there is a shortage of macro- or microelements, chickens eat or gnaw (peck) the litter material and the enclosing structures.

The experiment was according to the scheme (see Figure 1). As the main ration for the experimental poultry, we used complete feed, in terms of nutritional value, met STB requirements (Podobed, 2016). There was providing round-the-clock and uninterrupted access to drinking water.

The clinical and physiological state of the bird was determined by daily examination, paying attention to the behavior, appetite, consumption of water and feed, mobility, plumage, pigmentation of the legs, development of the ridge, etc. Monitoring of the bird's safety and health was by daily registration of the abandoned bird and analyzing the causes of death.

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Ivan Kochish, Elena Kapitonova, Ilya Nikonov, Sergey Shlykov, Ruslan Omarov

Figure 1: Experiment scheme

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The most common mycotoxins in feed raw materials were as test objects: from the group of aflatoxins - aflatoxin B1 (AB1), from the group of trichothecene - T-2 toxin (T-2), from the group of ochratoxins - ochratoxin A (OA), as well as Zearalenone (Zear). Mycotoxins were presented in the form of state standard solutions in the following concentrations: AB1 9.8 μg/ml, Zen 100.0 μg/ml, OA 9.2 μg/ml, T-2 100.0 μg/ml (Glaskovich et al., 2013). The amount of sorbent in contact with mycotoxins' initial solution is based on the calculated sorption capacity, which corresponds to 10 g/L of the initial solution of mycotoxins (1%). To determine the sorption force for mycotoxins, need to prepare solutions with concentrations of 2 MPC (maximum permissible concentration) (Kapitonova et al., 2012). Standard solutions of mycotoxins in the following volume were added to 20 ml of distilled water (pH 7.0): aflatoxin B1 8 μl, zearalenone 80 μl, ochratoxin A 88 μl, T-2 toxin 16 μl, which corresponds to the values of 2 MPC. The concentration of tripoli was 10 mg/ml. Control solutions: per 20 ml of distilled water (pH 7.0), the corresponding mycotoxin was added in the amounts indicated above. Ready solutions in closed test tubes were left on contact on a shooter for 20 minutes at room temperature. After incubation, 5.0 ml of the mixture was filtered through filter paper.

The filtrate was used for research by the method of enzyme immunoassay (Nasonov, 2018).

Table 1: Adsorption capacity of tripoli in an acidic medium pH 3.4 Sorption activity Zearalenone Aflatoxin Ochratoxin A T-2 toxin Fumonisins Deoxynivalenol

Sample concentration 2 pdc (80 μl) 2 pdc (8 μl) 2 pdc (88 μl) 2 pdc (88 μl) 2 pdc (88 μl) 2 pdc (88 μl)

Concentration in the sample after exposure, mg/kg 0.43 0.001 0.065 0.42 0.27 0.31

% sorption in the sample after exposure, mg/kg 70.89 100 100 75.79 65.5 67.29

Control (without sorbent) 1.563 0.010 0.762 1.000 0.01 0.01

*Corresponding author (Ivan Kochish). Tel:+7-9051730605 Email: ilnikonov@yandex.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15U http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.309

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There had been established that the mineral additive "Khotimskiy" in an acidic environment had pronounced adsorption concerning aflatoxin, T-2 toxin, ochratoxin, sorbing these toxins by 87-100% (100% for aflatoxin). Adequate sorption capacity of 61-70% had been found for zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisin (see Table 1).

When the pH of the medium changes from an acidic reaction to a neutral one, the sorption activity of the tripoli mineral decreases (see Table 2).

Table 2: The adsorption capacity of tripoli in a neutral medium pH 7, Sorption activity Zearalenone Aflatoxin Ochratoxin A T-2 toxin Fumonisins Deoxynivalenol

Sample concentration 2 pdc (80 μl) 2 pdc (8 μl) 2 pdc (88 μl) 2 pdc (88 μl) 2 pdc (88 μl) 2 pdc (88 μl)

Concentration in the sample after exposure, mg/kg 0.969 0.009 0.512 0.775 0.004 0.007

% sorption in the sample after exposure, mg/kg 38 10 33 32.5 8 9

Control (without sorbent) 1.563 0.010 0.762 1.000 0.01 0.01

It has established that the use of tripoli (see Figure 2) as a sanitary means for drying bedding material when growing poultry helps to eliminate unpleasant odors and leads to a decrease in the number of bacteria and viruses of the Staphylococcus and Salmonella families, enterovirus, coronavirus, parvovirus, rotavirus. It scares off adult flies and destroys their larvae, suppresses fungi and mold.

Figure 2: Mineral additive «Khotimskiy».

This desiccant absorbs up to 200% of the liquid and disinfects the surface, reduces the air humidity in the poultry premises, and prevents ammonia and hydrogen sulfide from the droppings.

The optimal dose is 100 g/m2 of floor 2-3 times in the first week, then 100 g/m2 one time per week constantly. The area around equipment for feeding and drinking needs 150 g/m2 with a radius of about 2 m. The results of studying the litter material's moisture content, the thickness of the shell, and the acid number are in Table 3.

Table 3: The indicators controlled in the experience Indicators Litter moisture content, % Shell thickness, mm (not <0.33) Acid number, mg KOH / g (not> 5.0)

Section 1 39.2 0.36 6.02

Section 2 34.3 0.35 5.88

Analysis of the results indicates a positive effect of the mineral supplement. The moisture content of the litter material in the experimental section, in comparison with the control section,

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Ivan Kochish, Elena Kapitonova, Ilya Nikonov, Sergey Shlykov, Ruslan Omarov

decreased by 12.5% and amounted to 34.3%, which had a beneficial effect on the hygienic parameters of the microclimate when growing laying hens. Dry bedding for laying hens of the parent flock of the Ross-308 cross reduces the development of pathogenic and opportunistic microflora. It maintains optimal sanitary conditions in places of long-term keeping naturally.

The shell thickness indicator was practically at the same level. The thickness of the shell of laying hens of the parent flock must be at least 0.33 mm and not more than 0.40 mm. It is because too thin shells will contribute to a high rejection of eggs when breaking and notching are detected. Thus, too thick shell indicates a wrong balance of the diet and its price rise and a calcium excess. Thick shells harm the quality of the hatching egg. They can contribute to low heating of eggs during incubation, decreased oxygen-carbon exchange, low hatchability, and poor viability of day-old chicks. The obtained indicators in the experimental sections were within the normal range.

The average acid number of the yolk is no more than 5-6 (mg KOH)/g. Increasing yolk acid number serves as a test to determine the toxic dystrophy of poultry. It leads to a decrease in egg production, a reduction in hatching eggs' physical qualities, a decrease in hatchability, and death of embryos in the first days of incubation (30-45%) and when pecking (up to 20%). Juveniles hatched from eggs with increased yolk acidity with a minimum content of carotenoids are born weak, inactive, can hardly move, and die within the first ten days (up to 80%). In section 2, into deep litter was using the mineral additive "Khotimskiy" at a rate of 100 g/m2 of the floor. The henchmen noted the pecking out of the particles of the mineral additive from the litter. The results of determining the acid number of an egg indicate a decrease of 2.3% (5.88 mg KOH/g). These dynamics can explain the beneficial effect of tripoli on birds' bodies, which is reflected in the quality of the incubation egg. At the same time, it should be noted that during the experimental work period, during the daily examination of the poultry of the meat production direction, it was found that the clinical and physiological state of the bird was normal. The poultry females did not note any stress factors or aggressive behavior of the birds during the Khotimskiy mineral supplement's addition.

Birds also had a standard rate of appetite, water, feed consumption, mobility, plumage, and legs' pigmentation. Feed consumption, preservation, and egg production were within the average statistic.

There was no decreasing bird productivity during the research work, according to one or another indicator. All of the above suggests that using the "Khotimsky" additive as a sanitary and hygienic means has a beneficial effect on the sanitary and hygienic indicator of poultry indicators.

4 CONCLUSION Based on the research results on studying the effectiveness of the mineral supplement, it was found that tripoli is a useful adsorbent, normalizes the moisture content of the bedding material, which ensures optimal zoohygienic conditions for keeping birds.

The norm of using mineral additive "Khotimskiy" into deep litter is 100 g/m2 floor. Its use contributes to an increase in the dryness of the litter material by 12.5%, a decrease in the acid number of the obtained products (eggs) by 2.3%, and also does not harm the gross productivity of laying hens of the parent flock and can be used (crumbled) in the presence of agricultural birds.

5 AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author. *Corresponding author (Ivan Kochish). Tel:+7-9051730605 Email: ilnikonov@yandex.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.15 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A15U http://TUENGR.COM/V11B/11A15U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.309

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6 REFERENCES Abraskova S.V. (2012). Sanitary and hygienic importance of bacteria and molds in changing the quality of feed: study guide. Vitebsk: VGAVM, 32.

OST. (2003). Chicken's Incubation Eggs. OST 10321-2003, All-Russian Scientific Research and Technological Institute of Poultry, 20.

GOST (2017). Activated carbon. The standard method for the determination of adsorptive capacity for adsorbates at trace concentrations. GOST 33587-2015, All-Russian Scientific Research Institute for Standardization of Materials and Technologies. 16.

Beregovaya N.G. (2017). Results of using zeolites like NaX of the Orenburg gas chemical complex in poultry feed. Bulletin of the Orenburg State Agrarian University, 4(66), 244-247.

Glaskovich, A.A. Abraskova, S.V., Kapitonova, E.A. (2013). Mycological and bacteriological monitoring of feed safety. Vitebsk, VGAVM, 224.

Kapitonova, E.A., Glaskovich, A.A., Abraskova, S.V. (2012). Prevention of the action of mycotoxins in plant feed. International scientific and practical. conf. dedicated to the 85th anniversary of the founding of the RUE "Scientific and Practical Center of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus for Agriculture". Zhodino, 1, 302-304.

Nasonov, I.M. (2018). Comparative sorption efficiency of drugs against mycotoxins in vitro. Epizootology, immunobiology, pharmacology and sanitation, 2, 77-81.

Podobed, L.I., Stepanenko, A.N., Kapitonova, E.A. (2016). Guide to the mineral nutrition of agricultural poultry. Aquatoria. 360.

Professor Dr.Ivan Kochish is a Russian scientist in breeding, selection, genetics, and hygiene of poultry. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He holds a Doctor of Agricultural Sciences.

He is a Candidate of Biological Sciences. His areas of research include Breeding, selection, genetics, and hygiene of poultry.

Elena Kapitonova is an Associate Professor at the Department of Private Livestock, Vitebsk Order of the Badge of Honor State Academy of Veterinary Medicine. She is a Candidate of Agricultural Sciences Her research interests are the Development of Feed Additives, the Technology of Raising Animals (Birds), Feeding Farm Birds.

Ilya Nikonov is Deputy Director for Science and Development, BIOTROF LLC. Senior Researcher of the Scientific and Technical Information Department of the All-Russian Scientific Research Veterinary Institute of Poultry (VNIVIP), St. Petersburg. His research deals with the study of the intestinal microflora of poultry, feed, habitat. He is a developer of the composition and methods for assessing the effect of antimicrobial feed additives (probiotics, prebiotics, phytobiotics, etc.) and mycotoxin sorbents.

Professor Dr.Sergei Shlykov works at the Department of Technology of Production and Processing of Agricultural Products, Stavropol State Agrarian University, Russia. He holds a Doctor of Biological Science. His research focuses on Meat, Beef, Animal Products and Meat Products.

Ruslan Omarov is an Assistant of Profesor at the Department of Technology of Production and Processing of agricultural products, Stavropol State Agrarian University, Russia. He is a Candidate of Technical Sciences. His researches are Meat, Meat Products, Farm Animal Blood.

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Ivan Kochish, Elena Kapitonova, Ilya Nikonov, Sergey Shlykov, Ruslan Omarov

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